M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
Architecture in Pallava Chola Empire It was a great age of temple Caste system was widely building. The Pallavas prevalent during the Chola introduced the art of excavating period . Brahmins and temples from the rock. In fact, Kshatriyas enjoyed special the Dravidian style of temple privileges. The i nscriptions of architecture began with the the later period of the Chola Pallava rule. rule mention about two major Mahendravarman I introduced divisions among the castes – the rock - cut temples. This style Valangai and Idangai castes. of Pallava temples are seen at However, there was cooperation places like Mandagappattu, among various cas tes and sub - ahendravadi, Mamandur, castes in social and Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, religious life. The position of Vallam, Siyamangalam and women did not improve. The Tirukalukkunram. practice of ‘sati’ was prevalent The second stage of Pallava among the royal families. The architecture is represented by devadasi system or dancing the monolithic r athas and girls attached to temples Mandapas found at emerged during this period. Mamallapuram. Both Saivism and Narasimhavarman I took the V aishnavism continued to credit for these wonderful flourish during the Chola architectural monuments. The period. A number of temples five rathas , popularly called as were built with the patronage of the Panchapanadava rathas , Chola kings and queen signifies five different styles of temple architecture. Foreign Travellers Vijayanagara Kingdom However, among these travellers, only The most striking feature about Duarte Barbosa and Dominigo the location of Vijayanagara is Paes visited Vijayanagar during the natural basin formed by the the reign of Krishna Deva Raya . river Tungabhadra which Try to know about other foreign flows in a north - easterly travelers visiting different direction. emperors/kings. The surrounding landscape is characterised by stunning Bhakti Movement granite hills that seem to form a Sankara girdle around the city. A 11 th century – started a Hindu number of streams flow down to revivalist movement giving a the river from these rocky new orientation to Hinduism. outcrops. In almost all cases Born – Kaladi in Kerala. embankments were built along Gave doctr ine of Advaita or these streams to create Monism. reservoirs of varying sizes. He taught that Brahma, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any
1
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
attributes i.e. NirgunaBrahma Krishna Deva Raya was the (god without attributes) ruler of Vijayanagar during the He considered the world around period of 1st battle of Panipat. us to be an illusion or maya. Krishna Deva Raya reign lasts According to him to understand up to 1530 and the 1st battle of t he true nature of Brahman and Panipat happened in 1526. attain salvation – renunciate the This battle was fought between world and adopt the path of Babur and Ibrahim Lodi knowledge. resulting in establishing of Mughal Empire in India. Ramanuja 12 th century – gave doctrine of Important Battles Visishtadvaita or qualified Battle of Panipat oneness in that the souleven There have been three Battles of when united with the Supreme Panipat : God remained distinct. 1. The 1 st Battle of Panipat (1526), Bo rn – Sriperumbudur near between Babur and the Delhi modern Chennai. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi , According to him God is resulting in a Victory of Sagunabrahman . Mughals. Creative process and all the 2. The 2 nd Battle of Panipat (1556), objects in creation are real but betweenthe Mughal Ruler not illusory . Therefore, God, Akbar and Hemu , theHindu soul, matter are real. r uler of North India from Delhi, He also advocated resulting in a Mughal victory. prabattimarga or path of self - 3. The 3 rd Battle of Panipat (1761), surrender to God. betweenthe Durrani Empire To attain salvation - through of Ahmad ShahAbdali of intense devotion to Vishnu. Afghanistan and the MarathaEmpire of Balaji Madhava Baji Rao , resulting indecisiveAfghan victory. 13 th century - propagated Dvaita or dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma. Battle of Khanua Born - Pajaka near Udupi, a Fought between - Rana Sangha coastal Malabar region of south - of Mewar,a great Rajput west India in the state of warrior, and Babur in 1527. Karnataka . Result - Babur won a decisive God is Sagunabrahma. victory over ana . According to his philosophy, the Babur assumed the title Ghazi. world is not an illusion but Ghazi mean a Muslim fighter a reality . God, soul, matter are against non – Muslims. unique in nature. Nimbarka and Vallabhacha rya are other Battle of Chanderi preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti Fought between – Babur and in the Telungana region. Rajput rulerMedini Rai at Chanderi in 1528. Result – Babur won.
