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II Page , . . Foreword. OOOOO OOOOOOOO e OOOO e n >

Introduction OOOOOOO . OOOOOOO OOOO 41' Introduction . OOOOOO . 41.1P OO OOOOOO OO 1 aale

OOOOOOO . 46. Youth In Oec ?pledBelgium. 4, . 6-0 1111 1 2 ,

FAucatilmIn Occupied OOOOO OOOOO OOO OOOOOOOOOOOO China.. .A 1 1 Effects of WarUpon theIntellectual Life of e

ezochoslovakla OOOOO OOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 15 Education InFrance Duringthe War. . .25 Condition ofEducation'in Greet!and the Position of PupilsLe Seboolsand Colleges , 33 Schools InLuxembourg UnderEnemy Occupation 39 Education in theNetherlands Underthe Oceupatin 44

Educatin InNorway UnderGerman Oeeupation 52 4

Youth and EducationInOccupied.Poland' O OOOOOOOOO IV 62 I 4 a ap

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--=LI- EDUCATIONUNDER ENEMYOCCUPATION

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4.1 BELGIUM CHINA CZECHOSLOVAKIA FRANCE .GREECE °LUXEMBOURG NEilIERLANDS. NORWAY POLAND II

A collectionofpapersconcernedwith theeffects ofwarandenemy occupationoneducationin nine countries in Europeand the FarEast,prepared at therequest of the United, StatesCommissioner- of Education,-Dr. J.W. Studebaker,by tlie Ministersof Edurationortheir representativesof therespectivecountries.

Bulletin 1945No. 3

Or

FederalSecurity Agency Paul V.McNutt, Administrator t. U. S. Officeof Education * John W.Studebaker,Commissioner e.

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UNIT= 'TAMGO,VRINIIENT PRINTINGonus.WASHINGTON s 1948 For sale bythe Superintendentof Toad.. U. S. GovoroatootPrinting Wks Iraoldagtoo Mg D.C.Pries 154

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FOlEWORDi We in the United States havebeen spared the

1seve'restravagesofwar. Yetourgood fortune hasnot madeuscallous to the sufferings ofother nations. 04r sympathy andourhelp havegoneout to the victims df Nazi destruction, especially whenthe victims have been innocent children and youth. Concerned for the fearful effects ofwar onchildren and youth, Americans havefrequently asked:Juitwhat has haspened to education inenemy-occupied countries? TMs phlet presentsarealisticanswerto thatques- 'ion, prepared from reports of theMinisters of Education of Allied Governments. Because education must providethe broad founda- tion of understanding and good will, ofeconomic, politi- cal, and social competency on'whichalonecanbe erected the structure of 'a durablepeace,it is imperativethat education in the countries be speedilyresumed. The pressing importance of thatresumption and theways in which itcanbe facilitated constitutethe theme of this pamphlet t 1

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U. S.Comm of Education.

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e EDUCATIONUNDERENEMYt. OCCUPATION t. EVTRODUC1'ION AS YETwein theUnitedStateshave hadvery little specific and authoritativeinformationfromtheenemy-occupiedcountries ofEuropeand theFarEastaboutwhat hashappenedand is happeningto theintellectuallife oftheirpeople.Especiallyare wewithoutknowledgeof whatactuallyishappeningto schools andto the educationofchildrenand youtbeitheras aresult of#4 the war orof theGermanefforts forthe"Nazification"of youth. Recognizingtheselimitationsinour information and'desirous that the citizens oftheUnitedStates,particularlythe youthin ourschools andcolleges,should bemadeasfullyawareas of the possible situation,Owmembersof theAmericanEducationDelega- tion meeting hiLondonin thespringof 1944,arrangedtosecure authenticinformationontheimportantmattersindicated.The 'delegationreferredtowas appointed bytheSecretaryof State of theUnitedStatesfor thepurpose ofparticipatingwith ministers ofeducation,,ortheirrepresentatives,of 17 in nations a conference tp be helain Londonwhere,asis wellknown,most of theoccupiedcountrieshavesetup governmentsin exile. Arpng otherdisclosures,thediscussionsof theconference madeclear "thethreatto civilizationcreatedby the and cold-blooded considereddestructionby theAxis oftheeducationaland culturalresourcesofgreat partsof thecontinentsofEurope and Asia; themurder ofteachers,artists,scientists,Andintellectual leaders;theburningof booksthe-pillagingandmutilation of works ofart; therifling ofarchives;and thetheftofscientific apparatus."As the&airman-of thedelegation,Congressman J.William Fulbright,1stated ina recent articleinEDUCATION FOR VICTORY,"OurFascistenemies,recognizingthefundamental importanceof enlightenetcitizenstoasociety offreemen,with calculatedthoroughnesshavedestroyedtheeducationalresources ofgreatparts ofEurope andAsia." Theextent ofthedestructioncannotasyet'befullyreported. Indeed, it is onlypartiallyknown.However,theAmericanDele- gationdecidedas an initial stepto holditselfresponsiblefor collectingandobtainingsuchauthoritativeinformationasis available.TheUnitedStatesCommissioner,ofEducation,a memberof the Otegation,agreedthatsuchmaterialmight well *AntU. S.Boaster. 2 EDUCATION UNDERENEMYOCCUPATION I. be forniulatedas abulletin of the U. S. Office of Education. As 8uc4 he indicated it would receive wide distribution,especially &cloths school offidals And youth in secondary schools and colleges ló whom it will makeanespecially strong appeal. In accordance with the agreed-uponplanaletterwas sent by the Commissioner to therespective Fninisters of education of the occupied countries then resident inLondon,ortheirrepre- sentatives, requestingastatement from each addressed especially to the interestof yóung people of the United Statesof' theage§ of about 12 to 22years.Extracts from the letter follow:, The Members of the American EducationDelegation desire *ery much that the citises of theUnited States, and particularly the children and youngpe"opleinourschools and colleges, shall be made u.fullyaware as possible of the effects of war upon theintellectual fife of the occupied countries.Consequently the United States Office of Education, with the cooperation of the Department of State, willpublish and distribute widely,

4'especially to -secondary. schools and colleges, accounts ofwhat has taken place inwar-torn countries,hot only in destroyingthematerials with which education is normallycarried'forward, but likewise in the employment of variousmeansbywhich° psychologi*warfare is cairiedonfor thepurpose of maintaining the conquestthrough cultivation of the fascist philosophy andeventhrough depraving the minds of theIlium. When the statements from the several counttiesareinproperform, they will be published by the United States Office of Education.This project - representsoneof the initig4 steps to be taken In the furtberdevelopment.of plans for cooperation with the United Nations. IResponses to the Commissioner's letterwereprompt and enthusiastic. Aswasexpected, the exigencies of wartime condi- tionsaresuch that not all of the reports requestedare uyét availible.Supplementary accounts from the countries which have notreportedmaybe issued atalater date. This bulletin, then, is devoted to accounts of what thewarand enemyoccupation following it .have meant to education-in 9 of the ir countries towhich requestswereaddresood.Theylase 'presentedas'nearlyaspossible in the form hi which theywere Prepared by the respective ministers of educationortheirrepre- sentatives. heyare,therefore,autheiticand (Metal andrepret sent conditio4sutheywerewhen written, during the early summerof 1044.The U. S. Office of Education present* them to theschools, schoolofficials, and school childrenand youth of the UnitedStates,knowing well their sympatheticinterest in their teasfortunate fellows who have suffered andaresuffering not alone the tragiccalinalties ofwarbut the BUI1liarstalent*, brutal and unnecessarydestruction which followed in Its wake. The terrors ofwarthey have met withadauntless valor; the a Maim 8

persecutions of theoccupation witha courageous fortitude Which has inspiredthe admirationofyouihthe worldover. Inoursecondaryschools andcolleges thesepaperswill be readaspresented forthe story theytell, for thestyle andtone ,of the auihors,for renewedappreciation ofthe valiantmanner inWhichyouth ofcharactermeets disaster;,but the factsdis- closed will leadto further studyof thecountries involved,of their, people,their history,and developmentsocially,economically, and educationally,Perhaps best ofallaretheunderstandings whichoursecondarystudents willget leading towardadeeper appre.ciation oftheseriouaness of theproblems involvedin makinga peacewhich itis the hope ofthe world will.beperma- nently maintained,and in thesolution ofwhich it willbe their high privilegeand dutytsco participate. Thepapersfrom thevarious countriesfollow.

YOU= INOCCUPIEDIIELGIIMI lagrdueden Fouryearshavepassed sincethe GermansinvadedBelgium --long enoughto allowusto eitimate theeffects of thewarand of the Nail 'occupationon ouryouth.. a We must firstof allrecognize thatthe physicaland moral conDliont inherentin thestate ofwar aremoresinisternow t6ffin the WorldWar of191448, since totalwarharnessesto its machine 'themaximum energiesof each nag¬ only in %the industrialandagricultural domain,but alsoin thespiritual and scientificspheres. Evenin thoseAllied countrieslike Great Britain whichhave notsufferedinvasion, thepresentwarhas had morepainful repercusskinsonchildhoodand adolescencetthan the laidwar. The dearthof scholasticmaterialnoticeable hereis seriously aggravatedin the occupiedcountries by thefact thatGermany abstracts byeverymeansin herpowernot only whatis ofuse to herwareffort, but alsoto lw.r civil populatimi.We know,for instance, that the lackof coalhas closedourschoolsenSaturdays and Mondays;that, forwant ofpaper, homework has hadto be cut down, andthat holidayshave beenprolonged. Wehave just learned thatAlliedbombardments havecaused theclosing of schdols Indistricts jiltmorethan 201000 inhabitanti. The foodproblem Isserious inBelgiumand itprimarily affects childrenandyoungpeople.Doctors and welfareworkers arecrying out about thestate of health ofundernourishedyoung 4- EDUCATIONUNDEREMITOCCUPATION

Belgians who,whenthey fallill,cannot receivepropercarefor lack ofmedicalsuppliesandnutriment. Moreover,thepresentwar, ideological incharacteralso, engendersafanaticismjustifyingin theeyesof theNazis and theirfollowersevery possiblerepressiveandvexatiousmeuure. Thispressure ts unceasingandapplied-universally,but in pir- ticularonthenation'syouth,.forweknow theimportance attak.hedby thetptalitariancountriesto theorientationofyoung peopletowardstheirdoctrines,andtheir untiringeffortsto this end. %. Tounderstandthe Belgiansituationone must*remember thatpur country is formedoftwo distinctparts: Thelarger Northeasternregionoccupiedby theFlemings andthe South- western bytheWalloons.Each ofthesetwogroup;of thepopu- lation speaksa differentlanguage.TheFlemingsspeak Dutch and theWalloonsFrench.Forreasons too lengthytogointo now,theFlemingshave hadto strivefor nearlya century in orderto enjoylinguisticandculturalequality inthe Belgian community.Thisproblemwaspracticallisolved inthe period between thetwowars, but the- invaderwas not slow to exploit the aftermathofalong anddifficultstruggle..He relies,there- fore,onthe Flemishextremists(V.N.V.)ontheonehand, and theWalloonlascists(Rerists),ontheother,to help himtocarry out hispolicy ofnazification,especiallyin the fieldofeduCation. It isamongsuchasthesethat herécruitkhispettyQuislings and throughthem heseeksto dividethecountryagainst itself.In this heimitatestheGermans of191448: The Nazishavesoughtto exploitanotherphenomenonto be encounteredin Belgium'seducationalsystem. Catholiceducation and official(undenominational)educationhave beenat variance with eachother inthepast, althoughformany years the "school war"has givenwayto "schoolpeace."Neverthele&s,acertain rivalry,conoidered,bymanyto beconduciveto healthycompeti- tion, stillexists.Hereagain the Germanihavemaneuveredto revive thisstruggleand,to deriveprofitfrom theclosing ofthe "Free"Universityof Brusselswhichtheyhopedto inciteavtinst the CatholicUniversity'ofLouviin. It iscomfortingto notethat theNazishave achievedlittle by theirefforts toinflamethe Walloonsagainst theFlemings and the "tree"against the'officialsystem ofeducation.Better still, theonce opposingcamps have joinedto pnsentaunitedfront 40to theenemy, and the Universitqfof Louvitinhas openedwide its doorsto the studentsof theUniveisity0 f Brussels. IUM 5

