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177 BEl'WEEN THE SPEX::IES share. For sane of these groups-those con­ illustrative in this regard, for they are not taining psychologists, veterinarians, attor­ necessarily endemic to the perceived role of neys, and the religious--AR gives them a new student qua student, and when a canpeting perspective on their vocation and beliefs~ concern arises, there is a strong incentive for others--students, artists, and actors-­ to meet the demands of the activity .most the issue is one that is only periIilerally closely bound up with one's role as student, related to their activity, so that a camon i.e., course work. The bond, then, to the bond with other persons in the group is more profession or institution must be strong of an afflatus toward organization. The enough to instill a sense of ocmn:i.tment but fonner groups could be spoken of in tenns of not so strong that it hinders freedan and internal motivation, while the latter are risk. more externally motivated. Animal Rights (AVAR), Psychologists for can have force and affect a structured insti­ the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PsyRI'A) , tution or practice in society. However, the and the Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF­ rigidity and tradition of that framework are originally, Attorneys for Animal Rights, not cnly givens which may resist change but AFAR).[40] in scme cases are barriers in the sense that there are certain entrenched attitudes toward Like a number of AR groups, AVAR was and interpretations of the role value or fonned in the year 1981 to heighten con­ purpose of animals. This fact is especially sciousness within the public and the profes­ true in AR groups with a basis in law, psy­ ::lion concerning the proper treatment of ani­ chology, and religion, professions or insti­ mals. Founder Dr. Neil Wolff, D.V.M., of the tutions with deep historical roots. Blue Cross Animal Hospital in Greenwich, Connecticut, wants to present the organiza­ On the other hand, where an idea gives 'non as a "sensible, constructive, 'morally­ rise to an organization, one would expect disturbed' group of doctors" who can provide that the structure of the organization would a "sounding board for veterinarians and more closely reflect the issues surrounding others in the field on animal rights is­ that idea. This is especially true of the sues. II [41] newer organizations in the movement. More­ over, because the issue is not necessarily While veterinarians, by virtue of their internal to the activity, it does not threa­ occupation, are closer than most groups to ten the participant's career or .i.rnage in the animals and animal issues, they have not been same way that it affects the former category perceived as an important voice in the fight of groups. Consequently, members may more for animal welfare and rights. In fact, the reasonably take chances, utilize more radical responses to an reader survey by Agenda indi­ tactics and risk failure or embarassment for cates that veterinarians are seen as the the possibility of greater success. However; group which has contributed the least to when the issue is too far rem:wed fran the furthering animal rights. [42] The task of activity, it is much easier for frustration, AVAR is not so much to change these percep­ apathy, or a drop in interest or commitment tions within the AR IlOVement as to challenge to arise. attitudes and practices within the veterinary profession. In addition to disseminating Finally, when a conflict occurs between information, publishing a magazine, and edu­ the demands of the organization and the de­ cating veterinarians, AVAR is involved in mands of the activity, the likelihood that legislative, and court hearings, advising IAR one will opt to meet the requirements of the groups, and participating in dem::>nstrations. latter is much greater, tmless there is a The list of its concerns and possible areas strong outside factor (ethical, religious, or for future endeavors ranges fran animal otherwise) that encourages a different ac­ rights information centers in animal hospi­ tion. Student AR organizations are often tals to efforts to deter animal research and

BElWEEN THE SPECIES 178 cosmetic industry injustices and fran expos­ far as to assert that "the raison d letre of ing race track practices to anti-hunting and the veterinary profession is the over-all anti-trapping campaigns. Perhaps a poten­ well-being of man-not lower animals."[44] tially IlDre important oontribution to the For example, in 1966, the American Veterinary IlDVement, however, lies in its capacity to Medical Association (AVMA) actively opposed help shift the locus of discussion toward legislation to license and regulate research animal suffering and IlDral issues in major facilities, because such action would inter­ veterinary journals and schools, and away fere with research. [45] fran the sole attention tQ teclmiques and facts and to confront and educate pet owners Veterinarians and the AVMA are also oon­ about AR issues. As Dr. Wolff has stated: cerned about the increasing number of inex­ pensive spay/neuter programs run by humane Many of· my clients who "love" organizations, since these programs threaten animals would unabashedly lend the econanic security of their profession. their support to oonstructive ani­ Consequently, they have tended to be cautious mal rights projects if they only in their views of dealings with AR organi­ lmew about them, if their zations. Increasingly, however, with the friendly local veterinarian or ani­ pranptings of groups like AVAR, veterinarians mal hospital calmly offers them are real;izing the necessity (both IlDrally and literature, films, and' an animal practically) of fighting for and speaking in rights library. • 'Ibis can tenns of animal rights as well as welfare. present a IlDre propitious atIoos­ Richard E. Brown,· D.V.M., asserts that Iilere and go a long way towards gathering up steam for animal the rights of animals are, have rights awareness. [43] been, and will be a IlDst important factor in manls interactions with Related to this PJtential oontribution his pets, his working animals, am is one which lies at the theoretical heart of animals of the wild in the future. the animal rights oon'troversy-the atteupt to extend protection for animals beyond welfare. He argues that even if veterinarians choose To this point, veterinarians have, on the to ignore this factor, rights will be imposed whole, focused their thou9hts and activities fran outside the professions and asks: around the less inclusive idea of animal welfare. In fact, some veterinarians gQ as HeM can we in the future offer such nodern medicine for our pa­ tients if· we do not recognize that they do indeed have rights? HeM can we justify several hundred dollar reconstructions, repairs, or treatment IOOdalities when we oon­ done a non-status to our pa­ tients.[46]

