Department of European Languages and Literature LANE 335, Phonology.
Chapter 7: Features
7.1 Segmental Composition:
n Speech sounds can be decomposed into a number of articulatory components.
n Combining these properties in different ways produces different speech sounds.
n Properties = features. (Properties or features).
n Features show what sounds have in common with each other and how they are related or not related.
n The examples of the /t/ and /d/, show that there are so many things operating at the same time for one sound to be produced. E.g. 1- air comes out from lungs, 2- vocal cords take action 3- velum raises, 4- tongue moves (active articulator) 5- alveolar ridge be in contact (passive articulator). If any of these features changed, another sound will be produced; we change the action of the vocal cords (glottis being apart) and we produce /d/ sound for example.
n Two sounds can constitute a natural class if they both have set of particular features:
/t/ and /d/ constitute a natural class, alveolar stop
/k/ /g/ /ŋ/ constitute a natural class, velar stop
7.2 Phonetic vs. Phonological Features:
n Phonetic features: correspond to physical articulatory or acoustic events (how sounds are articulated or produced).
n Phonological features: (mental aspect of sounds in the language).
n “+” (if the feature is part of the classification of sound). “-” (if it is not) for each of features.
n A feature has two values (+ or -) is known as a binary feature.
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[p] [t] [k] + - - Bilabial - - - Labiodentals - - - Dental - + - Alveolar - - - Palatal - - + Velar - - - Uvular
Many phonologists deal with representing the major place of articulation using just two binary features:
§ [± anterior]: sounds produced no further back in the oral tract than the alveolar ridge. § [± coronal]: sounds produced in the area bounded by the teeth and hard palate. § Only these two features give four possible combinations.
[+ anterior] [+ anterior] [- anterior] [- anterior]
[- coronal] [+ coronal] [+ coronal] [- coronal] Labials Alveolars & Dentals Palatals Velars & Uvulars [p, b, f, v] [t, d, s, z, θ ,ð] [j, ʃ ,ӡ, ʧ,ʤ,] [k, g, x, r]
7.3 Charting the Features:
(Distinguish major classes of speech sounds)
n Speech of sounds can generally be divided into at least two major classes: consonants and vowels. (which can be further subdivided into obstruents, sonorant, consonants, vowels and glides)
7.3.1 Major class features:
n Distinguish major classes of speech sounds: (consonants and vowels, sonorant and obstruents).
n
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7.3.1 Major class features (syllabic, consonantal, sonorant)
Feature Explination
those sounds which function as the nucleus (peek) of a syllable. [+syll] As: vowels [æ] & [ɪ] in ['ɹæbɪt], nasal [n] in [kɑː]σ[tn]σ, and liquids
syllabic]
those sounds which DO NOT function as syllabic nuclei. - [- syll] As: [ɹ], [b]and [t] in ['ɹæbɪt] [+/
those sounds which involve oral stricture of at least close [+cons] approximation. As: [p], [l] and [t] in [pælrt]
those sounds with stricture more open than close approximation.
