Natural raw materials Introduction

English Classifications of natural raw materials of plant origin

Clove tree Fennel Coriander Parsley Sandalwood Nutmeg Lemon tree

Perfume manufacturers classify natural raw materials of plant origin according to their own specific system. The International Perfume Museum has chosen the classification system used by perfume designer Jean-Claude Ellena, creative director at Hermès perfumes. But there are others. Used as working tool by the perfumer and perfume technicians for designing a new composition, each system is based on a choice of raw materials that reflects different eras and graphic fashions.

Classification of smells from a botanical viewpoint by families Certain authors have attempted to classify smells by botanical families, but this is a utopian undertaking. If we examine the cruciferae family, which is by far the most homogeneous because of its typical sulphured essential oils, we nevertheless find exceptions. Clove tree flowers, for example, have a pleasant rose-caryophyllene aroma that is nothing like the sulphurous aroma of the other cruciferae. Furthermore, simple botanical varieties, such as lilum, nymphea, citrus and cinnamorum, can have scents that are totally different. It would thus seem more logical to indicate only the customary botanical order and the families that supply aromatic plants, as Engler, Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann (1) have done. In Engler’s classification, which is not reproduced here, each aromatic plant is defined by: Branch Celery Rockrose Class Order Family Type Species. Natural raw materials Introduction English

Practical classification of smells Another Classification by Smell by tonality or near tonality In spite of the widespread use of perfumes among the ancient I. Jasmine peoples of the Mediterranean basin and the many descriptions of II. Orange blossom their origins and therapeutic properties by naturalists and III. Tuberose or narcissus physicians, no one thought to compare them from an olfactory IV. Lilac viewpoint. V. Honey Aristotle’s classification of smells, which was the reference VI. True rose until the time of Linnaeus, included only: VII. Rose, geranium or green rose • Sweet VIII. Violet or iris • Acid IX. Lemon or verbena • Austere X. Citrus peel • Thick XI. Cinnamon • Acrid XII. Clove, carnation and nutmeg caryophyllics • Fetid XIII. Vanilla or balsamic vanilla XIV. anise XV. Umbelliferous with cuminol and cymene or with linalool and pinene Basing his classification on the impression produced on the hu- XVI. Umbelliferous with apiol combined with alpha-pinene man body by a smell, the famous Swedish botanist Carl von XVII. Juniper and pepper Linné created seven groups: XVIII. Cedar • fragrant: like jasmine, rose, tuberose or cassia; XIX. Mint with thymol, cymene and carvacrol • aromatic: carnations, cloves, sweet bay, cherry laurel, etc.; XX. Mint with menthol • ambrosial: such as amber, musk, etc.; XXI. Cineol or eucalyptol • garlic: pleasant for a few but disagreeable for most, including XXII. Camphor or borneol garlic, shallot and asafoetida; XXIII. Rue, boronia or methyl nonyl ketone • fetid: like the goatish smell of satyrion or chenopodium vulvaria, XXIV. Dry grass androsoenum foetidum, etc.; XXV. Fresh greenery • repulsive: recalling different poisonous solanaceae (hysocyamus, XXVI. Mushroom belladonna), poison hemlock, marigold, etc.; XXVII. Wintergreen salicylates • nauseous: analogous to helleborus foetidus, stopelia variegata, XXVIII. Cyanics and bitter almonds, almond pits, hydrocyanic acid alone phallus canis, etc. or combined with benzaldehyde XXIX. Sandalwood, cedar and vetiver XXX. Patchouli and caper XXXI. opopanax XXXII. Clover or orchid Classifıcation of smells by Karl Rimmel XXXIII. Sulphurous XXXIV. Amber XXXV. Animal musk with muscone, plant musk, artificial musk SERIES TYPE SECONDARY SMELLS XXXVI. Skatols and civet

XXXVII. Diverse fruits Rose-like Rose Geranium – eglantine – rosewood XXXVIII. Pyrogenetic XXXIX. Products with neutral or very weak smells Jasmine-like Jasmine Lilly of the valley – ylang-ylang

Orange-like Orange blossom Acacia – mock orange – orange leaf From: Cerbelaud, René; Formulaire de parfumerie (Perfume Formulas); Ed. René Cerbelaud, Paris, 1936, Vol. 1 Tuberose-like Tuberose Lily – jonquil – narcissus – hyacinth

Violet-like Violet Iris – reseda – cassia

Balsam of Peru – tolu balsam – benzoin – storax – Balsamic Vanilla tonka bean – heliotrope

Spicy Cinnamon Cinnamon – nutmeg – mace – all spices

Caryophyllic Clove Carnation

Camphor-like Camphor Rosemary – patchouli

Sandalwood-like Sandalwood Vetiver – cedar

Citrusy Lemon Orange – bergamot - citron

Herbaceous Lavender Aspic – thyme – wild thyme – marjoram

Mint-like Peppermint Wild mint – basil – sage

Anise-like Anise Star anise – caraway – dill – fennel – coriander

Almond-like Bitter almond Laurel – walnut – nitrobenzene

Musky Musk Civet – abelmosk

Amber-like Ambergris Oak moss

Fruity Pear Apple – pineapple – quince Bergamot Balm of Peru Natural raw materials introduction

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Tuberose harvest May rose harvest Early 20th century, Grasse 2007, Grasse Inv. 04 522 Flower picking

How? When were flowers picked? The flower pickers fill their large fabric Picking was a long, delicate, manual process. Flowers were aprons before placing the petals in a large basket. The entire yield is then picked during the dry seasons, roses in May and up jasmines weighed. up to mid-October. Morning is the ideal time for picking, before A good flower picker harvests between 5 and 8 kg of rose petals per it becomes too hot and when the flowers are not fully open. hour but rarely exceeds 3 kilos of jasmine in 6 hours. Each individual The flowers are fresh and saturated with dew, which perceptibly flower picker is paid according to the increases the weight of the yield. weight of the flowers she picks.

Some typical examples of rates and yields The rate for jasmine and rose varies from year to year, depending on the harvest. For instance, 1 kg of jasmine was worth 4.25 F (16 constant euros) in 1906 and 2.50 F (10 constant euros) in 1907; In 1899, 1 kg of rose was sold for 0.46 F (2 constant euros) and for 0.80 F (3 constant euros) in 1900. In comparison, one kilo of may rose from Grasse is currently sold for €4.88 and a kilo of Grasse jasmine for €37.97. One tonne of jasmine or rose produces 2.5 kg of concrete and 1.5 kg of absolute.

Jasmine picker Jasmine harvest 1955, Grasse Early 21th century, Grasse Inv. 04 2875

What was cultivated in Grasse? What happened to the yield? The main plants grown in Grasse were jasmine, To obtain the precious essences, plants were rose and tuberose with broom and mimosa in initially sorted by hand before being placed in Esterel. The rose fields at Pégomas, a small town extractors or stills, depending on the materials next to Grasse, continue to supply Chanel to this being processed and the desired outcome. Stills day. Here, the flowers are still picked by hand just as were set up in the countryside in order to start this they were long ago. process directly in the flower fields, as in the case of In 1930, 800 hectares of jasmine were planted in lavender. The essences obtained were then placed Grasse. Fifty years later, only 42 remain for the in drums known as «estagnons» prior to shipment. production of 100 tonnes. These various handling procedures required a large, Cultivation of the rose increased from 200 tonnes in skilled workforce. 1845 to 500 tonnes in 1856. Natural raw materials introduction english

Raw materials of animal origin

The main materials used are musk (or Tonkin Musk), civet musk, ambergris and castoreum.

The civet is a carnivorous mammal that lives in Ethiopia and resembles the marten. It marks its territory with a fragrant, glandular secretion Tracing these substances through contained in an external pouch, which it trade and trends loses. Rome began to use musk and civet musk especially for therapeutic indications and as a sexual stimulant. For this reason, musk was linked to Venus in the pantheon of the gods. The European supply of animal materials began with the development of trade with Asia during the 15th Ambergris century. During the perfume craze that gripped 17th is often confused with the yellow amber used in jewellery and ambrette, a seed that is also century society, these materials yielded strong, used in perfumery. Ambergris is produced by long-lasting scents, which became fashionable the sperm whale and is used to protect the alongside benzoin, storax, balm, nut grass, animal’s stomach from injury caused by the nutmeg and labdanum. sharp beaks of cuttlefish which are eaten by th the whale. These secretions are naturally The 18 century showed a preference for lighter eliminated and can be found floating on the notes as opposed to these fragrances, which were surface of the sea or washed up on the shores. considered unpleasant. The continued use of musk in the treatment of certain ailments shored up their waning popularity in the perfumery sector.

Musk Protected species is the fragrant secretion of a gland approximately 5 cm long, which is found in Today, synthetic products replace the stomach of the male musk deer – a small materials of animal origin. This is due member of the deer family originating from not only to cost but also because the Eastern Asia. This pouch contains between 10 and 20 g of secretion. Musk deer, which do animals from which these substances not produce musk in captivity, are protected are obtained are protected, as in the by the Washington Convention. case of musk, or because the breeding or sampling techniques used are not compatible with current requirements for animals protection. Although products of animal origin are not prohibited, they are used only infrequently. Castoreum as its name suggests, comes from the beaver. It is a substance secreted from two anal glands situated under the animal’s flat, scaly tail. Castoreum is used to make the beaver’s fur impermeable and to mark its territory.

A Look at History Antiquity - Egypt

May the purest incense burn from your altars, earning the favour of your immortal gods. May an abundant libation be poured again English When daylight flees or dawn appears once more.

Hesiod (8th-7th century B.C.), Theogony

The Orient the Birthplace of Perfumery

Young woman smelling a mandrake (Detail) 14th century B.C., Tomb of Nakht, Gournah (Egypt) Wall painting

Ânti (myrrh) from the mysterious Puntland One raw material that had a place of choice among the Egyptians was myrrh or ânti. Its paradox – and price – stemmed from the fact that although it was part of many fragrant preparations used for sacred rituals, it was not found in Egypt. The resinous trees that produced it grew only in a far-away and mysterious region known as Puntland. Its exact location still divides Egyptologists. However, a majority locate it within the borders of Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia. Difficult to access and the object of perilous expeditions, Puntland was at the centre of exciting travel narratives written in the reign of Historians recognize the Far East as the birthplace of perfumery and Queen Hatshepsut (16th century B.C.). acknowledge the major role played by Egypt in the development and influence of perfumes. The perfumes used in Rome and Athens were bought in this part of the world, where the mastery of numerous extraction techniques was unprecedented. The refinement of perfumed products in Egypt can be mainly attributed to the use of fragrances, especially in religion, as opposed to a natural wealth of raw materials. Furthermore, the Egyptians opened up numerous commercial routes in their quest to find ingredients.

Myrrh Antiquity - Egypt A Look at History english

Women crushing irises to extract the essence; known as the “Lirinon Relief”, Late Period (around 500-400 B.C.), Egypt Limestone Louvre Museum, Department of Egyptian Antiquities, Paris © RMN – René-Gabriel Ojéda Kyphi, the “dual role” perfume

Kyphi was one of the leading perfumes; it was used not only for religious purposes but was also listed in the Egyptian pharmacopoeias. Containing Numerous extraction A massive swing juniper berries, raisins, terebenthene resin, fragrant techniques towards importing reeds and rushes, broom flowers, The priests had veritable laboratories Most of the fragrant substances used mastic tree, mint, henna, myrrh in which to prepare their products. by Egyptian priests in the preparation and wine as well as cinnamon, cardamom, cinnamon, nard and They obtained fragrances mainly of ointments, oils, cones, lozenges saffron, it had a sweet, floral using the expression technique. This and products for fumigation came fragrance. involved extracting the sap from from abroad. The Middle East and the Kyphi was used in ritual plants by twisting both ends of a bag eastern Mediterranean provided fumigation at the end of the day but was also prescribed as a containing the crushed fibres of styrax, nard, labdanum, saffron, remedy: it facilitated relaxation in leaves, buds, fruits, berries and terebenthene resin, incense and anyone who inhaled it at night rhizomes (roots). The juice was left to mastic. The by-products of cypress and promoted sleep. It was also decant before extracting the oily part and juniper, gum ammoniac, drunk to treat chest and liver disorders. loaded with essences. Other galbanum and opoponax came from techniques used during this era are the northeast whilst East-Central and described in the works of the Southeast Asia were the source of Theophrastes and Pliny. costus, cardamom and cinnamon. Lastly, myrrh or ânti, was imported from the South.

Materials guaranteeing Eye make-up for men and immortality women Although the Egyptian elite used From the outset, the Egyptians paid scented preparations for their particular attention to the eye, as can personal hygiene, fragrant materials be seen on all pictorial representations were mainly reserved for religious from this era. purposes. Green powder or udju, obtained from Incense was the ideal substance to malachite, was replaced by accompany offerings to the gods: the medesmet at the dawning of the disappearance of its smoke, which Ancient Empire. This is still used today was released during the three daily under the name of kohl. Produced ritual fumigations, confirmed that it from galena, a natural lead sulphide, it was consumed by the gods, unlike was more opaque and oilier. It was food. used as eye make-up by both men and The sacred virtues attributed to women. An outline was broadly certain materials are best expressed in drawn towards the temples to embalming. When wealthy people accentuate the eyes. In addition to its died, gum resin was used to treat the cosmetic properties, it also protected internal organs, which were stored in the eyelid against the effects of the vases. Wine and palm oil were used to sun and possessed antiseptic purify the abdominal cavity that was Ointment jar Middle Empire properties. filled withmyrrh, cinnamon and (1580-1085 B.C.), Egypt Women’s make-up was not limited to other aromatic substances. The body Alabaster Inv. E10822 the eyes, especially on celebration was then salted, washed after 70 days days. Their made-up look resembled a and wrapped in gum-coated strips of painting: red on the cheeks, white for linen. the complexion, crimson on the lips, Seven unctions of oils and ointments blue to highlight the veins and lastly were used in succession to produce red-orange henna for the palms of the fragrant odour that transformed the hands. the deceased into a “perfumed” body, i.e. a god. Fumigations accompanied interment where aromatic substances, a crown and garlands of flowers were placed on the deceased.

A Look at History Antiquity - Greece

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Ring-shaped Corinthian aryballos 7th-6th century B.C., Rhodes Terracotta

Inv. 93 550

Greece and development of the art of the bottle

An odour craze gripped Ancient Greece that was Development of the art of bottling fuelled by conquests in Asia, the discovery of the In all Greek towns, trade in fragrant spice and herb trail, and body worship. The materials became as important as the development of the secular use of perfumes resulted wine trade; wines were also perfumed. In Athens, there were not only perfume in the gradual desacralisation of fragrant materials merchants, but a true perfume market and an increase in sophistication. known as the myropôleion. Trading areas like these called for the development of containers for both storage purposes and to highlight and differentiate the contents. This led to the appearance of higher quality containers for specific uses. Aryballos, alabaster jars, lecythes, pitchers, askos and amphorae were produced in large quantities. Here, a narrow-necked container enables drop- by-drop application and there, a wide, rounded aperture facilitates ointment application. Shapes varied: some were fashioned like the heads of soldiers or in the shape of animal bodies. A ceramic container indicated a product at the lower end of the market whilst porcelain and alabaster were reserved for perfumed oils of a superior quality. Thus, we owe the development of the art of bottling to the Greeks. Vase in the shape of a helmeted head 6th century B.C., Rhodes Terracotta Inv. 93 567 Antiquity - Greece A Look at History english

Aryballos With a globular or piriform shape, narrow neck and wide rim.

Diadumenos 5th century B.C., Greece Marble National Archaeological Museum, Athens © All rights reserved

Lecythus Pitcher or jug with a more or less cylindrical body and a foot. This Aryballos-style type of container was lecythus covered with a white This is a type of lecythus kaolinite coating and from the Classical era was very widely used as which combined the a funeral vase in the 5th bulging shape of an century B.C. aryballos with the neck of a lecythus.