Somers 1Wedy.of theEnemy withRespectto Schools I. Thechiefaim oftheGermansis obviouslythenazification of youth. In thisconnectiontheoccupyingpowerusespreisureonthe authoritiesonwhomthe schools'depend,notably bymeansof the secretarygeneralswhoarethe beadsof theministerialdepart- ments. Theimportantthingis to strikeat theteachingcorps, eliminatingpatriotsandintroducingasfaraspossible elements'. favorableto tbeneworder. ToAachlevethis theNazis havetakenthefollowingsteps: 1. Vhekemovalofrefractorysecretaty generalsand their replacemtntbypartisans oftheneworder.This done,the latter proceededto dispossessthe-towns 4ndcommunes of theirright to appointprofessors,teachers,and directorsofcommunalteach- ing establishments.In Belgiumalmost allprimaryschoolscome undertheauthorityof theCommyne.Moreover,the largetowns possess secondary,training,technIcal,andart schools.While nombonsforstate schoolscome within thecompetency 'of theministry ofeducation,atpresent communalteachingappoint- ments aremade bythesticretary generalofthe HomeOffice,a nominee ofthe Nazis. 2. The.elimination,on variouspretexts, oftheprofessors and teacherswho leftthecountryduring theinvasion.In fact, itwas to get rid ofpatrioticelements,butonlysomehundred° members ofthe teachingbodywere affected bythesedecree& 3. Theretiringage wu reduced from66to 60,not onlyfor 4 professorsbut alsoforteachersandofficials. 4. AGermanorderforbidsJewishprofessorsto teachin schoolsor universities afterthe18t of Januari;71.942. iIn addition,the Germansattemptedwithoutmuchsuccess to organize,onesole teachingcorporation,underthe auspicesof UTMI. ThisorganizationwascreatedinJanuary1942 andat thésametime thedissolutionwas afinounced 'ofthe'Fédération GénéraledesInstitaeurs.*which,befori thewar, safeguarded the professionalinterests ofteachers. Thesemeasures hadno appreciableeffect,however,and the resultingvexation forthecollaborationistsisexp inan article appearing inthe PaysRid ofthe 18thofSeptember: 41; it is statedthat theschoolsare centers ofsabotageand subversion V. and thatthe idealsolutionwould betoTeplace thewhole teachingcorps! At theend of thesecondschoolyearof theoccupation,things lookednobetter fortiu,collaborationists,for thenewspaperPolk

: . EDUCATION UNDERENEMY OOCUPATION

; ensulfa ofthe 30thof Jury1942 declares thatthe child members ofa national-socialistorganizationarepersistently Insulted and' forcedto )eave theirschoolwhere life ismade unbearable for them. Thisaffordedthe pretextfor creatingspecial schools solely for the childrenof partisansof the NewOrder. v* Tosum up, despite repressivemeasures,the majority of the teachingcorpshave admirablyresisted thepresweof the Nazis, andmay are the teachers inddirectors condemnedfor openly preachingresistanceto their pupilsorre:fusing14) obey the in- junctions oftheenemy.Thesameis true of thelocal authorities.,, One couldcite fiumbersof burgomastersandaldermen who have been arrestedand imprisonedfor adoptingasimilaraititude. Eltbabiadea'adCouragerTooehlo4Cootoit'ared lisbodtudosofCourses Generallyspeaking, itmaybe said thatteaching syllabi have largelyremainedunaffectedby theoccupationImmediately after theinvasion ofBelgium,the Germans exactedthe creation, in theSecretariatGeneral ofEducation, ofaCommissionen- trusted withthe revisionof schoolbook&So muchimportance did theGermans attachto this questionthat alreadyonthe ?Oat of October1940animpatientFalkenhpusen sentaletter enjoining the Commissionto windupits work in 6weeks.They also demanded thestandardizationof schoolbooksand their reduction in numbers.inpractice, theycontented themselveswith forcing pupilsto tear fromtheir historybooks thepagesrelating to the 1914-18warand totrace thenewfrontiers in pencilontheir atlases.

. Stepswerealso. takento increase thenumber of hours devotedto thestudof German.In The Belgianterritory annexed by theGermans, thatis tosay,,in the cantonsof Eupen-Malmédy and certaintownships of theprovince of Liége,theuseof Germah wasmade obligatoryand theFrench tonguesuppressed.In the nonannexpd litqlgianprovince ofLuxemburg, where26,006people 6. speak Germanand 6,000nothing butGèrman, itwuimposedas the principallanguage in18 rur.jal township&tit additiofi,the teaching of Germanwasencouraged throughoutthe whole system of secondaryeducation. Despitetheir 'efforts,the occupyingpowercould boast little successin this field.On thecontrary, itwasnoticeable that evening classesfor adults andprivate language schoolscounted morestudentsfor EnglishthintorCArman, and thesameten- dencywasevident incorrespondenceemirs.

7t, tAg;Ire.:: ;*';`' "

Le. ;f:4- tali( 7 0

Imspeeed PrpagivadaI. Plebe*la 'Nspropagandais not muchin evidence:In exceptional cases,where thelocal teachers areadherents ofthe New Order, lecturesaregiven fromtime totimeor aGerman propaganda film shown. Faced by 'defeatwithin theschools, theGermans triedto reach thepupilsoutside by diversinitiatives, of whichthemost dangerouswasthat ofsending childrentogermany.According to German estimates,the numberof childrensent in thiswayto Germanyeorholidayperiodsvarying from 6weeks io 2months, wouldbe about40,000to 50,000 forthe first threesummersof the occupation.Preferencewasgivento the children of legion- naires andof Belgianworkmen inGermany. Theageof admis- , sionwasfrom10 .to 14years:On their arrivaltheywere directedto the farmsof familieswith known Nazi tendencies. Pro-Germanorganizationspromote the recrUiting ofchildren and persuaditheirparents with theargument either that theywill be spierorthat theywill be bètternourished thanin Belgium. Departures furnishtheexcusefor livelypro-Nazi demonstrations, garnishedwithspeeches ayid thedistribution oflittle swastika flags.in Germanynothing is leftundoneto inculcate Nazi totilitarianprinciplesand tourgethe childrentoexpresstheir admirationof andgratitudeto their adoptedGerman parefits ontheirreturn to Belgium. . ',madam etNaziSeboola Since the childrenof partisansof the NewOrderwerebeing treated withcontempt bytheircompanions, theGermans And the collaborationistsdecidedtoopen.special schools,themore so because oftheirset-batic alongthewhole line inthe attempt to nazify Belgianeducation.Arecent initiative of"La Jeunesse Legionnaire'provides for thecreation of schoolscomprising four primary classesin the bigcenters.To entice theteaching staff, candidatesare promised, in additionto*theusual conditions, considepableallowancesfrom theRexist Party. For propagandaproperlyso-called,ttie"Albrecht Rodenbach School,"modeledonthe German"Adolf Hitler"schools,wu created. 'erneaim of thisinstitutionwasto educate political leaders who,after 6weeks, couldcontinue theirgtudiesata university. Shortlyafter itscreation, this schoolwastraNderred to Germany(February1942). In July1942, itwasdecidedto extend to Hollandandto Flanderstheplaiiknownasthe "Langemarck," "whichprovided for theeducation ofpoorchildren intendedfor studyir.LJertnan 8 EDUCATIONUNDER ENEMYOCCUPATION sto

.0 universities. Afirstcontingent of24 Flémish 410 students left for Germanyin April1943. Byvirtue.ofadecree of theSecretaryGenerals, thediploma issued bythe Germansecondary schoolin Brusselsis recognized in Belgium,thusopening thedoorsoBelgian universitiesto the holder.Few Belgiaris.attend thisschool whichis almost exclusivelyfrequented byyoungGermansresiding inBelgium. ¶ In addition,the Quisling-organizationDEVLAGhas openedtwq , *ndergartens and two freeprimary schoolsfor boys andgirl:4'4 in Antwerp. &dmedLabor byChildren Children ofschoolage are not affected by forcedlabor. Only O universitystudents andhigher schoolchildrenaredbliged to work in Belgianindustrialconcernsforaininimum of6 months. This measure came into force atthe beginningof 1943.In view of the resistanceboth of headsof establishmentsand of thestudents, lieNazis decided/to introducereprisals againsttheparents of recalcitrant pupils.Registrationswere morenumerousandon the 29thof June1943 the Germanadministrationannounced that henceforwardnoofiewould beadmittedtoauniversityor .high-school'courskwho hadnot firgtcomp .4least 1year's N,...... , ...... 0.... forced laborservice. Z , ..., At thebeginning ofJune the Rector /ofthe Universityof Louvain andthe Rectorof theUniversity otGhentwerearrested nd condemnedto 18 months'imprisonmptfor sabotageof the in ustrialeffort, bothhaving refusedto /facilitatethe recruiting of students. 4 i , ../- Wearealso told thatthe childr\nthemselvesareifi'ost ingenious indemonstratingtheir spiritf res¡stanço.They do excellent workin distributingundergroundnewspapers and show remarkidilepresenceof mindin protectipgpersons"wanted" by the Germans,particularlyAllied vaiacjiutists.\Those *dents who refuseforced laborendeavor either t:o/join thè--Maquisor the ,AlliedForces.Student resistanci.niovementstakeupon themselvesnot only to givematerial aiclkto ir companions,who have been obligedto hide, buteventoorg: 'secretcourses .. and examinationsfor them.Itappearsthata mere5 percent

of the studentsfavor the NewOrder. . , '. attestsettke War4.111the'Life of Childrenand Youth , . Prfvations ofeverykind andscarcity ofmedical supplies over along periodhave seiiouslyaffected thehealth of little ri. Fhildren and ofyowlspeople. There hasbeenamarked retrudes- 4.,.... cenceof abnormalitiesand of mentiklw ewes(epilepsy,deaf- \ Bncwm I,

wuteness,nervous diathesis);ofgastro-intestinalaffections due principallyto theinferiorquality foodand theimpossibilityof followinga7diet, andoftuberculosis.Theziumiierof children sent topreventoriais fivetimesgreaterdianbeforetheWar. Statisticsprovethat44percent of the'60,448 *adolescentsof both sexes examined in1942wereinpoorhealth. Thestandardof moralityamongyoung people is indubitably, lower. Theessentialcausesmaybe foundin the lackof employ- ment, blackmarketing,promiscuity,and theabsence of-fathers whoareeitherdeportedorprisoners.Theimportance oftheile statementsmust n'otbeexaggerated,however,sinceoilthe other handmorethan 50percent ofthe activeelements ofresistance is recruitedfromamong theyoungwpieunder 20. Destructionof Buildingtsarid Eqpidpining The *war hainaturallybe6;responsiblefor thedestruction Ofagreat numberofbuilaings,amongthemmanyschools,first of all duringthe campaignof May1940 andthen inthe Allied bombardments.It is to befearedthatdestructionwillcontinue on alarge scaleshould thesecondfrontoperateon our territory. Thedestructionof the libraryof LouvainUnivetsityis heldto hav -1-.Ipremeditated,onthegrounds thateach ofits 900,000 volumesboreastamp representingaGerman*lingalighted brandto the hallsof theuniversity.TheGermans,hopingto exonerate themsetves,setup a commission toascortainthetrue authors ofthisoutrage, but theuniversityauthoritiesrefusedto takepart init, holding . suspect theprecautionstaken bythe Germans to.forbidBelgiansaccess te the ruins of thelibrary,and convincedthat theyhad arrangedto "frame"theEnglish. SpecialMeetsonTypesofMoods (a)Elementarysclwols.--It has alreadybeenexplainedhow 11._ the Germanstried, bya'wholeseries oflegislativeor administrate- . . tivemeasures to formateachingcorpsimbuedwith theprinciples of the New Circlerand how,with thisin view,theNazi4appointed SecretaryGeneral of-the HomeOffic:edeéreedthatappointments to localteaching staffswouldnolonger bemade bylocalauthori-.

ties but byhim. . .To circumventtheseregulations,parents transferredtheir childrento schoolsunbesmirched'by Naziinfluence,whichnews- sitated thesettingupofnewclasses.Toputastop to this,the 4:3 Germans forbadethe openingofnewschoolsorofnew classes in theexistingschools,-except byspecial licensefromthe German militi67authority.

