Perfume, from Egyptian temples to the temples of thousands of years. We could say that it is consumption really only in modern times that the process of Annick Le Guérer dis-incarnation finally happened and that per - fume became a consumer product among others within the luxury industry.

Religious incarnation

The sweat of the Gods of the Nile In the time of the Pharaoh’s Egypt, the birth - For centuries, perfume was seen as a sacred place of perfume, aromatic oils and sacred and magic product, endowed with extraordi - unguents were considered by the Egyptians to nary powers. There is a legend, told by Ovid in be the “perspiration of God”. Every morning the first century that illustrates this perfectly. the Pharaoh himself and all his priests used To save the King Aeson from death, the magi - incense but also scented unction on the statue cian Medea prepares a perfume with a very of God meant to be “his own scent, the sweat strong scent. Then she grabs a sword, opens that comes from his flesh”. Herbs and perfu - the old man’s throat and replaces his anaemic mes were also commonly used in embalming blood with the perfume she has made. The old practices as they were considered to be essen - man’s beard and hair immediately go black, his tial in order to access a “second life” and body is vigorous once more, and the lines on become, according to the “Embalming ritual” a his face disappear. Aeson is stunned to find he “perfumed one”, a God. In the most expensive is a young man again. The “transfusion” reveals procedure, the abdominal cavity of the decea - the secret of the extraordinary powers attrib - sed had its intestines removed and was then uted to perfume. Perfume is seen as a blood filled with myrrh and cinnamon and sewn up. substitute, the absolute “vital” substance. In Finally the body was wrapped in very fine the past, scents were not just made to improve bands of linen soaked with an aromatic glue. the body. Their role was not reduced to the While the officials applied oils and perfumed surface. They were supposed to act deep unguents, the priests talked to the deceased down, penetrating deeply to the centre of a saying: “May the sweat of the Gods penetrate being thus bringing the individual the virtues you… Receive this celebratory perfume that they were said to possess. Between perfume will embellish your body and protect you! May and flesh there was more than a mere proxim - you be eternally happy once the perfume ity, there was practically a consubstantiality comes to you”. They also said: “I complete that was to dominate most of perfume’s subse - your face with the perfume that comes from quent history. the eye of Horus… It will reattach your bones, This incarnation of perfume is above all reli - reassemble your limbs, bring together your gious as it was long thought to have divine flesh and dissipate your ills! When it envelopes origins. The Egyptians of the time of the you, its pleasant scent is on you… Your scent Pharaohs identified it with sweat and the flesh will enchant the Gods 1”. The deceased, deified of their Gods and a certain Christian tradition by the aromatic substances then became a with the blood of Christ. This incarnation was “Perfumed” one, a God, and his mummified functional as it also concerned the functions body could rest in peace in the sarcophagus. given to perfume. For a long time, it played an essential role in the preservation of human The balm of Christ and the odour of sanctity bodies. Pharmacy and perfumery were closely Many centuries later, a certain Christian tradi - linked. And finally it was substance-linked as it tion returned to the connection between touched the very substance of perfume whose perfume and flesh and blood. The tortured manufacture often used flesh and blood literally. body of Christ was meant to spread a balm that Perfumery only detached itself very slowly healed damaged souls that stank from sin. In from the grasp of this idea that was to last for the 13 th century, the archbishop of Genoa, Jacques de Voragine compared the body of wers, honey, myrrh (a resin from a tree that Christ to a vase filled with cinnamon scented grew most notably in Yemen). perfume; and he declared that “Christ wished his body to be pierced by the soldier’s lance so Queen of Hungary’s water that his precious perfume would come out and Perfume continued to play a medical role in heal the stinking sinners 2.” In referring to the the Middle Ages. In 1370, a perfume appeared sweet-smelling body of Christ, it was natural that was to make its mark known as Queen of that a sweet smell would be associated with Hungary’s water . It was the first alcoholic per - holiness. “The odour of sanctity”, “to die in the fume formula known in Europe. Its odour of sanctity”, are not merely abstract appearance was linked to the progress in dis - expressions. Certain mystics such as Saint tillation that had been mastered by the Arabs Teresa of Avila or Thérèse de Lisieux were both for many years and that came to the West