Speaking in tenns and standards less internal to the profession, Michael W. Fox, President of the Institute for the study of Animal Problems and writer on animal rights and vaterinary issues, raises the question,

Do we not violate the sanctity and dignity of healthy animals (includ­ ing rats and mice) when we make them sick or subject them to re­ peated surgeries solely for educa­ tional purposes in veterinary schools? After contrasting these practices with those 179 BE."IWEEN THE SPECIES of the htnnan medical profession, he queries, A second profession which is bound by nature with questions about the proper treat­ Therefore why should the veterinary ment of animals and which, as a whole, is a profession ccmpranise itl;l ethics in primary target of the AR novement, is psycho­ this way?[47] logy. A large percentage and many of the nost painful experiments on animals are per­ SUch questions remain largely unanswered. formed by psychologists. A conservative estimate, based on the number of published Due to the nature of these problems, results in journals like Psychological Ab­ AVAR's role is at once both political and stracts and the average number of animals ethical, as well as educational, for it must used in experiments in 1972, suggests that deal with many subUe and controversial ques­ well over 40,000 animals were subjects in tions that may threaten traditional practices brain research in one year.[52] Of course, and underscore the fact that the veterinari­ brain research is just one area of psycholo­ an's role is closer to that of a pediatrician gical research. SUch numbers have undoubted­ than an auto mechanic. [47] Moreover, many of ly increased arithmetically, if not gecmetri­ the veterinarians in this 250 member organi­ cally, since that time. The nost camnon zation r, . not approve of euthanasia for victim is the laboratory rat, which has been animals and, like other AR organizations, it blinded, drowned, starved, deafened, tor­ believes that' animals have definite "inte­ tured, and forced to engage in hc:.lrInsexual rests and intrinsic value that are not depen­ behavior, anong other things. The number of dent upon our interests or the value we may rodents and rabbits alone which are used for place upon them." [48] These philosophical experimental purposes each year is near 100 and political positions do not always paral­ million. But psychologists do not confine lel those of the veterinary profession as a their research solely to the smaller animals, whole, and when the Detroit Zoo recenUy and a perusal of such publications as The decided to euthanize three tigers in extr~ Journal of canparative and Physiological pain, the decision caused a public uproar Psychology not only attests to this fact but that has raised questions about the role of to the high number of trivial results, the the veterinarian. [49] indefensible degree of suffering inflicted on animals, and the anount of antiseptic scien­ A recent survey of veterinarians' atti­ tific jargon employed to translate teDllS into tudes on animal rights issues also indicated seeming objectivity. An example is illustra­ the large extent to which they either do not tive: realize the anount of animal cruelty or are indifferent to it. In response to the ques­ At Princeton, three scientists tien "Do same animals have rights?," thirty deprived 256 young rats of food and percent answered in the negative. To either water, watching them die of hunger a greater or lesser degree, ninety-one per­ and thirst. They concluded that cent approved of hunting, eighty-six percent such rats under conditions of scar­ thought that eeonanic considerations should city are much nore active than an­ take precedence over humane ones, and sixty­ other study group given food and six percent felt that animal husbandry prac­ water. [53] tices which improve productivity are in the animals' best interests. [50] Like the gener­ The case against many psychological experi­ al character of the novement, veterinarians ments is particularly cogent because as ani­ who support animal rights positions tend to mals becane nore dissimilar to htnnanS, exper­ be young, urban, and female. Finally, AR iments correspondingly serve little purpose organizations are forcing veterinarians and beyond expanding the anount of trivial know­ scientists to consider nore difficult ques­ ledge we possess, and as they are sufficient­ tions, such as whether fish are animals and ly like us to make conclusions applicable, thus subject to protection under anti-cruelty experiments are increasingly unjustifiable, laws. [51] In all likelihood, attempts by for the same reasons that experiments are not veterinarians to grapple with the controver­ performed on humans. sial issues surrounding dcmesticated animals will aid ethical philosophers who have relied The recenUy fonned group, Psychologists on ethologists for facts about non-humans. for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, hopes