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(b) Secondary and*vocationalschoo18.--Secondaryeducation ; hassufferedleast fromthe occupation,for itpartiallyescapes the influenceof theSecretaryGenerals. Wehaveno informa- tion abouttechnicalandtradeschools,butweflo know that they' sufferprincipallyfrom the lackof equipmentandrawmaterial. (c) Unii)ersities.---TheGerman planof actionagainst the universitiescomprises .thefollowingpoints: 1. Nominationof Germandelegates /1* 2. Suppressionof thecoursesof certainprofessors 3. Attemptto transformthe University ofBrussels intoapurely Flemishestablishment 4. Appointmentof Germanprofessors andfacilities for Belgianprofes- . sors to lecture in Germanuniversitiei 5. Nominationofcollaborationistprofessors \, 6. Intzoductionof forcedlabor forthe students, In spiteof th:undoubtedresourcesforbringingpressure to bear, thee !shimsmet withscantiuccess.Everywhere divergences ofopinion disappeared^andaOessedunity emerged. Professorsand studentsadoptedeveryaviiilablemeansof show- ing theirhostilitytowards theprofessorsappointed bytheenemy. Clandestinenewspapers and, undergroundmovements flourish in. every university center. Onthe 25th ofJanuary 1941the Uni- versity ofBrusselssuspendedits lecturesas a prOest against theappointmentof professorsby the Nazis.The latterpromptly ordered.the reopening oftheuniversity, butonly three'.professors obeyed, andtbe Germansproceededto arrestihemembers of the governing body,including theRector andthe headsof the differ- , ent faculties.However, Inspite ofconciliatoryeffortsonthe part of theSecretaryGenerals,they persistedintheirrefusal to collaboratewithtraitors, andthe Germansthen decided upozi the closingof theuniversity.The profesiorsWere deprivedof their salariesand forbiddenaccessto thelaboratories and libraries. As 'forthe 3,000students, theywerewelcomedin,the other universities,chiefly inLouvain. The attitudeof theUniversity ofBrussels hadconsiderable repercussionsonthe spirit of.resistance alloverthecountry. The CatholicUniversity of LOuvain,protected bythe Church'and under thedirect controlof theVatican,was less 'subjected'to interference,The Nazisrefrainedfromappointinga&legate and contentedthemselves withexacting theresignationofa- small numberof professors. N4i . . Collaborationistnewspapersacgiusethuniversityauthorities not only ofhelping studentsto avoid forced'labor, butof accepting a CHINA 11 young people whosesoleaiminenrollingis measures. to defeatGerman

1%. Libraries Or' On the13.thofAugust1940,thqGermans drawalfrom orderedthewith- alllibraries,bothprivateandpublic, booksand ofanti-German proscribedtheirsale.Thelibrarianswere made sonallyresponsiblefor per- any breachoftheseregulations.Weare unaware of theextentto which 00 thesemeasureswere applied. Conelades Tosumup, itmay be claimedthatthestrengthof hasavailedthem theNazis littlein theirstrugglefordomination youthofBelgium over the Threats,privations,andreprisalshave buttonourishthespirit served ofresistancewhichhasspreadlikea flamethrough oiirschools anduniversitiesaflamewhichwill leapintovigorouslifewhepthedayof our country. liberationdawnsfor

EDUCAT4NIN°COMMCHINA' The Japanese can4iaigninChina,aswellasin territories,isnot ot,herciccupied confinedtomilitaryconquestandpolitical economicdomination. and Itconsistsalsoofa carefullyprepared program ofpsychologicalwarfare,aimingat the among thepeople cultivation, It conquered,ofa state ofmindwhichwill Japanesedomination. accept AL "Asiafor theAsiatics"is thesloganofthe Everyeffortis Japanesedrive. madetoconvincethepeopleinoccupied thatitwits the' territories whitemen whobroughtall thewoes to the wisehappypeople other- of theEast.Thus,a "whitebogey"is .y)scare the peopleof setup Asiaintothearms of Japan.Western penetrationduringthepastcenturyis The describedinvividterms. bieak-downof Easteinculturedueto the emphasized. impictis Theevilsthathavecome about,whether economic,or social,are political, attributedto thearrivalofwesterners, especiallytheBritishandtheAmericans. come, Easternnationshad one after anaher,underthedomination Japanwas the first oftheWest. to freeherselffromthisdigaster,andto espouse thecauseof theAsiatics.Shealone has 4!" tooppose the now thepower westerners.Itis,tlierefore,hernaturalroleto delivertherest oftherace from to the enslavement.This,according Japanese,is therealmeaningof thepresentwar.It is Japan'ssacreddutyto drive rI every whiteman fromAsia,and fake, I Owingto the fasttbat amount le knowiedzittkeonditionein Chinais admittedlyInadequateal a neitrim extremelylimited.Ws desirabletoincludeit withahove tbat conditions.However,it isbelievoil a more completedescriptionmay be obtainable later. . 12 EDTkATIONUNDER ENEMY OCCUPATION the lead in creating the so-called "Co-prosperitySphere" of East Asia. In this sphere, Asiatic countries will workfor their mutual prosperity, under the Japanes% ofcourse.Their combined strength will keep the whites out.Asia is rich in resourcesand manpower.if only it4 peop1ewill accept Japaneseleadership, the dominance of the yellowraceis assured. On theother hand, however,anyattempt to buildupChinese nationalconsciousness is discouraged, for Chinese nationalism, theJapanese know too well, is incompatible with Japanese domination. Thii is the gist of Japan's psychologicalwarfare in China. It is basedonthe keynote of racial consciousness,and directed against the white peopleas awhole.In carrying it out, itis necessaryfor her tò offset the educatiopal influenceof the Chinese Government.This is done, first, bydestroyiiiithe educational institutionsthatwere soimportant in buildingupthe Chinese national spirit and in directing theanti-Japanese movementall overthe country.Thus,as soon asthe Japanese startedtheir offensive, they set out to destroysystematically the institutions of higher learning.In the first stage of the war,the grounds and buildings of 91 out ofatotal of 108pre-warcolleges and universitieswereeither occupiedordamaiedby theenemy. Among them, 14wererazed to the ground. veli the colleges and universities situated farawayin theinteiior have not iscaped aerial bombing. Just before thewar,the number of students in colleges and universities totaled41,922.The faculty numbered 7,560, and the staff,4,260.Roughly, -20,000Istudèntsand 2,000 faculty and staffménibersweredrivenawayfrom their institu- tions.Thousands of them fled to the interior tojoin the schools that had been reestablished-. there,'while otherswereforced by circumstances to remainin schools under Japanesecontrol. The trek of Chinese studentsfor hundreds of milesbefore the itdvance of theenemyisanepic that will alwaysbe remembered. Most of the universitiesand colleges thatwereformerly situated in the coastalareahavenowbeen reestablished in the Interior.Assist- anceis given to allthose whoareable toeicapefrom the occupiedareas.

The Japaneseprogramof destructionwas,of ; course,not confined to the institutionsof higher learning.Thedestruction of professionalschools, primary schools, middleschools, ande kindergartenswu even moredisastrous, for they includeda.

vastly greater numberof students thanIke univergitief.More- 4. over,the middle schools werethesourcefrom Which tbe universi& tiesdrevi their students and themOvemer4ofmasseducation its

I '4.kPliiiii41E-4.&GW%-Ww414Z- = - CHINA 13 ir teachers. Asit isof theutmostimportanceto wipeout andraisethe illiteracy generallevelofeducationin thecountry truedenlocratic beforea governmentcould.be established,theChinesegov- ernmentdevotedmuch attentionbeforethewartotheirachieve- ment.In1933,-theGovernmentlaid dowl begin a 5-yearOrogramto inthefallof1938 andto concludeinthe Duringthis fallof1938. period,aprogram for theestablishmentof the primaryschool 1-year systemwas to belaunched,sothatby_ theend oftheperiod,atleast40percentofthe would childrenofschoolage ,havereceived1Year'sprhnaryschool from1938to 1942, education.Then, the-systemof the2-yearprimaryschooleduca- tionTfouldt.beestablishedsothatby thefall of percentof 1942,at least80 schoolage childrenwouldhavereceived schooleducation. a 2-year Thisprogramwas so successfullycarriedout beforethewar that by1936thenumberof reached schoolchildrenhad 21,485,354.Butwiththe outbieakofthewar, the program receiveda mostseriousblow. the Mostoftheschoolsin occupiedterritorieswere closeddown,whilein Japanese thoseunder controlany form ofeducationthattendsto build theChinesenational up spiritissuppressed. _ "Social education,"thatis,education ouisideofschoolsfor thebenéfitoftheliterate or otherwise,was also greatVaffected bythewar."Social education"inChinaincludessucheduca- tionalenterprisesasthemuseums, public for libraries,institutions people'seducation,educatioffalcinemaand athleticcenters,etc. theater, public' Itwas estimatedthatthere*were 2,118 libraries,835"institutionsforpeople's museums in the education,"and96 areas occupiedby theJapanesein thefirstyear of thewar. Most ofthese instiiutionsin thelargercitiessituated along thelines 9fcommunicationhavebeen or looted. eitherburneddown

. Havingcompleted theirworkofdestruction,the!Japanese beganto unfoldtheirprogram of psytiological is warfare.This donebytwomethods.In the iiritplace,the People's so-called"New Association"was establishedto takechargeof, propaganda.This social' Association org-gianizesparades,meetings,an4 otheractivitiesto enlistsuPportforthe are told that new regime.The¡sole theChineseandtheJapaneseshould bringingabout cooperatein the"Comprosperit7Sphere ofEastAsia"; that "Asia isfor theAsiatics";thatBritainand greatest Americaare China's enemies midthattheChineseGovernmentat ismerelythe toolof Chungking theBritishandAmericanimperialists. is,therefore,.theduty of It 'ivoryChinesetosupporttheregime

1 - ,; : -. ; r. . 4. t let ;" . 14 EDUCATION UNDERENICifYOCCUPATION which cooperates with the Japaneseand to denouncethe Chungking Government. - In the second place, all schools in occupiedterritoriesare converted into propaganda agencies.In these schools, nothing but textbooks revised by the puppet government areused. Geography and history textsarerevised in sucha waythat Japan's conquestsarepresented in the most favorablelight. Not onlyarethe three Eutern Provinces ofManchuria marked off from the rest of China, but the fourprovinces in North China areincluded in the puppet state of"Manchukuo" which the. Japanese created after their conquestof Manchuria.In history textbooks, Japan is representedasthe defender of China against the West. Cooperation betweenChina, Japan, and "Manchuko" is strëssed.The history of the "Mukden Incident"when Japan begin her conquest of Manchuria issodistorted that the Chinese Governmentwasrepresentedasthe instigator and,therefore, theaggressor.The national movementof China, which achieved national unity under the NationalGovernment at Nanking, is removed from all textbooks,In short, anything that touches upon the tipbuilding of Chinese nationalconsciousness is suppressed. The teaching of English isdiscouraged. Japanese is compulsory in all schools. This educationalprogram,ofcourse,calls foralarge number of teachers whoarewilling tocarryout the Japanesepropaganda. Much effort is, therefore, given tothe training of the teaching staff. Some of them havebeen sent to Japan fcil theireducation. Thesearegiven important join upoentheir return. Has this propaganda beeneffective in winning theChinese to the Japanesecause? As farasChinese youthareconcerned, the influence hasbeenveryslight Japan has beenChina's major énemyfor suchalong time thatnoamount of indoctrination can change theperople's beliefs.By far -the majority ofthe people k still look to Chungkingfor national salvation. Theystill regard the British and the Americans asChina's allies, andarewaiting for- the day when Japanwill collapse in totaldefeat To them, the Japanese effortsarenothing but propaganda.The children are,however,moreat the mercy ofthenewschools. They have had little background ofthe old educationaidaregiven 'little chance of seeing thetruth.However,evenhere the Japanese have not been entirelysucessful. The teachers they employhave

. not always beenthe willtair tools of theconquerors.Theyare . often able to slip ingrains of the truth lo counterthe Japanese IN

1,0:14 * piopaganda.As to thecommon.peopk, thearroganceand the

I . ¡kV 14".)-"tiAd .1 , , *)- ; . .I - .0.7. I.. A.

- _ :0E:- 4

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 15 s oppressionoftbeJapanesehavecompletely alienatedtheir empathy.Verbal¡oropagandacan hardly convincethemof the rightness,ofJapan'scause.