said to have given off perfumes considered to through Spain and Italy. This formula based on be miraculous, both alive and dead. rosemary and wine spirit (ethylic alcohol) was Even closer to our time, Padre Pio, the Italian developed for the Queen of Hungary. priest who died in 1968 who was said to mirac - According to legend, it even enabled the ulously heal pilgrims and had the marks of queen, then aged 72, to heal all of her infirmi - stigmata on his hands and feet gave off a very ties, to get back her strength and beauty and pleasant floral odour according to some wit - even receive a marriage proposal from the nesses. But whatever the explanation given to King of Poland. The Queen of Hungary’s these phenomena, stigmata and mystical per - water was a resounding success. It brought a fumes are evidence of the strength and lightness and a freshness that people hadn’t long-term effect of the idea of divine perfumes experienced before. But this water of beauty on the collective unconscious. and youth was also considered to be a medi - cine. The list of the medical virtues of this Functional incarnation: aromatherapy product that was used internally and externally is impressive. It was considered an excellent With such prestigious origins, perfume just remedy against all brain, nerve and joint ail - had to have extraordinary virtues. From antiq - ments, rheumatism, gout, headaches, uity to the industrial age it was thought to be toothaches, burns and even tumours. This able to heal the body and protect it from illness. water retained its prestige for many centuries. Madame de Sévigné was an avid user. As for Kyphi Madame de Maintenon, she was so convinced Kyphi was known as the “twice as good per - of the positive effects of the product that she fume” and was one of the most famous of asked that the boarders in Saint-Cyr use it Egyptian perfumes and was not only used to regularly. The triumph of Hungary water was honour the Gods. When mixed with drinks it sure to lead to imitations. was also prescribed in treating lung, intestinal and liver ailments. It was also used for relaxa - L’eau des Carmes tion and euphorising purposes. According to As early as 1379 the monks in the Saint-Just Plutarch, its scent relaxed the body without abbey composed the eau des Carmes using resorting to drunkenness removed the painful alcohol with rosemary. But they added many worries of the day. The basic ingredients of this other ingredients such as lemon balm, ani - famous perfume were: cypress, whose large seed, marjoram, thyme, absinthe, sage, juniper rhizomes resembled papyrus and which smel - berries, cinnamon, cardamom, coriander and led of violets and ginger, juniper berry, raisins, cloves. It would be used in particular for the terebinth resin (from the Pistacia terebinthus, treatment of epilepsy and intestinal ailments. a tree that grew mostly in Libya, Syria and The production of perfumes was to take on a Northern Africa in general), sweet flag (Acorus growing importance as, in the upper classes, calamus or Calamus odoratus), sedge they were considered to protect from illness (Andropogon schoenanthus L.,), broom flo - and also were used to replace water during washing. The rich created aromatic gardens Eau de Cologne around their properties in order to make their At the end of the 17 th century during a visit to own perfumes. Indeed, since the great plague Santa Maria Novella, an Italian perfume dealer of 1348 that decimated a quarter of the popu - called Giovanni Paolo Feminis based in lation in Europe, doctors believed that baths Cologne in Germany was taken with this perfu - and especially hot baths encouraged the pro - med citrus water. He managed to get his hands pagation of epidemics by opening the pores to on the formula by means that may not have the pestilent air. As a result public baths were been entirely honest, brought it back to progressively closed down and by the end of Germany and improved on the formula. the 16 th century, there were practically no Before dying in 1736 with no heirs, he passed more public baths in use. the secret on to Jean-Marie Farina one of his grand-nephews. It is made of wine spirit, rose - L’eau d’Ange mary, lemon balm, bergamot essences, neroli, At the same time, perfume was being enriched cedrat and lemon. This product was to go on with new ingredients. Indeed, with the deve - to unparalleled fame and gave rise to many imi - lopment of maritime trade, it was easier to tations and varied presentations. What is import exotic produce. L’eau d’Ange , which remarkable is that eau de Cologne was imme - was very fashionable during the renaissance diately integrated into the pharmacopeia of typified this change. It included, most notably, the time. People rubbed it on themselves and benzoin, a resin-gum that came from a tree drank it without hesitation as it was said to be that grew in Sumatra, cloves and cinnamon, effective in fighting a broad range of ailments styrax (a scented resin that came from the such as