2
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
Sadasiva Raya was t he last ruler Battle of Ghagra of Tuluva Dyansty. Fought between - Babur and Afghans(Mahmud Lodhi) near the confluence ofGangaand Ghagra in Bihar in 1529. Firoz Shah Tughlaq Result - Babur won. We know of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in According to Ain - i - Akbari land partthrough his 32 - page was classified as – autobiography , titledFutuhat - efirozshahi. 1. Polaj – It was land which is annually He was 45 when he became cultivated for each crop in successio n Sultan of Delhi in 1351. He ruled and is never allowed to lie fallow. until 1388. At his succession, 2. Parauti – land left out of cultivation after the death of Muhammad fora time that it may recover its Tughlaq, he faced many strength. rebellions, including in Bengal, 3. Chachar – land that has lain fallow Gujarat and Warangal. forthree or four years. Nonetheless he worked to 4. Banjar - land uncult ivated for five improve the infrastructure of years and more. the empire building canals, resthouses and hospitals, Of the first two kinds of land, there are creating and refurbishing three classes, good, middling, and bad. reservoirs and digging wells. He Third of this represents the medium founded several cities around produce, one - third part of which is Delhi, including Jaunpur, exacted as the Royal dues. Ferozpur, Hissar, Firuzabad, Fatehabad. Harihara Most of Firozabad was Harihara was the founder of the destroyed as subsequent rulers Vijaynagar Empire and dismantled its buildings and Sangama D ynasty. reusedthe spolia as building The first thing Sri Krishnadeva materials and the rest was Raya, did on ascending the subsumed as New Delhi grew. throne was to put a stoptothe He built Firoz Shah Palace regular loot and raid, affairs by Complex at Hisar in 1354 CE, the Bahmanis. over 300 villages and dug five The raiding Bahmani army of majorcanals, including the Bijapur was decisively routed at renovation of Prithviraj the Battle of Diwaniand Krishna Chauhan era Western Yamuna Deva Raya, went in hotpursuit Canal, for irrigation bringing of the Bahmani Sultan,Yusuf more land under cultivation for AdilShah. growing g rain and fruit. The retreating Bijapur sultan, Firoz was 1 st sultan of Delhi to Yusuf AdilShah, was defeated impose Jaziya. and killed at Kovilkonda,it was In the beginning Jaziya was a crushing blow for the Bijapur collected as art of land tax. forces. Durin g Firoz Tughlaq’s period it Narasa Nayaka was the founder was c ollected as a separate tax. of TuluvaDynasty.
3
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq crown. That was his greatest He shifted his capital from Delhi to contribution towards the Devagiri (which he renamed stability of the Sultanate. Daulatabad To keep himself well - informed Balban appointed spies. He created a strong centralised Sikander Lodhi army to deal with internal ODZhNWEyNWYxMWVi He moved the capital from Delhi to disturbances and to cheek new city because he thought he would Mongols who were posing a have better control over kingdom. This serious danger to Delhi city later became famous as Agra . Sultante. He established the military Ahmad Wali Shah department Diwani - i - Arz Ahmad Wali Shah sh ifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. The Persian court model influenced balban's conception of Al Biruni is the author of the Kingship. He took up thetitle of book Kitab - ul - Hind. Zil - i - Ilahi (Shadow of God) Mahmud of Ghazni was He destroyed Mewati Rajputa interested in finding out more brigandagein the doab, where about the people he Raskhan forests were cut and forts built. conquered, and entrusted a In his last days he overlooked scholar named Al - Baruni to Sultanate affairs due to death of write an account of Indian his eldest and most loving son, subcontinent. Muhammad and rebellion by And so Al - Baruni wrote Kitab - his closed and most loved slave, ul Hind Tughril. Muhammad died He consulted Sanskrit scholars fighting Mongolians in 1285 and to prepare this account. Tughril was captured and Raskhan is widely beheaded. acknowledged as a great poet, having dedicated most of his Deccan Sultanates creations to Lord Krishna. By the year 1526, the Bahmani Sujan Raskhan and Prem kingdomhad disintegrated into five Vatika are someo f his available independent sultanates – creations. Ahmadnagar , Bijapur, Berar,Golkonda Raskhan Rachnavali is the and Bidar. These 5 states areknown as collection of Raskhan's poetry. Deccan Sultanates. His creations describe the Fawazil in Sulatanate Period means beauty of not only Lord Krishna Excessamount paid to the exchequer but also his relations with his by the iqtadars. beloved Radha. His poetry is in the form of Ibn Batuta Doha, Padawali and Savayya. He was a Moroccan traveler, born in Tangier. Balban He set off for India in 133 2 - 33. Balban ascended the throne in He had already travelled 1266. extensively in Syria, Iraq, He broke the power of Chalisa Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few and resorted the prestige of the
4
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
