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Home , Battle of Chausa, Nishat Bagh, Tansen

MEDIEVAL 2021

Table Of Content Titles Page No

Architecture in Pallava ...... 1

Important Battles ...... 2

Mughal Painting ...... 5

Formation Of New States ...... 13

After Death Of Harsha : Early Medieval India ...... 22

How came to India? ...... 25

Delhi Sultanate ...... 28

Architecture ...... 33

India Under The Sultanate ...... 38

Bhakti Movement ...... 44

Sufism ...... 45

Bhakti Saints Of South India ...... 47

Guru Nanak (1469-1539) ...... 49

Importance Of The ...... 51

Foundation of Vijayanagar ...... 52

Bahmani Kingdom ...... 56

Foreign Travelers ...... 57

The ...... 59

Humayun ...... 60

India Under The Mughals ...... 65

Growth of Trade ...... 66

MEDIEVAL INDIA 2021

Table Of Content

Titles Page No

Trade ...... 67

Literature ...... 69

Delhi Sultanate Architecture ...... 69

Lodhi Architecture ...... 70

Mughal Architecture ...... 72

Taj Mahal ...... 74

MEDIEVAL INDIA 2021

Architecture in Pallava Chola Empire

• It was a great age of temple • Caste system was widely building. The Pallavas introduced prevalent during the Chola the art of excavating temples from period. Brahmins and the rock. In fact, the Dravidian Kshatriyas enjoyed special style of temple architecture began privileges. The inscriptions of the with the Pallava rule. later period of the Chola rule • Mahendravarman I introduced mention about two major the rock-cut temples. This style of divisions among the castes – Pallava temples are seen at places Valangai and Idangaicastes. like Mandagappattu, • However, there was cooperation ahendravadi, Mamandur, among various castes and sub- Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, castes in social and religious life. Vallam, Siyamangalam and The position of women did not Tirukalukkunram. improve. The practice of ‘sati’ was • The second stage of Pallava prevalent among the royal architecture is represented by the families. monolithic rathas and Mandapas • The devadasi system or dancing found at Mamallapuram. girls attached to temples emerged • Narasimhavarman I took the during this period. credit for these wonderful • Both Saivism and architectural monuments. The continued to five rathas, popularly called as flourish during the Chola the Panchapanadava rathas, period. A number of temples signifies five different styles of were built with the patronage of temple architecture. Chola kings and queen

Vijayanagara Kingdom Foreign Travellers

• The most striking feature about However, among these travellers, only the location of Vijayanagara is the Duarte Barbosa and Dominigo natural basin formed by the river Paes visited Vijayanagar during Tungabhadra which flows in a the reign of Deva Raya. Try north-easterly direction. to know about other foreign travelers • The surrounding landscape is visiting different emperors/kings. characterised by stunning granite hills that seem to form a girdle Bhakti Movement around the city. A number of streams flow down to the river Sankara from these rocky outcrops. In • 11thcentury – started a Hindu almost all cases embankments revivalist movement giving a new were built along these streams to orientation to Hinduism. create reservoirs of varying sizes. • Born – Kaladi in Kerala. • Gave doctrine of Advaita or Monism.

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• He taught that Brahma, the only world is not an illusion but a or Ultimate Reality, was formless reality. God, soul, matter are and without any attributes i.e. unique in nature. Nirguna Brahma (god without • Nimbarka and attributes) Vallabhacharya are other • He considered the world around preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti us to be an illusion or maya. in the Telungana region. • According to him to understand • Krishna Deva Raya was the the true nature of Brahman and ruler of Vijayanagar during the attain salvation –renunciate the period of 1ST battle of Panipat. world and adopt the path of • Krishna Deva Raya reign lasts up knowledge. to 1530 and the 1St battle of Panipat happened in 1526. Ramanuja • This battle was fought between and Ibrahim Lodi resulting • 12thcentury – gave doctrine of in establishing of Mughal Empire Visishtadvaita or qualified in India. oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme Important Battles God remained distinct. • Born – Sriperumbudur near Battle of Panipat modern Chennai. • According to him God is There have been three Battles of Sagunabrahman. Panipat • Creative process and all the • The 1st Battle of Panipat (1526), objects in creation are real but between Babur and the Delhi not illusory. Therefore, God, Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, resulting soul, matter are real. in a Victory of Mughals. • He also advocated • The 2nd Battle of Panipat (1556), prabattimarga or path of self- betweenthe Mughal Ruler surrender to God. and , theHindu • To attain salvation - through ruler of North India from Delhi, intense devotion to . resulting in a Mughal victory. • The 3rdBattle of Panipat (1761), Madhava betweenthe Durrani Empire of Ahmad Shah Abdali of • 13th century - propagated Dvaita Afghanistan and the Maratha or dualism of Jivatma and Empire of Balaji Baji Rao, Paramatma. resulting indecisive Afghan • Born - Pajaka near Udupi, a victory. coastal Malabar region of south- west India in the state of Battle of Khanua Karnataka. • God is Sagunabrahma. • Fought between - Rana Sangha of • According to his philosophy, the Mewar, a great Rajput warrior, and Babur in 1527.