consonantal] [-cons] As: [j] and [ɛ] in [jɛs]
- [+/
those sounds which show a clear formant pattern [+ son] As [n], [j] and [u:] in [nju;ts]
sonorant]
those sounds which have NO clear formant pattern - [- son] As [k] in [buk], [obstruents] [+/
7.3.2 Consonantal features (voice)
those sounds which are produced with airflow through the glottis in which the vocal cords are close enough to vibrate; the two glottis are [+voi] snapping together rapidly
These include the glides, sonorants and voiced obstruents As: [l] [m] [n]and[d] of ['sælǝmændǝ] voice]
-
[+/ those sounds which produced with the vocal cords at rest and is [-voi] relevant primarily to obstruents; the two gottis are apart As: [s] and [p] in [æsp]
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7.3.3 Place features (coronal, anterior)
those sounds which are articulated with the tongue tip or blade raised [+ cor] As: [t] and [d] in ['tædˎpoul]
[+cor]: [j, l, ɹ, n, t, d, Ɵ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ] those sounds whose articulation does not involve the front coronal]
- [- cor] of the tongue
[+/ As: [p] in ['tædˎpoul]
[-cor]: [w, m, n, k, g, h, f, v, p, b] those sounds which are produced at or in front of the alveolar ridge [+ant] as [s] and [n] in [sneɪk]
[+ant]: [l, ɹ, n, m, t, d, Ɵ, ð, s, z, f, v, p, b]
anterior]
those sounds which are produced further back in the oral cavity than - [-ant] the alveolar ridge. As: [k] and [dʒ] in [keɪdʒ] [+/ [-ant]: [j, w, ŋ, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, k, g, h]
7.3.4 Manner features (continuant, nasal, strident, lateral, delayed release)
those sounds in which there is free airflow through the oral cavity. As [+ cont] all the sounds in [fIʃ]
[+ cont]: [j, w, l, ɹ, Ɵ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h, f, v]
those sounds in which the airflow is stopped in the oral cavity. This continuant]
- [- cont] includes both the oral and nasal stops.
[+/ As: [m] and [p] sounds in [mæp]
[- cont]: [n, m, ŋ, t, d, tʃ, dʒ, k, g, p, b] those sounds with the velum lowerd and consequent airflow through [+ nas] the nasal cavity, as [m] sounds in ['mæmǝƟ ]
nasal]
-
[+/ [+ nas]: [n, m, ŋ]
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those sounds which are produced without airflow through the nasal [- nas] cavity, As: all sounds in [Ɵɹʌʃ]
[- nas]: [j, w, l, ɹ, t, d, Ɵ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, k, g, h, f, v, p, b]
those sounds which involve a complex constriction which results in a [+ strid] noisy or hissing airflow, As: [ʃ] in [ʃi:p]
[+ strid]: [s, z, ʃ, tʃ, dʒ, f, v]
strident]
- those sounds without such constriction,
[+/ [- strid] As: the [Ɵ] and [n] in [ƟIn]
[- strid]: [j, w, l, ɹ, n, m, ŋ, t, d, Ɵ, ð, k, g, h, p, b] those sounds which are produced with central oral obstruction and [+ lat] airflow passing over one or both sides of the tongue.
l] [+ lat]: [l] latera
- Refers to all other sounds.
[+/ [- lat] [- lat]: [j, w, ɹ, n, m, ŋ, t, d, Ɵ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, k, g, h, f, v, p, b].
those sounds which are produced with stop closure in the oral cavity [+del rel] followed friction at the same point of articulation, As: [tʃ] in ['tʃrpˎmʌŋk]
release] [+delrel]: [tʃ, dʒ]
[-del rel] those sounds which are produced without such an articulation. delayed
-
[+/ [-del rel]: [j,w ɹ,n,m,ŋ,t, d, Ɵ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, k, g, h, f, v, p, b]
7.3.5 Vocalic features
The feature that is dealt with in this section is primarily of relevance to distinctions between vowels. Some are also relevant to consonantal distinctions. Vowels need to be distinguished in terms of height, backness, roundness and length, and for these distinctions we use the features [height], [low], [back], [front], [round], [tense] and [advanced tongue root].
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those sounds which involve the body of the tongue raised above what is often called the “natural” position. [+ hi] As: [ɪ] in ['wɪpɪt], [+hi] consonants include the [j] and [k] in [jæk]
high]
- those sounds where the body of the tongue is not so raised,
[+/ [- hi] As: [ɛ] in ['fɛɹɪt]. [-hi] consonants include the [p,ɹ,t] in ['pæɹǝt]
those sounds in which the body of the tongue is lowered with respect [+ lo] to the natural position. As: [æ] in [ænt]. The only[+lo] consonants in English are the glottal stop [Ɂ] and the glottal fricative [h]
low]
- those sounds without such lowering. As: [ɔ:] in [hɔ:s].