apoplexy, jaundice or tinnitus. Later on Styrax officinalis, a tree not unlike the quince Napoleon was an enthusiastic user of eau de tree), coriander, calamus (sedge) and lemon. Cologne . Madame de Rémusat, the wife of his This water was developed by François Rabelais great chamberlain affirmed that he would use who prescribed its daily use to the nuns in up to 120 litres per month. He liked the roll- the abbey at Thélème. At the time of the shaped bottles that he could fit in to his boots Renaissance distillation techniques improved even when on the battle field. He would rub it with the development of the coil. This techni - on himself energetically and did not hesitate, cal progress and a broader range of raw like many of his contemporaries to indulge in materials led to the diversification of perfumes the “canard Farina” (the Farina duck), which and their production. entailed dipping a sugar cube in the liquid and eating it. During his exile on Saint Helena, Ali, Santa Maria Novella his faithful mamelouk, managed to reconsti - tute the favourite water of the deposed The famed pharmacy of the convent of Santa Emperor using the ingredients available on Maria Novella in Florence was typical of this site. change. It was founded by Dominican monks The health benefits of perfume was based on a and in the 13 th century benefited from the pro - strong conviction: doctors thought that scent tection of the Medici family, whose love of was the energy in every substance and that it alchemy and potions is well documented. Its possessed the unique faculty of being able to scented waters and elixirs acquired internatio - penetrate the human body in depth. When nal notoriety in the 18 th century. The eau de fetid, it corrupts the organs and brings on ill - lys was exported all over Europe and even as ness. When sweet, it could, on the contrary, far as China. Today, visitors to the pharmacy at heal most infections. When in 1686, for exam - Santa Maria Novella are still welcomed by an ple, Louis XIV was suffering from a tumour, his intense perfume. Among the traditional pro - doctor, Antoine d’Aquin, applied a strongly ductions, the “eau de la reine” created scented poultice that contained galbanum, especially for Catherine de Médicis stands out. opopanax, myrrh, oliban and mastic. For the This Eau de la Reine along with the Queen of king’s doctors, “All the virtue of medicine is Hungary’s water are the ancestors of l’ eau de contained in the communication of a certain Cologne . perfume 3”. Substantial incarnation flesh was even used to create perfumed com - positions for medicinal purposes. The most It is at the composition stage in perfume that striking example was a macabre aromatic repa - the incarnation is most obvious. The fat, skin, ration for internal and external use known as flesh, blood and various secretions of the ani - “mummy”. mal have always had a very important place in this domain. The mummy Like the name suggests, this product was origi - Fat and flesh nally manufactured using Egyptian mummies Since the beginning, animal fat and flesh have stuffed with aromatic substances and preser - been abundantly used in all sorts of creams, ved in scented liquids. It was famous from the balms and salves. The perfumed cone worn by middle ages. Later on, the product became so Egyptian men and women on their heads fashionable that it became difficult to find real during banquets was made of crocodile and mummies. Catherine de Médicis even sent her hippopotamus fat and aromatic resin. The per - aumonier to Egypt in 1549 to bring her back a fumers from the medieval age, the Renaissance remedy that would cure all types of ailments and the classical age used fats extensively: bear, and even fight the plague. The supply couldn’t wolf, deer, goat, pig, pigeon and capon fat. match the demand however and new recipes They often added earthworms, ants, scorpions started to appear. That of the great Paracelsus, and woodlice. the famed Swiss doctor of the 16 th century which entailed the distillation of pieces of Aromatic dogs human flesh taken from a healthy cadaver with In the 17 th and 18 th centuries, dogs became a musk and aromatic plants. It wasn’t until the part of numerous aromatic preparations that second half of the 18 th century that this medi - appear quite barbaric from a contemporary cine started to disappear. Mummy was difficult standpoint. In order to erase blemishes on the to eradicate in a universe that was deeply mar - face the procedure involved the distillation of a ked by the interpenetration of the balsamic dozen puppies with calf blood and aromatic and the carnal. plants. Another recipe involved cutting up newborn puppies and cooking them up with Musk, amber, civet, castoreum aromatic ingredients. It was advised to stir the The tableau of the substantial incarnation of mixture with a wooden spatula so that the little perfume would not be complete without the dogs wouldn’t stick to the bottom of the pan. mention of the four odorous animal