Volume 2 – General Navigation (JAR Ref 061) Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1

The Form of the Earth

Shape of the Earth ...... 1-1 The Poles...... 1-2 East and West...... 1-2 North Pole and South Pole ...... 1-2 Cardinal Directions...... 1-3 Great Circle...... 1-3 Vertex of a Great Circle ...... 1-4 Small Circle...... 1-5 The Equator ...... 1-5 Meridians ...... 1-6 Parallels of Latitude ...... 1-6 Rhumb Line...... 1-7

CHAPTER 2

Position on the Earth

Angular Measurement...... 2-1 Position Reference System...... 2-2 Latitude and Longitude ...... 2-2 Latitude ...... 2-3 Longitude ...... 2-3 Position Using Latitude and Longitude...... 2-4 Change of Latitude (Ch Lat)...... 2-5 Calculation of Change of Latitude ...... 2-5 Mean Latitude: Mean Lat (Mlat) ...... 2-6 Change of Longitude (Ch Long)...... 2-7 Mean Longitude ...... 2-9 Answers to Position Examples...... 2-10

CHAPTER 3

Distance

Introduction ...... 3-1 Definitions ...... 3-1 Conversion Factors...... 3-2 Great Circle Distance...... 3-2 Departure (East – West Distance Calculation)...... 3-4 Distance Example Answers ...... 3-6

CHAPTER 4

Direction

Introduction ...... 4-1 Definitions ...... 4-1 True Direction...... 4-1 Magnetic Direction ...... 4-1 Variation...... 4-2 Variation – West...... 4-2 Variation – East...... 4-3 Isogonal ...... 4-4 The Agonic Line ...... 4-4 Deviation ...... 4-4 Deviation – West...... 4-5 Deviation – East...... 4-6 Relative Bearing...... 4-8 Direction Example Answers ...... 4-9

CHAPTER 5

Speed

Introduction ...... 5-1 Airspeed...... 5-1 Airspeed Indicator Reading (ASIR) ...... 5-1 Indicated Airspeed (IAS) ...... 5-1 Instrument Error ...... 5-1 Rectified Airspeed (RAS) ...... 5-2 Position Error ...... 5-2 Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)...... 5-2 True Airspeed (TAS) ...... 5-2 Density Error ...... 5-2 Groundspeed ...... 5-3 Mach Number...... 5-3 Summary of Speed ...... 5-3 Introduction to Relative Speed ...... 5-4

CHAPTER 6

Triangle of Velocities

Introduction ...... 6-1 The Components of the Triangle of Velocities ...... 6-1 The Air Vector ...... 6-1 The Wind Vector ...... 6-2 The Ground Vector...... 6-3 Answers to the Triangle of Velocities Examples...... 6-4

CHAPTER 7

Pooley’s CRP 5 – Circular Slide Rule

Introduction ...... 7-1 Multiplication, Division, and Ratios...... 7-2 Multiplication ...... 7-2 Division ...... 7-4 Ratios……………… ...... 7-5 Conversions...... 7-6 Feet – Metres – Yards ...... 7-7 Conversion between Weight and Volume ...... 7-8 Fahrenheit to Centigrade ...... 7-9 Speed, Distance, and Time...... 7-10 Groundspeed ...... 7-10 Time……………… ...... 7-10 Distance Travelled ...... 7-10 Calculation of TAS Up to 300 Knots...... 7-11 Calculation of TAS Over 300 Knots ...... 7-12 Calculation of TAS from Mach Number...... 7-13 Temperature Rise Scale ...... 7-15 Calculation of True Altitude...... 7-16 Calculation of Density Altitude ...... 7-17 Answers to CRP 5 Examples ...... 7-18

CHAPTER 8

Pooley’s – The Triangle of Velocities

Introduction ...... 8-1 Computer Terminology ...... 8-1 Tips for Usage...... 8-2 Drift Scale ...... 8-4 Obtaining Heading ...... 8-4 To Calculate Track and Groundspeed ...... 8-5 To Find the Wind Velocity ...... 8-7 To Find Heading and Groundspeed...... 8-8 Take-Off and Landing Wind Component...... 8-10 Tailwind Component ...... 8-12 Crosswind and Headwind Limits ...... 8-12

CHAPTER 9

Maps and Charts – Introduction

Introduction ...... 9-1 Properties of the Ideal Chart ...... 9-1 Shape of the Earth ...... 9-2 Vertical Datum ...... 9-2 Chart Construction ...... 9-2 Earth Convergence ...... 9-3 Calculation of Convergence...... 9-4 Map Classification...... 9-7 Scale...... 9-8 Distances ...... 9-8 Geodetic and Geocentric Latitude...... 9-10 Geodetic (Geographic) Latitude ...... 9-10 Geocentric Latitude...... 9-11 Maps and Charts Answers...... 9-12