BElWEEN THE SPECIES 180 to change many of the IIDst cruel and urmeces­ sary practices within the profession. As an organization, PsyETA is similar in many re­ ORCA'S GREATEST HITS A compilation of musical gards to AVAR, including its origin and de­ improvisation between humans velopnent, structure, tactics, and goals. and orcas recorded In the wild Like its counterpart in veterinary medicine, and entirely underwater. Cassette is avanable for eleven PsyETA is a 250 member organization fonned in dollars (including tax and mailing) 1981 and composed of professionals concerned from: about the treatment of animals. Both groups Interspecies Communication by 273 Hidden Meadow Lone have a small incane which is maintained Friday Harbor. WA 98250 membership dues and small donations, and both For newsletter and membership support the idea that animals are entitled to information please write to the certain rights in addition to a minimum level same address. of welfare. PsyETA' s strategies and goals closely parallel those of AVAR in that they· involve education, refonn within an estab­ lished institution, and changing attitudes. in California, pUt the matter laconically, The organization seeks to improve the condi­ surmri.ng up the general perception of the tions of animals used in research, revise the college population: "too busy." [56] educational curricultun in psychology, refine and refonn procedures to reduce the number of The University of Chicago Animal Welfare animals in experiments, and to develop insti­ Group is one organization fighting against tutional mechanisms which regulate animal use such characterizations. Like other college­ and deter animal abuse. Its past and current related organizations, it is funded by the activities have included sponsoring research University, although i t receives sane IIDney and essay contests for students, encouraging fran Mobilization for Animals (MFA), one of authors of psychology texts to include sec­ the larger AR groups. Its strategies for tions on ethics in their works, and offering effecting change are varied and include lec­ support for the conviction of Dr. El::1ward tures, lobbying, and educational information. Taub, the Maryland researcher accused of Formed in 1982, the group has organized or cruelty to animals. One of PsyETA's main participated in about twelve protests each tactics is to influence refonn within the year, with small turnouts. Thus far, the American Psychological Association (APA). [54] members see their role as one of educating others and, in this sense, they are typical Finally, while both PsyETA and AVAR are of IIDst of the student organizations. Their perceived as radical within their respective main concerns center around practices which professions, they are IIDre IIDderate groups. are visible in the college and COIlIllUIl.ity: within the AR IIDvement as a whole. This fact vivisection and pound seizure. Depicting is understandable, given the generally con­ themselves as a IIDderate organization within servative nature of the professions fran the zrovement and, as their name indicates, a which they are outcroppings• The direction welfare group, they support gradual change, which PsyETA may take in the future is indi­ rather than IIDre inmediate action, and regu­ cative of the general trend of organizations lation over abolition. eo-leader Martin within the zrovement: President Kenneth Sha­ stePhens also expresses the sentiment that piro asserts that "if no zrove [is made] with­ the powerful MFA is "too dictatorial" in its in the American· Psychological Association, I dealings with the University group. [57] see us becaning IIDre politically active."[55] Numerous other college AR groups are Student groups constitute a third sub­ scattered throughout the country at schcx>ls category of institutional organizations. like Purdue, Virginia Tech, Maryland, 0ber­ Usually small in size and in need of resour­ lin, North Carolina State University, Bowling ces, these groups represent an exception to Green, and the University of Wisconsin. One the general lack of interest in and awareness organization located in Pasadena, California of AR issues arrong this age group. In re­ and called Students United Protesting painful sponse to a question about whether college Research Experiments (SUPPRESS) is particu­ students are a potential support group for larly active in distributing educational the IIDvement, Animalines, an AR organization material and staging derronstrations. 181, BETWEEN THE SPECIES The llOst prcminent and influential stu­ of animals and responsiveness to suffering, . dent organization, however, is Student Action as an integral part of Buddhist prac­ Corps for Animals (SACA), based in Washing­ tice. "[61] A last uniting agent anong pro­ ton, D.C., whose pw:pose is to develop a fessions appears to be creativity, art, or national network of high school and college fame, since groups such as Actors and others activists and to help them "realize their for Animals, Writers for Animal Rights, and huge potential and strength in the animal Artists for Animals have recently arisen. rights IIDVement."[58] 'SACA and its more than 500 members are engaged in a melange of acti­ B. Groups United by a Conm:>n Concern vi-ties in addition to publishing pamphlets and increasing public awareness, including Another similar category of organiza­ grass roots organizing, finding hanes or tions is groups united by a particular goal shelter for unwanted animals, supporting or concern. '!'he two major sub-types are writing and research efforts, distributing those which are united in their opposition to films, targeting local laboratories and live vivisection and those against intensive live­ poultry markets, and participating in boy­ stock agriculture, while other groups rally cotts and denonstrations. "SACA News," the against hunting or certain products. With

organizationI s newsletter, serves as the the exception of a few groups, this category medimn through which students can exchange is daninated by an attitude of opposition, ideas, learn about AR activities throughout although positive change is often associated the country, and print personal stories and with and canes about through such an ap­ poems about their thoughts or animals and proach. That is, despite its seeming draw­ animal abuse.[59] backs, this method has the merit of keeping an issue and goal clearer because the enemy SACA considers itself a more radical or practice under protest is readily visible. rights organization that approves of the use of illegal tactics and favors total elimina­ The anti-vivisectionists-those who op­ tion of vivisection. SACA opposes euthaniz­ pose experimentation on live animals and, ing strays because, as co-founder Ross Feld­ more broadly, the inflicting of pain or death man notes, "this is an animal rights concern" upon animals for any research pw:poses-­ and, moreover, one that "has not been ad­ constitute the first class of organizations•. dressed by the movement." [60] The student (he of the more influentiall~sof this