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• Result - Babur won a decisive Raya, did on ascending the throne victory over ana. was to put a stoptothe regular loot • Babur assumed the title Ghazi. and raid, affairs by the Bahmanis. • Ghazi mean a Muslim fighter • The raiding Bahmani army of against non– Muslims. Bijapur was decisively routed at the Battle of Diwaniand Krishna Deva Raya, went in hotpursuit of the Bahmani Sultan,Yusuf • Fought between – Babur and AdilShah. Rajput ruler Medini Rai at • The retreating Bijapur sultan, Chanderi in 1528. Yusuf AdilShah, was defeated and • Result – Babur won. killed at Kovilkonda,it was a crushing blow for the Bijapur Battle of Ghagra forces. • Narasa Nayaka was the founder of • Fought between - Babur and TuluvaDynasty. Afghans (Mahmud Lodhi) near • Sadasiva Raya was the last ruler the confluence ofGangaand of Tuluva Dyansty. Ghagra in Bihar in 1529. • Result - Babur won. Firoz Shah Tughlaq

According to Ain-i-Akbari land was We know of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in classified as – partthrough his 32-page autobiography, titledFutuhat-efirozshahi. 1. Polaj – It was land which is annually cultivated for each crop in succession • He was 45 when he became and is never allowed to lie fallow. Sultan of Delhi in 1351. He ruled 2. Parauti – land left out of cultivation until 1388. At his succession, after fora time that it may recover its strength. the death of Muhammad Tughlaq, 3.Chachar – land that has lain fallow he faced many rebellions, forthree or four years. including in Bengal, Gujarat and 4. Banjar - land uncultivated for five Warangal. years and more. • Nonetheless he worked to improve the infrastructure of the Of the first two kinds of land, there are empire building canals, three classes, good, middling, and bad. resthouses and hospitals, creating Third of this represents the medium and refurbishing reservoirs and produce, one-third part of which is digging wells. He founded several exacted as the Royal dues. cities around Delhi, including Jaunpur, Ferozpur, Hissar, Harihara Firuzabad, Fatehabad. • Most of Firozabad was destroyed • Harihara was the founder of the as subsequent rulers dismantled Vijaynagar Empire and Sangama its buildings and reusedthe spolia Dynasty. as building materials and the rest • The first thing Sri Krishnadeva was subsumed as New Delhi

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grew. Hind • He built Firoz Shah Palace • He consulted scholars to Complex at Hisar in 1354 CE,over prepare this account. 300 villages and dug five • Raskhan is widely acknowledged majorcanals, including the as a great poet, having dedicated renovation of Prithviraj Chauhan most of his creations to Lord era Western Yamuna Canal, for Krishna. irrigation bringing more land • Sujan Raskhan and Prem under cultivation for growing Vatika are someof his available grain and fruit. creations. • Firoz was 1stsultan of Delhi to • Raskhan Rachnavali is the impose Jaziya. collection of Raskhan's poetry. • In the beginning Jaziya was His creations describe the beauty collected as art of land tax. of not only Lord Krishna but also • During Firoz Tughlaq’s period it his relations with his beloved was collected as a separate tax. Radha. • His poetry is in the form of Doha, Padawali and Savayya. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq Balban He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri (which he renamed Daulatabad • Balban ascended the throne in 1266. Sikander Lodhi • He broke the power of Chalisa and resorted the prestige of the He moved the capital from Delhi to new crown. That was his greatest city because he thought he would have contribution towards the stability better control over kingdom. This city of the Sultanate. later became famous as Agra. • To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies. Ahmad Wali Shah • He created a strong centralised army to deal with internal Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital disturbances and to cheek from Gulbarga to Bidar. Mongols who were posing a serious danger to Delhi Sultante. Al Biruni is the author of the book • He established the military Kitab-ul-Hind. department Diwani-i-Arz