EFFECESOFWARUPONTHE INTELLECTUALLIFE ao OFCZECHOSLOVAKIA State ofSchoolsItheSomealled"Protectorate BobesidaandMoravia" f Geographically, Czecho8lovakiamight bet- ribed Slav island u a in themidstof.aGermailsea. The thousan-ears'history of theCzech peopleoónsistedofacontinualstruggle._ against survival thefargreaternumbersofGermanswhosurrounded themon three sides.Thisconflict it was always present,evenif were subjectto theebb andflowresultingfromthe general constellationof forcesontheEuropeanContinent. The presentwarmarksthelatestattempt oftheGermansto includethe historicallands oftheCzechoslovakRepublic,i.e., Bohemia andMoravia,withintheir"Lebensraum"afidto Ger- manizeandto absorbthepopulationinto whatmust be called "the Fourth .014 Reich."(Theconceptionof the Reich Third which, itlerboasted,containedonlyterritoriesin- habited bypureGerman populaiion,was destroyed byHitler himselfwhen theoccupationofCzechoslovakiaonMarch15,1939, includedforthe firsttimeit non-Germanpopulationin the

"Reich.") . Consequently,ever since theoccupationofCzechoslovakia, theGermanshave triedtosubordinatetheentire lifeof the countryto theneeds ofGermany.Thisprocesswas accentuated by- thewar and ismost markedin theeducationalsystem. The German aim isto reducetheentirepopulationofCzechoslovakia (which hasbeenjustlyknownas one with thehighest standard educational ontheEuropeanContinent)to the levelofwell-trained tools fortheirGermanmasters."A nationofslaves no leaders" must have wastheGerman motto.Therefore,at thefirst opportunity, theyclosed allCzechuniversities,andintroduced %suchchangesin allotherschoolsaswouldservetheiraims. Want Tii4enumber ofinfantschools 4 in BohemiaandMoraviaseems . to havebeensomewhatincreasedunder theGerman Inparticular, occupation. numerous "créches"forchildrenunder6 havebeen opened.Thisis explainednot bytheconsiderationof the ingpower for occupy- theweltbbeingof theCzechchildren,butmerely

"

r 16 EDUCATION UNDERENEMY OCCUPATION

by the Germanintention to enablethe mothersto work in German warfactories. Thereare noexact data aboutthe numberof infant schools and créchesin the "Protectorate."Therearealso almostno reports aboutorganizational changes.Itis onlyfrom the numerOus reports of the opening ofnewcréches in various towni and villagesthatwe candeduce theincrease in thenumber of these institutions. Therearecertain reportsthatvoluntary workersfrom amongGerman girls whoareliable forauxiliarywarservices arebeing usedas nursesand teachersin Czech créches.This provesthatevenin these schoolsfor theyoungest children education is streamlibedaccordingto the wishes ofthe "Pro- tictors."These girls sendreportsontheir work andtheir observationsonthe Czech milieu inwhich they live,directly to the office of the"Reich Protector."According to thereport which appeared in the"Wove Noviny"(Czechoslovakdaily published in Brno) of March20, 1942, Hekdrich(who held the post of "Protector" ofBohémiaand Moraviauntil hisassusina- tion May 27, 1942) receiveda groupof these girlsinasolemn audience to hear theirreports and to thinkthem for theirwork. In uthesame way,Czech girls,members of the"National Unity Youth" (acollaborationistorganization)areused for control in infant schools and créclies.Itseemsthat the need for these auxiliaryworkers is causedby the lackof properly trained personnel. Their employmentin thisnianneralso follows thenewlines of girls' educationtowards family andmotherhood. Primary Sebealls Ne, The impact of the occupationuponthe Czechschoolswas first shown in the priinAryschools by thegradual introduspion of the German language.Germanwasat first taught aian optional subject from the thirdyearonwards and onlywhere at lead 12 pupils asked forit.During the schoolyear9f 194041, aGovernment decree (No. 394,datedSept. 20, 1940)introduced Germanas acompulsory subjectbeginning with thefirstyear of primary school.Thesamedecree abolishedthe teaching of civics in primary schools. Instruction in German in Czechschools is controlledby special German school inspectors. Theyarealso responsible for organizing Germancoursesfor teachersin Czech, primary schools. In 1942 therewere some8pO suchcourses. German almsarealso served bycompulsory physicaleduca- .4. tion whichwasintroduced in all schoolsby GovernmentDecree CISIOCHOBIOYAKIA 17 (No.341.,dated Sept.15,1940).Controlofphysical in thehandsofspecial trainingis inspectorsofschools.'leymustsee to it thatteachersofphysicaltrainingare specially selectidfromamong "trustworthy"persons. Theseteachers three ofthe are representa- politicalregimeamong the.teaching areat thesame time personneland politicalexponentsandorganizersof ties ofthe"Curatorium" activi- forEducationofYouth(thechief Quislingorganizationin the"Protectorate"). Selectedindi- vidualsare sent toattendspecial act courses inGermanyandthen as instructorsintheholidaycourses of organizedby physicaleducation pedagogicalinstitutes.Germaninspectors by theCzechMinistry appointed ofEducationare, however,confidantsof the officeof the"ReichsProtector." Fromthebeginning of theschoolyear 1941-42,furthersteps havebeentakento adapttheCzech of the educationalsystemto that GermanReich.TheGovernmentDecree August No.300,dated 14,1941,concerningthenew organizationof primaryschoolsand Czech highschoolsstipulatedthat"Czechprimary schoolswill beorganized so u to allowthefulfillmentofcom- pulsory . schoolinginitsentirety."Onthebasis ofthis mentDecree, Govern- 8-ytarprimaryschools(insteadofformer primaryschools) 5-year were created,andhighschoolsthusbecame schoolsforselectedpupils.Theresultwas that instead high offormer schoolsthereremainedonlyprimaryschoolsin the oflocalities. majoritt f In thesenew primaryschoolsGermanistaught In thefirstand throughout secondyear4 hoursweeklyare devotedto . tion in instruc- Germanin thethird,fourth,andfifthyear, 7 hours weekly;inthesixth, seventh,andeighthyear, 6 hoursweekly. Thenecessary periodsare availablethrough given reducingthetime formerlytoreligion,Czech,andhistory. years the In thefirst2 teachingofGerinanis carriedout bymethods to thatstage ofthe suitable child'sdevelopment;thenisno readingand tio writing. c. , OnFebruary24,1942,a reportconcerningthe aimingat better arrangements resultsininstructionofGermanwas published in theLidove Noviny.Accordingto thisreport,thenumberof pupilsinaclassforthepurposes of teaching 4I GermanIsreduced toa maximum of36. , The (wean_inschoolhourscausedby thedivisionoflarge_ timesintosmallerones forinstructionin G4rman the show6dalso necessityfornew teachers.Consequently,theCzech pfEducation Ministry , canceledthe__lull]on appointmentofnew teachers

4)Illa 18 EDUCATIONUNDERENEMY OCCUPATION

arid issued direttives for'their nomination.Those temporary

Iteachers whoarecapable of teaching German willbecome assist- ant teachers.In thissamecategory will be admitted teachers who,weredismissed from theirposts without fault of theirown. New teachersmaynot be appointed unless they haveasecondary- school-leaving certlficate(certificate of maturity) and unless 'they have passedanexamination in German with good results.In eitchcasepriority is givento married teachers with children. If hecessary, teachers whohave reached the retiringage' may remain in employment provided that theyhave passedan ex- amination in German. Mired teachersmaybe reappointed under thesameconditions. Itwaspromised in the Czechpress,in June 1942, thatu a result of these changes, out ofsome7,000 unemployed teachers, about 4,000 would be placedduring the schoolyearof 194243. Colonel Moravec, Minister of, Education, and chiefQuisling, announcedonMay 25, 1948, that the reform ofprimary schools and high schools provided workfor 7,000 teachers who until then hadnochance of*tinsapost. According to Moravec's speech, therewerein the "Protectorate"at the beginning of the school year1948-44, altogether 5500primary Czech schools, with 45,500 classes and 18,800 teachers.It is difficult to judge from these figures whether the number ofprimary schools has increasedor decreased in relation to the number ofchildren of schoolage. In 1937, therewerein Czechoslovakia, 10,422 Czechprimary schools, but thesewere at most 5-yearschools.' Therewerethen 1,228,064 Czech and Slovakchildren in primary Achools. Today, however, thereare nodata about thenumber of children in primary schools in Bohemia andMoravia.Moreover, the figure for Czech primary schoolsin Czechoslovakia in1937 included Czech ochools in Sudetenland, occupiedby Germany in September 1988,aswellasSlovak schoolsin Slovakia.Further, it must be borne in mind that the present8-year primaryschoolsreplace inmanycases,,Qzech high schools of whichtherewere1,482 in the entire Czechoslovak Republicin 1937.*Theabove-mentioned decree reducing the size ofclasses for teaching Germanto 86 probably required the creation ofmOreclasses.Itseemsthat in someplaces the decree caused the éstablishmentofnewichools. It is perhaps true tosaythat,sofar, the Germans havenot closed Czech schools in purelyCzechdistricts,but they have done soin all places where there isaGerman minority,evenif this minority is artifically created by niw Germancolonization.In CZECHOSLOVAKIA 19

thiscaseCzech schoolsarebeing closedin orderto force Czech parents to send theirchildrento German schoolscreated for the German minority. MOSchools(ControlSate*Is) The GovernmentDecree No.300, datedAugust14, 1941, stipulates "Czechhigh schoolisaschool forselected pupils.It isa4-year school andfollowsuponThe fourthyearof the primary school." A laterdecree alteredthenamefrom "HighSchool" to "Chief School"(or Central School)in ordertocorrespondto thesametype of school inthe GermanReich, the"Hauptschule." The CentralSchool is attendedby childrenwho have passed the fourthyearof primaryschool withgood results,especially in German language,and whoarerecommendedby the director of the primaryschool.Parentswho wishto send their children to the Central Schoolmust submitanapplicationbefore May15, accompanied byabirth certificateandaproof ofAryan descent. The school administrationmust rigidly observethe principlethat no morethan 35percent of the childrenterminatingtheir fourth yearof primary schdblmaybe admittedto the CentralSchool. Among the conditionsfor admissionis physicalfitness and oral and writtenexamination in Germanand in arithmetic.No Jews areadmittedto the Central School. In 1942, special1-yearcourses,called classIV A,were created in the CentralSchools.Theseareintendedfor children who have completed8Yearsof primaryschool.They receivein thesecoursesspecial Instructionfor entry intotechnical schools. So far about 66percent of the Central Schoolshave thesecourses: 513 in Bohemia and 278in Moravia.In 1942 therewtre in thesecoursesin the ',Protectorate,"28,238 pupils(including 11,257 girls).Conditions ofentryare:Good resultsin the primary school andarecommendation fromthe directorof the primary school. In 1937, therewerein Czechoslovakia,1,482 high schools (above fifth gradeunder oldregime beforeoccupation, andnot equivalent to the CentralSchools) with Ciechor41ovak language of instruction.Accórdingto thepronouncement of Colonel Moravec, "therewere,in 1942, in the'Protectorate,'1,213 high .schools, but in1948 only 1,080central schoolswith 1,200 classes and 12,000 teachers."It is clear,therefore, thatthe number of posteprimary central schoolsis graduallybeing reduced,chiefly because completion ofthe compulsoryschool attendanceperiod is made fully possiblein &Tear primary schools. 20 EDUCATIONUNDER ENEMYOCCUPATION a 4. There' areno detailedreports aboutthecurriculum oftile CentralSchoolsin the"Protectorate."However,- to judge ft isposaible fromnewspaper articlesándoccasional brOadcasts,that theGermanlanguageformsthecoreofinstrvetion,as history wellu of theGermanReich,Germangeotraphy,Nazi ideology, and*Nazi conceptionofstate.Mathematicsandphysicsalso receivespecialattention. . The CentralSchoolprepares pupils forentry intotechnical schoolsand forpracticallife.CentralScbooleducation is requirld now forall thetradesandemployersrefusepupils primary with educationonly and reqtfireschool-leavingcertificate from aCentral Schoolorfromspecialcourses(IV A)mentionedabove. The Czechpopulationin BohemiaandMoraviaregardthese reformswithsuspicionanddisfavor,for theyseeIn ita attempt German at reducingthem allto thelevel oftheproletariat.This, Indeed, istheGermaqaim. SeeimadaryIllelhoolis ,e6241"°4° Secondaryschoolsare, since theGermanoccupation, for schools selectedpupils,just likethenew Central Schools.Already since1941,aviolentcampaignagainstsecondary carried schools hasbeen onin theCzechpress huedontheassumptionthat Czechoslovakiahadtoomanyyoungmen with secondary education school andnot enoughplacesfor them.Consequei4tlythe "GoveinmentoftheProtectorate"Introducedfar-reaching forms" "re- reducingThegreatvarietyofsecondaryschools ofthe iCzechoslovakRepublicto threetypes:"RealSchools"(instruction chieflyinsciences andmodernlanguages);"RealGymnasia" (instructioninsciences, one modern,language,andLatin); "ClassicalGymnasia"(instructioninsciences,Latin,andGreek). The proclaimedprinciplerulingthereformsofsecondary educationwas: "Everybodyto suchplace forwhichhe is by his fitted aptitude."Theaimwas to reducethenumberof aplil1- 7titnts forclericaljobs andincreasethosewhointendto enter tradesand industry.Thistendencywasfurthermanifestedby theestablishmentofanumberofnew technical schools. There are no data aVailablebywhichto judgethedamage doneto CzechoslovaksecondaryschoolsbyGerman The occupation. administrationcarefullyrefrainsfrompublishinganyfigures.' Theonly fadsknownarethatallsecondary schoolsfor girls establishedbyreligiousordershavebeenclosed,andthat additional no classesmaybeopenedInexistingsecondaryschoolsin largetowns.