Perfumed oil deemed indispensable for all

The Greek beauty ideal was scented. At a time when the body became an object of worship, regardless of gender, oil was used in the city and in Pyxis the stadia, not only for its fragrance A box for makeup and but also for the shiny effect it ointments which was produced on the skin. made in different shapes Oils, which were applied to the thighs and had a lid. and breast, had an erotic connotation and were exchanged as gifts between lovers. Fragrances also played a crucial role in banquets. Perfume burners, ewers filled with perfumed water, footbaths, crowns of fragrant flowers and leaves, and bottles of nard all bore testimony to the hospitality of hosts. This craze was not, however, without a certain sacred connotation, since perfume was believed to be the human equivalent of divine ambrosia. Although it did not confer immortality, it nonetheless brought mankind closer to the gods by giving Alabaster them access to an immaterial Perfume vase with a dimension. cylindrical shape, narrow neck and wide rim. A Look at History Antiquity - Rome

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Bottle 1st century, Roman Empire Glass

Inv. 93 602 Rome where perfume was king

Was the Roman taste for perfume one of the effects of the successive conquests of the Roman Empire? In maintaining commercial links with Egypt, Greece and the Far East, Rome had unhampered access to perfumed products. The use of perfume reached a greater highpoint here more than anywhere else up to this point. The divinities, of course, were not forgotten and a perfume was attributed to each of them: benzoin and cassia to Jupiter, costus to Saturn, aloe to Mars, musk to Juno and ambergris to Venus. Although Rome was not especially innovative in terms of fragrance, it revolutionised perfume transportation with the use of blown glass.

Glass: inspiration and innovation from the Romans The discovery of the glass-blowing This resulted in the manual production technique during the 1st century B.C. of objects that were not only malleable marked a starting point for the rapid, but also transparent. Metallic oxides large-scale, inexpensive production of were added to stain the glass. standard glass. This material soon The Romans adopted and mastered these Bottle nd 2nd-3rd centuries, became accessible to all. Although techniques. During the 2 century A.D., Syria delicate, it offered two essential 100 million items of glass were said to Glass Inv. 02 742 advantages for “major consumer leave the Roman glass products’’ like perfume. It was light and workshops every year to supply a did not become impregnated with the population of 54 million people. odour of the substance it contained. We owe to Rome the creation of new Having spread rapidly across the forms such as balsamic jars, small glass Mediterranean and the Middle East, this vials and other beautiful vials reserved technique was improved by glass for the wealthy classes. manufacturers in the Middle and Far East. Glass components were able to reach the melting point because of ovens that heated to higher temperatures. Antiquity - Rome A Look at History english

Roman beauty … beauty tips Roman women devoted a great deal of time to their appearance. The art of bathing flourished, and baths were scented with jasmine, violet or rose oil. After drying with swan’s-down, beautiful women massaged themselves with ointments.

Portrait of Paquius Proculus and his wife 1st century, Pompeii Fresco National Archaeological Museum, Naples © All rights reserved

Beauty masks Extremely demanding with regard to their complexion, they invented the beauty mask. Women wore it all night long, even though the recipe is rather unappetizing: Hair care bean and dried snail Before being curled with broth sprinkled with irons, hair was darkened olive or sesame oil. using a mixture of Facial blemishes were mastic tree, maidenhead removed with calf fern and sage or droppings mixed with lightened with quince oil before applying and privet juice. The make-up. Finally, the final touches were complexion was applied by the slave who lightened using white filled her mouth with lead. perfume before applying it in a fine spray over the hair of her mistress.

Young woman with a perfume vial 1st century, Villa Farnesina, Eyelids and eyebrows Rome Eye shadows were Fresco National Museum of the Thermal Baths, Rome typically a mixture of © Dagli Orti saffron tincture, greasy soot and powdered lead Hair removal galena. The eyebrows Facial, armpit, arm, leg were darkened by and even pubic hair coating them with ants’ were removed with eggs crushed with dead substances containing flies… pitch (tar), resin and the ashes of bats and hedgehogs. Kohl container 4th century B.C., Egypt Ivory, bone, bronze Inv. 93 577 A Look at History Middle Ages and Renaissance

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Apothecary shop (détail) Late 15th century, Château d’Issogne, Aosta Valley (Italy) Wall painting

The Middle Ages, the time of steadfast beliefs

Albarello In the Middle Ages, because of a co-existence between religious austerity, Late 15th century, Montelupo which prohibited the secular use of perfume and the major epidemics, Faience Inv. 01 93 fragrant raw materials were greatly sought after but rarely used for their powers of seduction. The monks, crusaders and great explorers played a vital role in the development of perfumery between the 11th and 17th centuries – the former as guardians of the well-being of body and soul; the latter by bringing back herbs and spices to enrich the pharmacopoeia, culinary art and religious rites.

A pharmacopoeia based on magic and botany During the Middle Ages, medicine was The study of medicinal plants was the one of the branches of Physica – the basis for pharmaceutical teaching based basis of everything metaphysical. on the number four : four humours Doctors treated the soul, as well as the (blood, bile, lymph and black bile) body. Science thus sought refuge in the corresponding to the four elements monasteries and, with it, the (water, air, earth and fire) and to the ancestral knowledge of the power four states: wet, dry, cold and hot. of herbs to cure illness. Diseases occurred as a result of an imbalance between one or more of these humours.

Odours and contagion in the time of major epidemics In 1348, the Black Death struck streets. In an attempt to keep with aromatic plants and Europe. From that point on, diseases at bay as much as to rosemary and juniper berries epidemics would decimate cure them, doctors were burned. Eau de Damas, the population up until the 18th recommended the inhalation which contained herbs, musk century. The Faculty of of rose and sandalwood, and civet musk, was Medicine in Paris sweetgum balm and nutmeg. considered an effective recommended avoiding On coming into contact with remedy against the plague. contact with sick people who patients, doctors would had a foul smell, since they disinfect their mouths with were suspected to be wine flavoured withpepper, contagious carriers. cinnamon, musk, clove and Odour was suspected to such mace. The walls were sprayed an extent that huge fires were with vinegar and in the lit to purify the air in the rooms, the floor was strewn Middle Ages and Renaissance A Look at History english

1 Medicinal herb garden Costmary, lamb’s ears, fennel Censer and other medicinal plants The ‘‘jardin des simples’’ 19th century, 2008, Salagon Priory or medicinal herb garden © Musée Départemental ethnologique, Mane undetermined location Copper Inv. 86 211 As far back as Charlemagne, the horticulture was encouraged in convents and religious schools. The medicinal herb garden, which New aromas for the The church adopts incense and used plants as nature had intended, table renounces embalming developed within the confines of monasteries and abbeys. According to medieval texts, the Once Catholicism was recognised as a In addition to the active substances common diet was not especially separate religion, the use of certain mentioned in ancient manuscripts, varied, but there was an abundance of plants were prescribed on the basis fragrant substances such as incense of their colour or shape according to flavours. became inextricably linked with the “signature theory.” Since God The tables of the wealthy were laden worship. This resin, which is widely had created analogies in nature, with spices such as pepper, yellow plants, for instance, were used in different religions, delimits indicative of bile of the same colour. cardamom, nutmeg, saffron, clove, sacred ground. Apothecaries and doctors therefore coriander, thyme, mustard (either in Embalming, which was common prescribed remedies made from the form of seeds or powdered), practice during the first few centuries these plants to treat liver disorders. marjoram, mint and fennel. Used to Similarly, the shape of borage leaves of our era, was discontinued in the was reminiscent of that of the lungs, season starchy foods (chickpeas and early Middle Ages. The deceased was whereas cumin seeds resembled the beans) and meats, they aided washed in a bath of fragrant plants and kidneys. The one treated chest digestion. Although the medical then wrapped in leather or a linen disorders and the other possessed function took precedence over diuretic properties. cloth. This ritual was revived by royalty culinary pleasure, the two goals were in the 16th century. associated for a very long time. 1 And then came the Renaissance The Renaissance: The battle against democratisation and foul-smelling odours refınement

Although only the nobility and the From the 16th century on, a more or privileged few used perfumes during less general stench became the Middle Ages, by the Renaissance widespread. Perfume fragrances fixed the use of perfumes had spread to the with alcohol now had to combat this rest of the population, who finally foul odour. discovered the pleasure of The battle was not without fragrance. But bathing, which was refinement. Around 1530, the fashion a common practice during the Middle of perfumed gloves gained ground Ages, was abandoned and the fear of throughout Europe under the Coat of arms of glove maker-perfumers water as a source of infection became influence of Catherine de Medici. widespread. Therefore, up to the 18th From the General Other accessories were not Armorial of France, century, aromatic substances overlooked: belts, doublets, established according to replaced water and hygiene and the edict of 1696, underwear… everything was Volume XXIII, p. 215. outward appearance replaced perfumed including wigs, which Charles d’Hozier personal cleanliness. were powdered with violet or cyprus. Water was in short supply with limited quantities for washing and cleaning roads and drains. Aromatic jewellery The Renaissance period saw the emergence of fragrant Pomander jewellery, such as sachets of red roses, aloe or Late 17th sandalwood, which were inserted between garments. century – early Bezoar, a bluish concretion found in the digestive 18th century, organs of certain animals, was extremely popular unknown because of its very strong odour. Combined with location incense, it was believed to afford protection against Silver Inv. 00 18 poison. A Look at History Eighteenth-century perfumes

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Perfumer’s costume G. Vidal, based on a drawing by N. de Larmessin Late 17th century, France Paper Inv. 02 521

The Court encourages refinement in the 18th century

The eighteenth century marked a transition between two epochs: one where perfume and fragrant materials were the main weapon against Potpourri an evil-smelling atmosphere and one that rediscovered the benefits of Always on the lookout for bad odours and fearful of the miasmas water, bathing and pleasant smells. Until this time, perfume was meant they were said to convey, the eighteenth century reached new to keep others at a distance, as well as to stave off the menace of possible heights of creativity in the art of making the air people breathed contagion that this represented. Now, it became a means of bringing more pleasant, particularly indoors. In polite society, it was others closer. The era of seduction had begun. considered in good taste to affirm one’s “personality” through the As an accomplice to libertine flirtations, fragrance became a valued smell of one’s house, as well as with one’s personal perfume. attribute, the trump card that would allow a dandy to reveal his soul. Potpourri, whose origins are Volatile, subtle and voluptuous, perfume incarnated an ideal of the unknown, fulfilled this role. Everyone had his or her recipe for fleeting moment. It reflected the ephemeral quest of the hedonistic preparing this fermented mix composed of a broad variety of spirit. Refinement could at last be expressed, including in accessories, petals, leaves, powders and different fragrant ingredients. bottles – made of crystal and porcelain – and in grooming. It was so widely used that it gave its name to the container that held it. Originally in stone, it, too, came under the influence of the century’s quest for refinement and would eventually be made in the most precious of materials.

Pot-pourri Late 18th century, Italy Terracotta Inv. 03 885

Je m’occupois de vous G. Vidal, based on a painting by Marguerite Gérard 18th century, Paris Paper © Jean-Honoré Fragonard Villa Museum, Grasse, MF 1577 Eighteenth-century perfumes A Look at History english

Fragile feminity and vinaigrettes In addition to gloves, people wore small containers of odorous substances like vinaigrette. A small sponge imbibed with fragrant vinegar and elegantly hidden behind an openwork lattice enabled ladies to avoid smelling an unpleasant odour in the environment or bring them back to Portrait d’Heinrich Blarer consciousness when the Hans Murer fashion of tightly laced 1460, Nadelholz Oil on wood bodices caused them to © Rosgartenmuseum, Constance (Allemagne) faint.

A propitious time for bottles The discovery of the secret of porcelain at Meissen in 1709 and of lead crystal in England in 1750, along with the existence of a demanding clientele, gave tremendous impetus to the fashion for bottles. Shapes were infinitely diverse, miniatures rivalled in precision, and mountings became increasingly luxurious. It was no longer enough to shine with one’s fragrance alone; the fragrance container must be just as elegant and refined.

Glove making, tranks Bottle-figurine and details of men’s gloves in the shape of a young woman Original plate from the 1749-1754, Chelsea Encyclopaedia by Diderot and D’Alembert Porcelain 1765, France Inv. 00 100 Paper Inv. 02 550

Perfumed gloves A perfume a day under Louis XV In the century of perfume, no object was too In order for Louis XIV to have earned imported by the East India Company? A modest to be scented, not even clothing the title of “sweetest-smelling king” number of technical revolutions should accessories in leather. Accordingly, gloves, (bestowed by none other than his also be taken into account. which were the quintessential aristocratic item personal perfumer, Sir Barbe), perfumes Enfleurage on a frame finally enabled symbolising the privilege of not having to work needed to have acquired an “odour of extracting the olfactory humour of with one’s hands, were freed of a rather rancid sanctity” at the court. Under Louis XV, flowers that were too fragile to be odour that came from tanning. They were courtiers greeted each day wearing a distilled. The finest and most perfumed and offered by the dozens. new scent. concentrated essences, obtain by They brought great wealth to Grasse. It should The olfactory revolution of the rectification, could be kept for up to be noted that the master glove makers guild, eighteenth century saw the animal two years. Thus, it was possible to be which was officially recognized by Colbert in notes of musk, civet and amber, so free of the tyranny of seasons. It was 1656, later gave birth to the perfumers guild. highly valued under Louis XIV, go out of the triumph of floral fragrance. style and be replaced by a fresh, floral wave. Was it because Queen Marie- Antoinette liked the smell of roses, lilies, violets and carnations? Or was it because the perfumer’s palette was enriched with new raw materials A Look at History Caskets, kits and cases

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The luxurious art of travelling

Portrait of Queen Marie- Antoinette with a Rose (1755-1793) Elisabeth-Louise Vigée-Lebrun 18th century, Paris Oil on canvas © RMN

Eighteenth century travelling accessories became increasingly popular excuses for luxury and refinement. There was no way comfort would be sacrificed when on the move! Everything was packed into travel cases and boxes, including perfumes. Some items were miniaturised, and everything was made with the finest workmanship using the most sophisticated materials. The manufacture of these items called for a wide variety of skills, including those of goldsmiths, cutlers, mirror manufacturers, and craftsmen in porcelain and wood.

A Look at History Caskets, kits and cases english

Marie-Antoinette’s travel case

This is a rectangular case made from Duke of Orléans. mahogany and copper. The inner Silver objects made in 1782 by master surface of the lid served as a writing silversmith Jean-Pierre Charpenat desk, and an oval plaque on the lid (who died in 1806) include place bears the monogram ORG in a settings, a mirror and all the essentials crown. It was made by Jean-Philippe needed for a light meal, writing, Palma, a table and cabinet maker in sewing and personal hygiene and Paris during the reign of Louis XVI. The grooming. travel case had two levels and could In 1955, the Department of Decorative store about fifty objects made from Arts at the Louvre Museum acquired a crystal, silver, ivory and ebony very similar travel case dating from (toiletry bottles, boxes of powder and around 1789. This was one of the travel jars of pomade), as well as decorated cases ordered for the royal family’s Second travel case of porcelain table pieces made in Paris journey to Varennes in June 1791. Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France (1755-1793) from 1786 onwards by Outrequin de 1791, Paris Montarcy, whose patron was the Inv. 94 50

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Body care – Perfumery 16 Straight-sided porcelain cup Light meals – Beverages 17 Silver ewer Domestic accessories 18 Silver warmer for wine spirits 19 Silver bed warmer with a turned ivory and ebony handle 20 Porcelain teapot 1 Ebony case 21 Silver basin 2 Ivory case 22 Bell in chiselled silver 3 Mirror with a silver frame and handle in turned ivory 23 Silver candleholder 4 Porcelain ointment jar 24 Silver mortar 5 Ebony box 25 Seal in ebony and silver 6 Silver box 26 Silver powder box 7 Porcelain spittoon 27 Silver chocolate pot 8 Crystal medicine bottle, vermeil stopper cover; 28 Porcelain sugar bowl hand-written ink inscription: Sydenham Mild Drops 29 Silver coffee spoon 9 Crystal bottle and stopper, vermeil stopper cover 30 Large silver spoon 10 Crystal bottle and stopper, silver stopper cover 31 Silver table fork 11 Crystal bottle and stopper, silver stopper cover, three-fourths 32 Inside of lid used as a support for writing filled with a methylene blue liquid.The bottles contained “smelling waters,” oils, dyes, liquors, etc. Objects that are not visible: 12 Crystal bottle and stopper, vermeil stopper cover Chocolate skimmer in ebony and ivory 13 Crystal bottle with screw neck and silver stopper Porcelain saucers 14 Silver sugar bowl Metal tray 15 Silver bouillon goblet with handle and knob in ebony A Look at History Make up

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Make-up to the present day, here and elsewhere

The art of make-up and marking has almost existed since the beginning of humanity. Certain codes became universal: red is widely used for the lips and cheeks even if the pallor of the complexion varies underneath. Black accentuates the eyes in most societies. The reasons for make- up styles differ over time and space, and the products vary depending on the raw materials available.