[+/ [- lo] All English consonants except [h] and [Ɂ] are [-lo] Note: that specification [-hi, -lo] characterizes mid vowels such as [ɛ] and [ɔ].
those sounds in which the body of the tongue is retracted from the [+ back] neutral position, As: [u:] in [bǝbu:n]. [+ back] consonants include the
[k], [ŋ] and [g] in [ˎkæŋɡǝ'ɹu:]
back]
those sounds in which the tongue is not retracted, As: the[ɛ] in [wɛlk]. - [- back] all English consonants except the velars are[-back]. [+/
those sounds in which the body of the tongue is fronted from neutral [+ front] position. These include the vowels [i:] and [ɪ] As: in ['i:ɡɹɪt] and the
[ɛ] of[ɛft] and the [æ] of [æsp].
front]
those sounds in which the tongue is not fronted. - / [- front] [-front] includes both central and back vowels as the [ǝ] and [u:] of [b [+ ǝ'bu:n]
those sounds which are produced with rounded lips. only[w] among [+ rnd] the consonants of English is [+rnd]
As: [ɔ:] in [hɔ:s]
round]
- those sounds which are produced with neutral or spread lips. As: [ɑ:]
[+/ [- rnd] in [ɑ:dvɑ:k]. all English consonants apart from[w] are [-rnd]
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those sounds which involve considerable muscular constriction [+ tns] (tensing) of the body of the tongue compared to its neutral state. This constriction results in a longer and more peripheral sound. As: the [i:] in [ʃi:p] tense]
-
[+/ those sounds which involve no such constriction, resulting in shorter [- tns] and more centralized sounds. As: the [ɪ] in [dɪp].
those sounds which are produced with the root of the tongue pushed [+ ATR] forward from its “neutral” position. Typically Resulting in the tongue
ongue ongue body being pushed upward, T
ATR As: the akan vowels [e, ɜ, o, u]
oot]
R those sounds in which the tongue root is not pushed forward, As: dvanced dvanced [- ATR] the akan vowels [ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ] A [
Chapter 8: Phonemic analysis
8.1 Sounds that are the same but different
We saw that there is something about the t-sounds in: “tuck”, “stuck”, and “cut” that is same, in the sense that speakers of English group together as 't-sounds'. At the same time we recognize that “phonetically” these t-sounds are different. In the same way consider the t-sounds in: “tea”, “steam”, and “sit”: the “t” in “tea” is likely to be aspirated, the “t” in “steam” unaspirated and the “t” in “sit” may be unreleased (indicated by7 ).
It is not difficult to find other groupings that are both the same and different in just the same way. In parallel with the t-sounds we find that English also has a set of p-sounds and a set of k-sounds.
Sounds Aspirated Unaspirated Unreleased t-sounds tea [tʰi:] steam [sti:ɪn] sit [sɪtˋ] p- sounds pea [pʰi:] spin[spɪn] sip [sɪpˋ] k- sounds key [kʰi:] skin [skɪn] sick [sɪkˋ]
In order to make it clear which level of representation we are dealing with “abstract or concrete”, the convention is to use square brackets - [ ] - to enclose the symbol(s) for concrete speech sounds as they are pronounced – phonetic material – and to use slashes - / /- to enclose the symbols representing the abstract elements.
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The abstract underlying unit is known as phoneme while predictable surface elements are known as allophones.
/p/
[p] [ph] [p7]
8.2 Finding phonemes and allophones:
Assuming that distinguishing between phonemes and allophones is the correct way of approaching the study of the sound system of language, we still need a way to clearly identify groups of related sounds and to distinguish these sound from others belonging to other groups. In other words, we need first to be able to determine the phonemes then relate them to their allophones. Phonemes are must often established by finding a contrast between speech sounds. These contrasts can be most easily seen in minimal pairs
8.2.1 Minimal pairs and contrastive distribution: a minimal pair: a pair of words which differ by just one sound and which are 'different lexical items'. different lexical items: distinct items of vocabulary, regardless of their meaning. for example: n in American English “car” and “automobile” are two lexical items, though they mean the same thing, n in British English “ football” and “soccer” are two lexical items, though their meaning are the same.