• Mahmud of Ghazni was The Persian court model interested in finding out more influenced balban's conception of about the people he Raskhan Kingship. He took up thetitle of conquered, and entrusted a Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God) scholar named Al-Baruni to write an account of Indian • He destroyed Mewati Rajputa subcontinent. brigandagein the doab, where • And so Al-Baruni wrote Kitab-ul

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forests were cut and forts built. • In his last days he overlooked Sultanate affairs due to death of his eldest and most loving son, Muhammad and rebellion by his • The contribution of Mughals to closed and most loved slave, the art of painting was Tughril. Muhammad died remarkable. The foundation fighting Mongolians in 1285 and for the Mughal painting was Tughril was captured and laid by when he was beheaded. staying in Persia. • He brought with him two painters Deccan Sultanates – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India. These two By the year 1526, the Bahmani kingdom painters became famous during had disintegrated into five independent Akbar’s reign. Akbar sultanates – Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, commissioned the illustrations of Berar, Golkonda and Bidar. These 5 several literary and religious states are known as Deccan texts. He invited a large number Sultanates. of painters from different parts of the country to his court. Both Fawazil in Sulatanate Period means Hindus and Muslims joined in Excessamount paid to the exchequer by this work. the iqtadars. • Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Ibn Batuta Akabar’s court artists. Illustrations of Persian versions • He was a Moroccan traveler, born of Mahabharata and Ramayana in Tangier. were produced in miniature form. • He set off for India in 1332-33. Many other Indian fables became • He had already travelled the miniature paintings in the Art extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Studio established by Akbar. Yemen, Oman and a few trading • Historical works such as Akbar ports on the coast of East Africa. Nama also remained the main • He had heard about Muhammad themes of Mughal paintings. The bin Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi most important work is and wanted to meet him. Hamznama, which consisted • The Sultan was impressed by his 1200 paintings. Indian colours scholarship, and appointed him such as peacock blue, Indian red the qazi or judge of Delhi. began to be used. • He had visited to China, Malabar coast, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Mughal paintings reached its Sumatara. climax during the reign of • Ibn Battuta was attacked by . bands of robbers several times. In fact, he preferred travelling in a • He employed a number of caravan along with companions painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan

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Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar, Some of the important buildings in Govardhan and Ustad Mansur. this city, both religious and secular Apart from painting the scenes of are: Jodha Bhai's Palace : This is hunting, battles and royal courts, the largest palace in the progress was made in portrait seraglio, connected to the minor painting and paintings of animals. haramsara (where the less important Many albums containing harem ladies and maids would have paintings and calligraphy were resided) quarters. The main entrance is produced during the Mughal double storied, projecting out of the period. Later, the influence of facade to create a kind of porch leading European painting could be seen. into a recessed entrance with a balcony. • Ittimaddaulah Tomb is a Inside there is a quadrangle surrounded Mughal mausoleum in the city of by rooms. The columns of rooms are Agra in the Indian state of Uttar ornamented with a variety of Hindu Pradesh. Often described as a sculptural motifs. The glazed tiles on the "jewel box", sometimes called the roofs from Multan have an eye catching "Baby Taj", the tomb ofI'timad- shade of turquoise. The mosque was ud-Daulah is often regarded as a built in honour of Jodha Bai, mother of draft of the . Along with Jahangir and wife of Akbar. Her Mughal the main building, the structure name was Mariyam Zamani Begum and consists of numerous this being the reason that the mosque outbuildings and gardens. was built in her honor in Lahore’s walled • The tomb, built between 1622 and city. Jahangir built his mother Mariyam 1628 represents a transition Zamani Begum’s mosque and is just 1 between the first phase of km away from the tomb of Akbar near monumental Agra at a place called Sikandra. – primarily built from red sandstone with marble Panch Mahal decorations, as in Humayun's Tomb in Delhi and Akbar's tomb A five-storied palatial structure, with the in Sikandra – to its second phase, tiers gradually diminishing in size, till based on white marble and pietra the final one, which is a single dura inlay, most elegantly large-domed chhatri. Originally pierced realized in the TajMahal. stone screens faced the facade and probably sub-divided the interior as Fatehpur Sikri is a town in the Agra well, suggesting it was built for the ladies District of Uttar Pradesh, India. The city of the court. The floors are supported by was founded in the year 1569 by the intricately carved columns on each level, Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great, and totaling to 176 served as the capital of the Mughal columns in all. Empire from 1571 to 1585. Fatehpur Sikri is one of the best preserved Buland Darwaza examplesof Mughal architecture in India. • It is also known as the Gate of Magnificence and was built by Akbar in 1576 A.D at