Colour on display during the 18th century In 18th century Europe, make-up was rather demonstrative and toward the end of the Regency period denoted one’s status. Women used Eau de Mouron or Eau de Venise to revitalise their complexion. Then they applied Saturn white or ceruse (white lead) mixed with an ointment to conceal any blemishes. They highlighted cheekbones with carmine, brazilwood and sandalwood reds, or with alkanet, which they applied with a brush. Portrait of a woman Conversely, the sickly look became (Detail) fashionable during the 19th century Attributed to Arnulphy 18th century, Provence before returning to a more natural Oil on canvas appearance towards the end of the 20th ©Museum of the Art and History of Provence, Grasse, 97 574 century. a look of history Make-up french

Indian woman 20th century, India © Corbis

Different designs…

In India, the bindi is a dot painted on the forehead indicating status: red for married women in the north of the country or striped with three white lines for male worshippers of Shiva. According to New Caledonian traditions, a complexion reddened with lo’a indicates that a woman is looking for a husband. Papuan Make-up is also used to conceal the 20th century, passage of time, and increasingly so Papua New … and materials too Guinea in the western world. Sometimes it ©All rights reserved has other properties: the Fali ethnic Highly toxic materials such as group in Cameroon covers itself with ceruse (white lead) cinnabar or palm oil and ochre for protection even minium (red lead), were from the sun and insects and to widely used as make-up by 18th benefit from the power associated century European women. with to red. In North Africa, henna is In addition, substances were applied to certain areas of a child’s The coded use of beauty spots often extracted from plants to be body for good luck. Finally, in many used as make-up: turmeric was The wearing of beauty spots was the societies, make-up forges a link with used in Oceania, roucou in ultimate sign of transformation through divinity. Amazonia and New Guinea, make-up for elegant 18th century women. Made from sticking plaster, they henna in Islam countries and accentuated the pallor of the skin and ochre wherever it was found. restored radiance to the face. They were so fashionable that they were widely used, even in convents. Whether in the shape of a crescent moon, a star or a flower, each one conveyed a different meaning depending on where it was placed: mischievous on the lips, impudent on the nose, majestic on the forehead, courteous on the cheek, cheerful on the laughter lines Current European and discrete on the lower lip…But beware legislation of any beauty spots near the eye as this The use of chemical products is implied a murderous mood! currently subject to regulations issued by the European La Diaphane (face powder) A change in bases Geography of beauty spots Parliament and the Council of the Jules Chéret Morning. Lady grooming herself. European Union. The system for 1890, France The bases used in face creams th 18 century, France Paper th the registration, evaluation and Inv. 96 463 have changed since the 19 Paper © National Library, Paris authorisation of chemicals century: alkaline stearates, which (REACh) aims to protect human were difficult to apply, were health and the environment by replaced by glycol stearates. prohibiting the use of hazardous Silicones subsequently brought chemical substances within the smoothness and silkiness, and European Union. were easier to spread. To do this, it places the burden of As for powder, Teflon powders responsibility for proving the create an optical effect with a safety of the chemical products blurring that minimises skin on the manufacturer, who must relief. Alpha-hydroxy acids are show that the substance used used as anti-ageing treatments is not dangerous for humans and and vitamins, particularly nature. vitamins A, B5 and E, have been The REACh system thus obliges incorporated in creams since 1995. manufacturers and importers to This chemistry does not prevent investigate the potential risks certain traditional products such associated with new chemical as aloe vera, ginkgo, acerola, compounds before the latter are annatto or even guarana from launched on the market or used. coming back with a vengeance in current make-up products. A Look at History Hygiene

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Hygiene elsewhere

Although water was out of favour in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century France, this was certainly not the case in other cultures.

hammam, more than mere cleanliness “Cleanliness is next to godliness,” said the Prophet. Although the Turkish bath is annexed to the mosque where ablutions for Friday prayers are carried out, it is also a social venue for chatting and discussion. Because of its religious origin, the Turkish bath never mixes men and women.

From the 16th century The Turkish Bath In the Mediterranean Basin, public Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres 1852-1859, France baths underwent major development Oil on wood from the 16th century because of Louvre Museum, Paris © RMN – Gérard Blot the Ottoman Empire’s civil architecture policy. In Istanbul, certain aristocratic houses already had a private Turkish bath. And, around 1660, the explorer Albertus Bobovius reported that inside the Topkapi Palace, the baths were used daily by the staff involved in running the imperial palace. They included pages, eunuchs, falconers and treasurers, among others. Hygiene A Look at History english

Hammam 20th century, Istanbul © All rights reserved

The evening bath in Japan In Japan, the daily bath must transcend physical cleanliness. Taken in the evening, it washes the body but also dispels any feelings of daytime bitterness. It soothes people and puts them in the right frame of mind for the next day. For centuries, there have been three types of bath in Japan: the furo, private; the sento, public; and the onsen, which are natural outdoor hot A venue for hygiene and springs where the Japanese gather on social exchange weekends to enjoy their beneficial During the era of Sultan Murad IV water. The sento originates from the steam bath installations offered to the Couple in a sauna (17th century), each Istanbul district 20th century, unknown location had its own Turkish bath. In terms of population by monks during the Edo © Corbis layout, it was organised along the period. During the second half of the th lines of the Roman model. A waiting 19 century, they became public and room overlooked a cloakroom, which there were many of them. According then led to a temperate room reserved to tradition, taking an early evening for massages and hair removal. bath provided a break between work and rest. A warm room provided the transition Sento and furo are carried out to the hot room – a huge open area lit according to the same procedures. by daylight. It was a place for social Seated on a small stool in front of a exchange with benches and pools as The sauna – over two tap, the Japanese sprinkle themselves well as quiet recesses where hair thousand years old with water using a small tub and, after removal or shaving was carried out. washing; immerse themselves in The sauna, where no one washes, There was generally a platform in the steaming hot water just for the pure arrived in Finland from Russia over centre of the room for washing or pleasure of it. two thousand years ago. Its practice having a massage. was associated with the worship of The buckets (stil or tas) used to pour fire. water on the body were also used by Like the Russian bath, the sauna was women to carry combs, scrubs, soap, Sento constructed near the main dwelling in 20th century, oils, hair-removal products and Japan a wooden cabin. towels, etc. © All rights reserved A sauna is a family bath in the strictest sense of the word. It is an honour to A meeting place for be invited to participate in one. women During the 19th century, it became an Although the hammam represents end-of-the-week and pre-holiday bathing as a consummate art, it ritual. As a place to relax and restore is also synonymous with “taking the body, the sauna also played a time out.” In traditional Arab culture, spiritual role for the Finns. it continues to weave powerful social ties. Small secrets are Sauna 20th century, exchanged and marriages are Finland planned. Since women consider © All rights reserved the bath as a place of total relaxation, they bring along baskets of fruits and candies to enjoy. Marriage preparations During festivities linked with marriage, the Turkish bath welcomes the bride-to-be and female members of her family to prepare her body and dye her fingers, toes and heels with henna, thus protecting the visible extremities of the body with this precious powder laden with prophylactic properties. A Look at History Hygiene

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Bathtub 18th century, Provence © Museum of the Art and History of Provence, Grasse, 98 726

In France ever since the time of Ambroise Paré, confusion tied to the promiscuity of public baths, Hygiene is rehabilitated which had become places of debauchery, resulted in the homes and at in their closing and led to the discrediting of water public baths The hygienist revolution, which for personal hygiene. To stay clean, underwear originated in 18th century England, was changed or a “dry” bath was taken. This consisted brought back the use of water. Bathing became fashionable. Louis XV in rubbing the skin with lotions and vinegars. had a sumptuous bathroom installed in Versailles in 1760. The fashion also spread to the streets and public baths were gradually opened. In Paris, establishments along the banks of the Seine offered swimming pools, cold baths, hot baths, warm baths and hair removal… Hygiene A Look at History english

Grooming of a Prosecutor’s Assistant Debucourt after a drawing by Carle Vernet Second half of the 18th century, France Paper Inv. 94 55

Toothbrush Around 1830, Vienna Nacre, bristles

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People start to brush their teeth During the 17th century, people drank elixirs to “be beautiful inside” but still did not wash. Eau de la Reine de Hongrie, a rosemary distillate produced in Montpellier, was believed to confer health and beauty. During the 18th century, people cleaned their teeth with an American formulation containing burned bread or a preparation containing dragon’s blood, cinnamon and alum. The use of these powders did not become widespread, however, until the 19th century.

The craze for hair powder A perfumed powdery wind blew across France from the end of the 17th century. In the 18th century, once hair had been backcombed and Anointing the skin oiled, it was powdered on the landing Moisturising the skin with creams to prevent the powder from entering and ointments developed along with an apartment. Hairstyles became refinement in personal care. increasingly extravagant. Following a curative role in the Middle In the words of Madame Campan, Ages and an obsession with seduction the first lady-in-waiting to Marie in the 18th century, perfumery became Antoinette, “Hairstyles are so high more diversified. Skin care products that some women find it difficult to for men and women acquired travel by carriage unless they put increasing importance on dressing their head out the window.” tables and, later, in bathrooms.

Ointment jar 18th century, Cabris Faïence Inv. 97 397 A Look at History Grasse

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The Middle ages to the 18th century From a merchant town to a city dedicated to the perfume industry

Medieval house 2007, Grasse, Rue Tracastel During the 11th century, still a village Grasse was not mentioned in texts until the mid 11th century when it was described as a fortified dwelling on a small volcanic summit, or puy. High above an ancient commercial thoroughfare, Grasse dominated the flat, open countryside, and ensured the safety of its inhabitants. From the Middle Ages on, Grasse developed This strategic aspect was coupled with the convenience of a source of water to the northeast an enviable business sense and two activities – that would condition economic development, in tanning and flower growing – which would make particular the settlement of tanners. During this time, traffic between Castellane and it the perfume capital of France. Before long, its Nice abandoned the high road passing through the reputation would spread even further. Roman metropolis of Vence and opted for the Grasse road. The primitive village comprising a lordly tower, a church and a few houses quickly expanded and spread over the hillside, protected by a defensive wall.

Grasse in the 11th century, hypothetical representation Mock-up Museum of the Art and History of Provence, Grasse Grasse A Look at History english

Between the 12th and 15th centuries: the city grows In the 12th century, Grasse, which had been an independent consulate since 1138, dealt directly with the towns of Genoa and Pisa. The village developed at the foot of the hill and to the north. A new settlement appeared around the market square. A second wall was constructed in the 13th century. The city was surrounded In the 11th century, hypothetical representation by a long rampart with gateways Scale model defended from the towers. At this © Museum of the Art and History of Provence, Grasse time, the city’s wealth was based on During the 17th century: the During the 18th century: trading cloth, fur and leather. Grasse foundations for perfumery perfumery prevails over already benefited from an exceptional are laid tanning microclimate and substantial The 17th century was a beneficial period In the early 18th century, perfumers livestock, which allowed the town to for the city. The middle classes prospered, separated from pharmacists and th specialise in tanning from the 14 the use of perfume developed and the tanners. They began to form century onwards. demand for raw materials increased. This a homogeneous social and Under the influence of this was undoubtedly the period when the professional group in Grasse. developing business, noble cultivation of scented plants became In 1729, they were awarded official dwellings were constructed in the established in Grasse. Benefiting from the status as glove maker-perfumers, streets: on Rue de l’Oratoire, microclimate and abundant water supply, which they kept until the French Rue Tracastel and Rue Mougins- jasmine, orange trees, roses, tuberose, Revolution. Roquefort. The town limits cassia and other plants grown in southern continued to expand at the end of the Italy were cultivated here in the open Middle Ages. They took in the fields. The fashion for perfumed convents and the grain threshing gloves, which made full use of leather and areas, which were initially located on fragrant plants, the town’s two major the outskirts of the city, the latter assets, contributed to further expansion. became the Place aux Aires. Private mansions were built along the main roads and at trading points. The The industrial era surrounding countryside was dotted approaches with several country houses, one of the At the beginning of the industrial era, finest examples of which is theVilla the perfumers in Grasse had to Fragonard. In 1684, the “Cours” square redefine their profession: would they was added to the south of the city. New make finished products or raw religious congregations settled in the city materials? Competition from Paris led and the cathedral was expanded. Baroque them to choose the production and religious art also appeared here. trading of raw materials. By 1850, the city’s vocation had completely changed. From this point on, Grasse had a near monopoly on production and controlled the trade of natural products and essences used in perfumery.

Jean-Honoré Fragonard Villa-Museum 2008, Grasse, Boulevard Fragonard A Look at History Grasse

english The successful partnership of technical know-how and commercial flair

The Antoine Chiris Company throughout the world Map from Partum de France, Vol. 31, Journal 95 Early 20th century, Grasse Paper

Roses at the Lautier Fils factory in Tayouni, Beirut 1914, Beirut The transition from a traditional approach to genuine modern Paper Inv. 04 2065 industrial manufacturing occurred following the discovery of several processes at Grasse. They culminated in making the city the world capital of perfume.