If we compare “bat” and “mat” for example we know that they are two different lexical items and that they differ from each other by precisely one sound, the initial [b] versus [m]. therefore we can say that [b] and [m] are contrast.
If we compare the initial sound in “fat” “bat” and “mat” are lexical items differs from each other by only one sound, [f] contrasts with [b] and and[m]. Therefore we can say that [b], [m], and [f] are each allophones of separate phonemes /b/, /m/, and /f/.
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Minimal pairs rest on contrastive distribution (give different meaning) as we have just seen with the initial consonants in “fat”, “bat”, and “mat” which contrast with each other. We saw this contrast by means of a commutation test, i.e. a substitution of one sound for another yielding a different lexical item.
In words such “mission” vs “vision” we don't find a true minimal pair, that is we do not find two lexical items differing by only one speech sound. What we can find is a near minimal pear.
8.2.2 Complementary distribution:
This state of affairs, in which two sounds do not occur in the same environment, is refereed to as complementary distribution.
8.2.3 Free variation
While the distinction between the allophones and phonemes is quite clear cut, there are some phenomena which can obscure the identification of phonemes. One of these is so- called free variation.
8.2.4 Overview
Unreleased Unaspirated aspirated
8.3 Linking levels: Rules:
In the preceding sections, we saw that we can establish two level of representation: (1) the underlying (mental) phonemic level, which contains information concerning the set of contrasts in the phonology of language. (2) the surface phonetic level, which specifics the particular positional variants (allophones) which realise the underlying phonemes.
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8.4.1 Phonetic naturalness and phonological analysis:
Natural in this context means something like “to be expected”, or “frequently found a cross languages”, or “ phonetically similar”. Consider onset clusters. English has no words beginning with [ps] or [pn] or [pt], yet these are perfectly permissible clusters in many languages, e.g. German [psalm] 'psalm', French [pnæ] pneu tyre', Greek [ptɛron] 'wing'. Just being un-English does not mean that something is unnatural. Nor is something natural just because it occurs in English.
8.4.2 Phonetic similarity:
It could be argued that [pʰ] is in complementary distribution not only with [p] in environment 's ', but also with both [t] and [k] as in 'sty' sky'. It would thus be possible, through not particularly insightful, to associate [ph] with either /t/ or /k/. That we don't do so, but rather associate it with /p/, captures the fact that the p-allophones are phonetically similar to each other (and phonetically dissimilar to the t- and k-sounds) As another instance in which phonetic similarity may play a role in deciding on the relatedness or otherwise of particular sounds, consider the distribution of [h] and [ŋ] in English. The sound [h] occurs only in syllable-initially, never syllable-finally. The sound [ŋ] occurs only syllable-finally, never syllable-initially (the asterisk”*”indicates a non- occurring form):
h: syllable-initial ŋ: syllable-final [hæm] [bɹɪŋ] [hæt] [bɅŋ] [hɛd] ['ɹi:dŋ] ['hɪkɅp] [Ɵ ɪŋ] [Ʌp'hi:vǝt] ['sɪŋɪŋ] [ǝ'hɛd] ['Ɵæŋk ɪŋ] N.B.: (h sound never occur in syllable-final) N.B.: ( ŋ sound never occur in syllable - * [i:h], *[u:h] initial) * [ŋi:], *[ŋu:]
8.4.3 Process naturalness:
Consider the following data of English which involve an alternation between [s] and [ʃ]:
[s] [ ʃ ] pass [pæs] pass you [pæʃju] this [ðɪs] this year [ðɪsʃjiǝ] Page 10 of 16
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8.5 Summary:
In this chapter we have seen that some surface phonetic speech sounds – phones – can be grouped together in terms of their behavior in the language as being distinct from other groups of phones. They can be thought of as both phonetically different, but at the same time phonologically the same. The underlying, abstract, cognitive entities we call phonemes; Allophones are the surface, Physical sounds that represent these underlying organizational units. Linking the two levels we have a set of statements specifying which of the allophones of any particular phoneme will occur in a specific context; That is, a set of rules describing the distribution of allophones.