organizationI s several thousand dollar yearly group, the American Anti-Vivisection Society inCCllle is funded by small donations, member­ (MVS) is also the oldest. Founded in 1883 ship dues, and the personal savings of its by caroline White under the influence of leaders, and part of its resources are given Francis Power Cobbe, the grande dame of Eng­ to direct rescue operations. SACA publishes lish anti-vivisectionists, the organization information on student organizations and confined its activities at first to Pennsyl­ groups, and it plans to extend its activities vania, despite its more ambitious title. in this area while enlarging its constituency Until this time, vivisection had not evolved through the support of alternative media into much of an issue in the United States, groups. because experimental J,ilysiology was still in its formative stages relative to British Several other AR groups may be included advancements. Consequently, the activities in the category of institutional-professional of MVS were initially regarded as exercises organizations by virtue of a ccmnon element in folly by the medical community With the which they share. One such unifying thread introduction of sane restrictive bills in the is religion. Religion, and particularly state legislature, the addition of several Christianity, has played a major historical apostates fran the field of science, the role in the justification and perpetuation of unexpected support of the media, and the the wrongful use and killing of animals, but increased activity of hmnane societies, MVS two organizations are challenging this trend. began to gain some respect, and by 1887 it Christians Helping Animals and People (CHAP) was issuing calls for the canplete elimina­ has the goal of fighting speciesism from a tion of vivisection. Christian perspective--"a canpassionate heart knows no species"--while Buddhists Concerned MVS remained firm in posture until the for Animals, Inc., (BCA) "sees consideration end of the century, but a number of trends BEIWEEN '!HE SPOCIES 182 and events transpired to weaken the organiza­ boycotts and lobby efforts, and finances tion and, concalllli.tantly, the anti-vivisec­ alternative research projects. In conjunc­ tion campaign, including a drop in member­ tion with several other groups, AAVS awarded ship, increased opposition fran the medical a $176,000 grant to the Medical College of profession, and the death of Henry Bergh, Pennsylvania to develop an alternative re­ foonder of the ASPCA, in 1888. The m::>st search method to the Draize irritancy test. significant factor contributing to the dimin­ The 10,000 member organization has also been ishing influence of the anti-vivisection a source of harassment to researchers at campaign is also a bete noir for the current Temple University and the Medical College of AR m::wement: the success and prestige of Pennsylvania. science and, particularly, the medical advan­ ces which were claimed to result fran experi­ The Coalition to End Animal SUffering in menting on animals. Animal research, many Experiments (CEASE) is a newer, smaller, and argue, led to the eradication of yellCM fever fairly militant organization formed initially in the southern part of the U.S., the control with the goal of eradicating vivisection. of tuberculosis, and the treatment of diabe­ CEASE is nCM, hCMever, a grass roots coali­ tes. [62] As these diseases were thwarted, tion dedicated to numerous animal issues. the credibility of the medical profession Qperating out of cambridge, Massachusetts, grew, while anti-vivisectionists were, and the group bases its actions on the belief still are in large part, seen as reactionary that 'animal experimentation represents not luddites. only a great IIDral crime but a scientific farce as well."[66] In its leaflets, the In 1983, AAVS celebrated its centennial group calls attention to the fact that the with a symposium entitled "100 Years Against. Federal government spends nearly four billion Cruelty: New Directions through Coopera­ dollars for animal experiments each year. tion." According to its panqillets, it still Formed in 1979, the coalition claims that it "opposes all fonns of cruelty to animals and is an independent entity which is not affili­ especially experimentation on animals for ated with or dependent upon any other anti­ medical or other 'scientific' research." vivisection societies. Many of its members It's goal is still the total abolition of belong, hCMever, to the Animal Rights Coali­ vivisection "wi.thout c::c.I1'!Pran:ises." Since the tion (ARC), an activist group with broader early days of experimentation in'the U.S., concerns than CEASE. when "there was sinply not Imlch of an enemy for anti-vivisection to battle,"[63] AAVS CEASE'S approach is three-fold and calls has been busy fighting many foes. The number for: (1) heightening public awareness though of animals used in laboratory experiments has education and denonstrations, (2) instigating increased exponentially since that time. In and maintaining public protest,and (3) initi­ the United Kingdan, where statistics are ating and supp:>rting radical reforms. 'To published on the number of animals used in this end, it participates in boycotts, inter­ laboratories each year, . the rate of increase acts with other groups through infcmnation, has been Plenanenal: in 1885, 797 animals and targets particular businesses for pre­ were killed, in 1910, 95,731; in 1930, test. "We work I1Dstly by outreach on the 450,822, in 1950, 1, 779,215; and in 1969, street," declares volunteer Jessica Kespohl. 5,418,929.[64] The corresponding figures for "Leafletting, setting up of tables for educa­ the United states in the latter time periods tional purposes, doing school programs, etc., would have been many times higher. people that's the 'grass roots' nature of for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, an AR CEASE. "[67] Finally't CEASE is quite candid group based in Washington, D.C., claims that and strong about the barriers which the or­ three animals die every second in U.S. labo­ ganization faces: ratories. We are fighting national and interna­ AAVS views itself mainly as a "stable, tional corporations which ccmnand huge unifying force with an increasingly active financ~cl1, legal, and legislative resour­ role in professional education efforts"[65] ces; we are fighting a CCt'IIlDn1y accepted in the AR m::wement. The group produces and value system which places the selfish distributes a wealth of infcmnation on AR interests of humans disproportionately issues, presents conferences, engages in above the rights of other animals •