Company awards Roure-Bertrand Fils Late 19th century, Grasse Inv. 04 3080 Essential know-how From 1853 on, a new process was used. technique. Grasse industrialists also It was based on the extraction of developed distillation by direct fragrant active substances , which injection of steam toward the end of were dissolved in ether, and brought the 19th century. Until then, distillation about a revolution in perfumery had been carried out over an open However, it was not until 1870 that the flame that heated water in the boiler to industrial production of benzene was the boiling point. This modernised sufficiently mastered (benzene was approach saved time and provided discovered in 1825 but its use is now regular heating, both of which were prohibited). It thus became an greatly appreciated. affordable option producing a yield of In the years between the two World suitable quality. Wars, industry in Grasse also In 1873, Claude Roure, a perfumer from pioneered greater understanding of Grasse, used this new process to create essential oils in particular and of natural concrete essences. His essences were products in general. Widely acclaimed widely acclaimed at the Vienna chemists contributed to this body of Exhibition and he was awarded a gold knowledge, including Y.R. Naves and medal. In 1899, Léon Chiris was one of L.S. Glichitch, who carried out their the first to apply this technology on an research at the Chiris company. industrial scale. The process was developed and finally prevailed over enfleurage – a prohibitively expensive A Look at History Grasse english

Grasse benefits from the development of the French Riviera Stimulated by the English desire to discover new territories, Grasse became a holiday resort in the 19th century. Its microclimate and mild winters soon won Grasse international acclaim as a “year- round” destination. In the early 20th century, rest homes and sanatoriums were opened for Bruno Court, manufacturer of Grasse on the Riviera, between the numerous patients, who enjoyed the raw materials for the perfume mountains and the sea benefits of the winter sunshine in this industry Georges Bard region. These establishments were 1945, Grasse 1947, France Paper Paper followed by hotels, casinos and Inv. 04 3200 © Museum of the Art and History of Provence, Grasse, 08 1 theatres. Annual paid holidays, which were instituted in 1936, would create a summer season that followed the From transformation A flair for trading since winter one. to creation and the Middle Ages . formulation Because of its capacity for trade, A series of changes occurred after the Grasse has always been a rich town. Second World War when Grasse was During the Middle Ages, local tanners The plant visit: taking cut off from both its overseas were already obtaining skins from the advantage of local production sources and part of its Mediterranean Basin and local attractiveness pharmacists were importing herbs clientele. Queen Victoria’s visit to Grasse in 1891 from the Near East, Asia, North Africa Like all European towns with an sparked a new activity: plant visits. and the Far East. Later, perfumers from extensive, single industry, Grasse had Combining the town’s touristic and the town would venture over land to face new competition that industrial facets, these visits took and sea to set up production units and challenged its monopoly. commercial advantage of the town’s sell their fragrant products around the Over the years, local flower growing appeal. world. had also become increasingly less The Fontaines Parfumées Pélissier- In the 19th century, the development profitable because of the combined Aragon appears to be the first of industry in Grasse went hand in impact of higher labour costs and company to follow this trend. In the hand with the globalisation of supply pressure on land. Grasse underwent a 19th century other companies like and the discovery of foreign markets. significant change from a Fragonard and Galimard soon did the Thus, Roure became established in transformation industry to an same, opening their doors to Central Europe, in particular in Russia, industry of creation and formulation, welcome visitors. A visit to today’s where he opened the House of Rallet in perfumery as well as in the food plants, however, is not nearly as in 1845. flavourings sector, which currently poetic. Raw materials had been imported ever accounts for 50% of turnover in the Grasse industrial basin. since the days of the so-called “Colonial Empire.” Companies in Grasse received raw materials from tropical countries such as Madagascar and the Comoro and Reunion Islands, as well as Mediterranean countries such as Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria, Queen Victoria in Grasse which supplied Chiris from 1836 Félix Busin onwards. 1891, Grasse © Museum of the Art and History of Provence, Visit the Perfumed Fountains To obtain products consistent with Grasse, H 13 First half 20th century, Grasse their quality requirements, Grasse Paper Inv. 04 478 industrialists built local distillation and extraction plants. They continued this strategy for years and currently have branches around the globe. A Look at History Grasse

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Managers and directors of Etablissements Antoine Chiris, First half of the 20th century, © International Perfume Museum, Grasse Perfumers – and managers- from father to son

Traditional Grasse perfumeries are handed down from one generation to the next, and bonds are sealed between families through marriage. Management of the plant passes from the father to the eldest son as soon as the latter has gained sufficient experience or, if this is not feasible, to an authorised representative. The fact that businesses remain “within the family circle” has had a lasting impact on the social organisation of Grasse.

From Christmas gifts to a workers’cooperative In the 19th century, Grasse managers were held in high esteem by their staff. They created numerous charities, often through their wives, and provided assistance and facilities for employees and their families, ranging from a simple present at Christmas to a cooperative where groceries could be purchased at lower cost.

Léon Antoine Chiris Félix Busin Late 19th century, Grasse © Museum of the Art and History of Provence, Grasse Grasse A Look at History english

Diploma for a medal of honour awarded to Miss Bon Marché district, houses Raphaële Allamandi, an employee of the built for employees of the Chiris Antoine Chiris Company in Grasse Perfumery th 1928, Paris Early 20 century, Bon Marché district, Paper Grasse Inv. 04 4071

Characteristic paternalism from Whole families the first industrial revolution at the service of perfumery In Grasse, as elsewhere, paternalism All those who live in Grasse have a characterised the first industrial family member or close friend who revolution. Since public authorities either worked or is still working in the refused to be involved in providing perfume industry. From the 18th staff facilities, paternalistic companies century onwards, this business was therefore managed canteen services, so diversified that it provided retirement and medical care. employment for most of the population and for entire generations. Although the situation has now changed considerably, the perfume industry continues to employ over 3000 people in the Grasse Basin. By facilitating the transmission of know-how, the family recruitment system allows workers to be trained in such a way as to ensure high productivity and foster company loyalty.

Managers and directors of Etablissements Antoine Chiris In one of the company offices, First half of the 20th century, © International Perfume Museum, Grasse

Company meal, Etablissements Antoine Chiris, 20th century, © International Perfume Museum, Grasse A Look at History Grasse

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View of Grasse Charles Nègre 1865, Grasse © Museum of the Art and History of Provence, Grasse, 08 14

The Grasse countryside changes from the 1850s onwards

th Whereas in the 18 century Grasse was characterised by the Industrialists take over transition from glove manufacturing to perfumery, the 19th the convents century witnessed a change in this activity, which After the French Revolution, perfumers who carried out their developed from an essentially craftsman-like approach to activity in the confined premises previously occupied by tanners, a powerful, industrial-scale business. From this point on, gradually acquired the monasteries and the town underwent a marked transformation. Going far convents that had been repossessed from the clergy. beyond an initial focus on traditional craftsmanship, Grasse They set up their businesses in more acquired the status of an industrial city. The various changes spacious surroundings on the outskirts of the town where they developed resulted in a significant modification of the urban landscape. pioneering industrial techniques, thus improving both production and yield. Chiris set up business in the Capucins Convent, Foucard Niel in the Visitandines Convent, Hugues Aîné in the Saint-Jacques Hospital and Dominicains Convent, and Bruno Court in the Cordeliers Convent.

Rose sorting room in the former Cordeliers convent, Bruno Court factory Félix Busin Around 1895, Grasse Inv. 04 564 Grasse A Look at History english

May rose harvest Residential landscape Acchiardi 2007, Grasse 1920, Grasse Inv. 04 1601

During the 19th century – The plants expand Peripheral annexes installation of the first The new plants were characterised by From the 1920s onwards, companies that plants their imposing size and, before long, by a were by now well-established and The increasing success of perfumes succession of annexes. Architectural prosperous built annexes that were generated greater demand for fresh features specific to the industry, such as located even further from the town (in raw materials of plant origin. The water tanks installed on tiered roofs, the Grasse plain and Saint Claude District). construction of irrigation channels appeared towards the end of the 19th This marked the last significant change would thus change the appearance of the century. They became generalized after prior to the creation of the current countryside surrounding Grasse. World War I and were built in distinct industrial zones. Vines and olive trees were cut down, geographical regions. The greatest leaving room for the cultivation of concentration of plants began at the foot flowers. Within a few years, the of the “manufacturing district” and surrounding countryside was covered extended along the main roads as far as From an industrial to a with fragrant blooms and processing the Vallon de Rastigny. From north to residential landscape plants were built. The first monumental south, we find theBertrand Frères and Today due to increasing foreign chimneys appeared. Lautier Fils plants and the Chiris and competition, the development of Until 1945, however, smaller factories and Roure Bertrand sites, the Cavallier synthetic materials and housing pressure imposing plants existed side by side and Frères, R. Sornin and Tombarel Frères on the French Riviera, the cultivation of developed simultaneously. The smaller plants on both sides of the Avenue de la fragrant plants has virtually disappeared. urban plants filled the districts bordering Gare (currently known as Avenue Pierre The former fields have been transformed the former town centre and the larger Sémard), the Robertet plant and, finally, into residential areas. The Grasse ones benefited from the vast expanses of in a more easterly direction, the Payan- countryside has changed from an agricultural land in the Grasse Bertrand and Schmoller and Bompard agricultural to a residential environment countryside, which provided an ideal plants together with the Union surrounded by the vestiges of an location for sprawling industrial Coopérative Florale and La Marigarde industrial past. installations. cooperatives.. A second, more off-centre group of The southern factories buildings was built during the same period In the 18th century, the southern rampart along Avenue Sainte Lorette and of the town and the lower region of the Boulevard Victor Hugo (where some Vallon du Rossignol housed numerous factories were originally located), and windmills, soap manufacturers, tinplate included the Méro & Boyveau factory and plants and perfumers. Starting in the the Sozio & Camilli and Albert & Laloue second half of the 19th century, their sites. presence was strengthened by the arrival in often pre-existing premises of companies like Muraour Frères (Brothers), V. Toussan, Bernard Escoffier, Pilar Frères, H. Euzière, Robertet & Cie, L. T. Piver and Hugues Frères. Rarely exceeding more than two buildings, these plants resembled houses. View of the former Only the chimneys gave the clue to their Robertet factory real activity. Engraving from a supplement to the Revue des marques de la Parfumerie et de la Savonnerie (Journal of Perfume and Soap Industry Brands) 1924, Grasse Manufacture and Distribution All Kinds of Bottles

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Glass and bottling the birth of an art

Ramsès II A closer look at the It was not until the second half of the 19th century Bichara Grasse perfume houses 1925, France Glass During the 19th century, that perfumes were sold in specially designed bottles. Inv. 06 16591 industry was growing, and perfume factories expanded This marked the beginning of the major perfume along with it. This would encourage the creation and houses. Constant innovation in the perfume sector expansion of other industries in the surrounding areas of forged close links between the creator and the Grasse, such as the Vallauris ceramics factory or the glassmaker. Cannes la Bocca glassware manufacturing factory. Some factories in Grasse transformed raw materials , which they subsequently From banal bottle to the sold to perfumers. Others, art of bottle design such as Giraud, Bruno Court The packaging of perfumes as we or Les Fontaines Parfumées know it today did not exist in the handled the entire chain, Eau made from flowers early 19th century. Essences were sold including raw materials, and orange leaves in simple vials that were poured into perfumes and on-site sales. 1870-1899, Cannes-la-Bocca precious containers. Only the label Glass identified the contents. Inv. 97 464

Which ambassador: Glass and its secrets the bottle or the label? From Damascus in the early Middle A new clientele gradually emerged. It th Ages to Venice in the 16 century and purchased fragrances contained in th to Bohemia in the 17 century, the moulded bottles produced by the history of glass and its luxury version, newly created glass manufacturing crystal, is a tale of secrecy, sudden industry. Masses of embossed blown- developments and espionage… until glass bottles were produced at low crystal carved its niche in Eastern cost and in large quantities from 1824 France - the home of great traditional onwards. crystal manufacturers, such as Saint- The label, which was the sole Louis, Baccarat, Daum and Lalique. indicator of bottle contents, became Before 1984, which saw the arrival of increasingly complex and detailed, automatic bottle manufacturing whereas the bottles themselves had a plants, crystal had been produced uniform appearance. entirely by hand. Many designs are still produced manually to this day. Manufacture and Distribution All Kinds of Bottles english

Bottle Bichara The Birth of an art 1913, France Orientalism As a reaction to these simply Cristal Inv. 02 201 After a long period marked by a rather designed containers, Art Nouveau conventional olfactory landscape, introduced a totally different style. Ambre Antique and Origan by Coty th Finally, in the 20 century, when the introduced the huge family of major fashion houses, couturiers and “amber” perfumes in 1905. These are jewellers decided to launch their now known as the “Orientals.’’ They perfume brands, a genuine revolution were an intrinsic element in a wider occured in the bottling sector. movement characterised essentially Bottling became an art. Lalique, the Clairefontaine Design René Lalique by a passion for all things Egyptian, master glass maker, was the first to 1931, Paris which pervaded the Parisian way of recognise the need for consistency Verre Inv. 02 920 life and influenced the decorative arts between the bottle and its contents. during the twenties.The discovery of Since then, the two components – the Tutankhamen’s tomb in 1922 only perfume and the bottle – have been fuelled existing interest. Piver inextricably linked, ensuring the packaged The Valley of the Kings in an eternal appeal of a perfume and obelisk-shaped crystal column whilst serving as the witness to an era. in 1898, Lubin revamped his perfume, Enigma, which had already been associated with the image of the sphinx, in an Egyptian-style bottle.

Eau de Cologne In 1806, Jean-Marie Farina set up his perfume shop on the rue Saint- Honoré in Paris. Very soon the quality Perfumes with a of his preparations, his business historical connotation acumen and the support he received In the early 19th century, perfumers from the major names in perfume used bottles made from ordinary grey culminated in his success. or greenish glass for inexpensive Balzac once said of him that, “His perfumes, but the public proved more reputation is such that he needs no difficult to win over and advertising advertising”. Napoleon and his was born. Merchants demanded mother and sisters adored Farina’s Eau glassware in original or amusing de Senteur. The Emperor even shapes. Hence some perfume vials announced that he enjoyed a Farina were fashioned along the lines of the “canard” to help him relax: a sugar Emperor’s hat while others took on cube soaked in what had become a the appearance of the Vendôme genuine elixir! Column, the Imperial Eagle or Napoleon himself.

Etoile de Napoléon Viville Late 19thcentury, France Paper Inv. 96 389

Eau de cologne registration by Jean-Marie Farina Late 19th century, Paris Paper Inv. 96 525 Manufacture and Distribution Industrialisation

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A context highly conducive to the industrialisation of perfumery

Between the end of the Second Empire and the Great War, major scientific, technological and More notes at a industrial progress revolutionised perfumery in more affordable price terms of both the formulation and presentation of Organic synthesis revolutionised perfumery from 1874 onwards when a German scientist succeeded perfumes. It heralded the beginning of synthesis in obtaining the main ingredient of the vanilla pod and new extraction and manufacturing processes. using synthetic methods. This process first allowed imitating or enhancing natural fragrances and then provided perfumers with unprecedented notes that were later made General view of the Chiris plant Vers 1920-1930, Grasse available at less expensive prices. Paper Inv. 08 343 Industrialisation Manufacture and Distribution english

Worker preparing roses before loading at the Chiris plant, Chiris plant First half of the 19th century, Grasse, Grasse © Private collection From the workshop to Close managerial control large-scale production Prior to the 20th century, family-owned In 1860, steam was used to mechanise factories were usually run by an production.Totalling 12 million francs industrial manager with a strong in 1836, French production increased personality who controlled every to 73 million francs by 1889. aspect of the business, from supplies to Perfumery began to develop into a sales. genuine industry. The Grasse region As a genuine entrepreneur, he often confirmed its position as a centre for travelled abroad to create numerous Request for a commercial card the production of raw materials for subsidiaries. for Switzerland and Belgium this rapidly expanding sector whilst Only his authorised representative – a by the Bernard et Honorat man of experience who could be Company for Mr. Henri Faure Grasse industrialists introduced 1947, Grasse revolutionary raw material extraction trusted – could take over the reins in Paper Inv. 04 3930 techniques with a high yield. his absence.

Unskilled workers, labourers and staff The factory workforce included unskilled workers, labourers and staff. The first two categories of personnel were found in various production workshops (distillation unit, enfleurage room, etc.) and in marketing (packaging and shipping etc.) as well as in departments such as the linen room or carpentry workshop, where they were supervised by a foreman. There were not many staff members: mainly the accountant and his assistant, sales representatives responsible for sales abroad and the handler-creator in charge of perfume design with the company head. Manufacture and Distribution Techniques

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Room for jasmine enfleurage, Lautier Fils factory Early 20th century, Grasse Inv. 04 1489 The main techniques behind the expertise of Grasse

Because of its history and a concentration of powerful industrial establishments specialising in the production of aromatic raw materials, Grasse became the perfumery capital of the world. Since it was not always possible to automate the transformation of raw materials into an essence, know-how was necessarily passed on from one generation to the next. Today, although flowers are sometimes processed in their country of origin, the resulting products are transformed in Grasse. This is an extremely subtle and delicate step.