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FatehpurSikri. Akbar built the complex, is the locally quarried red Buland Darwaza to commemorate sandstone, known as 'Sikri sandstone'. his victory over Gujarat and the Deccan. Language and Literature during • It is 40 metres high and 50 Mughal Period metres from the ground. The total • Persian language became height of the Structure is about 54 widespread in the Mughal Empire metres from the ground level. Set by the time of Akbar’sreign. Abul into the south wall of Fazl was a great scholar and congregational mosque, the historian of his period. He set a Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri style of prose writing and it was is 55 metres (180 ft) high, from followed by many generations. the outside, gradually making a • Many historical works were transition to a human scale in the written during this period. They inside. include Ain-i-Akbari andAkabar • The gate was added around five Nama authored by Abul Fazl. The years after the completion of the leading poet of that period was his mosque. 1576-1577 as a victory brother Abul Faizi. The arch, to commemorate Akbar's translation of Mahabharata into successful Gujarat campaign. It the Persian language was done carries two inscriptions in the under his supervision. Utbi and archway, one of which reads: "Isa, Naziri were the two other leading Son of Mariam said. Persian poets. • The world is a bridge, pass over it, • Jahangir’s autobiography, but build no houses on it. He who Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for hopes for an hour may hope for its style. He also patronized many eternity. The world endures but scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib an hour. Spend it in prayer, for Khan and Niamatullah. Shah the rest is unseen". The central Jahan also patronized many portico comprises three arched writers and historians like Abdul entrances, with the largest one, in Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah the centre, is known locally as the Nama and who wrote Horseshoe Gate, after the custom Nama. of nailing horseshoes to its large • His son wooden doors for luck. Outside translated the Bhagavat Gita the giant steps of the Buland and Upanishads into the Darwaza to the left is a deep well. Persian language. Many Buland Darwaza dominates the historical works were written landscape. Historian `Abd al- during the reign of Aurangazeb. Qadir Bada'uni writes that it was Famous dictionaries ofthe Persian the highest gateway in Hindustan language were also compiled at that time until today. during the Mughal period. • Regional languages such as The building material used in all the Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, palace-city Gujarathi had also developed during this period. Many