secretions Once the oil was extracted, it was poured on to that have played a huge role in perfume: musk, aromatic plants. There was no limit to the amber, civet and castoreum. They are reputed inventiveness of the perfumers. On the eve of to sublimate vegetal scents giving them the revolution, Jean-François Houbigant who strength and longevity. Musk comes from a had a boutique named “La Corbeille de very primitive sort of deer, the male musk deer Fleurs”, rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré, made that is a protected species today. It lives on the a fortune selling his rose cream with snails! woody plateaus of the Himalayas, in Tibet, and in Afghanistan. It is an abdominal gland, loca - Blood ted under the skin between the navel and the Blood was also very present in magic perfumes male sexual organs that produces a liquid that aimed at irresistible seduction. Cornelius changes in to grains that look like coffee Agrippa, for example who was physician to the grounds. The faecal and blood odour is over - mother of François the 1 st , prepared perfumes powering but when the product is aged it “to make one loved”. He recommended that refines and gives off a very persistent animal one “should let the person one wishes to scent. It is difficult to get musk today legally. seduce sniff from time to time”. His formulas Amber is a pathological concretion that forms blended cat, magpie, stork, swallow, pigeon or in the intestines of the whale when its intestine bat blood with musk, amber and roses. Human walls are injured by the beaks of the huge squid that are its normal diet. It is expelled by the 17 th century became the true ancestors of natural means and floats on the water. Its our current perfumers. Perfume until then had scent, initially nauseating, changes in to a been a scattered activity that was the preserve pleasant odour when the amber, having been of apothecaries, grocers and haberdashers. In brushed by the waves and heated by the sun, is January 1614, glove-makers received “permis - infused in alcohol. sion to call themselves master glove-makers- Civet is a secretion of the civet cat, a little perfumers” from the King and during the reign African quadruped the size of a fox with a long of Louis the 14 th enjoyed a solid status. In tail. It is a soft, beige or brown paste with a order to become “Maître Gantier-Parfumeur”, revolting faecal odour. However, when mixed one needed a number of years of apprentice - with other scented materials, it loses its aggres - ship where one learned to work, sew and sive character and becomes powerful and above all, scent gloves. In the 17 th and 18 th cen - sensual. Unlike musk or castoreum, it can be turies they enjoyed an extraordinary following collected without killing the animal that pro - used to more macabre ends by some people duces it. Castoreum is collected from two who used scented gloves for other purposes internal glands in the castor, it is a waxy/oily entirely. René le Florentin, perfumer to substance that adds a leathery, warm and sweet Catherine de Médicis, was accused of creating note. Egyptian perfume making did not use poisoned gloves. And the Princesse Palatine these materials. There are no irrefutable traces tells the tale in her Mémoires of Madame de either in Greek and Roman compositions. Maintenon to whom she refers as “old witch” Castoreum is mentioned of course but only for or”old bitch” was suspected of having tried to purely medicinal purposes. poison the Dauphine with a pair of scented gloves. Scented apples and gloves However, under the regency, the fashion Thanks to its contacts with Arab civilisations started to turn away from the animal scents Western perfume-making integrated these ani - favoured under Louis XIV. They were seen to mal raw materials. The crusaders brought be too heavy and the aristocracy preferred them back from their expeditions in the east. lighter, fresher scents that were put in more They enabled the preparation of perfumes pre - concentrated alcohol. The names were evoca - sented in gold or silver spheres known as tive: Eaux d’Adonis, de Venise, Eau scented apples. In 1174, the King of Jerusalem mignonne, celestial, divine… “L’eau couron - presented the emperor Frédéric Barberousse née” , worn by Queen Marie-Antoinette, with a number of golden apples filled with included violet, iris, daffodil, orange blossom, musk. The high cost of amber and musk meant white musk rose, mace, tuberose, cloves, berg - they were reserved for a rich clientele. Most amot and Portuguese orange. apples were filled with less expensive scented ingredients. Bringing one’s scented apple eve - Toward disincarnation rywhere was an opportunity to mark one’s social status and create a barrier to protect one By the start of the 19 th century, perfume had from the nauseating stench that carried epide - lost most of its ancient roots. The time of the mics. Civet was used very often in a famous “sweat of God” was far behind. The scented product: perfumed skin