Cold enfleurage This process, which is based on the ability of fats to absorb It takes approximately 100 days fragrant materials, was for each kilo of fat to become particularly suitable for fragile saturated with the required flowers such as jasmine or quantity of flowers; i.e., 2.5 kg tuberose; a heat treatment for jasmine and 2 kg for would destroy their perfume. tuberose. The process has now virtually The fragrance-saturated fat is disappeared and is no longer removed from the frame with a used except for rare metal scraper. compositions, since it requires Thus perfumed and mixed with a large workforce and alcohol, it is used to produce meticulous attention to detail. pomades, which are It involves placing fresh flowers incorporated as is into on glass frames coated with a cosmetics or “exhausted” prepared compound. using alcohol to make the balm Depending on the species used, absolute used in perfumery. Mechanical enfleurage, the flowers are replaced every The flowers removed from the Lautier Fils factory 3, 5 or 7 days over a 60-day frame are then treated with 1920, Grasse Inv. 04 1613 period until the fat is saturated. petroleum ether. The product One by one, the frames are thus obtained is washed with then gently tapped to make the alcohol to obtain a frame flowers fall off. absolute. Manufacture and Distribution Techniques english

Ointment washing laboratory Late 19th – early 20th century, Grasse Inv. 04 667

Still laboratory, Bruno Court factory, Late 19th – early 20th century., Grasse Inv. 04 652

Distillation Extraction using volatile today A still is used for distillation, solvents Since 1986, a new technique enables which relies on water vapour to “draw This process, which was first used in obtaining extracts that have a out” most of the fragrant molecules. 1870 by Louis-Maximin Roure in Grasse fragrance which is very similar to that Unlike fresh flowers or leaves, which to obtain concrete pomade essences of the raw material and is free of are loaded as is, the plant material is which are freely soluble in alcohol, is organic solvents. It is known as the first prepared. Roots and herbs are cut based on the ability of certain volatile supercritical CO2 method. into small pieces, dried plants and liquids to quickly remove the fragrance How does it work? When pressurized, fruits are ground, seeds are crushed, from flowers. The technique is simple: atmospheric carbon gas becomes a and wood and rhizomes are ground. when flowers are washed repeatedly liquid. The products to be distilled are then in an extractor, the solvent becomes loaded into the “boiler” over a Subjected to pressure above 73.8 bars loaded with their perfume. perforated grid, with five times their and a temperature higher than 31 °C, it weight in water. Water was brought to Once saturated, it passes into changes into a supercritical state with the boiling point by heating over an decanters where the water and various excellent dissolution properties, open flame until Grasse industrialists impurities are eliminated, and then which are used by perfumers. developed distillation by direct into a concentrator, where it is The equipment used generally includes injection of steam. partially distilled. an extractor, one or more separators, a Steam that comes into contact with On the one hand, a perfumed, high-pressure pump, a heat exchanger, the extraction material is loaded with coloured, more-or -less solid material, a cold exchanger, a liquid-state solvent essence. This blend of water and known as the “concrete” is collected; reserve, an external reservoir for essential oil is condensed inside a on the other, there is the solvent, still storing liquid CO2 and pressure- refrigerated condensing coil and then laden with the perfume. The solvent is regulating valves. The technique may collected, at the condenser outlet, into returned to the manufacturing cycle, vary, depending on whether solids or essence jars, also known as “Florentine whereas the concrete is mixed with liquids are being processed. vases.” alcohol, mashed, filtered, frozen Separation takes place automatically between -12 °C and -15 °C, and then according to variation in density, since filtered to separate it from plant waxes these two liquids are immiscible. The that are non-soluble in alcohol. A final aromatic water obtained through this concentration, under reduced decanting process is used undiluted pressure, yields the pure essence under names like rose water or orange known as the absolute. Gums (such as Diagram of Extraction with blossom water. incense, storax and myrrh), which CO2 © Patrick Pellerin The essential oil yields vary depending produce highly scented and much on the plant and the part treated. sought-after resinoids, are also Distillation times also differ: 450 kilos processed in this way. of sandalwood require 80 to 100 hours of distillation, whereas a mere half- hour will suffice to distil the same quantity of lavender. Rectification distillation involves distilling an essential oil under reduced pressure. The product is removed from the essence jar at different times throughout distillation to produce, in the following order: a “head’’, a “heart” (the noble part) and a “tail.’’ From advertising to marketing Manufacturing and Distribution

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The beginnings of marketing

As the perfume market developed and spread, the places where perfumes were sold and the […] At the top, there is a perfume shop. means used to promote them were transformed. I must go there. This section, which was created just yesterday, is located next to the reading room. To avoid the crowd on the stairs, Madame Desforge, suggested taking the elevator, but they From herbalists to were forced to give up the idea department stores because of the queue in front of the At the start of the 19th century, the machine. Finally, they arrived and perfumer’s shop still competed with passed in front of the public buffet, the herbalist and the apothecary. It where the confusion was such that also had to contend with the first an inspector was obliged to temper large department stores, such as Le appetites by letting the hungry Bon marché or Les Grands clientele enter only in small groups. magasins du Louvre which inspired And from the buffet, the ladies began Zola to write a novel: Au Bonheur to smell the perfume section, a des dames. penetrating odour of closed sachets that embalmed the gallery. Visitors fought over a bar of soap, “Happiness” soap, the house speciality. On the glass counters and crystal shelving were rows of pomade and paste jars, boxes of powder and blushes, vials of oils and toilet water, while fine brushes and combs, scissors and pocket flasks filled a special cabinet. The sales ladies had cleverly decorated the area by spreading out all their white porcelain jars, all their clear glass vials. The most ravishing touch Au Bonheur des Dames Emile Zola was found at the centre: a silver 1883, Bibliothèque-Charpentier, fountain with a shepherdess standing Paris © Bibliothèque-Charpentier, Paris on a mound of flowers, from which flowed a continuous trickle of violet water tinkling musically into a metal basin. An exquisite fragrance poured forth. As the ladies passed by, they dipped their handkerchiefs in it […]

Emile Zola, Excerpt from Au bonheur des dames, 1883 From advertising to marketing Manufacturing and Distribution french

The label, long a herald of perfume For many years, the label played a major role in promoting perfume. While bottles remained discreet or, as in the mid-nineteenth century, took on a more exuberant shape, although one that was not yet specific to a particular perfume house, the label provided the means to “sell” the precious liquid inside the container. Thus, for a long time talented illustrators and typographers used this small surface to evoke the scent of the perfume.

From advertising to posters th Triple extract of jasmine fragrance Although the early 19 century saw the for the handkerchief birth of advertising and the poster, the bruno court true beginnings of advertising were at th Early 20 century, Grasse the end of the century, when a Paper Inv. 05 01161 marketing revolution accompanied the industrial revolution, in particular for the range of perfumed products. Posters appeared around 1830, when some of the first perfume posters were printed. By 1870, communication techniques were no longer amateurish and were meant for an international market. In France, communication was adapted to new display areas on walls and columns. Posters were printed for outdoor use in increasingly larger formats and were made to withstand rain. Around 1910, perfume advertising Je reviens worth diversified and the poster disappeared Early 20th century, France for nearly a century, yielding to press Paper Inv. 06 11634 advertisements designed by famous illustrators.

Illustrators, then photographers, contribute to perfume In the fifties, when perfume products became democratised, women became part of advertising visuals.

SHYB Soap This trend intensified in the sixties and SHYB seventies during the era of the great Ca, 1950, France fashion photographers. Paper Inv. 96 422 During this time, the advertising spot began to act as a relay for the press ad after the introduction of advertising to television in 1968. The poster came back in full force in the early eighties. Manufacture and Distribution Koh-do Ceremony

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In Japan, the use of incense is steeped in ancestral traditions

In Japan, Koh-do (“the way of incense”) , follows rituals as refined as those used for tea ceremonies or floral art. Since the perfumed woods used in the ceremony had to be imported from India or Southeast Asia, they were rare, Kodo Ceremony 1980, Japan expensive products. They were introduced into Japan around Inv. 07 03532 the 6th century with the arrival of Buddhism. Koh-do Ceremony Manufacture and Distribution english

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23 Around the second half of the 7th 12 Kodo11 2 Koh-Do century, perfumed woods were used 1 24 TAKASAGO 3 to scent the home (soradaki) and 20th century, Japan Inv. 04 60 10 perfume clothing (ikô). 16 For this purpose, incense (nerikô) 19 was prepared by blending ground 4 perfumed wood, aromatic 9 products of animal origin and honey, 13 according to a process of Chinese 5 origin. Everyone had his or her own 8 formula, which was jealously guarded. 25 From this, a type of competition known as takimono-awase developed. 1Box for holding small sticks 9 Mica tweezers 18 Nanori-Gami tray The winner was the person who 札筒（ふだづつ）Fuda-Zutsu 銀葉挟（ぎんようばさみ） 手記録盆（てぎろくぼん） Box for holding the small sticks Ginyô-Basami Tégiroku-Bon created the highest-quality mixture. used for random drawing of the Tweezers for placing the mica Gilded wood During the 14th and 15th centuries, trade names of participants. inside the perfume burner. Inv. 04 28 Lacquered wood Metal with China intensified and the Inv. 04 16 Inv. 04 42 19 Nanori-Gami envelopes importing of aromatic woods 折居（おりすえ）Orisué increased. The woods themselves were 2 Stick presentation box 10 Box of perfumed woods Cardboard 札筒（ふだづつ）Fuda-Zutsu 香合 （こうごう）Kô-Gô Inv. 04 43 à 04 52 starting to be used in games of Box for presenting and drawing Box containing a set of perfu- meikô-awase. Not only did the the small sticks. med woods. 20 Results sheet qualities and shortcomings of the Lacquered wood Lacquered wood 記録紙（きろくし）Kiroku-Shi Inv. 04 12 Inv. 04 11 Sheet used by the “record incense presented have to be judged, keeper” (Shippitsu) to note the but also the suitability of the names 3 Box for holding charcoal 11 Envelopes proper answers, names of 香炭団（こうたどん） 香包（こうづつみ）Kô-zutsumi participants and date. given to it according to its Kô-Tadon Envelopes containing the Japanese paper colour, shape, origin and the Cardboard, charcoal perfumed woods chosen at the Inv. 04 57 à 04 58 poetic and literary references that it Inv. 04 30 beginning of the ceremony. Lacquered wood 21 Table of combinations for invoked. 4 Perfume burner Inv. 04 14 the “Tale of Genji” 源氏香の図 ( By virtue of his political power, 香 炉（ こ う ろ ）Kô-Ro げんじこうのず) Genji-Kô No Zu Sasaki Dôyo, a wealthy general, Ash-covered charcoal is put at 12 Trays香盤（こうばん）Kô-Ban The “Tale of Genji” is a legen- the bottom. Perfumed wood is Trays for holding the perfumed dary novel written around the was able to collect large quantities of placed on the mica plate lying woods. year 1000 by Shikibu Murasaki, a aromatic woods. He held receptions on top of the pile of ashes. Gilded wood courtesan at the court of Heian. Inv. 04 27, 04 29 where the art of appreciating incense Ceramic This novel tells about the Inv. 04 31, 04 32 adventures of Hikaru was practised. 13 Sticks for perfumed woods Genji, the emperor’s son. The incense ceremony became a social 5 Charcoal sticks 香 筋（ き ょ う じ ）Kyô-Ji Participants in the game try to 火 筋（ こ じ ）Koji Sticks used to place perfumed visualise the hero’s actions and event with gambling games. Sticks for covering the charcoal wood on the mica plates. scenes from the 54 chapters Soon, however, lovers of and drawing symbolic patterns Ivory with the help of perfumes that Inv. 04 39, 04 40 perfume, literature and culture on the ashes. are proposed to them. Metal, ivory Japanese paper devoted themselves to raising Inv. 04 37, 04 38 14 Spoon for perfumed woods Inv. 04 59 standards by selecting the best 香 匙（ こ う さ じ ）Kô-Saji 6 Spatula for arranging ashes 1980, Japan aromatic woods and linking them to 22 Kô box 灰押（はいおし）Haï-Oshi Metal, ivory 香箱（こうばこ）Kô-Bako Inv. 04 36 literary culture. The ashes form a small monti- Box for storing all the utensils cule symbolising Mount Fuji. needed for the Kô Dô Increasingly refined, these games 15 Box of perfumed woods The spatula is used to flatten the ceremony. culminated in the introduction of top so that the mica plate may 重 香 合（じゅうこうごう）Jou-Kôgo Lacquered wood Koh-Do, “the way of incense,” which be placed on it. Small, three-level box with a Inv. 04 10 cover. Non-used mica plates reached its peak during the Edo period Metal Inv. 04 34 (Ginyô) are placed in the 23 Cup (1600-1868). It fell into disuse until bottom level. The top level holds 香筋建（きょうじたて）Kyôji-Taté sparking enormous interest in recent 7 Rod 鶯 （うぐいす） Uguisu the mica plates and perfumed Metal, cork The rod provides a duct through woods used. Inv. 04 33 years amongst the Japanese the ashes all the way to the Lacquered wood aristocracy. charcoal. It also enables Inv. 04 13 24 Game board mat maintaining in place the 地敷（ぢしき）Jishiki envelope that contains the 16 Game box and game tiles Silk mat for protecting the game perfumed wood put into the 香札（こうふだ）Kô-Fuda board. perfume burner. The envelope is Tiles for proposing an answer Cardboard stuck on the point, which after having smelled the Inv. 04 53 courtesans compared to a perfumed mixture. nightingale (Uguisu) on a Lacquered wood 25 Game board mat Inv. 04 17 à 04 26 branch. 打 敷（ う ち し き ）Uchi-Shiki Metal Silk Inv. 04 35 17 Slips Inv. 04 60 名乗紙（なのりがみ）Nanori-Gami 8 Feather羽箒（はぼうき）Habôki These are nominative answer Used to remove traces of ash on slips that can be used instead of the rim of the perfume burner. the game tiles (Kô-fuda). At the Metal, wood, feather start of the ceremony, partici- Inv. 04 41 pants sign their name on the outside of the slip and write their answer on the inside. Japanese paper Inv. 04 54 à 04 56 Perfumes from elsewhere Manufacture and Distribution

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Incense burner 20th century, Africa Ceramic Inv. 03 729

Perfumes and traditions from elsewhere The art of extracting and blending fragrant substances has been practised by all civilisations, from China to Cordoba, from Ancient Greece and Rome to the Mogul Dynasty in India. The diversity of routes taken by this art shows that complex preparations are not always needed to produce a long-lasting fragrance. In our era of globalisation, two movements currently exist Fragrant necklace 1960, Algeria side by side: respect for perfume-related ancestral traditions Coral, fragrant paste, silver Private collection and a westernised approach that tends to harmonise the © T. Benfoughal perfume offer in major cities. In this context, some regions of the world perpetuate specific olfactory preferences, which generate specific markets (in the Middle East and Japan, for instance). This section of the booklet is intended to provide an insight into the customs and traditions associated with the use of fragrance. Fumigation or perfuming The fragrant necklace in Algeria the body with incense In Algeria, the fragrant Its elegance depends on In Sudan, it is not uncommon for a necklace (ssxab) is one of length, the number of fireplace to be built into the kitchen silver patterns, the beauty the oldest traditional floor for burning aromatic wood that items of jewellery. It is of the coral and the composed of fragments of scent of the qemha. permeates women’s skin and a scented paste that It is reserved for married clothing. women make from women, who wear it only Essences are sometimes added to the in the presence of their clover, nutmeg, various wood, which, when burned, release a fragrant seeds (qemha), husbands because of the civet musk, benzoin (resin aphrodisiac properties yellow smoke that colours the skin. In of Styrax benzoin) or even attributed to it. West Africa, chouraï – a blend of ambergris. The paste The use of fragrant fragrant bark – is used for fumigation. composition varies necklaces in North Africa from one region to the is tending to disappear Fumigation can also have a purifying next, but the main goal in favour of noble function. According to an Australian is to obtain a perfume that materials, aboriginal tradition, holding a baby in lasts several years. such as precious the fragrant smoke protects its head metals (silver and gold). and lungs. Perfumes from elsewhere Manufacture and Distribution english

Rubbed on the skin Small fragrant bundles In many parts of the world, plants are Fragrant plants are also be carried in simply rubbed on the skin to release small sachets worn on the body. In their smell. some parts of North Africa, the In the Philippines, women apply sachets are made from a knotted fragrant leaves to their armpits. In cloth and attached to the belt or Cameroon, women do the same using hooked on the clothing. Some women half a lemon, and in Oceania, they use still rub their armpits with powdered coconut milk or pulp. False jasmine or pitate, eka puhi, hièblee lime and the alum that it contains. th 20 century, Ua Pou, Marquesas The Maori tradition in New Zealand Islands © P. Ottino-Garanger places aromatic herbs in small Piercing the body sachets. Roots, leaves or flowers may be pierced through the body to perfume it: Pigmy women pierce their earlobes Liquid perfumes and the Mayas of Mexico insert small Since many oils, such as those from Rubbed into the scalp pieces of fragrant wood into the nasal coconuts, the fruit of the oil palm septum. In North Africa it is not tree or whitish henna flowers, are Not long ago, women in the Near East unusual for men to place sprigs of naturally perfumed, they are used wove fragments of myrrh into their mint in their nostrils and for women pure. braids. to pierce them through the outer rim Many people, however, have Vietnamese women follow the same of their ear. discovered that oil is easily tradition with pieces of ginger or impregnated by nearby odours. whilst in Madagascar, vetiver, vanilla Thus, they intensify the oil’s natural or are used. pods telomio flowers aroma by infusing it with various aromatic ingredients. In Oceania, for instance, cocoa oil is used to perfume the skin. This is known as monoï in Tahiti when it is perfumed with tiare flowers. In the Fiji Islands, cocoa flavourings are blended with those of sandalwood. Palm oil, which is widely used in Africa, has provided a Kumu Titi made with different flowers from fragrant plants base for perfumed ointments since 20th century, Ua Pou, Marquesas the dawn of time. In Sudan, it is still Islands © P. Ottino-Garanger flavoured by marinating it with resins, incense wood, flowers or spices.