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devotional works including the joined the Akbar court, and his Ramayana and Mahabharata performances became a subject of were translated into regional many court historians. languages. From the time of Akbar, poets were attached Mughal Architecture to the Mughal court. The most • The architecture of the Mughals influential Hindi poet was includes the magnificent forts, Tulsidas, who wrote the palaces, public buildings, Hindi version of the mosques and mausoleums. The Ramayana, the Mughals were fond of laying Ramcharitmanas. gardens with running water. • Some of the such Tansen as the Bagh in , the Shalimar Baghat Lahore and • Music had well developed under the Pinjore garden in the Punjab the Mughals. Akbar patronized have survived even today. During Tansen of . the reign of Sher Shah, the • Tansen composed many . mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar Jahangir and Shah Jahan were and the Purana Qila near Delhi also fond of music. were built. These two monuments • Tansen, also referred to as Tan are considered as the Sen or Mian Tansen, was a architectural marvels of medieval prominent figure of North Indian India. (Hindustani) classical music. • Large scale construction of Born in a Hindu family, he learnt buildings started with the advent and perfected hisart in the of Akbar. He built many forts and northwest region of modern the most famous one was the Agra . Fort. It was built in red • He began his career and spent sandstone. His other forts are at most of his adult life in the court Lahore and Allahabad. and took patronage of the Hindu king of Rewa State, Ram Chand, The famous at Delhi with where Tansen's musical abilities its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and and studies gained widespread Diwan-i-Khas washis creation. fame. This reputation brought him to the attention of the During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s Mughal Emperor Akbar, who sent tomb was built at Delhi and it had a messengers to Ram Chand massive dome of marble. It may be requesting Tansen to join the considered the precursor of the Taj musicians at the Mughal court. Mahal. Akbar’s tombat Sikandara near Tansen did not want to go, Ram Agra was completed by Jahangir. Chand encouraged him to gain wider audience, and sent him built the tomb of along with gifts to Akbar. In 1562, Itimaddaulah at Agra. It was constructed about the age of 60, the wholly of white marble with floral Vaishnava musician Tansen designs made of semi-precious stones on

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the walls. This type of decoration was to be called the Marwaris. called pietra dura. This method became Multanis, Khatris and Afghanis more popular during the reign of Shah conducted trade with central Asia. Jahan. The pietra dura method was used • In south India, the Chettis on the on a large scale in the TajMahal by Shah Coramandal coast and the Jahan. Taj Mahal is considered a jewel of Muslim merchants of Malabar the builder’s art. Taj Mahal contains were the most important trading all the architectural forms communities. developed by the Mughals. Mosque building had reached its peak Mansabdari System during Shah Jahan’s reign. The Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white The 'Mansabdari system 'was the marble. The Jama Masjid at Delhi administrative system of the Mughal was built in redstone. The Mughal Empire introduced by Akbar in 1572 architectural traditions continued in the A.D. eighteenth and early nineteenth century. • The lowest rank was 10 and the Their influence in the provincial highest was 5000 for the nobles. kingdoms is clearly visible. Many Princes of royal blood received features of Mughal tradition can be seen even higher ranks. The ranks in the Golden Temple at Amritsar. were divided into two – zat and sawar. Banjaras • Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person. • The Indian trading classes during Sawar rank indicated the number Mughal period were large in of cavalrymen of a person who numbers and spread throughout was required to maintain. Every the country. They were well sawar had to maintain at least two organized and highly horses. The mansab rank was professional. Seth, bohra traders not hereditary. All specialized in long distance trade appointments and promotions as while local traders were called well as dismissals were directly banik. made by the emperor. • Another class of traders was • Towards the end of the reign it known as banjaras, who was raised to 7,000. According to specialized in carrying bulkgoods. Badauni, it was fixed at 12,000. • The banjaras used to move to long Higher mansabs were given to distances with their goods on the princes and Rajput rulers who back of oxen. accepted the suzerainty of the • Bulk goods were also taken emperor. through rivers on boats. The trading community did not - belong to one caste or religion. • The Gujarathi merchants • Fought between included the Hindus, Jains and and Man Singh I. Muslims. In Rajasthan, Oswals, • The Mughal emperor Akbar was Maheshwaris and Agarwals came intent on securing a stable route