3.

e CESCROBLOUKIA 21

Equally,thereare no data conce'rningthe numberofpro- fessors in secondaryschools. For5yearstherewere no graduates of the Czechuniv 117-2 which havebeen closedby Germans since November1939.All professorsof Jewishdescentwere dismissed.Theaimlimitwasloweredto 66.It) thecaseof professors who,duringthe firstWorld Warfought^ in.the "CzechoslovakLegions,"theagelimitwasloweredto 45.Many patriotic professorswere sent to concentrationcamps orsum-, :nazidismissed. During 1941 arid1942alldirectors andproibasorsof secondary schoolswereobligedtopass an examination in German. Those who ttiiedin thisexamination,either becauseof inade- quate kuowledge ofGermanorbecauseof politicalreasonp, were dismissed. From the agove-mentionedfktsit is possibleto estimate that the numberof sendaryschools4n Bohemia andMorivia wureduced by aboutahalf. Speaking aboutsecondary schoolsin the "PriAectorate," Colonel MoravecdeclaredonMay 11,1942, "It is rea'sonableto assumethatour country will bemereindustrialized.Therefore, we must expand technicalschoolsat the cost of secondaryschools. In 1941wehad11,000graduates fromsecondary schoolswhereas weneed only5,000. Untilrecently therewas onetechnical school to three secondary.schools. Ourministry aimsat changing this state of affairsto two technicalschoolstoeverysingle secondary school.Itseems,however,that thischange in relation ofnum- bers will bereachedthroughindiscriminateclosing ofsecondary schools rather thanthrough theincrease of technicalschools. Sincethe beginningof the schoolyear1940-41a newcur- riculum hasbeen ilitroducedInto the Czechsecondary schoolsin order to bringthem intoline with schoolsin the GermanReich. The chiefaim is thoroughinstruction inGernian.In lower grades Germanis taughtfor 6 hoursaweek, in highergrades 5 hours.Four hoursareallotted tophysical educationexcept in the last 2 gradeswherf 8hoursareallottedto it. Au examination in German takesplacèat the end of eachschoolyear,and unlefis the pupilspassthis exmination,theyarenot allowed to proceed to the next grade.On theother hand, Czechlanguage and Czech historyaretaught only4 hours weekly.Teaching of civicshas been abolished. The curriculumis arranged&wording to Nazi Ideologyand devotedto the propagandaof Germangreatness.All textbooks have beenriwrittenwithtidalaim in mind,especially inhistory, A11 22 EDUCATION UNDEREVEMYOCCUPATION geography,ind Czechlanguageandliterature.Special nence is givento the promi- so-called"Heimatkunde"("Fatherlandlore") whichconsistsoflivesofimportantNazi Nazi leaders,historyof the 'movement,theNaziconcept ofstate,,etc. Accordingto the new regulations,the4secondary-schoo1- leavingexamination(maturity *examination) subjects: comPrisessix Germanlanguage,geography,andhistory(all mustbepassedin three German);Czechlanguageandliterature,and twoothersubjects(in Czech). Thechairmanof theexamina- tionboard a must beaGermanandtheexaminátionis in thepresence of carriedout a Germanschoolinspector.Jewsare excluded fromsecondary schools.Astudentinsecondaryor technical schoLmustspendat least 9 weeksduringhisvacationinsome A ofwar work.He hasonly 2weeksfree. Write-ehersColleges Since1939, for2yearsno new students teachers were admittedint6 colleges:However,a GovernmentDecree, datedAugust No.320, 11,1941,introduceda new organizationof colleges.They teachers becameresidentialinstitutions.Studies 5years.The now last curriculumconsistsofthefollowingsubjects: Physicaleducation;Germanlanguage, landlore) "Heimatkunde"(Father- ; Czechlangvige; history; geography; mathematics, physics;chemistry;zoology; pedagogy; didactics ods;practicat ; teachingmeth- exercisesinteaching,artisticeducation;singing; Ingsic;schoollegislation;agricultureand work;,and horticulture,band- in thefirstyear only,religiousinstruction. TheGfrmanshaveestablishednew German in Czech teaclwrscolleges cities.Studentsare drawnchieflyfrom speaking theGerman- districtsofBohemia.Justasin thecaseof schools,thereis secolidary a completelackofany dataconcerningthe numberofteacherscollegesand ' k theirstudents.Itseems that thefiguresare purposelywithheld. TedualeallSchools From'thepress campaign andfromvariouspronouncements ofth.e,so-called"ProtectorateAuthorities"it is nicalschools clear thattech- are favoredto thedetrimentofsecondary Everythingis done schools. tocreateinterestin them.In1940 and 1941, severalGovernmentdecreesgaveanuinber the of tichnicalschools rightofconferringapprenticeshippapers. numbess of Inthisway, boyscould,aftek2years'schooling,enter industryas qualified tradesor workers. , Themajorityof the hiihertechnicalsaoolshaveea.ablisiled

.4r A

, . ; . I t - L't C11611OSLOVAKIA 28 special 2e-yearcourses for secondaryschoolgraduateswhocannot findclericaljobs andwishto beremeducatidfor tridesor try. indus- Thetechnicalschoolsorganizefrequentcompetitionswith prizes forthe bestworkdoneby thestvdents. This particularstressupon technicaloeducationhastwo causes :The German"Protectors"wishsoto directCzechyouth that itbecomesasourceof ableworkersforindustryin the Reich andin the"Protectorate";secondly,tinywishto replace the Czech quilifiedworkersandtechnicianswhowere conscripted forindustrialworkinGermany. * In spipof thefactthat thepressin the to create "Protectorate"tries interestintechnicalschools,nodata havebeenpub- lished.Thisindicatesthat therealsituationis muchworse than is openly adinitted.Onethifigiscertain,however,that thing is every- beingdonetore--educatethegraduatesofsecondary schools fortradesandindustries, theuniversitieshavingbeen forcibly closed.Everywheretheyouth ofthenationarebeing forcedto acceptinferiorpositionsin allprofessionsresulting from theirstatusas members ofa 'protected'?nation. y Universities Czechuniversitieswereclmedby theGermansin 1939 for November 8years and haveremainedclosedever since.Thus 6zech youttiscompletelydeprivedofuniversitystudies.The only exceptionsare a few individualstudents,chosenfromamong thosewhohaveacceptedthenew regime.Theyare sent to Germanuniversitiesin theReich,chieflyto hightechnical or schools to facultiesofmedicine.'The conditionsare : Graduationfrom secohdary schoolwithhonors,perfectknowledgeofGerman, Aryandescent,andperfecthealth.Nowomenare accepted. However,theGermanshave keptdpen theGerman of University Prague.Theytransferredtp it allrightsandprivileges well as as some of theproperty oftheCharles University.There are no indicationsasto whetheranyCzechstudentsare studying there. Dr. Hacha,Presidéntof till('"Protectorate,"foundedseveral ticholarshipsfor thepurposeof sendingCzechstudefitsto Germin universities. Orgar,lamaalmages ISelhooldidadaistratlem The MinistryofEducationinPrague,underColonel Moravec, is gradually'andsystematicallydeprived -ofdirectcon- tact withthenationaleducationalsystem.Provincialeducation authoritieshave beenabolishedalthoughthesalariesoftheir 24 EDUCATION UNDERENEMYOCCUPATION I

personnelare still includedin thebudgetof theMinistry of Education. AGovernmentdecreeof April6, 1943,abolishedall district educationboardsand cieatedinsteadan educatiopal section each at districtoffice. ADistrictOffice isan instrument ofthe Central GovernmentAll controlandadministrationofprimary andhigh(central)schoolswhichuntilnow was performed the by MinistryofEducationwas transferreddirectlyto theDistrict Offices. It isthusthepoliticalandnot theeducationalofficials who decideallmattersconcerning A primary andcentralschools. Textbeeks The supplyoftextbooksisa sore problem inall schoolsin .the"Protectorate,"especiallyin the . secondaryschools.Oldtext- bookshavebeenabolished.Thepreparation ofnew textbooks to be substitutedforthosenowinusein theReichbasedonNazi ideologyis slow.Manyschoolsuse temporary,multigraphed textbooks. 10, TextbooksonCzechhistoryand Czechliteraturehave been greatlyclanged.AU.mention ofworks byKarelCapek and all by internedor murderedauthors(suchasthepoet Nezval,the novelistVancura,etc.) havebeensuppressed.Ofcertain other authorssome works'are admitted, othersforbidden.In 1943,in theGermanpedagogicalinstitute in Prague,anexhigition. cif textbooks forCzechschoolswas organized andalldirectors.of Czechirecondaryandnormalschoolswereaskedto attend. Ceseissimas From theforegoingdescriptionof thesituationin occupied Clechosiovakia emerge severalimportant*Ants: , 1.It isclearthat theGerman"protectors"intendto allow the Czechoslovakpopulationonly theminimumofeducationcon- sistentwiththepositionofinferiorityto whichthe Czechshave beenrelegatedby theGermans. 2. Wherevertherehas beenany apparentimprovementin the educationalsystem inoccupiedCzechoslovakia,it hasproved ,to be onlya camouflage tohide therealinterest ofthe Germans. w. 3. The Germanwar machine hasgraduallydrawnlarger numbersof Czechoslovaks,4includingyoung people, withinits orbitTheyareforcedto workunderconditionsin whichthey k. arebothintellectually*andphysicallydeteriorating. 4. Thepopulation ofCzechoslovakia,especiallythechildren -andyoung people,are subjected toaterriblemoraltension.For, in ordertopreservetheirvery lino they re .haveto hidetheir feel-

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ings while theoppress econstant'/in theirmidst.This situation willverylikelyresult inagreat increasein mentalcases. 5. Theoccupation of Czechóslovakiaand itsinclusion into the German"Lebensraum"has resultedin gradualand continuous deteriorationinevery aspect of life inthe country. EDUCATIONIN FRANCEDURINGTHE WAR Generalelbjiveel theEnemy Itwas in the intentionof theenemy to "nazify" the.personnel and thesyliabiof theschoolsand iheuniversities.Without either closingor suppressing theni,he wantedto makeweof them in orderto promoteapolicirof "collaboration,"that isto saytosupport breverymeansthe Germanpropaganda. This policy hasbeenmade possib-I' by theparUcipationof the Governmentof Vichywhich hasabedas adocileagent of the enemy'sdomination. The 1MIniat.reof NationalEducationwho speceededeach other WTichyhavestriven,toreilizebymeansof educationthe ; "RévolutionNationale," whichaimedat bringing'bout, in France,the revivalof the importanceof the family,of labor, and ofcomplete devotionto thecountry.In fact,theirwork consisted insecondingthe enemy'saction whiletryingto develop in the minds.of theyoung peoplea new hatred for theAnglo- Saxon democraciesand admiration for naziism.The mindsof . the Frenchyouthwere to be drawn to the ideaof abandoning their intellectualliberty,of submittingin conipleteobediencetoa hierarchicalstate, and, finally,of adoptingthe mysticalattitude towards theLeader. ThuswasFascismto be established. On the13th June,1942, AbelBonnard,Atinisterof National Education,wrote that "theFrenchconscience,until theneither egoisticallyrkiredwithin itselforchimericallyextendedasfar as aboundlessuniversalism,must adapt itselfto continental values,"meaning thoseofaGerman Europe.He himselfset . the examplein attendingalecture givenby the Ministerialrat (MinisterialCounselor), Dr.Ulrolt of Berlin,onthe pedagogical methods ofthe Hid Reich.On the80th May,1942, hewrote iii thenewspaper Paria-Soir: "ThisDescarteshas fortoo long INeen consideredasthe bestrepresentative ofthe Frenchgenius:he mustnowbe thrownout'ofthe windo..."