trading ports on the coast of The most important work is East Africa. Hamznama, which consisted He had heard about 1200 paintings. Indian colours Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the such as peacock blue, Indian Sultan of Delhi and wanted to red began to be used. meet him. The Sultan was impressed by Mug hal paintings reached its his scholarship, and appointed climax during the reign of him the qazi or judge of Delhi. Jahangir. He employed a number of He had visited to China, painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Malabar coast, Maldives, Sri Madhu, Anant, Manohar, Govardhan Lanka, Sumatara. and Ustad Mansur. Apart from I bn Battuta was attacked by painting the scenes of hunting, battles bands of robbers several times. and royal courts, progress wa s made in In fact, he preferred travelling portrait painting and paintings of in a caravan along with animals. Many albums containing companion s paintings and calligraphy were produced during the Mughal period. Mughal Painting Later, the influence of European The contribution of Mughals to painting could be seen. the art of painting was Ittimaddaulah Tomb is a Mughal remarkable. The foundation mausoleum in the city of Agra in the for the Mughal painting Indian state of UttarPradesh. Often was laid by Humayun when described as a "jewel box", sometimes he was staying in Persia. called the "Baby Taj", the tomb He brought with him two ofI'timad - ud - Daulah is often regarded painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and as a draft of the Taj Mahal. Along with Abdal Samad to India. The se the main building, the structure two painters became famous consists of numerous outbu ildings and during Akbar’s reign. Akbar gardens. commissioned the illustrations The tomb, built between 1622 and of several literary and religious 1628 represents a transition between texts. He invited a large number the first phase of monumental Mughal of painters from different parts architecture – primarily built from red of the country to his court. Both sandstone with marble decorations, as Hindus and Muslims joined in in Humayun's Tomb in Delhi and this work. Akbar's tomb in Si kandra – to its Baswan, Miskina and Daswant second phase, based on white marble attained great positions as and pietra dura inlay, most elegantly Akabar’s court artists. realized in the TajMahal. Illustrations of Persian versions Fatehpur Sikri is a town in the Agra of Mahabharata and Ramayana District of Uttar Pradesh, India. The were produced in miniature city was founded in the year 1569 by form. Many other Indian fables the Mughal Emperor Akbar th e Great, became the miniature paintings and served as the capital of the Mughal in the Art Studio established by Empire from 1571 to 1585. Fatehpur Akbar. Sikri is one of the best preserved Historical works such as Akbar examplesof Mughal architecture in Nama also remained the main India. themes of Mughal paintings.
5
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
Some of the important buildings total height of the Structure is about 54 in this city, both religious and metres from the ground level. Set into secular are: Jodha Bhai's Pal ace the south wall of congregational This is the largest palace in the mosque, the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri seraglio, connected to Fatehpur Sikri is 55 metres (180 ft) the minor haramsara (where the less high, from the outside, gradually important harem ladies and maids makin g a transition to a human scale would have resided)quarters. The in the inside. The gate was added main entrance is double storied, around five years after the completion projecting out of the facade to create a of the mosque c. 1576 - 1577 as a victory kin d of porch leading into a recessed arch, to commemorate Akbar's entrance with a balcony. Inside there is successful Gujarat campaign. It carries a quadrangle surrounded by rooms. two inscriptions in the archway, one of The columns of rooms are ornamented wh ich reads: "Isa, Son of Mariam said: with a variety of Hindu sculptural The world is a bridge, pass over it,but motifs. The glazed tiles on the roofs build no houses on it. He who hopes from Multan have an eye catching for an hour may hope for eternity. The shad e of turquoise. The mosque was world endures but an hour. Spend it in built in honour of Jodha Bai, mother of prayer, for the rest is unseen". The Jahangir and wife of Akbar. Her central portico comprises th ree arched Mughal name was Mariyam Zamani entrances, with the largest one, in the Begum and this being the reason that centre, is known locally as the the mosque was built in her honor in Horseshoe Gate, after the custom of Lahore’s walled city. Jahangir built his nailing horseshoes to its large wooden mother Mariyam Zamani Begum’s doors for luck. Outside the giant steps mosque and is just 1 km away from the of the Buland Darwaza to the left is a tomb of Akbar near Agra at a place deep well. Buland D arwaza dominates called Sikandra. the landscape. Historian `Abd al - Qadir Bada'uni writes that it was the highest Panch Mahal gateway in Hindustan at that time A five - storied palatial structure, with until today. the tiers gradually diminishing in size, till the final one, which is a single The building material used in all the large - do med chhatri. Originally buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, palace - city pierced stone screens faced the facade complex, is the locally quarried red and probably sub - divided the interior sandstone, known as 'Sikri sandstone'. as well, suggesting it was built for the Language and Literature during ladies of the court. The floors are Mughal Period supported by intricately carved Persian language became columns on each level, totaling to 176 widespread in the Mughal columns in all. Empire by the time of Akbar’sreign. Abul Fazl was a Buland Darwaza great scholar and historian of ODZhNWEyNWYxMWVi It is also known as the Gate of his period. He set a style of Magnificence and was built by Akbar prose writing and it was in 1576 A.D at FatehpurSikri. Akbar followed by many generations. built the Buland Darwaza to Many historical works were commemorate his victory over Gujarat written during this period. They and the Deccan. It is 40 metres high include Ain - i - Akbari andAkabar and 50 metres from the ground. The Nama authored by Abul Fazl.