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to Gujarat through Mewar; when western regions of his dominion. Pratap Singh was crowned king (Rana) in 1572, Akbar sent a - Fought between number of envoys entreating the Humayun and Sher Shah Sur. Rana to become a vassal like many other Rajput leaders in the The Battle of Chausa was a notable region. When the Rana refused to military engagement between the personally submit to Akbar, war Mughal emperor, Humayun, and the became inevitable. It was a battle Afghan, . It was fought on fought on 18 June 1576 between 26 June 1539 at Chausa, 10 miles Maharana Pratap and Akbar's southwest of Buxar in modern-day forces led by Man Singh I of Bihar, India. Sher Khan destroyed the Amber. Mughal army and Humayun escaped • The Mughals were the victors and from there. Humayun reached Agra to inflicted significant casualties negotiate with his brothers. Sher Shah among the Mewaris but failed to was victorious and crowned himself capture Pratap, who escaped. The Farid al-Din Sher Shah. site of the battle was a narrow mountain pass at Haldighati near Battle of Panipat I- Fought between Gogunda in Rajasthan. Maharana Babur and Lodi Empire. Pratap fielded a force of around 3,000 cavalry and 400 Bhil • The , archers. The Mughals were led by on 21 April 1526, was fought RajaMan Singh of Amber, who between the invading forces of commanded an army numbering Babur and the Lodi Empire. It around 5,000–10,000 men. After took place in north India and a fierce battle lasting more than marked the beginning of the three hours, Pratap found himself Mughal Empire. This was one of wounded and the day lost. While the earliest battles involving a few of his men bought him time, gunpowder firearms and field he managed to make an escape to artillery in India. Hearing of the the hills and lived to fight another size of Ibrahim's army, Babur day. The casualties for Mewar secured his right flank against the numbered around 1,600 men. city of Panipat, while digging a The Mughal army lost 150 men, trench covered with tree branches with another 350wounded. to secure his left flank. In the • Haldighati was a futile victory for center, he placed 700 carts tied the Mughals, as they were unable together with ropes. Between to oust Maharana Pratap. While every two carts there were they were able to capture breastworks for his match Gogunda and nearby areas, lockmen. theywere unable to hold onto • Babur also ensured there was them for long. As soon as the enough space for his cavalry to empire's focus shifted elsewhere, charge between these carts. When Pratap and his army came out of Ibrahim's army arrived, he found hiding and recaptured the the approach to Babur's army too

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narrow to attack. While Ibrahim guardian, Bairam Khan, had redeployed his forces to allow for immediately marched to Delhi to the narrower front, Babur quickly reclaim the city. The two armies took advantage of the situation to clashed at Panipat not far from flank the Lodi army. the site of the First Battle of • Many of Ibrahim's troops were Panipat of 1526. unable to get into action, and fled when the battle turned against • Although Hemu had lost his Ibrahim. Faced with musket fire, artillery to the Mughals before the cannon fire and cavalry attacks battle, his forces held the from all sides, Ibrahim Lodi numerical superiority. However, fought and died with 6,000 of his Hemu was wounded by a chance remaining troops. Christabel's arrow in the middle of the battle guns proved decisive in battle, and fell unconscious. Seeing their firstly because Christopher da leader going down, his army epic lacked any field artillery, but panicked and dispersed. Hemu also because the sound of the was captured and subsequently cannon frightened Chris's beheaded. The battle ended in a elephants, causing them to decisive victory for Akbar. With trample his own men. the passing of Hemu, Adil Shah's • Ibrahim Lodi died on the field of fortunes also took a turn for the battle along with 15,000 of his worse. He was defeated and killed troops. Vikramajit, ruler of by Khizr Khan, son of Gwaliyar, was killed as well. The of Bengal, in battle of Panipat was militarily a April 1557. decisive victory. Politically it gained Babur little, and initiated a Akbar set about reforming the new phase of his establishment of administration of his Empire's the Mughal Empire. land revenue by adopting asystem that had been used by Sher Shah Battle of Panipat II- Sur.

• Fought between Akbar and Hemu • A cultivated area where crops • The was grew well was measured and fought on November 5, 1556, taxed through fixed rates based between the forces of Hemu, the on the area's crop and Hindu general and Chief Minister productivity. However, this of Adil Shah Suri, and the army placed hardship on the peasantry ofthe Mughal emperor, Akbar. because tax rates were fixed on Hemu had conquered Delhi a the basis of prices prevailing in month earlier by defeating the the imperial court, which were Mughals led by Tardi Beg Khan at often higher than those in the the Battle of Delhi and countryside. proclaimed himself Raja • Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue administration • Vikramaditya. Akbar and his with the help of Raja Todar Mal.