. Naturally,Vichy startedby adoI anti-semiticmeasures, setting aaideorrevokingJewish prof - rsand teachers,restrict- ing thequota of Jewishstudents inthe univeisitiesto 8percent and of Jewishpupils inthe schoolsto 7 wcent.Meanwhile, 26 EDUCATION UNDERENEMYOCCUPATION Vichytried to gainthesupportof theCatholicchurch, bothmoraland granting materialadvantagesto the privatkschoolscon- trolledby theChurch.Notonlywere the religious to ordersallowed resume theirteachingwhichhadbeenforbiddenby the Republic,but, IIId moreover, theGovernmentencouraged'it by financialgrants.The willto destroytheexistinglegislationon educationthusmanifesteditself. Similarly,Vichyendeavouredto makeof teachinga purely our secondary classicalteaching,intendedfortheyouthof themiddleclassalone. Itre-establishedin thesecondaryschools thefeesthattheRepublichadabolished,and it aswell introducedthem in thenewlycreated"moderncolleges" replacethe whichwere to post-primaryschools.Whatweknewas "lycées," henceforthwere only thosesecondaryschoolsin andLatin whichGreek were taught,so as to givetheirpupils superiority a feeling of towardsthoseoftheircomradeswhowere educated incolleges.-As the menofVichyproclaimedtheirintentionto favorpeasantry,thechildrenofpeasant in familieswere toattend, specialschools,courses differentfromthose populationof the intendedforthe towns.Infact,theirideawas to renderthe minglingof socialclassesstillmore difficult Asearlyas 1940, theFrenchyouthhadto trainingin labor go througha camps called"ChantiersdeJeunesse"it was'a trainingfortheFascistspiritas wellas physical January1943 it training.In wasmadecompulsoryfoiallstudentsto belong tobn unioncontrolledbyGovernment appointeos. , In applyingmeasures suchas these, theministers endeavored ofPétain to destroyliberty,tooutrootdemocracy, to revivea andeither feudalsocietyor to makeway fora dictatorship. Theywere supported inreachingtheiraimsbytheinvadtr's militaryforces,and could not helpbutrealizethatalltheiractions favoredtheenemy's interestsandthattheyworkedforthe marntenanceof theirown servitude. DestrisedonofItaildingsaadEgalipmeat It isnaturallyquiteimpossible,withthepartial thatreachesus, to information giieevena rough ideau to howfarthe destructionisextended,andaboveall,to tryand which forecastthat mayoccur before theliberation.In1939, some 80,000 Francepossessed primaryschools,500post-primaryschools, secondaryschools,and 5.50 16universities,not tomentionprivate %schools.But,out ofthe72,000buildingsthat,at the 1944,Vichy beginningof numberedast havingbeendestroyed,how school'swere included? We many can oikly giveafewexamples:We

, .7. IPI MOP FRP4NcE 27 know,that among others,theimportantcollege ofParis;thatof ofBeauvais,north Morlaix,inBrittany;andone of the of LeHavrehave been big"lycées" destroyed.AnumberofschoolsatCalais, Boulogne,Dieppe,St.Nazaire, andNanteshavealsobeen subjectedtodestruction.During if thelastphaseofthewar,even Franceisnotgoingto bechanged be intoa battlefield,we must preparedforthefactthatbuta small situatedin numberoftheschools proximityto thesea will be.left than6,000 untouched.More suchschoolsare to befound theBelgian on thecoastbetween frontierandthesouthofBrittany. stillmorenumerous will betheschoolsmadeuselessbythe destructionoftheirequipment.Tothis andhow classbelongallthose-- numerouswhichhavehadtotshelterthe forces.Weshallonry occupying pointout thatin Marseillesalone,as astheyarrivedinNovember soon 1942,theGermansseizedmore than halfof theschoolbuildings. TeachingPersonnel' We havealreadypointedoutthat,as early Jewishprofessors as 1940,airthe andteachers;whoconstituted andvaluablepart ofthe an important teachingpersonnel,hadbeendismissed. SOmetimelater,thesame happenedto others free-masonsandtomany whoseliberaltendenciesmadethem Nothing dangerous. hasbeenspared.to subjugateFrencheducation; nothingfromtheuniversitieswhere are theDeansoftheFaculties no longerelectedby iePe theircolleaguesbutchosenby Government,totheprimary the schoolsinwhichtheteachersmay no longerrelyupon thedepartmental by the Councils,formerlyelected inhabitants,tosuperviseeducation. At thesame time,all theprofessional were suppressed, associationsofteachers andwiththemthefamous ment" "Liguede l'Eniiiigne- whichthroughitspowerfulinfluent* playedan illustrious on the publichad part intheeducationalreforms theIIIdRepublic. adoptedby Listsofdismissedmembersofthe personnelwhichhave teaching beendrawnuparefarfrombeing but theyincludethenames of complete, eminentscholats,-numerouspro- fessorsofthe Sorbonñe.,theDeanof andthe the PacultyofArtsofParis, DeanoftheFaciultyofMedicineof oftheFacultyof Lyons.TheDean ArtsofCaen hailbeendeportedinto theDeanoftheFacultyof Germany; Lawof G -4 Iablehasbeen byLaval'sMince. murdered Howeverlongtheymay be, thelista ofthe ofe recognizedvIttims Nazi e occupationdo 401 notrenderItpossibletodrawup

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4 OP .,. a . the Inevitableresults thatth execution. But,inthe orders willhave those who stituted byMere*classes:fromthose who planned andtheywillbesent professors andteachers. of VichytotheRectorsandInspectorsinstruct threatening numberless teacherswhoservedinthe depend The ordersgiven, tied and maybetonorthernregions controlling agriculturalenterprisestoimplantGermanalttlers N.C.O.'s. measures eastern regions(LorraineandpartofChampagne)wherethe Germans is probablethatsimilarconditionsapplytothenorthern treaty whatsoever.TheStateschoolsthereemployed have allbeencompelledto 7,000 teachers.ManyofthemhavebeenreplacedbyNazis.They Lorraine, theannexationofwhichbyGermany liberationa.Exance willbeabletofindthepersonnelshe to and thattheplansofitsenemies prove Some otherfactsforbid reason show what subdued; thatitismoyedby tion, bothofwhich statistics whithwoUldindicate are strike attheheartand pressed. Butthese v. dangerously Imperilthefuture ofFrepch renew We also theproof.that, Moreover, thefutureof_teachingpersonnel First, The situationbeingsuch, up that theGermans'landtheirfollowers'onlydesire that, inordertosucceed,itwouldhaveIxen on with theoccupyingauthoritiesofBelgium.' may are the teachingpersonnelalmostinitsentirety. whicii are we Finally,Aie sinisterpolicyof the fateofFrenchprisoners to proportion oftheteachingpersonnelhasbeen EDUCATION UNDERENEMYOCCUPATION presently strivingby rest assuredthatthose whohave-receivedsuch must bearinmindwhatistakingplaceAlsace- sweep the recourse would facilitatethetransfer on are eads oflargefamilies. lists present the 21stofMarch1944,byGovernment off themembersofteaching near of interest.Onthe at theheadoftbeteachingbody. as a us to go future, theywill to do Their departurehasalreadybeen every 4, through whole, thisbodyhasrefusedtobe a 'which the totalamount, may we away spirit ofIndomitableresistince; us so. orders willentail possible means were with twokindsof have beenadministratively a in successive 'training conclude 'thatafterher arm as of collectivistmethods wrecked forthesole one means mass nisi, among hand, theyclearly edumtion. are was them totakeall betable toaviod in Germany. to Germanyof or deportation is tinilliy.&eir bachelors which would groilis based officers and will mostly and which _ whom more personnel. necessary requires? &forma- r was on no They than &in- sup- and A are to to It MIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIImmummilimmum Rftial "Ethnology" English in April the pupils 1942, it is English the dialects: insert victim be days, of 191448. Needless to forget to fitits that text,-.....,;: which mention understanding most useful as include to withdraw called hibited books, yards) ments utter prohibited. where change. teaching Persuaded that . ae..waratist a well In Besides, to to of Albert . 09e Theories democracy, by barbarians, feelings In the Here of "Perfidious in the the and American one wordof was addition, "OtHO" is still warn theteachers and that weaken as are submitted ideology. .- those 1948 Provenral, the have to a great the important the may notice revolution la Coarse. by private of delnography was created say again an b-oth rest ofthe teaching Vichy Also movements most widely from of which and and, had It is syllabi Maid, Permitted, of indispensable that have our national all the sympathy the Minister and for modern number we mustput all through Its chief thii to disappear. still .. sale the . has while well known Breton, French must must be they otight Albion." teachers of been individuals. to bring of French that civilization the &NZ im fact inscriptions altered more ope4ly, to the country, 1789 "Histoire in Paris backed u13' used the not be France, in theuniversities of English sent was towards of them. study effort nearly , works without that etc. immediately and rigret guide and Minister FRANcE unity. Teaella among pupils their the German of Education to all introducedftin them apart the that to know all mentioned. they is to and in Re pupils, of for were suppreaftid, mentioned de France" may all the syllabi in French by Great the books, to students, incurring lag history a _ AlsaHans publishers, thus provincial back against . make the Lists Though special were invaded, the Nazis took . no morebe . censorship . Contest that for French nothing destroyed in order Britain. ca&e ofAlsace-Lorraine purp9se ofteaching books endeavored to the young French of good they of prohibited the in the sewn. Finally, they has chair arousing (even the many chairs eopecially viited the cannot, study and the compelling which whose literature ,about has have care, inJune one gravest attempted to adapt ever belonged Middle that used. teaching of Judaism Meanwhile, in the by lists. a . . by Laviw, y they in bygone been chair and lyeder to favor publishers been in their nowadays, interat were the schools the has the text- schools, history people church- Ikt punish- Ages. Others must books, them totally and war them of the of of pro- .1 to us 29

MME IIIMEMINIKOMENNININIMINIMMIN 111111111111MMIN 30 EDUCIONUNDER ENEMYOCCUPATION

was establiahe5.This is howeducationis usedas a meansof politicalpropaganda whichprovesto be entirelyanti-national. Since 1940,portraits of theMarshal havebeen hungonthe wallsofeveryschool andthe wearingof the "francisque gothique" hasbeen encouraged.Studentsaswellaspupilsare submittedto frequentsearches inorder to discoverand punish thosewhocarryabouttractsorundergroundnewspapers.In short,studentsand school childrenaresubmittedtoasystematic enterprise ofpropaganda whichhas tiorelation whatsoeverwith teaching.What resultswill this have?Wemay rest assured that thispropaganda ispersistently foughtagainst bymanyof theverypeople whoareentrusted withit. We knowthatevery- wherethe teachers haverecourse toeverypossiblemeansof teaching theirpupils theverythings theyhave beenorderedto conceal from them.This is made possi61eby theattitude ofthe pupils themselveswhoaretheir teaaiers'allies,neverrevealing what is goingoninmanyclassrooms,and cleverly --Toing the true meaning ofwhat cannotbe clearlytold.Nevertheless,the influence ofsuch teaching,which hasbeen givenfor 5years,is greatly to befeared. On the other hand,the effect thatthe generalconditionsof thewarhave borneonthe life ofthe Frenchyouthmust be taken into consideration,for youth findsitself inastate bothphysically and morallyinferior. We shallnot enumeratethe hardshipsit has hadto endure. Letusmention onlythe threefollowingfads: The "Bulletin of Reliefin Prance"edittedby theAmerican Friends ServiceCommittee (1942)hasascertainedthat,In Marseilles, 66percent of the schoolchildrenlacked VitaminC and that, betweenFebruary andNovember1941, 75 ofthe girlshad lost, ori theaverage,5 pounds ofweight.At thelye& of Versailles, ithas beenascertained that 00percent of thepupils have lost from3 to 14 poundsand theirdebility hascaused the reduction ofphysical trainingto 1 hourperweek only. ÁtNice, half of thepupils do notgoto schoolondays whenthe weather is bad for lackof shoes.Meanwhile,in December1948, the bombings had causedmanyschoolsto close down'and effortswere madetoresumethe interruptedteaching bymeansofcorrespon- denceorbroadcasting. On the otherhand, thecourseof studiesseenfrom the compulsory laborto which pupilsare compelled.It hasbeen necessarytóput forwarl the datesof theexaminationssothat they might betaken before theend ofthostudies(Order of18th April 1948).This appliesin the firstplaceto agricultural