6
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
The leading poet of that period Tansen, also referred to as Tan was his brother Abul Faizi. The Sen or Mian Tansen, was a translation of Mahabh arata into prominent figure of North the Persian language was done Indian (Hindustani) classical under his supervision. Utbi and music. Born in a Hindu family, Naziri were the two other he learnt and perfected hisart in leading Persian poets. the northwest region of modern Jahangir’s autobiography, Madhya Pradesh. Tuzuk - i - Jahangiri was famous He began his career and spent for its style. He also patronized most of his adult life in the many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, court and took patronage of the Naqib Khan an d Niamatullah. Hindu king of Rewa State, Ram Shah Jahan also patronized Chand, where Tansen's musical many writers and historians like abilities and studies gained Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of widespread fame. This Padshah Nama and Inayat Khan reputation brought him to the who wrote Shah Jahan Nama. attention of the Mughal His son Dara Shikoh Emperor Akbar, who sent translated the Bhagavat messengers to Ram Chand Gita and Upanishads into requesting Tansen tojoin the the Persian language. Many musicians at the Mughal court. historical works were written Tansen did not want to go, Ram during the reign of Aurangazeb. Chand encouraged him to gain Famous dictionaries ofthe wider audience, and sent him Persian language were also along with gifts to Akbar. compiled during the Mughal In1562, about the age of 60, the period. Vaishnava musician Tansen Regional languages such as joined the Akbar court, and his Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and performances became a subjec t Gujarathi had also developed of many court historians. during this perio d. Many devotional works including the Do you know? Ramayana and Mahabharata Akbar considered him as a were translated into regional Navaratnas (nine jewels), and languages. From the time of gave him the title Mian , an Akbar, Hindi poets were honorific, meaning learned man. attached to the Mughal court. Tansen is remembered for his epic The most influential Hindi Dhrupad compositions , creating poet was Tulsidas, who several new ragas , as well as for wrote the Hindi version of writing twoclassic books onmusic the Ramayana, the Sri Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Ramcharitmanas. Sara
Tansen Mughal Architecture Music had well developed under The architecture of the Mughals the Mughals. Akbar patronized includes the magnificent forts, Tansen of Gwalior. palaces, public buildings, Tansen composed many ragas. mosques and mausoleums. The Jahangir and Shah Jahan were Mughals were fond of laying also fond of music. gardens with
7
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
running water. white marble. The Jama Masjid at Some of the Mughal gardens Delhi was built in redstone. The such as the Nishat Bagh in Mughal architectural traditions Kashmir, the Shalimar Baghat continued in the eighteenth and early Lahore and the Pinjore garden nineteenth century. Their influence in in the Punjab have survived the provincial kingdoms is clearly even today. During the reign of visible. Many features of Mughal Sher Shah, the mausoleum at tradition can be seen in the Golden Sasaram in Bihar and the Temple at Amritsar. Purana Qila n ear Delhi were built. These two monuments are Banjaras considered as the architectural T he Indian trading classes marvels of medieval India. during Mughal period were Large scale construction of large in numbers and spread buildings started with the throughout t he country. They advent of Akbar. He built many were well organized and highly forts and the most famous one professional. Seth, bohra was the Agra Fort. It was built traders specialized in long in red sandstone. Hisother forts distance trade while local are at Lahore and Allahabad. traders were called banik. Another class of traders was The climax of fort - building known as banjaras, who reached its climax during the specialized in carrying reign of Shah Jahan. The famous bulkgoods. Red Fort at Delhi with its Rang The banja ras used to move to Mahal, Diwan - i - Am and Diwan - i - long distances with their goods Khas washis creation. on the back of oxen. During Akbar’s reig n, the Humayun’s Bulk goods were also taken tomb was built at Delhi and it had a through rivers on boats. The massive dome of marble. It may be trading community did not considered the precursor of the Taj belong to one caste or religion. Mahal. Akbar’s tombat Sikandara near The Gujarathi merchants Agra was completed by Jahangir. included the Hindus, Jains and Nur Jahan built the tomb of Muslims. In Rajasthan, Oswals, Itimaddaulah at Agra. It was Maheshwaris and Agarwals cons tructed wholly of white marble came to be called the Marwaris. with floral designs made of semi - Multanis, Khatris and Afghanis precious stones on the walls. This type conducted trade with central of decoration was called pietra dura. Asia. This method became more popular In south India, the Chettis on during the reign of Shah Jahan. The the Coramandal coast and the pietra dura method was used on a Muslim merchants of Malabar large scale i n the TajMahal by Shah were the most important Jahan. Taj Mahal is considered a jewel trading communities. of the builder’s art. Taj Mahal contains all the architectural Mansabdari System ODZhNWEyNWYxMWVi forms developed by the Mughals. T he 'Mansabdari system 'was the Mosque building had reached its peak administrative system of the Mughal during Shah Jahan’s reign. The Moti Empire introduced by Akbar in 1572 Masjid at Agra was built entirely in A.D .