CHAPTER 10

Maps and Charts – Mercator

Introduction ...... 10-1 Properties of the Mercator Chart...... 10-2 Scale ...... 10-2 Measurement of Distance ...... 10-3 Use of Chart...... 10-3 Plotting on a Mercator Chart ...... 10-3 Plotting Using VORs ...... 10-6 Summary of Plotting...... 10-7 Mercator Problems...... 10-8 Answers to Mercator Problems ...... 10-9

CHAPTER 11

Maps and Charts – Lambert’s Conformal

Introduction ...... 11-1 Conical Projection ...... 11-1 1/6 Rule...... 11-3 Meridians and Parallels...... 11-3 Constant of the Cone ...... 11-4 Properties of the Lambert’s Conformal...... 11-4 Plotting on a Lambert’s Conformal Chart ...... 11-5 Summary of Plotting of Bearings...... 11-7 Lambert’s Problems ...... 11-7 Answers to Lambert’s Problems...... 11-8

CHAPTER 12

Maps and Charts – Polar Stereographic

Introduction ...... 12-1 Shapes and Areas...... 12-2 Great Circle...... 12-2 Rhumb Line...... 12-2 Convergence...... 12-2 Scale ...... 12-2 Uses of the Polar Stereographic Chart...... 12-2 Grid and Plotting on a Polar Chart ...... 12-3 Aircraft Heading ...... 12-6 Answers to Polar Stereographic Examples ...... 12-11

CHAPTER 13

Maps and Charts – Transverse and Oblique Mercator

Introduction ...... 13-1 Transverse Mercator ...... 13-1 Oblique Mercator...... 13-3

CHAPTER 14

Maps and Charts – Summary

Mercator...... 14-1 Lambert’s Conformal...... 14-1 Polar Stereographic ...... 14-2 Transverse Mercator...... 14-2 Oblique Mercator ...... 14-3

CHAPTER 15

Pilot Navigation Technique

Introduction ...... 15-1 The Need for Accurate Flying ...... 15-1 Pre-Flight Planning ...... 15-1 Flight Planning Sequence ...... 15-2 Aircraft Performance ...... 15-2 Mental Dead Reckoning...... 15-2 Estimation of Track Error ...... 15-3 Correction for Track Error ...... 15-3 The 1 in 60 Rule...... 15-3 Estimation of TAS ...... 15-4 Chart Analysis and Chart Reading...... 15-4 Chart Scale ...... 15-5 Relief...... 15-5 Relative Values of Features...... 15-5 Principles of Chart Reading ...... 15-6 Direction...... 15-7 Distance...... 15-7 Anticipation of Landmarks...... 15-7 Identification of Features...... 15-7 Fixing by Chart Reading ...... 15-7 Chart Reading in Continuous Conditions ...... 15-8 Chart Reading at Unpredictable Intervals ...... 15-8 Use of Radio Aids ...... 15-8 ICAO Chart Symbols...... 15-9

CHAPTER 16

Relative Velocity

Introduction ...... 16-1 Aircraft on the Same or Opposite Tracks ...... 16-1 Calculations ...... 16-3 Meeting ...... 16-3 Overtaking...... 16-4 Speed Adjustment...... 16-5 Distance Between Beacons ...... 16-6 Graphical Solution for Calculating Relative Velocity ...... 16-7

CHAPTER 17

Principles of Plotting

Introduction ...... 17-1 Plotting Instruments ...... 17-1 Plotting Symbols ...... 17-1 The Track Plot...... 17-2 The Air Plot ...... 17-3 Restarting the Air Plot ...... 17-4 Establishment of Position...... 17-4 DR Position ...... 17-4 Track Plot Method...... 17-4 Air Plot Method...... 17-5 Fixing ...... 17-5 Position Lines...... 17-5 Sources of Position Lines...... 17-5 Plotting an NDB Position Line ...... 17-7 VOR/VDF Position Lines...... 17-8 DME Position Lines...... 17-9 Uses of Position Lines...... 17-9 Checking Track ...... 17-9 Checking Groundspeed/ETA ...... 17-10 Fixing by Position Lines ...... 17-10 Transferring Position Lines ...... 17-10 Radar Fixing...... 17-15 Climb and Descent...... 17-15 Climb ...... 17-15 Descent...... 17-16 Answers to Plotting Questions ...... 17-19

CHAPTER 18

Time

Introduction ...... 18-1 The Universe...... 18-1 Definition of Time ...... 18-2 Perihelion ...... 18-2 Aphelion ...... 18-2 Seasons of the Year...... 18-3 The Day ...... 18-3 The Apparent Solar Day...... 18-4 The Mean Sun...... 18-4 The Mean Solar Day ...... 18-4 The Civil Day...... 18-4 The Year ...... 18-4 Local Mean Time (LMT) ...... 18-5 Universal Co-Ordinated Time (UTC)...... 18-6 Conversion of LMT to UTC ...... 18-6 Standard Time...... 18-7 International Date Line ...... 18-7 Risings, Settings and Twilight ...... 18-9 Times of Visible Sunrise and Sunset...... 18-9 Twilight...... 18-9 Duration of Civil Twilight...... 18-10