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FUNGI'S sl laborsto which studentsandpupilsare constrained.Butgraver stillis thedecisiontakenthe21st ofMarch inga 1944,that ofestablish- census of allstudentsbornbetweenthe 1918 witha years 1914 and viewtocompellingthemtoaccomplishin 2 1year each, periodsof a compulsorySocialService.Thisdecisiontook place at'thevery momentwhen,as we have steps saidbefore,other were taken inordertoprepare the tranderof the toGerminy.Itis teachers quitetlearthat theso-calledSocialService menticinedabovemeans, in truefact,war work for imposedupon the Germany young peoplebymeans ofdeportation. I Thereinlies themenace whichis tion threateningFrencheduca- nowadays.Untilthesummer of 1943,thestudents sameageasthe ofthe workersdeportedtoGermanyhad,generally speOing,obtainedtheauthorizationto But continuetheirstudies. since thefall of1943theseauthorizations 'granted. are but rarely It isa well-knownfactthata greatnumber hadnoother ofstudents recourse thanthatofhidingin theMaquis. SpeelalEffectsam Types ofSeboolls Thepreceding pages will givean outlookonthechiefalteta- tions thattookplacesince1940. Primaryeducationiweakened,boththroughthe effectof the generalized war on youth(conditionsofhealth)andon the schools(damagedor plundered)andthroughthe liberty andits evil suppressionof effects.Thetendencies whichinspireVichy's educationalpolicyconstituteastillgreater saidthat danger.Itmay be Vichyishostiletoprimaryschoolteaching. denouncedthe It has "spiritofprimary,.schools"asisynonymous with simplism,narrow-mindedness,intolerance,and attackedthis credulity.It has "spirit"fromall aiigles.Ontheoneside,it has createdaspecialteachingintended forrural I. 15th regions(Lawofthe April1941),teachingwhich,underthecover of itspracticalutility,has increasing , reacheda loverstandard.Ontheother aide,it hasreducedtheduration ofprimary pressingthe schoolingbysup- post-primaryschools.Aboveall,Vichyis fighting It theteachersin tilehope ofenslaving them,andit hasdecidedto II alter thewayin whichtheyare henceforth ing their recruited,bysuppress- trainingcollegesandhavingthemalltrained secondaryschdols. in Vichyseems to favor secondaryschools,butonlyunderthe conditionthat theyshouldlosetheir that democraticfeatures.For purpose, it hasre-establishedthe fees,andstrivesto theprestige ofa curriculum increase chieflybasedon classicalculture. Thepolicy ofVichy aimsat 'separatingthebourgeoisiefromthe to

e 82 EDUCATIONUNteltENEMY OCCUPATION to common people.Insodoing,it only succeededin weakening secondaryeducation,while politicalstruggles led Vichy's Govern- ment to takesteps whichconsiderably loweredthe standard of this education.For instance,onthe 15thSeptember 1942, itgave the degreesof lier"to students whohad not passed the oraltest of theexaminationbut who hadvolunteered for the "LégionAntibolchevique." As to universities,it is hardto understaAd under what condi- tions theycarry on their work. Threeof themareclosed.The threat ofaninvasionin the Mediterraneanareacaused, at the outset of 1944, theUniversitiesof Aix-Marseillesand Montpellier to close down. TheUniversityof Strasbourgwhich had been evacuatedto Clermont-Ferrandsince 1939wasbrutally tup- pressed in 1943.The Nazisinvaded theUniversity, arrestedall the professorsand students,shotat those whowereresisting, and killedoneprofessor.In February1944, 40 studentsand 15 professors hadbeensent to Germany. The life in the otheruniversitiesseems to be still goingon, but it is artificial.The teachingis closelysupervised andmany teachers,u wehaveseen,have beendismissed.But whathas become of the students?In fact, theymaybe foundeither in Germanyorin the Maquiswhere theyareenlisted in allthe possible forms takenby theresistancemovement. Thestudents have, from theoutset, playedanimportantpart in the history of theresistancemovement The itanifestationof the Parisian studentsonthe ChampsWadeswasthe firstpublicexpression of resistahcein France.In November1942 thestudentsof Grenoble manifestedstronglyagainst Mainand duringthesame yearall the associationsof Parisianstudentsaddressedto the Marshal,a-letter whichexpresseddevastatingcriticism ofhis policy. . In April1944 thestudentsIn the Mavisaddressedthem- selvesto the French Committeein Algiersasking thatall the results of theexaminationstakingplace inFrancebe cancelled because ofthepresent impossibilityof consideringthemasfair tests.The FrenchCmmitteeof NationalLiberationbuen- trusted theUniversityof Algiers,the 17thFrenchuniversity with the taskof actingas trustee of theenslaveduniversities. The Committeeis facedwitha vast work ofreconstruction.The moral andmateriallmsesalreadysufferedmay become !wavier still Wore the day, offinalliberation.However,this taskwill be madeeasier by tims Increasingthirstfor freedom,the will for redemption,awl theeagerness for work,existingnowvi

&days ill schools anduniversities. 1

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'trati, ' Bulgarian are flee tothe children ,Thjs in Ahe were moweddown student prison elements into n.cm now and _ Fascism and other lanivage refused liberation, books, spirit _or anyreference sytem titat of the Ionian against ought permanent occupi-4 Germans, invaders' freedom, wh(ise samba POSIT1 CONDITIN -s own;artièLIiar v.7:: Thethorough peace -In Macedonia protectorate fomibly The erld, students. c-:ulter. Conversely, barracks; Grevre With of the or Concentration to theachievements demonstratj have tc patriotism to Greek all Greek or as were systematically the mountains house teachers was made ikkethlb by such serve its literature pass hands. nference =a"d the Lx----gan They and the compelled occupation they been youth ,as invadM Greek all !Ring children they as a over therest occupation Aegean . Bulgarian V - the P took aingle three applieti &Awls and Thrace to be the War by massacred, system to undergo are constantly M117-.1" ons has own Bulgarians, of Greece. or may suitable *t population. arresteil Germans' compulsory inculcating Inachine-guns over to attend Bulgarizatton to other occurred, the of Islands) been who word dealing camps; simultaneously. made, particular UCATION be have was against of of Indemndence institution& a by the oi the ratby presented persons tohold of the still tested distributed IN Gamm earlier large while the the Bulgarians de8W-ne-A either been three tw,00ls aims districts on occasion the harshest and and and Thus, the in the For the ti* Greek remain in SCHOOLS teacixtra country, impressing country. ends, closed, in the area ofGreece others and of these parts ofher generations, were of at the enemies: in the Buliarian with parents extolling IN example, with faits in order the Italia/1,s to eradicate in Greece. schools, Countless and proved among Each GKEEC sfreets. Grew_e's and the have of as people, setting the press as groups of the For ,(- aecordiney provinces, were throwninto have a purelymilitary 1821. AND uin sufferings the being hostages. The it occupying to youth of schooq. been accomplis. two school in and that and censorship' or was territory convert them Ezhemol build- and especially principles one purpose struggles women and up the fight the Italians, them in the WILE aimed The (principally provinces dangerous forced pamphlets reason the of forbidden ND students children so national where Italian a applied When Grm-.*4- at the that power that text- form at were THE To to for of __e for ES as a , liErai'L itrrnM111,1,11.1111 IL .11.1;11177 higher have failed renting of limits for clear whether place, ment the and number at their another prevailed of the Minister of year (1944) ings probable inevitable been addition, destroyed either for schools racks have quence insisted through ing of lack of wholly The times part into . by the ilketruedes they implacable 34 A little refugee The heating are availablefor Nineteen treek The The In schools commandeered class is secondary are Bulgarians been even local of students unsuited were officially order houses, disease, proper ventilation Germans official" teachers Athens lack of total loss for school most of premises examinations by bombing; deterioration same thing barracks. are set,thenlengtimed children more Education auffered , stolen enemies. purposes inwinter in inspector some time; we EDUCATION had of allowed tries The order or villagei proper nourishment buildings school to this on withdrawing to which nearly Buildings is known find not complying and to be the teacher's attending of in for the or shall to regularize great damage; their by thefoices that by premises beforb the equipment towns, big closed. of sanctions been left Italians, and occurred school whether the schools teachers purpose. Theresultant of the and for all the where occupied extraction, as examinationsstill moved pay nofees;and UNDEi that practically purpose isexpressly of the proper function,since the children have been amid saliFy any buildings building were convertedinto rented enemy garrisons school with to deteriorate illgullamast or notsuchschools this to ciurchge in the have student repeated time, and course to30;ordains DIMLY damage the Greece their and small, have In fact, desks have is still and that were state of and often of these instrumental state ofthings no Many organized for the buildings children itself provincial not been in all had already occupation, has passed seconaary leaves it threatens OCCUPATION =stained converted for tests where conditions. by the other paid by parents had and other the Gmks must be affairs; seem tobetaking have other purpose. in the been mentioned overcrowding attendance private even beforethe were an spared... were quartered. to the equipment has spring of towns, and in the with punish- school build- military by the into it. order ofthe been totally used and towns have the will been which has basements. limits the added the that taken students It is buildings decision in the courses are State; ; spread- to the as But in open; conse- at time uni- poor prone not this moist bar- their fuel over and a at

-411111111[11l111r11111111M , "S6 versitiesandother institutionsofuniversityst4ndard.The AthensPolytechnic., i.e.,thetechnicaluniversityofGreece,was usedforalongtime as an Italianhospital.As publicnotices of entranceandotherexaminationsstillappear in the 1,7 papers, it must beassumedthat some of itscoursesgo on, curtailedand makeshift,inotherbuildings.Since hinuaryof this beenusedfor the year, it has housingof raidvictimsfromPirieus. damageiseasy to imagine. The Thegreatest !ArtofthebuildingsoftheUniversityof Salonikahasbeenturnedintoa German diseases. hospitaloftropical Thefollowinglaboratbrieshavebeen ticallyall strippedofprac- theirequipmentandcollections:The inorganic laboratoryof chemistry;thatoforganicchemistry;that of chemistry;two physical laboratoriesofphysics:thebotanicallaboratory in whichtheirreplaceableMacedonian the herbariumwas destmed; mineralogical,zoological,andgeological meteorological laboratories;Alm archives.TheMeteoròlogicalStationhas turnedhitoapigsty and tint* itsturret intoabar.Manyotherswere partiallyor totallydestroyed.Partof the laboratories equipmentofthese and ofnumerousclassrooms,aswell paintings,etc.,.were as copies of usedas fuel;Germansoldiersamused selvesbypeltingplaster them- casts andpictureswithrotteneggsand tomatoes.Booksof the LibraryofParliamenthavebeensoldin second-handbookshops. Ancientslabswithclassicalinscriptions havebeenusedas open-air fireplaces,etc.,etc.Theseinstances ofvandalismare Tilly those ofwhichwe happento know.They must bemultiplieamany times,andcan the serveas an indicationof wholesaledestructionofeducational deliberately institutionseither encouragedor purposelyoverlookedby thehigher authoritiesoftheallegedKulturvolk. Teasking Fermium! .11 Theteachingpersonnel u a wholehassufferedverymilch, especiallytheelementaryschoolteachers. havebeenput to Thousandsofthem manuallabor,or have beenimprisonedfor undergroundactivities;a greatnumberhave Their joinedtheguerillas. salaries,alreadyinsufficient,havemot kept devaluationof pace with the thecurrency (tobetween1/10004/10000of its proem/ow value).Onlytheirdevotionto theirmission reasons has kept forideological themat theirjob.Theysaw theircharges and dieofhunger,and faint whensoh* foodsuppliesbegantocome in andschoolcanteenswere organized,they in theni. tookchargeandslaved The oldCretanschoolmasterwho,before saidcalmly: "For 30 beingshot, years I havetaughtrtor pupilstoprize 36 EDUCATIONUNDERENEMY OMUPATION A libertyabove all;nowI shall gladlydie for it," is onlyoneofa verylargenumber.In the spring of1942,manyteachers having beendismissedorforced intomanual labor,somewell-intentioned citizensofferedto take charge ofthe children forpart of the day andto teach themthe elements.A numLkIr of themwere sent toconcentrationcamps. Directpropaganda doesnotseemto have been addrer&wdto teachers; theywereprobably foundtrro refractory.Only two instanceswereknown,that of20 setondary school teacherswho weresent forafew weeksto Florence in orderto followa course of Fascistlectures, andofoneuniversity professor takingpart inaWeimar Courseof the Instituteof Foreign Scholars.There