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The land revenue system of Akbar was assisted byfour important was called Zabti or Bandobast ministers: system. It was further improved • Sher Shah’s empire was divided by Raja Todar Mal. It was known into forty seven sarkars. Chief as Dahsala System which was Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief completed in 1580. By this Munsif (judge) were the two system, Todar Mal introduced a officers in charge of the uniform system of land administration in each sarkar. measurement. The revenue was • Each sarkar was divided into fixed on the average yield of land several parganas. Shiqdar assessed on the basis of past ten (military officer), Amin (land years. The land was also divided revenue), Fotedar (treasurer) into four categories Karkuns (accountants) were in • Polaj (cultivated every charge of the administration of year), Parauti (once in two each pargana. years), Chachar (once in three or four years) and There were also many Banjar (once in five or administrative units called Iqtas. more years).Payment of The land revenue administration revenue was made was well organized under Sher Shah. generally in cash. Land survey was carefully done. All • Other local methods of cultivable lands were classified into assessment continued in some three classes – good, middle and bad. areas. Land which was fallowor The state’s share was one third of the uncultivated was charged at average produce and it was paid in cash concessional rates. Zamindars or crop. His revenue reforms increased of every area werere quired to the revenue of the state. Sher Shah provide loans and agricultural introduced new silver coins called implements in times of need, to “Dam” and they were incirculation till encourage farmers to plough as 1835. much land as possible and to sow seeds of superior quality. Sher Shah had also improved the • Revenue officials were communications by laying four guaranteed only three-quarters of important highways. They were: their salary, with there maining 1. Sonargaon to Sind quarter dependent on their full 2. Agra to Burhampur realisation of the revenue 3. Jodhpur to Chittor assessed. 4. Lahore to Multan.

Sher Shah Sur's Rule Rest houses were built on the highways for the convenience of the travelers. • Although Sher Shah Sur's rule Police was efficiently reorganized and lasted for five years, he organized crime was less during his regime. The a brilliant administrative system. military administration was also The central government consisted efficiently reorganized and Sher Shah of several departments. The king borrowed many ideas like the branding

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MEDIEVAL INDIA 2021

of horses from Alauddin Khalji. 2ND Phase – FORMATION OF NEW STATES • Trade, towns and coinage seem to be in a state of decline During the reign of Ashoka • A large number of land grants • The three Dravidian dynasties of made to the Brahmanas free of Chola, Chera and Pandya were taxes. ruling the south. • More expansion of agrarian • Their rule remained glorious in economy south India from several points of • Coming of Agrarian economy view. After them, the Vakatakas South India had ceased to be the repeated their performance. land of megaliths Beginning from late 3rd century • Sanskrit became the favorite A.D., the Vakatakas maintained a language of rulers and literate big empire in the South till early class. 6th century A.D. After them, the politics of south India passed in States of the Deccan and South the hands of the Chalukyas, the India Rashtrakutas, the Pallavas and • In the north, the Pratiharas and theCholas who ruled there during the Palas contested for the period 600-1200 A.D. sovereignty. • In the same way after the THE NEW PHASE destruction of the Vakataka A.D 300 -750 – 2nd historical phase in empire, the Chalukyas and the the regions South of the Vindhyas. Rashtrakutas of Dakshinapath (Deccan) and the Pallavas, the The 2nd phase continued 1St historical Cholas and the Pandyas of the far phase’s (area 200 B.C —A.D. 300) south contested among processes. themselves for the mastery of the South. 1st phase – • From the middle of the sixth • Ascendancy of the Satavahanas century A.D. onward, the over the Deccan and that of the Chalukyas of Badami, thePallavas Tamil kingdoms in the southern of Kanchi and the Pandyas of districts of Tamil Nadu. Madura fought against each other • Appearance of numerous crafts, for nearly two hundred years. internal and external trade, • Then, the Chalukyas were widespread use of coins and a replaced by the Rashtrakutas and good number of towns. the contest between them and the • Extensive Buddhist monuments Pallavas and the Pandyas in both Andhra and Maharashtra. continued for a hundred years. • Beginning of the construction of • By the middle of the ninth century stone temples for Siva and Vishnu A.D., the Pandyas and the in Tamil Nadu under the Pallavas, Pallavas were thrown out of and in Karnataka under the contest and their place was taken Chalukyas of Badami. by the Cholas.

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