CHAPTER 19

Point of Equal Time and Point of Safe Return and Radius of Action

Introduction ...... 19-1 Point of Equal Time...... 19-1 PET Formula...... 19-1 Engine Failure PET...... 19-3 Multi-Leg PET ...... 19-4 Two Leg PET ...... 19-4 Three Leg PET...... 19-6 Point of Safe Return...... 19-7 Single Leg PSR...... 19-8 Multi-Leg PSR...... 19-9 PSR with Variable Fuel Flow...... 19-10 Multi-Leg PSR with Variable Fuel Flow...... 19-11 Radius of Action...... 19-13 PET & PSR Answers ...... 19-14

CHAPTER 20

Aircraft Magnetism

Principles of Magnetism...... 20-1 Magnetic Properties ...... 20-1 Magnetic Moment ...... 20-2 Magnet in a Deflecting Field...... 20-3 Period of a Suspended Magnet...... 20-4 Hard Iron and Soft Iron ...... 20-4 Terrestrial Magnetism ...... 20-4 Magnetic Variation ...... 20-5 Magnetic Storms ...... 20-6 Magnetic Dip...... 20-6 Earth’s Total Magnetic Force ...... 20-7 Aircraft Magnetism ...... 20-8 Types of Aircraft Magnetism ...... 20-8 Hard Iron Magnetism ...... 20-8 Soft Iron Magnetism...... 20-8 Components of Hard Iron Magnetism ...... 20-8 Components of Soft Iron Magnetism...... 20-11 Determination of Deviation Coefficients ...... 20-12 Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JAR) Limits ...... 20-14 Compass Swing ...... 20-15 Deviation Compensation Devices ...... 20-17 Mechanical Compensation...... 20-17 Electrical Compensation ...... 20-18

CHAPTER 21

Aircraft Magnetism - Compasses

Direct Reading Magnetic Compass...... 21-1 Principle of Operation...... 21-1 Horizontality ...... 21-1 Sensitivity...... 21-1 Aperiodicity ...... 21-2 “E” Type Compass Description ...... 21-3 Serviceability Tests - Direct Reading Compass ...... 21-4 Acceleration and Turning Errors...... 21-4 Acceleration Error ...... 21-5 Turning Errors ...... 21-8 Gyro Magnetic Compasses...... 21-11 Basic Principle of Operation...... 21-11 Components...... 21-12 Flux Detector Element...... 21-12 Detector Unit ...... 21-16 Components of the Flux Detector Element ...... 21-16 Transmission System...... 21-17 Gyroscope and Indicator Monitoring ...... 21-18 Gyroscope Element...... 21-19 Heading Indicator...... 21-19 Modes of Operation...... 21-20 Synchronising Indicators ...... 21-20 Manual Synchronisation...... 21-20 Operation in a Turn ...... 21-20 Advantages of the Remote Indicating Gyro Magnetic Compass ...... 21-21 Disadvantages of the Remote Indicating Gyro Magnetic Compass ...... 21-21

CHAPTER 22

Inertial Navigation

Accelerometers ...... 22-1 Principles and Construction ...... 22-1 Performance ...... 22-3 Gyro Stabilised Platform ...... 22-3 Rate Gyros/Platform Stabilisation ...... 22-3 Setting-Up Procedures...... 22-4 Levelling...... 22-5 Alignment...... 22-5 Inertial Navigation System (Conventional Gyro) ...... 22-5 Corrections...... 22-7 Errors ...... 22-8 The Schuler Period ...... 22-8 Bounded Errors...... 22-8 Unbounded Errors...... 22-9 Inherent Errors ...... 22-9 Radial Error...... 22-9 Advantages...... 22-10 Disadvantages ...... 22-10 Operation of INS ...... 22-10 CDU ...... 22-11 Display Selection – TK/GS...... 22-12 Display Selection – HDG/GA ...... 22-13 Display Selector – XTK/TKE ...... 22-14 Display Selection – POS...... 22-15 Display Selection – WPT ...... 22-15 Display Selection – DIS/TIME...... 22-16 Display Selection – WIND...... 22-17 Display Selection - DSR TK/STS ...... 22-18 Display Function – TEST ...... 22-19 Display Format...... 22-19 Solid State Gyros ...... 22-20 Types of Solid State Gyros ...... 22-20 Ring Laser Gyro...... 22-20 Fibre Optic Gyros...... 22-21 Advantages and Disadvantage of RLGs ...... 22-21 “Strap-down” INS ...... 22-22 System Description ...... 22-22 Alignment...... 22-22 Performance ...... 22-22