Chapter 9: Phonological Alternations, process and rules
9.1 Alternations vs. processes vs. rules:
Much of the focus of recent phonological thinking concerns the characterization of predictable alternations between sounds found in natural languages. We've already seen many examples of these alternations, such as that between [p] and [pʰ] in English. Under specific conditions, there is an alternation between these phones: we get one, [p], and not the other, [pʰ] after [s] as in [spɪt], not *[spʰɪt]. That is, while at the underlying (phonemic) level there is only one element, /p/, there is an alternation in the representation of this element on the surface (phonetic) level between [p] and [pʰ], which is determined by the environment in which the phoneme occurs.
n Two levels of representation:
1) Underlying (phonemic, mental, abstract). 2) Surface (phonetic, concrete).
9.2 Alternations types:
“rat[s]” vs. “warthog[z]” vs. ”hors[ɪz]” “ yak[s]” vs. ' bee[z] ' vs. ”finch[ɪz]”
We see different realizations of the plural marker -orthographic ' (e)s ' which may be [s], [z], or [ɪz] depending on the nature of the preceding segment.
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“lea[f] ” vs. “lea[v]es” “hou[s]e” vs. “hou[z]es”
We see that there is an alternation in voicing for a root final fricative: voiceless in the singular, voiced in the plural.
9.2.1 Phonetically conditioned alternations:
n If a vowel phone in English is followed by a nasal consonant, the vowel is nasalized. E.g. [fæ̃n]
9.2.2 Phonetically and morphologically conditioned alternations:
n If the noun ends in a sibilant, i.e. [s], [z], [ʃ], [ɜ], [tʃ] or [dʒ], the plural takes the form [iz]. (such as: horses ”hors[ɪz]”, finches “finch[ɪz]”).
n If the final segment is a voiceless non-sibilant, the plural is a voiceless alveolar fricative [s]. ( such as rats “rat[s]”, yaks “yak[s]”).
n If the final segment is a voiced non-sibilant, the fricative is voiced [z]. (such as warthogs “warthog[z]”, bees “bee[z]” ).
9.2.3 Phonetically and morphologically and lexically conditioned alternations:
Here there is clearly some phonetic conditioning:
“lea[f] ” vs. “lea[v]es” “hou[s]e” vs. “hou[z]es”
n fricatives are voiced between voiced segments (voicing assimilation). “electri[k]” vs. “electri[s]ity” ”medi[k]al” vs. “medi[s]inal”
n A velar stop [k] is fronted and fricativised to an alveolar fricative [s] before a high front (that is palatal) vowel segment.
n The latter is also a kind of assimilation, though somewhat more complex, involving both manner and place of articulation – the term or this particular process is velar softening.
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9.2.4 Non-phonological alternations: Suppletion:
Consider finally alternations like “mouse” vs. “mice”, or “go” vs. “went”, while there is morphological conditioning (plural and past tense respectively) we must refer to specific lexical items, since the alternations do not generalize over all similar forms, or extend to new ones ( the plural of “grice” isn't “hent” or some such).
n Suppletion: an alternation in which there is no certain phonetic conditioning (no phonological processes) and is not part of our phonological knowledge. For example, ‘mouse’ vs. ‘mice’ or ‘go’ vs. ‘went’
9.3 Phonological Rules
Example from English:
[fæn]: /æ/ à [æ̃] /____ /n/ A vowel is nasalized whenever it immediately precedes a nasal stop [+ syllabic] à [+nasal] / __ [+nasal] A +syllabic sound (= a vowel) becomes + nasal (= nasalized) when it comes before a + nasal sound (= m, n, ŋ) The above captures a generalization about all vowels not only [æ] and all nasals not only [n].
