The Formation of the European Healthcare Systems and Veterinary Medicine in Mongolia in the 19Th-20Th Centuries Sergey A
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History of Medicine. 2017. Vol. 4. № 1. 10.17720/2409-5834.v4.1.2017.05e The formation of the European healthcare systems and veterinary medicine in Mongolia in the 19th-20th centuries Sergey A. Filin Plehanov Russian University of Economic 36 Stremyanny lane, Moscow 117997, Russia The author examines the evolutionary phases of the European healthcare systems and veterinary medicine in Mongolia in the 19th-20th centuries. He attempts to outline the background and the fundamental moments in the transition from Mongoliaʼs traditional system of providing the population with medical aid, which was based on the principles of Tibetan and folk medicine, to the European type. The article concludes that the new Mongolian healthcare system was established in consideration of the achievements of national medicine, combining traditional and European principles of providing the population with medical aid. In the first quarter of the 20th century most of the Mongolian population suffered from socially significant diseases, which resulted in a drastic decline of the indigenous population and the deterioration of social-hygienic conditions. Traditional Mongolian healing methods were ineffective in treating venereal and other extremely dangerous infectious diseases, which had become epidemic (in the cities at least 40% of the population had contracted syphilis and at least 50% had contracted gonorrhea). Russian doctors, who were employing the latest medical breakthroughs, were able to cure the Mongolian population of venereal diseases and chickenpox. As a result of the fruitful cooperation with the Russian specialists Mongolia established a European healthcare system, also using the achievements of Tibetan medicine. Together with the establishment of the European healthcare system Mongolia also undertook steps to create a modern veterinary service, whose breakthroughs were supposed to protect the people from animal-transmitted diseases. Keywords: history of healthcare, veterinary medicine, the Mongolian populationʼs recovery, Tibetan medicine For quotation: Filin S.A. The formation of the European healthcare systems and veterinary medicine in Mongolia in the 19th-20th centuries. History of Medicine. 2017. Vol. 4. № 1. P. 43–50. About the author Sergey Alexandrovich Filin – Doctor of Economical Sciences, Associate Professor, Professor of Plehanov Russian University of Economics (Moscow). E-mail: fi lin.sa@rea.ru One of the fi rst mentions of ties between Russia all Russia, (a position he held from 1354 to 1378) and Mongolia in the fi eld of medicine relates to the cured Taidula, mother of Jani Beg Khan of the 13th century. Berke Khan 1 of the Golden Horde 2 Golden Horde (who reigned from 1342 to 1357), (who ruled from 1255 to 1266) [1, p. 503–507] of blindness (“sickness of the eyes”) [2]. This asked Bishop Kirill of Rostov for help in curing episode is one of those illustrated on the icon “St. his sick son.3 In 1357, Alexius, Metropolitan of Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow, with Scenes from His Life” (in the image “A miracle of Saint 1 The Ulus of Jochi, known by its Turkic name “Ulu Alexius, who healed a Muslim queen with his Ulus” (“Great State”) in Eurasia, was part of the Mongol prayers”), a copy of which (dating from 1480) is Empire from 1224 to 1266. in the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow 2 Berke (1209–1266), called Berkai in Russian chronicles, was Kremlin. the third son of Jochi and a grandson of Genghis Khan, as well As we will see below, there were no specialised as the brother of Batu Khan. medical schools in Mongolia before the end of 3 The bishop consecrated some water at the shrine of Saint the 1920s. At certain large monastic institutions, Leonius in Rostov and brought it with him to the Horde. After sprinkling the Khan’s son with this water, Kirill read a prayer and the lamas studied medicine as well as theology said to the Khan “Your son will live and become as strong as you.” and astrology. There were three levels, or stages, 4 See The Life of Tsarevich Peter of the Horde URL: http://www. to their education. First, they studied general oocities.org/edinulus/ordyn_tsarevic.html [in Russian]. 