183 BETWEEN 'mE SP:ocIES so that the human may abuse the nonhuman tant agreements: to inaugurate a nationwide relentlessly and without conscience; we student outreach program and to establish a are fighting pililic ignorance of the Scientific Research and Information Center horrendous techniques and scientifically which will canpile and correlate information pointless nature of animal research; and relating to animal experiments. This trend we are fighting canplacent personal ac• is obviously not a weloc::me sight to the medi­ ceptance among scientists and nonscien• cal eDraize Test, Advocates for Moral Reevaluation of Animal Experimentation (AM­ '!he second large anti-vivisection socie­ RAE), and the American Fund for Alternatives ty in the triumverate, which includes AAVS to Animal Research (AFAAR). The two coali­ and the National Anti-Vivisection Society tions are under the direction of pc7#1erful (NAVS), . is the New England Anti-Vivisection activist Henry Spira of New York and have Society (NEAVS) • NFAVS is a much IlDre tradi­ been especially influential forces, each tional organization and one that embodies canprising over 400 humane and AR organiza'­ many elements and practices which are IlDre tions. They have brought to the political analogous to animal welfare than to ani­ and pililic fore strong opposition toward two mal rights groups: it has a budget of IlDre controversial experimental tests. AMRAE, in than a million dollars, is cc.mposed of many Gainesville, Florida, argues that it is time senior citizens, lawyers, and professionals, for the anti-vivisection IlDvement to IlDve and does not oppose all fonns of vivisection, "fran the phase of data collection into the despite its name. Consequently, NEAVS has phase of decision-making."[70] AFAAR, under been a frequent subject of attack frc:m smal­ the direction of Ethel Thurston in New York, ler, IlDre radical organizations. en January has been an effective voice in the drive to 29, 1982, PErr'A and CEASE attempted to gain develop alternatives to animal experiments control of the large, wealthy organization at and has awarded a number of grants for IlDre NFAVS's annual election. PErr'A called NFAVS's than $100,000 to researchers seeking non­ work since 1972 a "do-nothing decade," and, animal tests. according to activist Ingrid Newkirk, the organization has a history of a "lack of accountability" to its 20,000 members. [69] After many speeches and arguments, tradition­ al elements retained control of NFAVS, in prrt because they had bussed in several hun­ dred members to vote. The event underscored the wide philosophical and organizational differences within the zoovement, and it also made clear the intentions of the IlDSt vocal and active segment of the movement. The IlDre moderate groups have apparently shown sane willingness to change their policies since that time, because both NAVS and NEAVS con­ tributed $10,000 to MFA'S 1983 primate ral­ lies. NFAVS also pledged $15,000 to support the making of Maria Carusello's anti-vivisec­ Factory farming issues provide another tion film, "Tools for Research" and awarded a major rallying point for individuals con­ Tuft's scientist $100,000 to do research for cerned about animals, since IlDSt of the in­ alternatives to the Draize test. There is stit~tional exploitation occurs in this area. also evidence that the three major anti­ ene of the IlDSt vocal and influential organi­ vivisection societies in this country are zations in this regard is Animal Liberation, beginning to cooperate IlDre effectively. At a federation of seven AR branches in six their 1983 meeting, they reached two impor- states and the capital territory of Austra­ BEIWEEN THE SPECIES 184 lia. started in 1976 by Christine Townsend, knew anything about it."[71] author of two books on animal issues, it has grown to gain international respect. '!he Finally, the Australian IIDVement seems branch -;in Victoria is representative of the to be nnre centrally Coordinated than the organization. This 800 member group is u.S. IIDVEIlIeIlt. Forty-five organizations, headed by Peter Singer, author of Animal canprising over 50,()()() individual members and Liberation, the IlDSt important and influen­ a majority of the more progressive groups tial 1lIIOrk on animal treatment issues to date. have formed the Australian.. Federation of Like the other branches, Animal Liberation in Animal Societies (AFAS) to unite the nation's Victoria can be classified as a radical, AR groups and to form a powerful lobby organ­ abolitionist, rights group which favors im­ ization at the federal level. AFAS has con­ mediate action over gradual change. '!he ducted detailed surveys of the positions of group engages in a diversity of tactics which parliamentary candidates in Victoria on ani­ range fran the political (lobbying efforts mal matters, m:mitored campaigns against the and use of law and courts) to the nnre educa­ exportatioo. of sheep, and attempted to ac­ tional (producing films and printed materi­ quire a tax-deductible status for donations al) • '!he members are very active in boycotts to animal groups. '!he nnvement's meet cx:moon and protests of factory farming, participat­ barriers, however, in the form of public ing in about five deDr:mstrations each year institutions and established humane socie­ with two to three htmdred activists. ties. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, for exanple, resents The Victoria branch also p.Jblishes Ani­ the media attention of Animal Liberation, ~ Liberation (foxmerly ~), the nation­ their nnre radical policies, and their emP'1a­ al journal of Animal liberation and Beauty sis on the necessity of vegetarianism. [72] Without Cruelty, with a print nm of about 6000 copies. The journal is like Im1ch of the Another major organization which focuses material disseminated by the AR Jnovement, a on food animals is American vegetarians, in i m:ixture of news, factual reports on animal Takana Park, Maryland. c.ne of the older AR abuse, legislation, and dem:mstraticns, enn­ organizations, American Vegetarians was tionally charged crltic:iSlB, and serious ];iri­ fonned. in 1947 and has b8Im effegti.,. .in losopucal and political discussioo.. A typi­ targeting t:hf:, practices of international cal issue carries a picture of an abused corporations. '!he group believes that the animal an the oover or woms like "The chick­ lOOSt powerful 'IDol of the AR. m:M3!IIIE!Ilt is the en in your freuer has more roan than it had extensive use of the media and ecananic b0y­ when it was alive" and contains articles cotts. In these regm:ds, American Vegetari­ about cruelty-free cosmetics, Kangaroo and ans has been very influential, for they spe­ sheep farming, and the emergence of tissue cialize in reaching thowumds of individuals culture studies. by calling into network talk shows and util­ izing press reJ.eases and public service The nature of the ~t in Australia spots. Their nnst important campaigns have appears to be sauewhat different fran the been the organi.za.tic:n of econanic boycotts xoovement in the u.S. First, the main issues against Burger King and McDonald's. These in Australia are predcmi.nantly centered boycott coalitions contain 170 and 180 dif­ around farm animals-the exportation of sheep ferent membership organizations, respective­ to the Middle Fast, the slaughtering of Kan­ ly. AccoJ:ding to President Nellie Shriver, garoos to produce toys or meat, and the pro­ such action is "faster than lobbying," be­ .duction of battery eggs and chicken-while cause corporatiQJlS respond IOOre· quickly to groups in the U.S. concentrate nnre heavily JOOnetary losses than to govenunent regula­ on experimentatioo.. Another major difference tions and public opinion. [73] Declares the is the Im1ch greater level of p.Jblic awareness group's newsletter with the nasthead of "Meat of factory farm candi.tions in Australia. An is Murder:" American activist visiting Australia is re­ corded in BaDe of the lII:M!IDeIlt literature as McDonald's is the biggest butcher in saying that "I have lived over twenty years the 1lIIOrld. Haw many cows are 45 billion in nlinois, where there were millions of buryers? Haw many units of suffering? caged hens vi.rtua.lly in my backyard, and it How many children die in our livestock was only after I m:>ved to Melbourne and came ecanany? Haw many rainforest trees have across a book called Animal Li.bercation that I been razed so that cows can be raised for 185 BEl'WEEN THE SPH;IF.'3 the cheap meat fast food U.S. market? Wales is, as U.S. chairperson Ethel '!hurston How many are suffering fran cancer, heart notes, "the cnly animal protection group disease, food poisoning?[74] which specializes in first learning [them]­ selves, then infonning the public as to which '!he pressure that these coalitions have ap­ fashions and cosmetics and toiletries involve plied to natiooal food chains appears to be suffering, ocmfinement or death to animals in relatively effective, because several popllar their manufacture of testing."[75] The 0r­ restaurants have introduced alternative food ganization also encourages people to boycott products. The Humane Fanning Association products which are not free fran anilIlal (BFA), based in San Francisco, is similarly cruelty. '!he name "Beauty Without cruelty" oc::mni.tted to protecting consumers fran the was coined by the founder of the organiza­ dangerous misuses of chemicals in food pr0­ tion, lady DoioJding, wife of the British Air duction and to eliminating the senseless Chief Marshall whose Hurricane and Spitfire suffering to which animals on factory fiU1llS fighters prevented Hitler fran entering Eng­ are subjected. Like FARM, BFA has initiated land in 1970. In 1959, she orqanized the a campaign against "milk-fed" veal. In con­ group, which presented imitation fur shows, junction with the campaign, the group has distributed infonnation on animal cruelty in sponsored such activities as a national +-j1" f"lRhion industry, "'"Ii eventuC".lly began a "Night on the Town" to protest selected res­ cosmetics c:c.mpany by the same name. Beauty taurants. Without Cruelty continues to sell and adver­ tise many alternative products, to support Two additional factory fann organiza­ legislation like the ~ PJ:otec:t.icn tions are the Fann Animal Refona Movement, Bill, which would ban the importation of Inc. (FARM) and Fann Animal Welfare Trust Kangaroo products into the U.S., and the bill (FACT). fARM is a natiooal public interest against the steel-jaw, leghold trap, and to organization which is dedicated to reducing engage in protests. and eliminating abuse in animal agriculture and its detrimental effects on world hunger, Since Beauty Without Cruelty is con­ natural resources, and the environnelt. FARM cerned about household products and fashions, lists as its programs the investigation of over eighty-five percent of its members and adverse impacts of factory fanning on the all of its staff are female. Their brochures economy, maintaining relevant legislation, depict in graphic fonn the suffering inflic­ training and m:>bilizing other groups, and ted on fur-bearing animals. Minks, for exam­ public infonnation efforts. FN::r has similar ple, are kept in very small cages ana often concems but is pr:l.marily an infonnation starve or freeze to death if they are not center on intensive livestock husbandry is­ first chloroformed, electrocuted, or gassed. sues. FN::r's bulletin, "Fact Sheet," is its '!he organization reports that due to breeding main political weapon and represents a compi­ efforts, about half of all minks are IID.1ta­ lation of infonnation and analysis of the tians which are susceptible to clm:r1ic disea­ effects of intensive animal fanning methods ses and defects, including total deafness, on the food supply, health, and the environ­ painfully defo:r:med reproductive organs, and ment. '!be increasing emP1asis on securing bleeding membranes. '!hese facts, pictures of accurate infonnation before taking action and anilIlal abuse, and efforts of IOOVie stars and the gathering awareness that fann animals celebrities appear to be successful in win­ account for mre than ninety percent of those ning IID.1ch support to the cause. At AR con­ which are killed augurs well for the DDve­ ferences, it is oc::moon to see buttons mente like "Real People wear Fake Furs."