8
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
The word mansab is of Arabic origin inevitable..It was a battle fought on 18 meaning rank or position. The system, June 1576 between Maharana Pratap hence, determined the rank of a and government official. Every civil and Akbar's forces led by Man Singh I of military officer was given a ‘mansab’ Amber. and different numbers which could be The Mughals were the victors and divided by ten and were usedfor inflicted significant casualties a mong ranking officers. It was also meant for the Mewaris but failed to capture fixing the salaries and allowances of Pratap, who escaped. The site of the officers. battle was a narrow mountain pass at Haldighati near The lowest rank was 10 and the Gogunda in Rajasthan. Maharana highest was 5000 for the Pratap fielded a force of around 3,000 nobles. Princes of royal blood cavalry and 400 Bhil archers. The received even higher ranks. The Mughals were led by Raj aMan Singh of ranks were divided into two – Amber, who commanded an army zat and sawar. numbering around 5,000 – 10,000men. Zat means personal and it fixed After a fierce battle lasting more than the personal status of a person. three hours, Pratap found himself Sawar rank indicated the wounded and the day lost. While a few number of cavalrymen of a of his men bought him time, he person who was required to managed to make an escape to the hil ls maintain. Every sawar had to and lived to fight another day. The maintain at least two horses. casualties for Mewar numbered The mansab rank was not around 1,600 men. The Mughal army hereditary. All appointments lost 150 men, with another and promotions as well as 350wounded. dismissals were directly made Haldighati was a futile victory for the by the emperor. Mughals, as they were unable to oust Towards the end o f the reign it Maharana Pratap. While they were was raised to 7,000. According ab le to capture Gogunda and nearby to Badauni, it was fixed at areas, theywere unable to hold onto 12,000. Higher mansabs were them for long. As soon as the empire's given to princes and Rajput focus shifted elsewhere, Pratap and his rulers who accepted the army came out of hiding and suzerainty of the emperor. recaptured the western regions of his dominion. Battle of Haldighati - Fought Battle of Chausa - Fought betwee n between Maharana Pratap and Man Humayun and Sher Shah Sur. Singh I. The Battle of Chausa was a notable Th e Mughal emperor Akbar was intent military engagement between the on securing a stable route to Gujarat Mughal emperor, Humayun, and the through Afghan, Sher Shah Suri. It was fought Mewar; when Pratap Singh was on 26June 1539 at Chausa, 10 miles crowned king (Rana) in 1572, Akbar southwest of Buxar in modern - day sent a number of envoys entreating the Bihar, India. Sher Kh an destroyed the Rana to become a vassal like many Mughal army and Humayun escaped other Rajput leaders in the region. from there. Humayun reached Agra to When the Rana refused to personally negotiate with his brothers. Sher Shah submit to Akbar, war became
9
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0 was victorious and crowned himself initiated a new phase of his Farid al - Din Sher Shah. establishment of the Mughal Empire. Battle of Panipat II - Fought Battle of Panipat I - Fought between between Akbar and Hemu Babur and Lodi Empire. The Second Battle of Panipat was The First B attle of Panipat, on 21 fought on November 5, 1556, between April 1526, was fought between the the forces invading forces of Babur and the Lodi of Hemu, the Hindu general and Chief Empire. It took place in north India Minister of Adil Shah Suri, and the and marked the beginning of the army of Mughal Empire. This was one of the the Mughal emperor, Akbar. Hemu earliest battles involving gunpowder had conquered Delhi a month earlier firearms and field artillery in India. by defeating the Mughals led by Tardi Hearing of the size of Ibrahim's army, Beg Khan at the Battle of Delhi and Babur secured his right flank against proclaimed h imself Raja the city of Panipat, while digging a Vikramadity a. Akbar and his guardian, trench covered with tree branches to Bairam Khan, had immediately secure his left flank. In the center, he marched to Delhi to reclaim the city. placed 700 carts tied together with The two armies clashed at Panipatnot ropes. Between every two carts there far from the site of the First Battle of were breastworks for his match Panipat of 1526. lockmen. Although Hemu had lost his artillery to Babur also ensured there was enough the Mughals before the bat tle, his space for his cavalry to charge between forces held these carts. When Ibrahim's army the numerical superiority. However, arrived, he found the approach to Hemu was wounded by a chance arrow Babur's army too narrow to attack. in the middle of the battle and fell While Ib rahim redeployed his forces to unconscious. Seeing their leader going allow for the narrower front, Babur down, his army panicked and quickly took advantage of the situation dispersed. Hemu was captured and to flank the Lodi army. Many of subsequently beheaded. The battle Ibrahim's troops were unable to get ended in a decisive victory for Akbar. into action, and fled when the battle With the passing of Hemu, Adil Shah's turned against Ibrahim. Faced with fortunes also took