4 Education at a monastic school in Mongolia could be Received: 29.12.2016 divided into three stages: lower, middle and higher. The lower © S.A. Filin stage lasted for 7–8 years, the middle for 10. There were 43 Sergey A. Filin medicine and theology. At the second stage, large monastery, obtained from Osipov everything they began specialising: general theology was required for bloodletting, then a popular method not compulsory for future emches (doctors). of treatment against many illnesses in Russia. Tibetan medicine was taught from books and Osipov was the fi rst person in Mongolia to from the personal experience of the emch doing vaccinate against smallpox. As he could not do the teaching. In 1869, the Mongolian lama all these vaccinations himself, he began training Choi-Manramba began to lead instruction in locals. Captain Boborykin asked for a doctor to Indo-Tibetan medicine at the Tsugol Datsan be sent to the Russian consulate, arguing that this (monastery). Special schools with faculties of would be “a kind and Christian act… with regard medicine (manba), philosophy (tsanid) and to this poor people”. Osipov was also assisted by tantrism (jüd) were opened, and the most talented Russian merchants, who carried out vaccinations and outstanding graduates were awarded the on their own initiative, taking pity on the Mongols, academic degrees of gebshi and gabju.5 who were helpless against serious diseases [4]. For The state of public health in Mongolia, and example, in 1892 G. N. Potanin wrote of a merchant the prevalence there of such serious diseases who “combined a cultural mission with his trading as typhoid, smallpox and syphilis, made a activity: he vaccinated anyone who wanted against discouraging impression on the Russians. For smallpox. Mongols everywhere greeted him example, Captain Konstantin Boborykin, like a dear friend.” When smallpox was raging adjutant to Emperor Alexander II’s chief of staff , through Kobdo (now Khovd) Province, one of the and, from 1861 to 1864, Russia’s fi rst consul in local lamas, who had heard about vaccinations, Urga (now Ulaanbaatar),6 wrote: “Whatever they proposed his own treatment method: he injected say about the medicine of Tibet and the art of the pus from a smallpox suff erer into a healthy person. lama doctors, that medicine is worthless, and the D. N. Yermolin, an agent for Nikolai Assanov, a lamas know-nothings and fraudsters.” [3]. The merchant from Biysk, brought some variolovaccine only remedy used in an outbreak of smallpox was from Russia and off ered to vaccinate people with isolation: the patient and their family members it, explaining that the lamas’ treatment would not were left alone on the steppe, and no one was save them from death, but his would help them to permitted to see the Khutugtu, the religious get better. Reports that Yermolin was saving people leader, and most respected fi gure, of the Lamaists. spread rapidly, and thousands of Mongols came to Russian doctors made a signifi cant contribution him. He spent whole days performing vaccinations, to the establishment and development of European seeing hundreds of people a day. They brought him medicine in Mongolia. As traditional Mongolian gifts and money,7 and he was famed as “the kind treatment methods were ineff ective against a range Russian saviour”.8 of illnesses (primarily acute infectious diseases), The Mongols were not afraid of the Russian when a feldsher (auxiliary health worker) by the health workers, and received treatment from them name of Osipov came to the Russian embassy he willingly: when Pyotr Kornievsky, a health worker was visited not only by sick Mongols, but also by at the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission, travelled lama doctors eager to learn from him (to “adopt from Peking (Beij ing) through Urga, Mongols best practices”). Some Mongol khans sent their queued up to be seen by him. relatives, lamas, and so on, to the consulate to The fact that Russian subjects were prohibited study Russian medicine; one lama, the head of a from having permanent shops, storage facilities and accommodation in Mongolia hampered exams at the end of each academic year. The higher stage them from providing healthcare support for lasted for 20 years. The most gifted pupils continued their their compatriots living in Mongolia, and from education in various specialist fi elds (studying individual organising medical services for the Mongolian aspects of theology and philosophy) and, on completing the course, received the religious title of agimba. 5 Equivalent to a PhD and a doctorate. 7 For example, in Kobdo Province a vaccination cost 1 ruble 43 6 The city was founded in the state of Mongolia in 1639 as a kopecks at the pre-revolutionary exchange rate, a considerable Buddhist monastery. (“Urga”, as it was known in Russian and sum for the Mongols [5]. European literature until 1924, derives from the Mongolian 8 See N. E. Yedinarkhova: “The Russians in Mongolia”. “Örgöö” (“palace” or “camp”.) URL: http://ricolor.org/rz/mongolia/mr/3/ [in Russian]. 44 History of Medicine. 2016. Vol. 4. № 1 population. Aleksandr Svechnikov, a veterinarian However, there was also a diff erent opinion: from Troitskosavsk (now Kyakhta), wrote: Ivan Maisky believed that the Mongol population “People have been trading in Mongolia for had remained practically unchanged for centuries. decades; they live there almost permanently, According to his observations,