At the present time, there are at least A smaller program called "Fashion with three other concerns which provide the raison canpassion," under the direction of profes­ d'etre and uniting force for an organization: sional IOOdel Marcia Pearson, is creatively the desire to abolish hunting, opposition to infonning the public about the availability clothing and cosmetics which depend upon and inportance of cruelty-free products, as animal death, and the pralDtion of an alter­ well. With respect to the future, Beauty native style of life. Beauty without Cruel­ Without Cruelty's policy goals parallel those ty, founded in England, with branches in New of many organizations in the IOOveIlIeIlt: to York, IDs Angeles, New Zealand, SCotland, and create a nexus of interwoven internal, legal, BElWEEN THE SPEX:IES 186 and extralegal. sanctions against the use and newsmagazine, plblishes and sells books on mistreatment of animals and animal products. vegetarianism and animal issues, and partici­ Thus, the aim of their appeal is not just to pates in activities like the World Vegetarian secure the enacbnent of legislation but also Congress. In its plblication, Ah:imsa, arti­ "to awaken your conscience to the inconceiva­ cles span such topics as Albert schweitzer's hle agonies" inflicted on animals and "to philosophy, Australia's sheep industry, and make wearing fur so criticized that this will an evaluation of Marxism and capitalism in substantially interfere with trapping and relation to the Gandhian view that just means ranching furs."[76] IlUlSt be used to attain good ends.[n]

The American Vegan Society (AVS), fanned Finally, one section of the I'OClVement is in 1960, exemplifies the redemptive and ideo­ united in its opposition to game hunting. logical elements which are present to a les­ The Ccmnittee to Abolish Sport Hunting ser extent in the movement in --toto. Their (CASH), with more than 2000 members and af­ interest in the well-being- of animals is filiates in four states, is at the vanguard emblematic of a broader concern which is of this cause. "Gaining the support of the ethical, political, and religious in nature. general plblic in the fight against sport' They seek not only to change institutions and hunting is vital" to the IlDveIlIeI1t, according practices but to change the attitudes, hab­ to CASH president, Luke Dam1ar. [78] In this its, and lives of their members. Vegetarian­ respect, the group has been instrumental in ism and veganism, the abstinence fran all reaching the plblic through the media and animal products, including milk, cheese, and Dcmnar's regular debates with representatives eggs, often requires a deep and lasting can­ of the hunting establishment. CASH'S most mitment which many individuals are either important success has been in the legal unable or unwilling to make. Since AVS wel­ field, where in 1983 it won an embattled two­ canes persons to join who have not made such year lawsuit to stop plans to allow the first a ccmni.tment, in this sense the group is not hunt in New York's Harriman state Park. The as p.u:ely redemptive or ideological as sane victory was a significant one, because CASH political organizations, like the student was pitted against sport hunting organiza­ Non-violent Coordinating camrl.ttee, but its tions which are financially well-endowed and outlook and purpose, in the main, may be supported by many federal and state politi­ classified as such, rather than as goal­ cians. Moreover, the case received much oriented. The foundation of AVS, the concept media attention for the AR cause. of Ahimsa, is indicative of its religio­ ideological underpinnings. "Ahimsa" is a Another strategy employed by those sanskrit word that means non-killing and non­ against hunting and trapping is the state injuring. In a more ocmprehensive fonn, referendmn. In November, 1983, a group however, it is a positive way of dealing with called save Maine's Only Official state Ani­ the exigencies of life. AVS has made the mal (SMCmA)gathered enough signatures to term into an acronym that epitanizes six place the issue of the IIDOse hunt on the pillars of the kind of life which they advo­ plblic ballot, the first time the status of a cate: Abstinence frcm animal products, Hann­ game animal was decided in this manner. Due lessness with reference toward life, Integri­ in part to the $400,000 pre-hunt caxqpaign of ty of thought, word, and deed, Mastery over their opponents, the results indicated, much oneself, Service to humankind, Advancement of to the dismay of AR advocates, that sixty understanding and truth. Each pillar, in percent of the voters wanted the IIDOSe to be turn, corresponds to a more positive approach hunted. Similar referenda have failed in to living: Abstinence frcm animal products, Ohio and Oregon, where the leghold trap sur­ for example, "is a meaningful, highly practi­ vived protest, and in South Dakota, where cal manifestation of the inward attitude of citizens voted in favor of dove hunting. kinship with all life, simple justice, or the

Golden Rule." Hunters, who ocmprise only about seven percent of the population in the U.S., repre­ AVS is a non-traditional AR organization sent one of the strongest and most well­ in these respects, but it also f\.irthers the organized opponents of the AR novement. For aims of the IlDveIlIeI1t by heightening con­ example, a report issued by the National sciousness about AR issues. It prints a Rifle Association and the Institute for Le-

187 BE:lWEEN 'mE SPECIES gislative Action which referred to Dormter as 44. Journal of American Veterinary "an aggressive vegetarian anti-hunter who Medical Association 173/9 (Nov. 1, 1973). seems intent upon forcing his lifestyle on others" was distributed to over"b.u million 45. Ibid., 182/6 (March 1, 1983), p. sportswriters, hunting groups, and hunt maga­ 444. zines. [79] Much of the debate that takes place between hunters and anti-hunters cen­ 46. Ibid., 182/12 (June 1, 1983). ters around factual questions like the ef­ fects of hunting on surplus animal popula­ 47. See BeDlard Rollin, ~ Rights tion. AR groups such as CASH claim that the and ~ Morality (Buffalo: Prometheus $500 million annual hunting business is Books, 1981), for an elaboration of this designed to create its own surplus of game distinction• animals for hunters, and a study conducted by two researchers in biology and wildlife law 48. Animal Rights: ~ and Views 2/2 concluded that "there does not exist anything (September, 1983), p. 3. denoted as surplus population which requires hunting." [80] 48. IDuise Williams, "D.V.M.s Threa­ tened by Euthanasia Backlash," DVM 14/2 Ultimately, the differences between (Feb., 1983). hunters and anti-hunters or non-hunters ap­ pears to be attitudinal rather than factual 50. The Animals' Agenda 3/6, (November/ in nature. People who strongly object to December, 1982), p. 15. sport hunting, including twenty-nine percent of the U.S. population, tend to exhibit more 51. See the March, 1983, issue of Ve­ humanistic and moralistic attitudes than terinary Economics for the affirmative legal hunters, according to Kellert' s study. This ruling on this case. fact, coupled with a general opposition to a wide variety of activities involving animal exploitation am::mg anti-hunters, suggests that ethical considerations are a more inipor­ tant basis for sentiment against hunting than FOR A FALCON an emotional attachment to animals. Anti­ hunters are most likely to be females, live SHOT BY A HUNTER IN ASSISI, in large, urban centers, and live on the ITALY eastern or western coast.[81] FEBRUARY 8. 1987 (To be continued in the next issue) Beauty grace and power Alling from the sky Terror in the eye, Notes A lonely cry. The sacred synmetry 40. '!he Animal Legal Defense Fund will Of wings defiled: be examined within the class of political­ The heavens sigh legal-legislative organizations. For falcons shot In flight and torn apart 41. AVM, Animal Rights: News and Views By hunters not yet reconciled 2/2 (September, 1983), p. 3; The Animals' With life or death Agenda 2/4 (July/August, 1982), p. 11. To reverence all in every breath, Or free of fear enough 42. The Animals' Agenda 3/3 (May/June, To put away their guns 1983), p. 26. And fly with falcons in the air.