Bottle and case Early 20th century, Bombay Glass, wood, paper Inv. 87 322

Worn like a jewel In the Pacific, the flowers of the frangipani tree, jasmine flowers and the leaves of the false gardenia and lemon grass are often worn in a crown placed on the head or woven into bracelets and necklaces. The Papuans wear bracelets of bark to hold moss or leaves next to their skin, whilst in the Brazilian forest, the Yanomamis customarily place necklaces made from fragrant seeds around the necks of children. Manufacture and Distribution First Designers

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Poster Georges Lepape 1919, France Paper Inv. 03 228

Art nouveau and Art deco The growing importance of labels at the start of the 20th century led to a certain uniformity in glass containers that would continue until Art Nouveau research brought about a stunning renewal of shapes.

This trend met with resounding success at a time when perfume was becoming democratised. It was characterised by an abundance of ornamentation, an enhancement of nature, a love of asymmetry, a taste for Oriental and Japanese designs, curved lines representing a new cult of the feminine and systematic adoption of the arabesque – a symbol of Eastern and Far Eastern spirituality. Guimard , an architect, sculptor and interior designer, and Lalique were its leading creators. The 1900 World’s Fair in Paris was the occasion for unveiling Guimard’s design for the perfumer Millot. It was a moulded glass bottle with sinuous, asymmetrical lines and an entirely novel appearance. A few years later, Lalique joined forces with François Coty, who greatly modified the traditional perfume approach (see inset). Art deco developed later in reaction to the baroque, lyrical shapes of Art Nouveau, giving rise to streamlined, somewhat geometrical models. Roger & Gallet Bottle elisabeth sonrel f. millot Around 1900, France Design by Hector Guimard Paper 1900, France Inv. 96 339 Glass Inv. 95 3 Manufacture and Distribution First Designers english

Coty-Lalique: an exceptional partnership

As far back as 1907 with L’effleurt, perfumer François Coty collaborated with jeweller-glass maker René Lalique. He completely revamped the design of the bottle, using it for high-quality perfumes, the cost of which was low enough to be within everyone’s reach. The research and work of René Lalique in the glass sector led him to discover a technique whereby work of a high artistic quality could be produced using mechanical processes. By reducing the cost of luxury glass in this way, Lalique made such products widely affordable. Won over by his designs, Coty proposed that René Lalique devote his technical mastery and talent to the the perfume industry in order to set in motion, according to Coty, “a great business venture, the likes of which the world has never seen”. Through the artist’s skill and inspiration, the bottles, which were produced on an industrial scale, became real works of art. This success story considerably exceeded even Coty’s expectations. The two men had undertaken a technological and commercial revolution, whose impact is still felt today.

L’effleurt François coty Perfumer Design by René Lalique 1908, Paris Crystal Inv. 01 1

Rochas 1930 Amour Amour, Que sais-je ? Violette parfums rochas jean patou Early 20th century, France giron Reynaldo Luza Paper 1930, France 1925-1930, France Inv. 05 7779 Paper Paper Inv. 96 483 Inv. 96 337 Laboratory and Synthesis Manufacture and Distribution

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Laboratories, past and present

The 19th and early 20th centuries marked the beginning of chemical research applied to perfume. Small research organisations were already in existence but it was still not possible to speak of research and development.

The laboratories of the time brought together a number of Capturing the scent of seaweed different skills. (Head Space) 2006, Le Croisic © Daniel Joulain Research laboratory, Lautier plant The turning point The analysis of odours using Around 1935, Grasse s Inv. 04 1578 of the 1960 headspace technology The sixties marked a turning point with The term “headspace” refers to a the democratisation of universities and technique used to capture the most volatile ingredients of greater access to advanced studies. The fragrant materials. This process Roure Research Centre with Paul involves passing an odourless Teisseire was created at this time, and gas over the plant to pick up its the Lautier Laboratory of Applied fragrance molecules. These molecules are then concentrated Chemistry was opened. Authentic and trapped in an appropriate fundamental research was carried out adsorbent, such as active in Grasse during this period. charcoal or an organic polymer. The fragrant molecules thus obtained are analysed and identified in the laboratory using The advent of R & D chromatography and mass spectrometry, which allows the Today, perfume plants feature subsequent reproduction of numerous services, including Research the smell of the flower or fruit. and Development, which focus on new The headspace technique can be perfume products, innovative used, for instance, to produce a high-quality fragrance extraction methods, biotechnology concentrate from cut lilac and new compounds. They also provide flowers that closely resembles valuable data to Quality Control the scent of the living flower. departments, perfumers, chemists The advantage of this method lies in the fact that it can be specialising in aromatic compounds, applied anywhere, particularly appraisers and others. outdoors, and does not damage plants. This makes it easier to work with rare or protected species.

Expressions Parfumées Ltd. research laboratory Jacques Penon 2008, Grasse Laboratory and Synthesis Manufacture and Distribution english

William Henry Perkin (1838-1907), who discovered the coumarin molecule Russel and Sons 1870-1913, London © Science Museum, London

Basic research contracts Houbigant and Guerlain with universities pave the way The trend in favour of development Coumarin, a synthetic material, was and the demand for research skills and first used in perfume composition in resources led leading industrialists to Fougère Royale, by Houbigant in seek contracts with universities in 1882, but synthetic products were still order to carry out basic research not widely accepted at that time. The programmes rather than undertake latter did not come into their own these programmes within the until 1889 when Jicky was launched by companies, especially since they Guerlain. Vanillin, which was generally belonged to international combined with natural products, groups. Each site was, therefore, namely civet musk and bergamot organised around specific skills in orange, was added to coumarin. order to rationalise processes and optimise profitability. Later, partial or total Jicky Guerlain replacement 1889, France It took several decades for the changes Glass A strong, Inv. 05 2043 to have a significant impact – the environmentally The advent of synthesis industry needed time to develop friendly commitment and changes in plant formulations and perfumers had to In an era of sustainable development, laboratory processes adapt to this abundance of creativity. the Grasse heritage must be The advent of industrial organic Although information relating to the considered from the environmental synthesis, using petroleum and its formulations of this era is scant, it is point of view. Cultural and social derivatives, provided perfumers with highly likely that technical and aspects must not be overlooked, as substances at extremely interesting financial reasons gradually justified well as economic impact, safety (in prices. the total or partial replacement of terms of risk to health and the certain products such as iris powders In 1874, German scientist Wilhelm environment) and ecology (in terms by ionones and gums, of raw plants Haarmann reproduced the main of the relationship between nature, (iris, vanilla and Tonka bean) by component of the vanilla pod using the air, soil and water and associated extracts obtained with volatile coniferin from the spruce tree – eco-engineering). solvents and of natural musk by heralding the advent of vanillin. Companies in Grasse are also artificial musk. Coumarin (1878), ionones, committed to implementing an methylionones and nitrated musks Environmental Management System, soon followed (1888). Coty’s intuition which was awarded 1SO 14001 Chypre In the world of perfume in the early François Coty th certification. This international 1917, Paris 20 century, though vast was not standard is based on the The advent of the Crystal particularly remarkable and was Inv. 02 291 key principles of environmental chemical perfume cluttered with many conventional protection, continuous improvement industry fragrances, the change would come in environmental performance and The perfumer’s palette was enriched from a genius , François Coty. with all the new essences that the compliance with current legislation. His idea was to methodically combine expanded transport systems could natural fragrances with beautiful, import. Finally, it was discovered that synthetic scents to develop abstract one plant was able to produce perfumes that were different from different scents. those taken from the plant kingdom, In less than 20 years, most of the which was the fragrance reference. molecules responsible for the odour Was this just commercial intuition or or flavour of products used in a real change? Legend or reality? perfumery were isolated, analysed It led to the creation in 1905 of the and synthesised. Aromatic molecules unusual fragrance of Origan. that were not found naturally were created. The success of this perfume generated many imitations. But it was, in Thus, the chemical perfume industry particular, Coty’s extraordinary was born. Whereas in 1870 these Chypre, created in 1917, that marked products were still manufactured the historical starting point of many using a traditional, small-scale new fragrances. approach, the introduction of L’origan synthetic compounds marked the François Coty transition to large-scale, less Design by René Lalique expensive manufacturing 1905, Paris Crystal Inv. 99 2 Manufacture Aromas

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Aromas, an important aspect of the perfumer’s work

The aroma industry is key to reliable industrial production that is stable, has consistent quality and does not depend on weather and economic constraints. It is an essential partner of the food industry and currently represents half of the Grasse perfume business.

Natural or synthetic origin The aroma industry began to grow toward the end of the fifties. Until then, only a handful of soluble aromas used to flavour fruit drinks and lemonades were available on the market. The development of industrial food processes was accompanied by a new demand for standardised products that would always be available and consistent in terms of quality and concentration. Flavourings added to foods may be of natural origin or entirely synthetic. It all depends on the raw materials used. Synthetic flavourings can be combined to imitate or accent natural flavourings.

Aromatic application laboratory, Robertet plant 2007, Grasse © Musée International de la Parfumerie Manufacture Aromas english

Creating an “authentic” aroma The creation of flavourings is a scientific and technical process that requires artistic intuition. Although assisted by a research department that provides analytical data, aroma specialists rely on their individual talent. Based on their experience, they must draw on their inspiration to create an “authentic” aroma. Numerous tests are often required. The aromas are initially smelled and tasted in a simple medium like water, then in food products related to the project. Here again, we find the three notes Candies, food aroma test contained in a perfumed composition. Aroma laboratory The base is made up of the “base Robertet S.A. 2008, Grasse notes;” next come the “middle notes,” conveyed by key aroma molecules that are released in the mouth and enter the retronasal passageway. The last touch of Working on flavours fragrance comes from the “top Depending on the application, notes,” which produce an odour additional know-how is required to and therefore influence first create blends of aromatic and sapid impressions. A typical example is substances. acetic aldehyde, which is used to The product used to flavour crisps is a evoke the aroma of freshly squeezed good example of the typical aromatic orange juice in the industrial product. agents employed for this purpose. It contains not only a specific aromatic part (a complex composition created by the flavourings expert or a natural extract like an essential oil), but also powdered vegetables, spices and cheese, taste enhancers (such as glutamate), salt, sugar, acids, diverse ingredients providing “substance” and sometimes colouring agents and dehydrated plants to improve the Food product appearance of the finished product. ingredient labels 2008, Grasse © International Perfume Museum

Cookies, food aroma test Drinks, food Aroma laboratory aroma test Robertet S.A. Aroma laboratory 2008, Grasse Robertet S.A. 2008, Grasse

Beverage Laboratory Aroma Laboratory Robertet S.A. 2008, Grasse th Contemporary Viewpoints 20 Century Fragrance

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From 1900 to the present day 1900-1940

What was happening in the world when Caron created Narcisse Noir and Coco Chanel launched Chanel No. 5? What influence did perfume creators have in the aftermath of the Second World War? What fra- grances were women wearing when man first set foot on the Moon? What perfumes were fashionable when the Berlin Wall was torn down?

Dirigible (1900) (1900) © All rights reserved On the perfume side Traces of jasmine or violet from the 1900-1909 previous century were still found, The end of the Victorian era but single floral perfumes The first ten years of the 20thcentury were increasingly came into their own, marked by the arrival of electricity. A new producing genuine scents like Rose scientific and technical era was unfolding. Jacqueminot by Coty, Narcisse Noir Madame Curie investigated uranium by Caron and Quelques Fleurs by radiation, the first Zeppelin took to the Houbigant. They marked the advent of skies and Caruso made his first records. original floral compositions. A living legend disappeared: Queen A new era dawned in 1905: François Victoria, who had had such a marked Coty laid the foundations of modern influence on the previous century, died in perfumery and innovated at every 1901. step in perfume design. The middle-class dress code continued to In 1907, Coty joined forces with be very “Victorian”: straight, dark trousers glassmaker René Lalique to and high-buttoned jackets for men, reinforce the message that a bottle L’Origan and dark, loose-fitting, long dresses and Coty must be a genuine work of art and corsets for women. 1905, France reflect the quality of its contents. Paper Inv. 06 4917 Together, they marketed Ambre Antique. With Origan, Coty introduced the huge family of “amber” perfumes, today known as the “orientals.” th Contemporary Viewpoints 20 Century Fragrance english

Josephine Baker Empire State Waléry Building, 1927, Paris New-York (1931) 1910-1919 © All rights reserved © All rights reserved The First World War In 1914, the European powers entered into conflict, followed by their colonies and the United States of America. In total, World War I claimed 8 million lives. The first laws relating to female employment were passed in the decades preceding the war. The war years saw the mass entry of women into factories. As men battled along the front, 1920-1929 1930-1939 women worked alongside The roaring twenties The financial crisis highly specialised employees and Peace treaties shaped new countries. The international financial crisis of manual workers from the colonies to In France, the conflict had taken its 1929 hit France in 1931 and slowed the produce armaments. In Germany, toll on the younger generations. production of French luxury goods. women were given the right to vote Industry, agriculture and trade had Dealing a fatal blow to many in 1918. been dealt a harsh blow. America newcomers, it spared the major blossomed with its skyscrapers and couture houses and the most famous musical comedies and was already French perfumers such as Lubin, On the perfume side afraid of Communism. The horrors of Guerlain and Roger & Gallet. 1911 marked the arrival of the the “war to end all wars” and the rigid With the introduction of the paid couturier-perfumers. Paul Poiret moral austerity of earlier decades holidays in 1936, the Popular Front imposed perfume as an integral part of were succeeded by the jazz era and allowed the French to discover the feminine attire and launched Les excessiveness. holidays and to tour their country by Parfums de Rosine. He personally The audacity and freedom of this bicycle. supervised the design of bottles and period were expressed in female The first major consumer products the production of packaging. In 1919, fashions and boyish haircuts. also appeared: shampoos, suntan oils another couturier, Maurice Babani, and the first washing powders. followed in his footsteps. Elsewhere in Europe, nationalist L’Heure Bleue by Guerlain (1912) On the perfume side movements were on the increase. sounded the knell of a bygone era. Perfumes reflected the blend of Creations such as Tabac Blond by luxury, exoticism and eroticism Caron started to appeal to women typical of the decade. All manner of On the perfume side fond of warm, sensual perfumes. In provocative fragrances with The pre-war olfactory landscape was 1917, even through the term “chypre” suggestive names appeared. Trends filled with intense, oriental notes, as had been known to perfume for were so varied and excessive that well as magnificent floral creations. centuries, Chypre by Coty laid the they defy any attempt at The archetype of oriental perfume foundations for the family of classification. was Shocking (1937) by Elsa perfumes bearing the same name and In 1921, No.5 by Gabrielle Chanel Schiaparelli, who, as an admirer of based on oak moss and patchouli marked the end of Paul Poiret’s Dadaists and surrealists, upset Art chords. domination and the confirmation of Deco classicism with a bottle in the In 1919, after four years of austerity, the career of the couturier- shape of the female bust created by many newcomers flooded the market perfumers. In association with the Léonor Fini. Tabou by Dana and Cuir including Mitsouko by Guerlain, a Wertheimer family, Miss Chanel de Russie by Chanel soon followed highly spiced fragrance inspired by an created her perfume company in 1924, this trend of voluptuous, lingering Orientalism that owes much to whilst Jean Patou, who launched fragrances. On the floral side,Joy, Madame Butterfly. Both were to twenty fragrances in ten years, and created by Jean Patou in 1929, enjoyed inspire a range of classical creations Jeanne Lanvin, who created Arpège in considerable prestige and a reputation for decades. its famous black crystal ball, called on as the world’s most expensive remarkable perfumers and celebrated perfume. artists. Rivalry between two America was already making its companies was sharp. Jeanne Paquin, presence felt through the influence of who invented shows, proposed Elisabeth Arden and her unusual fifteen fragrances,Lucien Lelong more figurative bottles, whilst the than forty and Jacques Guerlain fragrances created by Worth, about fifty, including his famous including Je Reviens in 1932, evoked Shalimar in 1925. François Coty, the dream perpetuated by big cities combined several talents, including and Hollywood fantasy. those of glass manufacturer, René Finally, Pour un homme by Caron Lalique, and mosaic designer Draeger, made its debut in 1934 as the Nuit de Noël Soir de Paris to revolutionise the art of Pour un Homme first masculine fragrance. Le tabac blond Bourjois presentation. Caron Caron Early 20th century 1954, France 1922, France France Paper Paper Paper Inv. 06 2909 Inv. 06 3870 Inv. 08 100 th Contemporary Viewpoints 20 Century Fragrance