a turn for the worse. musket f ire, cannon fire and cavalry He was defeated and killed by Khizr attacks from all sides, Ibrahim Lodi Khan, son of Muhammad Shah of fought and died with 6,000 of his Bengal, in April 1557 . remaining troops. Christabel's guns proved decisive in battle, firstly Akbar set about reforming the because Christopher da epic lacked any administrat ion of his Empire's field artillery, but also because the land revenue by adopting sound of the cannon frightened Chris's asystem that had been used by elephants, causing them to trample his Sher Shah Sur. A cultivated area own men. where crops grew well was measured Ibrahim Lodi died on the field of battle and taxed through fixed rates based on along with 15,000 of his troops. the area's crop and productivity. Vikramajit, ruler of Gwaliyar, was However, this placed hardship on the killed as well. The battle of Panipat pea santry because tax rates were fixed was militarily a decisive victory. on the basis of prices prevailing in the Politically it gained Babur little, and
10
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0 imperial court, which were often higher than those in the countryside. Sher Shah Sur's Rule Akbar made some experiments in the Although Sher Shah Sur's rule lasted land revenue administration with the for five years, he organized a brilliant help of Raja Todar Mal. The land administrativesystem. The central re venue system of Akbar was called government consisted of several Zabti or Bandobast system. It was departments. The king was assisted further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It byfour important ministers: was known as Dahsala System which was completed in 1580. By this system, 1.Diwan - I - Wizarat = In Todar Mal introduced a uniform charge/minister of revenue and system of land measurement. The finance. revenue was fi xed on the average yield 2.Diwan - I - Ariz= In charge/minister of of land assessed on the basis of past Army. ten years. The land was also divided 3.Diwan - I - Insha=In charge/minister into four categories of communication. – Polaj (cultivated every year), Parauti 4.Diwan - I - Rasalat= In (once in two years), Chachar (once in charge/minister of foreign affairs. three or four years) and Banjar (once in five or more ye ars).Payment of Sher Shah’s empire was divided into revenue was made generally in cash. forty seven sarkars. Chief Shiqdar (law Other local methods of assessment and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) continued in some areas. Land which were the two officers in charge of the was fallowor uncultivated was charged administration in each sarkar. at concessional rates. Zamindars of Each sarkar was divided into several every area wererequired to provide parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), loans and agricultural implements in Amin (landrevenue), Fotedar times of need, to encouragefarmers to (treasurer) Karkuns(accountants) were plough as much land as possible and to in charge of the administration ofeach sow seeds of superior quality. pargana. Revenue officials were guaranteed only three - quarters of their salary, with There were also many theremaining quarter dependent on administrative units called Iqtas. their full realisation o f the revenue The land revenue administrationwas assessed. well organized under Sher Shah. Land survey was carefully done. All Do you know? cultivable landswere classified into In the year 1578, the Mughal Emperor three classes – go od, middle and bad. Akbar famously referred to himself as: The state’s share was one third ofthe average produce and it was paid in Emperor of Islam, Emir of the cash or crop. His revenue reforms Faithful, Shadow of God on earth, Abul increased therevenue of the state. Sher Fath Jalal - u ddinMuhammad Akbar Shah introduced new silver coins Badshah Ghazi (whose empire Allah called “Dam” and they were perpetuate), is a mostjust, most wise, incirculation till 1835. and a most God - fearing ruler. The Akbarnama which literally means D o you know? Book of Akbar, is an official Sher Shah had also improved the biographicalaccount of Akbar, written communications by laying four in Persian. important highways. They were:
11
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
1.Sonargaon to Sind widespread use of coins and a good 2.Agra to Burhampur number of towns. 3.Jodhpur to Chittor Exten sive Buddhist monuments in 4.Lahore to Multan. both Andhra and Maharashtra. Beginning of the construction of stone Rest houses were built on the temples for Siva and Vishnu in Tamil highwaysfor the convenience of th e Nadu under the Pallavas, and in travelers. Police was efficiently Karnataka under the Chalukyas of reorganized and crime was less during Badami. his regime. The military administration wasalso efficiently 2 nd Phase – reorganized and Sher Shah borrowed Trade, towns and coinage seem to be many ideas like the branding of in a state of decline horsesfrom Alauddin Khalji. A large nu mber of land grants made to the Brahmanas free of taxes. More expansion of agrarian economy