gloves. They were glove that brought the animal and vegetal made fashionable by Catherine de Médicis, together to perfume human skin had disap - who came to France to marry the future King peared. What’s more, perfumery and Henri II. They were delicate to manufacture pharmacy split up definitively in 1810. and time-consuming. The gloves, once cut and sewn were placed in cases between layers of An artificial, intellectual and artistic product… flowers that were changed every twelve hours. For example, in 1874 Tiemann and Reimer first This treatment was known as “mise en fleurs” industrially manufactured the olfactory princi - and lasted at least eight days. ple of the vanilla pod, vanillin. Fifteen years With this product, glove-makers at the start of later, Aimé Guerlain would use it to create the artistic aspirations of the creators. This is all still famous Jicky . An incontestable work of art the more the case since the seventies when in modern perfume like Chanel’s N°5 owes marketing came into play from the United much to the aliphatic aldehydes that the great States aimed at working out the expectations perfumer Ernest Beaux dared to use for the of the consumer in advance and orienting the first time. Animal products were also replaced work of the perfumer. In reality, marketing by synthetic products. Between 1888 and 1891, goes way beyond that. By affirming its stron - Baur created an artificial musk that was much ghold from conception to commercialisation, cheaper to obtain than secreted male deer it brought a new set of values to the table in musk and in 1926, a company named Synarone which the communication around the product brought out ambrarome absolu, aimed at becomes more important than the product replacing grey amber. Since 1990, animal pro - itself. It has become a pretext, the simple illus - ducts have not been used due to their cost and tration of a concept elaborated by marketing animal protection measures. Today they have executives, perfume has dematerialised. It has practically disappeared from formulae. become a victim of a loss of substance sum - The progressive replacement of natural com - med up in by one great perfumer: “Today, the ponents by artificial components has had cost of materials is such that we can no longer direct repercussions on the very conception of use anything. We should really make perfume the profession of perfumer. It is now linked to with water as it’s not expensive”. chemistry and has taken on a more scientific, Perfume is also threatened by ordinariness intellectual, abstract, more artistic bent. From and standardisation. Globalisation is moving the end of the 19 th century onwards the vision toward a risk-free product, one that appeals to of the perfumer artist came to the fore. They the lowest common denominator. In addition, were often compared to composers. They too the policy of high-profile launches for bring together notes, they search for chords. ephemeral products has made them easier to The perfumer Edmond Roudnitska, creator of fake to the detriment of originality. In order to the famous Eau Sauvage , sees the creation of shore up against this dilution, smaller “niche” a perfume as an abstract art. He affirms that perfume houses aim to bring quality and cre - the perfumer does not compose with his nose ativity by using high quality ingredients and but with his brain. He would still be able to cre - refusing to bow to the dictatorship of market - ate even if he lost his sense of smell in the ing tests. This has resulted in some big name same way that Beethoven was able to compose brands launching small, prestigious collections his 9 th symphony even though he had become in parallel with their mass production. For deaf. For this reason, Edmond Roudnitska example, Guerlain has bottles of perfume in demands a copyright for all of his perfumes. their Champs Elysées store that cost 20 000 Recently, French courts have ruled in favour of euros. this demand. But the decree from the Cour de We can only hope that with these new Cassation on June 13 th 2006 put an end to this, approaches, perfume will become less diluted perhaps temporarily. and commonplace and will regain substance, creativity and some of its old prestige. An industrial and marketing product Annick Le Guérer The arrival of chemistry has had other impor - LIMSIC, Université de Bourgogne, Dijon tant consequences. It made perfume a huge industry and made the products more accessi - ble. They are no longer sold just in specialist 1. Cf. J.-C. Goyon, Rituels funéraires de l’ancienne Egypte , boutiques. They are now available in super - Paris, Editions du Cerf, 1972, p. 43-44. markets, the modern day temples of 2. Jacques de Voragine, Quadragesimale aureum , 1874, I, commerce. But this industrialisation also had a 415. perverse effect. Mass production and a cons - 3. Abbé Rousseau, Préservatifs et remèdes universels tirés des animaux, des végétaux et des minéraux, Paris, 1706, tant search for lower costs are at odds with the p. 107.