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From 1900 to the present day 1940-1980

1940-1949 The Second World War and reconstruction The world changed dramatically in four years. The Yalta agreements divided the world into two ideological On the perfume side rival blocks: East and West. In 1947, The post-war period was marked both Europe accepted American aid by a demand for luxury and an through the Marshall Plan. In France, economic situation that hampered the creation of Social Security offered access to it. new guarantees to employees from But who cared? Lacking the means 1945 onwards. to purchase fashionable creations, After the war, the New Look was women nonetheless treated enthusiastically received: loose- themselves to high-fashion Citroën car fitting, floating, calf-length (midi) fragrances. 2CV (1949) garments brought back a feminine © All rights reserved A fresh wind of financial resurgence silhouette. began to blow with the green notes of The Italian Vespa scooter was chosen Miss Dior Vent Vert by Balmain and the Parfums by the overwhelming majority of a increasingly sophisticated cyprus Christian Dior young generation that preferred René Gruau notes of Miss Dior and Ma Griffe from be-bop to waltzes and jazz to Lily 1947, France the young House of Carven. Such Paper Marlene. Inv. 96 523 success stories were fuelled by the marriage of perfume and fashion. Marcel Rochas, a major designer, made his mark. His reputation was ensured with the arrival of Femme, sold by subscription to the elite of Parisian society in 1944 and followed by a public launch in 1945. Pierre Balmain added a perfume bearing his telephone number, Elysée 64.83, to his first perfume collection. Others preferred to celebrate the return to peace. Patou launched L’Heure Attendue, Nina Ricci created Cœur Joie and Elsa Schiaparelli confirmed her anti-conformist approach with a bottle designed by Le Roy Soleil Salvador Dali for Le Roy Soleil. Elsa schiaparelli Mid 20th century France Paper Inv. 06 11615 th Contemporary Viewpoints 20 Century Fragrance english

Elvis Presley Neil Armstrong’s first step Sydney Opera 1950-1959 (1935-1977) on the moon (1969) Australia (1973) The Cold War and the ©All rights reserved © Corbis © All rights reserved economic boom The two powers arising from the Second World War engaged in a new type of conflict: an ideological confrontation opposing two models of society. A movement in favour of co-operation and free trade emerged in European countries like France, Germany, the Benelux countries and Italy. The television and transistor radio penetrated living rooms, and 1960-1969 1970-1979 Hollywood stars dominated The advent of the towards a society of magazine covers. This heralded the consumer society beginning of the star system and leisure? The American way of life gained By 1974, the work week was only mass culture. Elvis Presley triumphed ground with an army of refrigerators, 43 hours long. This led to the and, with him, rock’n’ roll. washing machines and blenders. In introduction of the new concept of 1963, Carrefour inaugurated the first free time, which led to a surge in mass consumption temple at Sainte- tourism and, to an even greater On the perfume side Geneviève-des-Bois. Men set foot extent, in sports. Following the This decade was marked by Christian on the moon, and women liberated example of tennis, sports took on an Dior, who knew better than anyone themselves with tights, jeans and international flavour and won new else how to harmonise his tastes and the mini skirt launched by Mary popularity. his fashion and perfume creations. Quant. As a new “anti-fashion” Dior’s enamelled crystal bottles in wave emerged, haute couture On the perfume side the form of amphorae reflected the focused on luxury “ready-to-wear” The 1970s saw the launch of the first elegance and classicism of his world. garments with Yves Saint-Laurent, perfume created by a jeweller. First Nina Ricci did the same by adopting a Daniel Hechter, Paco Rabanne and by Van Cleef & Arpels, developed a a romantic style for bottles by Lalique. Cacharel. trend toward cyprus fragrances with The fifties heralded the triumph of emphasis on fresh, floral accents. youthful values and confirmed Ellipse by Fath, Empreinte by femininity. In France, Brigitte Bardot On the perfume side Courrège and Sikkim by Lancôme launched the first celebrity perfume. Whilst the rebellious younger soon followed. Green notes gained Fragrances became more assertive generations discovered oriental ground, as illustrated by Lauder’s with the carnal chypre and floral philosophies and meditation Alliage and the success of Chanel notes of Intimate by Revlon and techniques amidst a cloud of musk No.19. Mystère by Rochas appeared, Cabochard by Grès. An oriental and incense, traditional perfumery coupling a new style of aldehyde- version of this trend, Youth Dew by developed striking floral based fragrance with a pungent, Lauder (1952), was an outstanding compositions. Guy Laroche created woody base; it was matched on the success in the United States. Madame Rochas Fidji, with a light appeal that woody, powdery side by Climat from Parfums Rochas captivated European noses, whilst Men began to have their very own Around 1960, Lancôme, Calandre by Paco Rabanne scents, as illustrated by the three France Revlon launched Norell for the and Rive Gauche from Yves Saint- Paper American market.The aldehyde notes Laurent. vetiver fragrances by Carven, Inv. 06 11563 Givenchy and Guerlain. introduced by Chanel No. 5 were Yves Saint-Laurent stood out from Perfumers were employed in exalted in the rose-scented notes the crowd in 1976 with a considerable specialised raw material companies, of Madame Rochas by Rochas and in advertising budget devoted to the such as the Roure company in France, Calèche by Hermès, with an incense launch of Opium. It illustrated a new American International Flavors and component recalling chypre. approach: perfumers no longer Fragrances (I.F.F.) and the Swiss In 1966, Edmond Roudnitska, who merely sold what they produced. companies Firmenich and Givaudan. created Femme (1944) and Moustache They first analysed consumer (1949) for Rochas, composed Eau motivation in an attempt to design Sauvage for Dior, which paved the products that met their expectations. way for “fresh waters” that were The influence of marketing was feminine, masculine and unisex. everywhere. It made Opium into a The formula included methyl provocative creation reminiscent of dihydrojasmonate (or hedion), which drugs, depicting women as strange Diorissimo was developed by Firmenich in 1962. creatures and perfumes as having Parfums Christian Dior mysterious, magical and sacred Mid 20th century, connotations. Perfume was no longer France associated with luxury: Anaïs Anaïs Paper Inv. 06 85491 by Cacharel was sold at Prisunic in 1978 and Choc by Pierre Cardin at Anaïs Anaïs Carrefour. Sumptuous extracts were Cacharel Second half of the no longer sacred and women changed 20th century, France their eau de toilette as often as their Paper appearance. Inv. 03 226 th Contemporary Viewpoints 20 Century Fragrance

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From 1900 to the present day 1980-2010

1980-1989 Hyper-consumption and insecurity As the third industrial revolution – the computer era – consolidated its The Louvre Pyramid, position, the Western world was hit Paris (1989) head-on by unemployment and © All rights reserved insecurity. On the perfume side The eighties were paradoxical years Clothing brands for children, such as combining provocation and – Tartine et Chocolat, Jacadi and uniformity; they abandoned the Agnès B. opened up the market for unisex approach of the previous children’s fragrances. New creators decade and emphasized shapes and drew inspiration from street trends vibrant colours. for their collections: Claude Montana incorporated black leather items, The quest for a new spirituality was looked at Hollywood expressed in the vitality of sects and Thierry Mugler fads and showed in new ideals based on safeguarding Jean-Paul Gaultier Ptisenbon outrageously accessorized runway human rights, defending against Tartine Et Chocolat models. racism and exclusion and protecting 1987, France Glass This aggressiveness was also the planet. Inv. 02 135 expressed in Giorgio by Beverly Hills (1981), Poison by Christian Dior and Obsession by Calvin Klein. The taste for “clean,” which had developed from familiarity with the molecules used to scent detergents and fabric softeners, made these substances totally acceptable as part of perfumes and colognes. This simple olfactory message was conveyed by Davidoff’s Cool Water (1988) in Europe and Eternity for Men (1989) in the United States. th Contemporary Viewpoints 20 Century Fragrance english

On the perfume side The increasingly global market (in 2006, over ten masculine and 1990-1999 feminine fragrances out of the top Financial globalization thirty were found on both the Information technology became American and European markets) was widespread, starting in the United or even chocolate and caramel notes also characterised by the abundant, States. Towards the late 1990s, the in perfumes. Très Jourdan by Charles even confusing, range of products Internet made a sensational entrance Jourdan was reminiscent of peach, available. into homes as well as into most Dalissime by Salvador Dali of There were approximately 200 aspects of social life in western blackcurrant, Deci-delà by Nina Ricci launches in 2000 and over 400 in 2007. countries, removing boundaries and of plum, Hot Couture by Givenchy of The olfactory trends of the feminine upsetting traditional business modes. raspberry, Boss by Hugo Boss of fragrance market were highlighted by Now we speak of a knowledge and cooked apples and cinnamon, and the explosion of fruity, floral information society and of cultural Rock in Rio by Escada of piña colada. perfumes such as Be Delicious by globalization Thierry Mugler paved the way for Donna Karzan, Nina by Nina Ricci, delicious oriental perfumes with Promesse by Cacharel; a return to Angel. For the first time, delicious chypre notes (citrus and woody base) fragrances, such as cotton candy and notes with Coco Mademoiselle and On the perfume side caramel, appeared in dominant notes. Chance from Chanel, Narciso Perfumery global marketing In reaction to market dominance, Rodriguez by Narciso Rodriguez; and Perfumery became international, a small group of perfume houses, flowery white floral scents withPure with ten groups holding sixty percent including Annick Goutal, Serge Poison from Dior or Juicy Couture of the market. Formulations were Lutens, Dyptique, The Different from Juicy.The florientals carved a similar and singularity was rare. An Company and L’Artisan Parfumeur, niche in the international market abundance of brand names fuelled this focused their talent on the perfume with Hypnose by Lancôme and phenomenon of mass creation and itself and developed daring Armani Code by Armani. Certain production. formulations. This was the advent of perfume houses explored the woodsy Raw materials were fewer in number niche perfumes and perfumes that floral scents, includingHermès with and defined to meet olfactory chose a particular olfactory Kelly Calèche, Dolce and Gabbana standards so that they would produce orientation; unlike mass marketing, with Light Blue, and Jil Sander with and reproduce the same quantity and they did not seek to obtain consumer Jil Sander Style. quality, year after year, in the most consensus. economical way. Finally, gender-specific or unisex The masculine side was characterised Although every creative company set perfumes became popular: CK One by by an explosion of woody notes in M7 its own standards, rationalisation Calvin Klein was followed by Hors by Yves Saint Laurent, Armani Code harmonized the use of perfume Code from Comme des Garçons, L’Eau by Armani and Dior Homme by Dior, materials. Through the influence of d’Hadrien by Annick Goutal and with major success stories based on fashion, perfumes were used more L’Esprit du Roi by Penhaligon. citrus notes (Aqva pour Homme by frequently but had an increasingly Bulgari, Unforgivable by Sean John shorter life cycle. and Polo Blue by Ralph Lauren). In 1990, Lancôme brought out a new 2001-2010 Hypnose from Lancôme, Antidote from and Trésor dedicated to women of A pragmatic, Victor and Rolf L’Homme achievement. Dune was the by Yves Saint Laurent heralded a antithesis of Poison and the female paradoxical consumer return to classic, aromatic fern counterpart of Fahrenheit. The 21st century began with suicide fragrances whilst Gucci Man II by Whereas the archetype of the “clean” attacks on the World Trade Center and Gucci and Les Fleurs du Mal by Jean American fragrance arrived on the the entry of America and its allies into Paul Gaultier marked the advent of scene in 1994 with CK One by Calvin war on several fronts, notably in Iraq floral fragrances. Klein, a gustatory current emerged and Afghanistan, but the 21st century that incorporated fruity (strawberry, consumer proved to be increasingly coconut, red fruits, green apple, etc.) aware and realistic, independent and individualistic, pragmatic and Cuirs paradoxical. After an era of protest, The Different Company society took pleasure in consuming Jean-Claude Ellena, perfumer Design. Thierry de Baschmakoff (the no-guilt era) but was unable to 2000, France hide from latent issues tied to the Glass, leather © All rights reserved CK One globalisation process Calvin Klein Alberto Morillas Perfumes, (unemployment), uniformity, Harry Fremont, urbanisation (insecurity) and harmful Design. Fabien Baron effects on the environment 1994, Etats-Unis Glass (pollution). Inv. 01 88 Factors like these drove consumers on a virtually obsessive quest for identity and reassurance coupled with a healthy lifestyle, well-being and harmony with the elements (Feng Shui). Contemporary Viewpoints Design

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Design, a question of art, culture and technique

The bottle is the undisputed link between Translating dreams “I am the one who translates the the fragrance itself and the promises and dreams, ideas and imagination of dreams that advertising weaves around it. fashion stylists. I am also responsible for making them into concrete objects”. Designers call on a variety of skills to create Pierre Dinan, one of today’s major Bottle designers, thus sums up like no the bottle: artistic sensitivity, aesthetic other the delicate task of the designer. culture and mastery of the technical, Above all, it consists in decoding what makes each brand a unique aesthetic industrial and financial constraints linked whole. to manufacturing. The bottle must represent and accentuate this. It is a form of expression in itself. By the sheer artistic value of its design, the imagination devoted to its shape and the often noble materials from which it is produced, the bottle shows that what it contains is also a true artistic creation.

Pierre Dinan, designer Study for the 2006, France © All rights reserved Kenzo Jungle cap kenzo Design by Ateliers Desgrippes 1996 Plaster, resin, plastic Inv. 07 344, 07 345, 07 347, 07 350 Design Contemporary Viewpoints english

Creating a complex technical object In addition to artistic requirements, a good designer does not forget that, above all, the bottle contains a fragrance. It must be hermetically sealed and should prevent evaporation. It must possess neutral chemical and physical attributes so that it will not interact with alcohol and fragrant substances. It must be easy to hold and able to stand upright. Moreover, using automated production, it must be possible to manufacture the bottle on an industrial scale at a reasonable cost. It should also be suitable for use on automatic or semi-automatic bottling lines. The designer must, therefore, be both Study for Jungle for Men a visual artist and a highly skilled kenzo Design by Joël Desgrippes technician. This is why most design 1998, France agencies are genuine research Paper Inv. 07 423 laboratories with a team of creators from different backgrounds, including the industrial designer, product The various stages in the designer, graphic designer, fashion Several months’ work designer and 3D designer. Development of a fragrance design creation of a bottle now takes months and costs several The designer starts work from a client hundred thousand euros. However, brief. This document generally the creators of luxury perfumes know provides aesthetic, technical and that they cannot save on the bottle. financial details or cultural and The bottle, in fact, plays an essential historical factors to be taken into role. On the market, it transposes a account. Thus begins the creative design and guarantees the success of a work. perfume. For a client, it translates all The designer initially “forgets” the magic of the fragrance and instils technique, and lets his imagination Study for Sillage pride and pleasure from having a (facsimile) take flight, free of all constraints. Adaptation of the Sillage beautiful creation. Three-dimensional (3D) techniques project, which became Vuarnet 1960 when the are used to give substance to this Vuarnet brand acquired initial design. The aesthetic approach the licence and the shape of the object can then Jean-Christophe Gaydon 2001, France be appreciated, understood and Paper shared. Inv. 08 1817 B Engineers check up the object’s manufacturing feasibility allowed to their technical constraints into account. This stage sometimes accounts for up to 70% of development time because the object must comply with the initial creation. Most of this work is carried out in conjunction with the client’s packaging development team.

