· a History of Militarism Civilian and Military

· A History of Militarism Civilian and Military

· Revised Edition

ALFRED VAGTS

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Collier-Macmillan Canada, Ltd., Toronto, Ontario Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 59-7194

Published by arrangement with The World Publishing Company

FIRST FREE PRESS PAPBRBACK EDITION 1967 CONTENTS

Preface 11 ·, \

Introduction-The. I Idea and Nature of Militarism 13 The Distinction Between Militarism and the Military Way 13 Beginnings of Mass Militarism H Military History as a Phase of Militarism 23 The Uses and Lessons of Military History 32

PART I FROM TIIE FEUDAL WARRIOR TO THE MASS ARMY

1 From the Mounted Warrior to the Standing Army 41 The Breakdown of the Feudal Array 41 The Standing Army as an Institution of Militarism 45 The Standing Army as a Foundation for the Postfeudal Nobleman, His Living and His Honor 49 The Noble Officer and Education 52 The Nobleman's Price for Service: Monopoly of Military Posts and Prestige 57 Nobility and the French Army 60 Military Nobility in Prussia 62 Gentry and Army in England 65 Honor and Other Feudal Heritage in the Army 66 2 The Military Thought of the Enlightenment 75 Antimilitary Thought . 75 French and British Military Thought 78 German Military Thought· 84 3 The American Revolution Challenges the Standing Army 92 The Military Thought and Practice of the Revolutionary War 93 The Officer in the American Revolution 97 The Establishment of the American Military System 101 4 Mass Armies: The French Revolution and Napoleon 104 The Old Military System Breaks Down 105 The New Military Way Is Opened 107 Napoleon Turns the Mass System to Militaristic Ends 116 5 Mass Armies Employed in the Wars of Liberation Against Napoleon 129 · Prussian Reformers Seek to Awaken Mass Forces Against Napoleon 130 Reforms Are Instituted Without Revolution 137 British Military Renovations 143 Coalition Policies and the Austrian Way 148 PART II THE DEVELOPMENT AND MILITARIZATION OF MASS ARMIES

6 The Consolidation of Military Forces 155 Democracy Evolves No Philosophy or Agencies of Control Over the Military 158 Conservatives in Control of Military Affairs 166 The Guards 172 Honor in the Armies 175 Military Attaches 179 The Philosophy of War in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 180

7 Preparations for the Embattlement of Nations in the First World War 186 The Military in Prussia and the New German Empire 187 By His Successes in Handling Mass Armies Moltke Raises the Mili- tary in Popular Esteem 201 The Military Entrenched in the Constitutional System 203 The French Professional Army Is Tried Out Against the German Mass Army (1870-1) ' 207 Defeated by a Mass Army, France Tums to the Mass Army 215 Renovations in Great Britain and the United States 225

8 Militarism in the War of Embattled Nations 229 The Upsetting of Military Preconceptions 230 Officers and Civilians in the First World War 237 War Failure of the Aristocracy 245 Nationalism and Class Feeling in War 249 Struggles Within the Officer Class 265 Shifting Responsibility for the War and Its Outcome 275 Peacemaking by the Generals 288

PART III THE MILITARY AND POLmcs

9 Military Officers as Politicians 293 The Theory of the Military as Nonpolitical 294 The Politics of Promotion 297 Incapacity of the Military for Political Oratory ("La Grande Muette") 299 The Military and Journalism 303 The General as Politician 306 Military Men in Parliaments 308 The Conservatism of Military Politicians 312 Military Crisis Phenomena 316 10 Protection and Promotion of Military Interests Within the State · 323 ·-. The War Ministry and Confiicts Over the SerVices 324 Armies vs. Navies 328 Taxation for Armies 332 The General Staff as the Military Directorate 334 Planning for War 339 The Vision of the Short War 349 The Military Utility of Ex-Soldiers' Organizations and Special Leagues 355 11 The Military as Guarantors of National Security 360 Armament "Insurance" and War Scares 360 The Theory and Practice of Total Mobilization for War 365 Neglect of Domestic War Potentials 375 Armies and Imperialism 383 Restraints on Armaments ~90

PART IV THE POST-1918 MILITARIZATION OF SOCIETY

12 Totalitarian Militarism 4Q7 Officers and Fascisms 4 10 Parliaments and Preparedness 416 The End of Disarmament 423 The Organization of Economy for War in Germany 426 Militarization and Economy in Other Countries 432 Psychological Aspects of Militarization 436 Militarization of Education 438 Race, Honor, and War 442 International Honor and W11r 446 13 The Militarism of the Civilians 451 A Gallery of Civilian Militarists 453 Armies at the Doors to Power 458 Totalitarian Control Over Armed Forces 460 Civilians in Command 463 Commanders-in-Chief and Chiefs of Staff 467 The Fiihrer as Feldherr 469 The Duce as War Lord 472 Prime Minister and Army 473 F.D.R. as Commander-in-Chief 474 Marshal Stalin 475 . Soldier Militarism and Nonmilitarism-the Second World War 477 14 Militarism after 1945 484 Notes 495 Bibliography 525 Index 533