Expressing environments
1- The symbol slash, “/” means “in the environment.” 2- A long underline ___ stands for where the allophone occurs relative to its neighbors. / ___ θ is to be read “in the environment ‘before theta’”, or, for short, just “before theta.”
3-The square brackets [ ] mean “and” means “a segment4 which is a consonant and is voiceless.”
4- The symbols “+” and “−” mean that a segment either has, or does not have, the phonetic property that a feature designates
5- the notation given below can be read “at the end of a word.”
“At the beginning of a word” would be “/ [word ___.”
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9.4 Overview of phonological operations and rules:
n Deletion: a phonological rule that removes an entire segment, as distinct from a feature-changing rule, and is expressed in terms of a segment 'becoming zero (Ø)'.
n Insertion: a phonological rule that inserts an entire segment, as distinct from a feature-changing rule, and that is the mirror-image of deletion rule, so inserting segment.
n Metathesis: The reversal of adjacent segments in a word.
n Reduplication: copying all part of a word, then attaching the copy to the orginal word, as in 'weewee'.
Chapter 10: Phonological structure:
9.4.1 the syllable and its internal structure: Consider the words “nightly” and “ nitrate”. For many speakers the /t/ in “nightly” is likely to surface as [Ɂ], while in “nitrate' the first /t/ is aspirated [tʰ].
Acoustic phonetic: The study of the physics involved in speech sound.
Allophones: The predictable surface speech sound of a language.
Articulatory The study of how speech sound are produced. phonetics:
Aspiration: A delay in the onset of voicing. Cf. voice onset time.
Assimilation: the production of a sound is influenced by the character of a neighboring sound.
Auditory phonetics: The study of how speech sounds are perceived.
Complementary State in which two sounds do not occur in the same environment; distribution: characterizes allophone. Cf. Contrastive distribution, Free variation.
Free variation State in which two sounds can occur in the same environment, yielding different pronunciations of the same lexical item; characterizes allophone, Cf. Complementary distribution, and Contrastive distribution. Page 14 of 16
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Generation The identification of alternations, the phonological process phonology behind them, and the formalizing of the most appropriate means of capturing them.
Glides: Non-vowel sounds produced with articulators wide open and the air flowing out unhindered (the initial sounds in yak and warthog, for example). These are sometimes known as 'semi-vowels'
Glottal stop: Sounds produced at the glottis from closed vocal cords, causing a build-up of pressure behind the cords, which when opened is released in a forceful outrush of air.
Intonation: Pitch variation over structures such as phrases or sentences.
Manner of The vertical relationship between the active and passive articulation articulators, i.e. distance between them which creates different types of speech sound, e.g. stop, fricative, affricate, glide, etc. Metathesis: The reversal of adjacent segments in a word.
Minimal pair: A pair of words that differ by just one sound and witch are different lexical items; cf. Commutation test and Contrastive distribution.
Mora: A structural unit of quantity referring to syllable 'weight'; typically a light syllable equals one mora, a heavy syllable equals two moras.
Nasal sound: The sound resulting from a lowered velum, with air flowing out through the nose (the first and last sounds in 'man, for example).
Optimality Theory: A theory that dispenses with phonological rules and proposes that the relationship between an underlying form and its surface realization is not derivational in nature. It proposes instead that underlying forms are linked directly to surface forms by means of a set of constraints.
Oral sounds: The sound produced when the velum is raised, so that air can only flow through the mouth (all sounds in 'frog', for example).
Phonemes: The abstract phonological units underlying the surface sounds of a language.
Phonetics: The study of physical aspects of speech sounds.
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Phonology: The study of the way speech sounds are organised into patterns and systems.
Place of articulation: The horizontal relationship between the active and passive articulators, specifying the position of the highest point of the active articulator in relation to the passive.
Sonorant Class of consonants where there is no air flow restriction in the consonants: oral tract, or the nasal tract is open, resulting in the free passage of air through the vocal tract.
Stress: A measure of prominence associated with the syllable.
Syllable: A phonological grouping of segments into a unit consisting of a nucleus and (for English) an optional onset and optional coda.
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