Contemporary Viewpoints Olfactory Composition

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Perfume formulas 20th century, France Paper Inv. 04 3019

Creating a perfume a matter of olfactory culture

Do perfumers have a more developed sense of smell than other people, allowing them to transform this sense into a profession? From the perfume organ to the laboratory Above all, they are extremely sensitive to odours around them, In the early 20th century, perfumers sat surrounded by bottles in front of enabling them to fine-tune their perceptions. Just as a writer has a perfume organ and composed using to master words before experimenting with them, or a musician vials, graduated burettes and pipettes. Natural resinoids, absolutes, essential has to be familiar with notes in order to harmonise chords, the oils and infusions were used, as well perfumer must memorize the various olfactory tones and their as numerous synthetic products. Today, the perfume composer combinations. can be independent, attached to a brand name or, more generally, part of a company producing raw materials, he works in a well-lighted room, far from the test laboratory and An odour inventory protected from any odours that may From the outset and throughout his disturb him. He uses an extensive career, a perfume creator perceives and range of synthetic and natural enriches his inventory of fragrances by products. appreciating new odours. This On his desk are dozens of small bottles olfactory culture gives him a range of containing tests that are currently innumerable materials that can be used underway, paper, a pencil to record in endless combinations. his formula, a computer to control technical or financial parameters and However, perfume is not only a blend, long, thin strips of blotting paper, it is a composition, which, if which he uses to evaluate and track harmonious and original, becomes a his olfactory compositions over work of art. several days. The perfumer’s nose is a tool – an Creation workshop, instrument for control and analysis. Lautier factory Ca 1935, Grasse His brain is capable of selecting, Inv. 04 1577 classifying and measuring the ingredients that will strike the desired chord. The perfume is indelibly etched in the perfumer’s mind. Contemporary Viewpoints Olfactory Composition english From the brief to the Describing or evoking memories composition – what name should be given to a Since the perfume composer has an To each his “eau” perfume? excellent memory of odours acquired The terms “eau de cologne,” “eau de Traditional perfumery preferred over the years, he can smell, compare, toilette,” “eau de parfum” and rather literal names to describe imagine, choose, combine and test “extract” refer to the various modes fragrances like violet water, orange blossom water and dozens of fragrant components to of expression of a perfume, and not jasmine. create a perfume. He must generate an simply to different concentrations. However, when the perfumer’s emotion but, at the same time, meet Eau de cologne is generously applied palette was enriched, especially the expectations of the client who will to evoke vibrant, immediate pleasure under the influence of organic synthesis, fragrances became have informed him in advance of the and is often associated with sporting more complex and the choice of direction that the perfume must take. activities. Eau de toilette, which is name changed. This is what is known as the brief. more sensual, reveals a subtle yet Conjuring up poetic images rather perceptible fragrance in its wake. Eau than providing a description, The perfumer will have different names now resonate on a rich, responses depending on whether he de parfum leaves behind an opulent, collective unconscious and works for himself, for a target lingering fragrance. Finally, the evoke their corresponding world, population, for the general public or for extract is the most intense form of sparking both interest and perfume and the one that lasts the curiosity. an identified competitor. longest. Thus literality became abstract. Similarly, his creation will take into Some names conjure an image of account the strategy of the brand for In France, sales of eau de toilette phantasmagorical worlds which he is creating. This brand may, account for 50% of feminine (Poison by Dior, Aphrodisia by fragrances and 90% of masculine Fabergé, Magie by Lancôme, for example, want to achieve fragrances. Spellbound by Estée Lauder and immediate profit or, on the other hand, Sortilège by Le Galion), whilst may have a long-term plan. others are reminiscent of a certain era (Calèche or Héritage by The choice of raw materials and the Hermès, Quadrille by Balanciaga mode of expression he recommends are A question of and Royal Regiment by Max essential factors in olfactory proposals, concentration Factor), specific materials Crêpe( As globalization tends to harmonize which he will submit to brand de Chine by Millot, Anthracite by tastes, perfume concentrations Jacomo, by Morabito, representatives. Or noir determine product choice even more. Chrome by Azzaro), a particular place (Byzance by Rochas, Ténéré Schematically speaking, Asia and by Paco Rabanne, Laguna by Dali, Japan prefer perfumes with weak Tuscany by Aramis or Perfume follows a three- concentrations that will not mask the by Yves Rocher), a Samarcande note range: top, middle odour of the skin. The United States given moment (Après l’Ondée by Guerlain, Nocturnes by Caron, and base opts for strong concentrations. Weekend for Men by Burberrys) How can you describe the magic of a Northern Europe has tastes or even imaginary characters perfume? How can you designate the similar to those of North America, ( by Grès, by Cabotine Câline immediate, intermediate and whereas Southern Europe Patou, Diva by Dior, Insolent by Jourdan, Farouche by Nina Ricci long-lasting sensations that follow in expects a perfume to have an and Loulou by Cacharel). succession when you come into aesthetic function with moderate contact with a perfume? Perfumers concentrations. refer to top notes, middle notes and Concentrations vary depending not base notes. only on where they were As the more volatile elements fill manufactured but also on traditions the air, the perfume gives off its top and consumer habits. Eau de cologne or starting notes, which are neither contains between two and four too transient nor aggressive, and which percent of perfume concentrate, eau last several minutes. These can emanate de toilette 5% to 20% and an extract Calèche from sources like hesperidia (citrus between 15% and 35%. Hermes fruits), thyme, lavender, tarragon and Guy Robert perfumer rosewood. They are followed by the Design by middle or body notes released over Annie Baumel several hours. Forming the heart of the ­ 1961, France Inv. 02 976 composition, they set the tone of the perfume. These are often more tenacious products, such as essences of rose, jasmine, geranium, verbena and galbanum. Finally, the persistent substances are released. These base Crêpe notes determine fragrance wake and its de Chine F. Millot harmony. These are the notes that First half linger after the top and middle notes of the 20th have evaporated. They remain in century, France memory. These are the fixing agents: Inv. 06 11487 oak moss, sandalwood, vetiver, civet musk or musk. Depending on cultures, middles notes are more greatly refined, as in Europe, or the perfume trail is heightened, as in the United States. Example of an olfactory pyramid © International Perfume Museum Contemporary Viewpoints Olfactory Composition

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How is a perfume made?

Perfume concentrates to start with Jacques Polge, Perfume concentrates are usually created by the fragrance perfumer for CHANEL 2007, France industry, except in the case of the perfume houses of Chanel, © All rights reserved Hermès and Patou, which have an in-house perfumer and guarantee the creation, manufacture and production of their perfumes. To produce a concentrate, products of natural origin are purchased after harvesting, often on the production sites. If

Jean-claude they are not manufactured by the company producing the Ellena, perfumer for perfume concentrate, synthetic products are purchased as HERMES 2006, France required. All materials are subject to numerous controls. © All rights reserved The perfume concentrate is manufactured using an automated system that follows the formula created by the perfumer. This automatic device can accurately weigh from a few grams to several tonnes of product to the nearest milligram, within a very short time. Jean-michel Once manufactured, the perfume concentrate is supplied to Duriez, perfumer for perfume houses that subsequently produce the perfume and JEAN PATOU 2004, France © All rights reserved launch it on the market.

François Thierry Demachy, Wasser, perfumer for perfumer for DIOR GUERLAIN 2011, France 2011, France © All rights reserved © All rights reserved Contemporary Viewpoints Olfactory Composition english

Shipping Room, Mixer robot Mixing room, Robertet factory 2005, France Robertet factory Michel Graniou © French Perfume Committee Michel Graniou 2007, Grasse 2007, Grasse © International Perfume Museum ©International Perfume Museum

The perfume launch Perfume manufacture The control procedure protocol The second phase concerns When the manufacturing process is The perfume house draws up a perfume manufacture (eau de completed, a sample is collected and launch protocol for putting the toilette, eau de parfum, extract, sent to the control laboratory, which perfume on the market. Validated etc.). This operation begins with is responsible for batch approval. This by marketing, financial and the production of a small quantity control procedure is documented. industrial directors, as well as head of perfume, known as the pilot, During the bottling process, each management, this protocol that enables checking and bottle is given a manufacturing- contains all of the information specifying, if necessary, the related code. This code indicates the relating to product manufacture, materials used, the mixing batch number and the month and down to the slightest details, and temperature, maturation year of manufacture, thus allowing the various anticipated costs. and maceration times, and cooling the batch to be traced. The conditions under which a and filtration conditions. All of these procedures are entered perfume is manufactured and The manufacturing process is into a computer and a record of each controlled are subject to specific launched after the perfume manufactured perfume is kept in a file that is stored for three to five procedures known as Good concentrate has matured over years. Once the manufacturing batch Manufacturing Practices (or several days and the blend of GMP). They precisely describe the synthetic and natural materials has is registered, bottling procedures logical sequence of industrial harmonized from an olfactory begin. Controls, such as bottle operations that will guarantee standpoint. The perfume appearance, stoppering and packaging, product compliance. concentrate is left to macerate in are carried out on the production line throughout this phase to guarantee alcohol from one week to over a month to stabilise the perfume. flawless product quality.

Approval of ingredients The first phase involves checking and approving all the ingredients used in the finished product (bottles, sprays, labels, alcohol, water and perfume concentrate, etc.). These control procedures are carried out on the manufacturing site in accordance with the specifications laid down by Quality Control. All ingredients are managed through computer programs. Contemporary Viewpoints Perfume and Literature

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Perfume and Memory does literature have a nose? Perfume and Literature Contemporary Viewpoints english

Specialized library 2008, International Perfume Museum ©International Perfume Museum

Extracts from the article by Annick Le “Disliked by the major philosophers, The rediscovery of extraordinary, most of whom considered it to be an magical, deadly or therapeutic Guerer, published in “The International inferior sense, excessively linked to properties attributed in bygone eras History of Perfumes” (Ed. Somology, Art animal instincts and pleasure, and too to odours and perfumes is also an subjective to be a genuine tool of abundant source of inspiration for editions) perception, the sense of smell has contemporary authors. long been undervalued. This With Le parfum perdu, René Laruelle discredit was extended to fragrances, introduced a hero in search of which were stripped of any cognitive, sonteranti, a mythical perfume from artistic or ethical value. the days of the Egyptian pharaohs and (…) shrouded in evil spells. In Son Parfum, Literature, on the other hand, has Frédéric Ploton imagines a perfumer warmly received odours and composing a fragrance on the basis of fragrances and from the Song of a rare South American flower with a Solomon to the present day, there is a bewitching scent that can restore long list of works by writers and poets sight. But, once again, Patrick that have been catalogued as Süskind’s novel provides the most “olfactory.” The exceptional ability of stricking example of a return to the sense of smell to describe olfactory sources with the obsessive atmospheres, kindle memories and quest of his hero, Jean-Baptiste create dream-like states has been and Grenouille, and his desire ‘to tear the still is widely used. fragrant soul from things’ (…) » In recent times, two subjects in particular have captured the attention of novelists – the first being personality disorders expressed via an olfactory theme, and the second focusing on the beneficial or evil properties attributed over the centuries to odours and perfumes and which nowadays still prove fascinating. Smell by the Indian Radhika Jha, Musk by Percy Kemp and Perfume by Patrick Süskind cleverly illustrate the close links that can exist between identity crises and olfactory sensations. (…) The Era of Globalisation Marketing and Perfume

english In the era of globalisation

Key Figures for , Hygiene the Perfume 2005 Market and beauty, Perfumes and cosmetics, consumption per Four inhabitant: India, distribution e circuits 2006 2.40 >selective distribution Perfumes and cosmetics: and >mass market fourth-ranking France, >pharmaceutical sales export sector, e239 >direct sales after aeronautics, automobiles and alcoholic beverages (and 2006, strong growth of exports in excluding arms) Eastern Europe and Asia +41% in the Czech Republic, +43.7% in Russia and Asia 2006, France, +39.5% in China Positive trade balance: 6.9 billion euros, = one-fourth of France’s petroleum bill

2009, France, 143,000 bottles sold daily 2009, France, 72.73% of consumers are women, 27.27% are men.

2006, France, perfume and cosmetics sales: 15.2 billion euros 2006, France, national sales: In France, 400 to 500 6.5 billion euros new perfumes are launched 2006, France,exports: each year; 8.7 billion euros, 90% disappear within the equivalent of 430 TGVs or 145 Airbus airplanes three years The Era of Globalization Marketing and Perfume english

Whilst it was still considered a luxury product, reserved for wealthy clientele in the early 20th century, perfume had clearly become democratized and internationalized at the dawning of the 21st century. More and more new products are being launched, but their life span is limited. Finally, markets that have, until now, scarcely taken note of perfumes, primarily because of their cost, are rapidly expanding.

Expansion of the Russian market On the Russian market where competition with new, essentially Russian products is observed, the sale of French perfumes and cosmetics showed 43% growth in 2006, which suggests how the sector has perked up in this part of the world. Consumption is guaranteed by a very curious and demanding middle class and a very wealthy minority who enjoy the prestige of the “Made in France” label and collection products. Here, the average rate of growth in the cosmetics and perfumes market has increased by more than twenty percent in seven years and specialized chain stores are sprouting up like mushrooms.

Dior Chanel 20th century, th 20 century, Tokyo Tokyo ©All rights reserved © All rights reserved A rapidly expanding The high end is on a roll Promising markets in international market in the United States and India and China We are currently living in the golden Europe India is one of the world’s youngest age of perfumery. Never before has Faced with a relative uniformity of countries and its domestic market perfume had such a following, from products, the American market and represents potentially more than a both men and women, and never some European markets, such as billion consumers. In addition, the before have consumers worn so many Hungary and the United Kingdom, purchasing power of the middle class different perfumes. tend to favour top-of-the-range is constantly increasing. Finally, This market obviously favours the products or luxury niche perfumes. Indian behaviour in foreign countries French perfume industry, which, in Across the Channel, for example, suggests a strong attraction to 2006, witnessed its fortieth perfumes with limited distribution luxury products. In short, everything consecutive year of growth and a are available from retailers and fashion augurs well for perfume in a market boom in exports, particularly to boutiques enjoy considerable success. familiar with the world of fragrance, Russia, Eastern Europe and China. The In the U.S., Barneys department where perfume is readily applied. “Made in France” label has a secure store stands out from the crowd by Consequently, growth in this reputation on the international stage, emphasizing specific niche products. sector is expected to increase by 25% which explains why French brands are in India by 2010. available in 202 countries. In China, although the income of the more privileged classes and city International turnover in this sector dwellers is rapidly increasing, most of reached 15.2 billion euros in 2006, the population remains extremely including sales amounting to 6.5 poor. However, the growth in billion euros in France, where average cosmetic sales, which is on the order expenditure on perfume and of 20% per year, suggests that cosmetics has risen to 205 euros per perfumes could experience a inhabitant per year. significant increase in popularity, Each year, 400 to 500 new perfumes even in a country with no pre- are launched in France, 90% of which existing culture in this domain. Image will disappear in three years. and price continue to play a major role.