Coming of Agrarian economy FORMATION OF NEW South India had ceased to be the land STATES of megaliths During the reign of Ashoka Sanskrit became the favorite language The three Dravidian dynasties of of rulers and literate class. Chola,Chera and Pandya were ruling the south. States of the Deccan and South Their rule remained glorious in south India India from several points of view. After In the north, the Pr atiharas and them, theVakatakas repeated their the Palas contested for performance. Beginning from late 3 rd sovereignty. century A.D., the Vakatakasmaintained In the same way after the a big empire in the South till early 6th destruction of the Vakataka century A.D. After them, the politics empire, the Chalukyas and ofsouth India passed in the hands of theRashtrakutas of the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Dakshinapath (Deccan) and the Pallavas and theCholas who ruled Pallavas, the Cholas and the there during the period 600 - 1 200 A.D. Pandyasof the far south contested among themse lves for the mastery of the South. THE NEW PHASE From the middle of the sixth A.D 300 - 750 – 2 nd historical phase in century A.D. onward, the the regions South of the Vindhyas. Chalukyas of Badami, The 2 nd phase continued 1 st historical thePallavas of Kanchi and the phase’s (area 200 B.C — A.D. 300) Pandyas of Madura fought processes. against each other for nearlytwo
hundred years. 1 st phase – Then, the Chalukyas were Ascendancy of the Satavahanas over replaced by the Rashtrakutas the Deccan and that of the Tamil and the contest betweenthem kingdoms in the southern districts of and the Pallavas and the Tamil Nadu. Pandyas continued for a Appearance of numerous crafts, hundred years. internal and external trade,
12
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
By the middle of the ninth thefirst half of the sixth century A.D. century A.D., the Pandyas and However, the first indepe ndent ruler of the Pallavas were thrownout of this dynasty wasPulakesin I, son of contest and their place was Ranaraga. taken by the Cholas. Vakatakas were followed by Chalukyas The Cholas fought for ofBadami. sovereignty over South India for They ruled for two centuries until nearly 350 years (850 - overthrown by its feudatories, the 1200A.D.), first against the Rashtrakutas. Rashtrakutas and then against They claimed their descent either from their successors, the Brahman or Marin or Moo n and even Chalukyasof Kalyani. ruled atAyodhya. But all this was not A few powerful rulers of these true and was done to earn respect. south Indian dynasties They seem to have been a local interfered in the politics ofno rth Kanarese people, who were improvised India as well, and sometimes into the their interference proved quite ruling Varna under Brahmanical effective butmostly they in fluence. concentrated themselves on the They setup their kingdom in 6 th century politics of the South. AD. Capital – Vatapi (modern Badami, VAKATAKAS bijapur district, Karnataka)Branched EyNWYxMWVi Vakatakas had succeeded the into several ruling houses but main Satavahanas in Northern branch at vatapi only. Maharashtra and Vidarbha. The most important ruler of this Vakatakas were Brahmanas. dynasty was Pulakesin II . The Being Brahmana they granted Aihole inscription issued byhim gives lands toBrahmana and the details of his reign. performed numerous Vedic sacrifices. Administration and Social Order We have already seen in Gupta T he Chalukya administration was chapter that how Chandragupta highly centralized unlike that of the II made marriagealliance with Pallavas and Vakatakas and thenindirectly the Cholas. controlled Vakataka kingdom Village autonomy was absent under andconq uered Malwa. the Chalukyas. The Chalukyas had a great maritime CHALUKYAS power. Pulakesin II had 100 ships in The Chalukyas of Badami ruled over his n avy. Dakshinapatha (the territories They also had a small standing army. between Mt. Vindhya and the river T he Badami Chalukyas were Krishna which included Maharashtra Brahmanical Hindus but they gave in the west and the territories of respect to otherreligions. Importance Teluguspeaking people in the east) was given to Vedic rites and rituals. from the middle of the ei ghth century. The founder of the dynastyPulakesin I The first ruler of this dynasty, about performed the asvamedha sacrifice. A whom something is known, was num ber of temples in honour Jayasinha. He wasfollowed by his son ofVishnu, Siva and other gods were Ranaraga. Both flourished in the also built during this period. Badami region of Bijapur district in
13
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0
Hiuen Tsang mentioned about the Jainism was a popular faith in south decline of Buddhism in western Maharashtra and therefore, the Deccan. ButJainism was steadily on Chalukyas the path of progress in this region. treated it with respect. Ravikirti, the court poet ofP ulakesin II The famous Jain scholar who composed the Aihole inscription Ravikirti was given the highest was a Jain. honour in the court of Pulakesin II. Vijayaditya and The Chalukyas established an Vikr amaditya also donated many extensive empire in the Deccan. villages to Jainscholars. Buddhism was They brought glory to their family, first certainly on the decline in India but under the Chalukyas of Badami for the Chalukyas treated itwith tolerance. nearly twohundred years, and, then, The Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang for nearly the same period of time, found many well established under the Chalukyas ofKalyan. Thus, Viharas and monasteries during his the