43. AVAR, Animal Rights: ~ and Views 2/2 (Sept., 1983), p. 3; AVAR, June, 1981 Press Release, p. 1; The Animals' Agenda Michael W. Fox 2/4 (July/August, 1982), p. 11. BmWEEN THE SPECIES 188 52. see Richard Ryder, "Experiments on 1984. An:i.ma.ls," in An:i.ma.l Rights and Hmnan Obliga­ 68. Ibid. tions, edited by Peter Singer and Tan Regan (Englewood Cliffs: Preltice-Hal1, 1976). p. 69. The Animals' Agenda 2/3 (May/JWle, 35. 1982), p. 6; Harvard University Office of Govermnent and CCxmnJrlity Affairs, The Animal 53. Joumal of canparative and Physio­ Rights M::>vement in the United States, report logical psychology 78/2 (1972), p. 202. distributed by the International Society for Animal Rights (september, 1982), p. 18. 54. PsyErr'A brochure, "Animal Rights Groups Protest the APA." 70. Ibid., 2/4 (July/August, 1982), p. 3. 55. Kenneth Shapiro, response to ques­ tionnaire distributed by David Macauley, 71. The Animals' Agenda 3/2 (March/ November, 1983. April, 1983), p. 16.

56. Fdward Duvin, response to question­ 72. ~ 6 (Winter, 1982), 7 (Spring, naire distributed by David Macauley, Novem­ 1983). Qer, 1983. 73. Nellie Shriver, letter to David 57. Martin stephens, response to ques­ Macauley. February, 1984. tionnaire distributed by David Macauley, November, 1983. 74. "Meat is Murder," American Vegetar­ ians newsletter. 58. Rosa Feldman, response to question­ naire distributed by David Macauley, N0vem­ 75. Ethel Thurston, response to ques­ ber, 1983. tionnaire distributed by David J:IIlacauley, November, 1983. 59. studelt Action Corps for An:i.ma.ls, "SACA News" 1/2 and 2/1. 76. Beauty Without Cruelty, "News Ab­ stracts" leaflet (SUnmer, 1983), "The canpas­ 60. Rosa Feldman, response to question­ sianate Shopper" panq;X1let (Winter, 1983-84) , naire distributed by David Macauley, Novem­ "Please Excuse Me for Approaching You" leaf­ ber, 1983. let (no date). Also, The Animals' Agenda 1/2 (September/October, 1981), p. 9. 61. The An:i.ma.ls' Agenda 3/5 (september/ October, 1983(, p. 8. 77. American Vegan Society, ~ 22/2 (1981), 24/4 (1983), 25/1 (1984). 62. James 'I\lrner, Reckoning with the Beast (Ba1tinPre: Johns Hopkins University 78. The Animals' Agenda 2/2 (March! Press, 19SO), pp. 92, 117. April, 1982), p. 10.

63. "American Anti-Vivisection Society, 79. Ibid. 1883-1983--100 Years Against Cruelty: A Brief History," panq;X1let. so. David S. Faure and Gretche1 01sel, SUrplus Population: ~ Fallacious Basis for 64. Ryder, S2. cit., p. 43 Sport HWlting, published by the International Society for Animal Rights, (1982), p. 7. 65. AAVS, response to questionnaire distributed by David Macauley, November, 81. Ibid.; stephe1 R. Kel1ert, Policy 1983. Implications of ~ National Study of American Attitudes and Behavioral Relations ~ Animals 66. "CEASE," leaflet on the organiza­ (Department of Interior, u.S. Fish and Wild­ tion. life service, 1978), pp. 19-24; The Animals' Agenda 1/2 (September/October, 1981), 2/4 67. Letter to David Macauley fran Jes­ (March/April, 1982), 3/4 (July/August, 1983), sica Kespoh1, CEASE vo1Wlteer, January 21, and 4/1 (January/February, 1984). 189 BE:l'WEail THE SPECIES