dynasty ruled over an extensive visit to the k ingdom of the Chalukyas. area of south India for quite a Even theParsees were allowed to settle long time. It produced many capable down and practise this faith, without rulers both as military commanders any interferenceby others, in the and goodadministrators. Thana district of Bombay. Many rulers of this dynasty fought Among fine arts, primarily, it was against the mighty rulers of both the painting and architecture that south andnorth India and succeeded flourished underthe patrona ge of many times. They assumed high titles Chalukyas. Some of the frescoes like Parameswara,Par amabhattaraka, of the caves of Ajanta etc., and governed their empire well. wereprepared during the reign of Thus, this dynasty played animportant the Chalukyas . One of these fresco - part in the politics of south India for paintings exhibitsthe scene of welcome quite a long time. to the ambassador of Persia at the The Chalukyas also helped in the court of Pulakesin II. In thefield of progress of south Indian culture. architecture, t he temples constructed The kingdom ofthe Chalukyas was during the rule of the Chalukyas econom ically prosperous and it had helpedin the progress of the art. several big cities and portswhich were Many temples were built under the thecentres of internal and external patronage of the Chalukyas. One trade even with countries outsideIndia. importantfeature of this temple The Chalukyas utilised this prosperity architecture was that practically all for the development of literature temples were carved out ofmou ntains. andfine arts. Many cave - temples and Chaitva halls, The Chalukyas were the f ollowers which were constructed duringtheir of Hinduism. The Chalukyas rule, have been found at different performed manyyajnas according to places. The cave - temple in honour of Vedic rites and many religious texts Vishnuwas constructed at Badami by were written or compiled during their king Mangalesh. The temple of Siva at rule. They constructed many temples Meguti, whichhas the Prasasti o f king also in honour of Siva and Vishnu.But Pulakesin II prepared by Ravikirti, was the Chalukyas were tolerant rulers. built in 634 A.D. T hey showed respect to other religions. The temple of Vishnu at Aihole, which also has an inscription of king VikramadityaII , has been
14
M e d i e v a l I n d i a 2 0 2 0 regarded as a fine specimen of temple - There seems to have been a change of architecture of the age of intention during the course of theChalukyas. King Vijavaditva construction of this temple as can be constructed the Siva temple of known from its too narrow Vijayeswara in the districtof Bijapur circumamb ulatory path whose which now is called the temple of floorslabs conceal the external Sangameswara. A sister of moulding of the garbhagriha walls and kingVijayaditya constructed a Jaina the buttress likeprojections of the temple at Lakshameswara, while the north and south garbhagriha - walls wife of kingVikramaditya constructed into the ardha - mandapa, bothof which another temple in honour of Siva in are unusual features. the Bijapur districtcalled the Lokeswara temple. Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal Now this temple is called the Virupaksha temple is the largest and temple of Virapaksya . Mr Havell grandest of all temples in Pattadakal has praised the art ofthis temple very built in 8th century, built by queen much. Another wife of king Lokamahadevi (Trilokyamahadevi) in Vikramaditya built the temple 745 to commemorateher husband's ofTrilokeswara near this templ e. All victory (Vikramaditya II) over the these temples have been regarded as Pallavas of Kanchi. finespecimens of south Indian Its original name was Lokeshvara or architecture. Lokapaleshvara . Thus, the Chalukyas contributed not only to the politics of the Deccan but How these temples were also to theeconomic and cultural maintained? progress of south India. The Chalukyas Land grants to temple (started in 8 th were great patrons of art. They century) developed the vesara style in the The grants were recorded in walls of building ofstructural temples. temple. However, the vesara style reached its Taxes collected from common people. culmination only under Donations by traders theRashtrakutas and the Hoysalas . Offerings by common people They erected numerous temples at Aihole from about AD. 610. RASHTRA KUTAS ODZhNWEyNWYxMWVi Aihole contains as many as 70 temples. The Rashtrakutas established their The work was continued in the empire after destroying the empire of adjacent towns of Badami and the Chalukyas ofBadami. They Pattadakal. maintained their ascendancy in the Pattadakal has 10 temples, built in 7 th Deccan for nearly 223 years and then and 8 th centuries. weredestroyed by later Chalukyas of Most famous - Papanatha temple (c. Kalyana. 680), and the Virupaksha temple (0. Dantidurga was the founder of the 740). Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated the Gurjaras andcaptured Malwa from Papanatha Temple them. Then he annexed the Chalukya Dedicated to Mukteswara according to kingdom by defeatingKirtivarman II. inscriptions, this modest temple seems Thus, the Rashtrakutas became a tohave been completed around 740 paramount power in the Deccan. A.D. His successor Krishna I was a lso a great conqueror. He defeated the
15