may,ofcourse,have been.afew other isolatedcases. A certain formalrespect of regulations has been keptupin regard to universitystaffs.The facultiesand senate have staunchly refusedto accept "suggestions"by thepuppet ministry uto electionsanddismissals;in extremecasesthe ministry resorts to the abolitionofcoursesin orderto dismiss the dons teaching them.In 1942 therewas . much talk of thestate appoint- ing two committeesof three members eachto decideonappoint- ments to spcondaryschools anduniversities, respectively;itseems unlikely thatit hasevermaterialized.Some professors and

lecturers havebeen &missedon onepretextoranother. . Teachingstairsin ed4001s andcolleges have,almost without exception, remainedloyalti)the idea andcauseof Greece's inde- pendence. Theyrefuse tocarryout the Germans' andItalians' orders in regardto anti-Allied teachingorto disseminatepro- Axis doctrines.In general, their'principalcareis to kindle the patriotism and sustain,themorale of youth.Many of them have

been imprisonedorsent to concentration,camps. ' Elfsmiandos of Courses In the firstperiod of the occupationthe schoolsremained open,but classeswereheld onlyin the mornings.In 1943, how- ever,both schoolsand universitieswereclosed downindefinitely, partly byreasonof the widespreadepidemicsand partly by reasonof therecurrent demonstrationsin which students and school children -toákpart. 7 ./1." e . In Athens and other distictswhe*ionditionsarerelatively quiet the teachersgive instrictionl¡n, theirownhomes, ,eitherto

individual pupilsor-to small*ups.Inthe provinces,o however, and in theopencouitry,where theguerillamovement la active and the Germans adoptShe har4estmeasures of repression,every trace ofaneducati9nsystem has disappeared.

411 37

. Germanand Italianschools,bothold-establishedandnew, functionand spread;oft*nthey offerfreemealsas aninducement to prospectivepupils. Mets 40the Waran the Livesa cltlldr.iiandVeldh inGnawsthe effectshavebeentruly appalling.Duringthe firstyearof theoccupationchildrenweredying bythe thousands inthestreets ofAthensforwant of food.Subsequentlytheir conditionwasalleviaktdthroughthe helpgiven bythe RedCross and otherorganimtions,and throughtheopenin ofsoupkitchens for schoolchildrenandstudents.Nevertheleisthe undernourish- ment to whichthey havebeen subjectedforacontinu9usperiod ofyearshascausedseriousinjuryto their health,andmany childrenand youthsare now suffering fromaprfrtuberculous. condition.Thisis truealso oftheprovincialtowns.In the country,onthe otherhand,the childrenof thepeasants and agriculturalworkers were somewhat betternourished.During p. thd lastyear,however,there havebeenmass murders of children in countrydistrictsin 'reprisalforads of sabotageorthe killing of Germansoldiersbyguerillaorganizations,whilemany thousandsof themare roaming themountains,withoutproper shelterorfo&d.Inwholeareasof the Peloponnesus,Thessaly, and Macedonia,systematic destructionhas beencarriedout by Germans,Italians,and Bulgarians,with theresultthatnota singlehousenow stands. Theenforcementof schoolattendancehasgoneby theboard, forweread of littlepeddlersof 9and 10drivingahard bargain 'foranythingtheycanlay theirhandson,quickat takingadvan- 1 tage ofasituationandat evadingthe prince.The schoolcanteens, by the hundreds,are a steady and beneficentinfluence;inmany boroughsof Athensthawcanteens havebeencompelledby circum- stancesto.open on Sundays forthe "Children'sSundayDish." Cleanlinfisslaaproblemdueto thescarcity ofwater andthe lack ofsoapand fuel. Theworst effectof thewar on the childrenis thedeteriora- tion of theirhealth.Rickets,tuberculosisof the bones,and other diseasesof malnutritionare rampant; their incidencehas risen anywherefrom800 to1,000percent AnoticeiñanAthens newspaper, recommendingthe establishm'entofseparate schools 'fortrachomapatients,provesthe frequencyof thatdisease.A medical inspectlir,esca recentlyfromGreece,,mentions Ina report that duringthewinter of194142,when faminewas at litworst, perhaps60percent of theelementaryschoolchildren sufferedfromthe swellingdisease, which producesthe*legally7

7,I ....A;;1* Si r ' a- if¡J.', 88 EDUCATIONUNDER ENEMYOCCUPATION

. Iiqtildin belly.and jointsafter theReaCross suppliesbegan to i comeregu1az13i,thecasesdroppedto from 10 to 15percent, still 1 a veryhighpercentage. , Anothereffect ofthewarwill probablybearise of illiteracy, andahostof half-educatedyouths with schoolcertificates, I grantedbecause thepuppetgovernment, at whose doorthe dis- , i ruption ofeducation mintbe laid, daresnot refuse certificates and diplomas.With thevery young, the deficiencycanbeput right withavigorous driveimniediatelyafter liberation;with theadolescents,it will beasocial problemrequiringexceptional skillonthe partof theeducation authoritiesand agencies. A third effect,whichmaybe tumidto goodorbadaccount dependingonthose tesponsiblefor educationafter thewar.---las adoubleaspect: (a) Childrenhavegrownindependent offamily aridof acceptedstandards.They fendfor themselves,defy a4thority,and thinkit clever,asit undoubtedlyis underthe circumstances.(b) Onthe otherhand, childrenhave become usikel toinstitutions,impersonalorganizations, takingcareof them. Fromallaccounts,jaspirit of solidarityandmuiiialaid has alsodevelopedamongthevagrant and homelessyoung.

SpecialEffects andReaction ElementaryeducatiomOfallstages ofeducation,the elementarystageseemsto be the leastdislocated. Weknowvery little aboutthe ditmageto buildings andequipment,whichmust be considerablebut the teachersas abodyarethere, thoughthey have sufferedterrible casualties. theschoolu a center of child welfaie,withcanteens, leisure-timeoccupations,provision of (clothing, medicalcare,etc., hascome to stay. r Secondaryeducation.Thislevel ofeducationis themost disruptld of all.Insufficientand, owingto circumstance,ineffi- cient schoolinghasgone onfor almost4years.Those whowere 10 to 12yearsofagein 1940are now adolescents; they havebeen granted unmeritedpromotion--thrughnofault of theiiown ; have beenunable toconcentrateonlearning, goinghungry and . being deprivedof booksand allother helpsto educsition.An organizationwiderthépuppet ministryof education, 'publishing anaccount of itsactivities, prides,itselfonhavingsentafew hundreds of books,copybooks,andpehcils, toacertain province over apeklod of 8years.This Moireupthe deficienciesmore than anythingelse.Thosewhowere18 to 15yearsofagein 1940are nowaaults,holders otsschoot4eavingcertificates,past LUXEMBOURG 89

.t. compulsorymeasures ofeducation.Onlyvoluntary workand the conditionsconduciveto itcanhelp them. Specialpraiseis dueto thestudentsin Greece.In spite of great hardshipsandsuffering(many ofthem live imnothing beyondadailyplate 'ofsoupand driedvegetablesat thesoup kitchens),theirpatrioticspiritremainsinvincible.In mostcases it is theywhoorganizethedemonstrationsof revoltand place themselvesat thehead oftheprocessionsandmeetings ofprotest in thestreets.Frequentlythey havebeenmachine-gunnedor dispersedbybayonetcharges,andmanyof them have beenim-i. prisoned.Repeateddisturbancesonthepart of thestudentshave led totheclosing 'oftheUniversityof Athens.Theycontinue, however,tocongregatein thecourtyard oftheuniversityand to stagepatrioticdemonstrations. TheGermanauthorities,assistedby certainGreekQuislings, madean attempt to winoverthestudentsto the Naziideology. A students'societywasformedinconnectionwith the"New European Order."Lectures,classes,anddinnerswere arranged, but theattempt endedinamiserablefailure.The officesof the societywere wrecked by thestudents,whiletheprofessorrespon- sible forits organizationwasroughily*handledby themin the streets ofAtheis. NO SCHOOLSINLUXEMBOURGUNDERENEMY OCCUPATION PsyebsieglealWarfare Generalobjectiveof theenemywithrespectto schools.--The generalobjectiveof theenemy, with regardto Luxembourg schools, isthecompleteGermanizationofeducationin theGrand- Duchy.It isnecessary to rememberthat theofficiallanguagein Luxembourgisandhas beenformorethan 400yearsFrench, though thewliolepopulationusés foreverydaypurposes, Letze- burgish(mdon Teutonic elements,buthavingborrowed extonsivelyfrom theCeltic andFrenchtongues). Thefirst aimof theGermanswasto abolishthesetwo "foreign"languages,for whichpurposetheyhadto disposeof theteaching personielof theLuxembourgeducationalestablish-1 ments. LuxembourgAtheGermaninvaderdeclaredgivingthus astrikingexample ofhis,ignorance ofhistoryhadonlytem-, porarilyleft theGermanReich; shewasstillessentially"Ger- man" andspealdngFrenchor -burgishwas butaproof of "separatist"tendencies.(In actual tact,6fcourse, Luxembourg neverformedpart ofGermany,althoughatonetimethecountry

a

.01 . .4 V. j- Si t- .-.....16 f. 40 1 EDUCATION UNDER ENEMYOCCUPATION

includedin the Holy RomanEmpire, when it coveredthe ter part ofEurope.) The secondaim of the German invaderwuto bring about acomplete changein the general outlook of theyouth of Luxem- bourg. Heattempted to destroynot only Luxembourg patriotism and nationalfeelings, but also attackedthe deeply rooted demo- cratic convictions,the religious thought andthe philosophy of the peopleof the Grand-Duchyever opPosedto the Nazi maxim that "mightis right." For thatpurpose,the New Order hadto eliminateeveryelement likelyto contribute toastiffening of Luxembourgresistance. Lay teachers,cierics,,intellectuak, from all spheres pfLuxembourg public life,werethusamongthe first to feel the iron hand oftheusurper.Asanindication of the Naziattitude toward education.itmaybe mentioned that the only Luxembourg Minister vihodid wtmanagetoescapewhen the Germansinvaded thecountry and the Governmentloft with thEir Sovereign,wasthe Minister at Education;the Germans deportedhim, with his family,to East Prussia. Destructionof buildings and equipmentTheentire popula- tion of theGrand-Duchy decidedto resist,as soon asGerman aims becanneapparent Here itmaybe recalled that Luxembourgwas the amongthemanycountries occupied bythe Germansto go onstrike.In August 1942ageneral strikewasbegun after the Nazis hadannounced theannexation of thecountry to the

Reich and theintroduction of compulsorymilitary service.This, v ofcourse,entailed Germanreprisals andamongthe first 21 personsto be shqtwerethree school task-hers.At thesametime, manyteachersweredeportedto *Germany, whileth,many children whostayedawayfrom school duringthe strikewere takenawayfrom theirparents by the Nazis, whosaid the latter were"unworthy"to bringupchildren.The childrenweresent 10 Germany and kept there. Withinafew months,however, of theiroccupation of Luxembourg, theGermans had achieved 'oneöf their piincipal objectives by expellingcompletely fromthe schools theclergy, who had playedaprominent role in allthe educationalestabliph- ments of this Roman Catholiccountry.Nuns andmonkswere drivenout and their property confiscated.Atanhour'snotice, theywerebundled into lorriesand sentno oneknew where. The Episcopal Seminarywasdissolved andthe priestsmaw hérdedinto waiting vehiclestob'etransportedto unknown des- tinationsin BelgiumorFrance. Someof dui religiousestablish- mutt and abbeyswereconverted intoAdolf HitlerWools; lauximpouwa 41

others into beerhalls forGerman officers.Thepurposeof the - invader is illustratedby the, fact thatrareand valuable books of differentfamous librarieswere carried off to 'Germany after elimination of allliterature ofa"factitious" character.The famous BenedictineAbbey of Clervaux.wasentirely looted.,A swimming bathwuinstalled in the chapel;bound books from the librarywereseht off directly-to Germany, while those *ith paper covers were removed to the Luxembourgjail, where imprisoned.-tee* hadto bind them before theirdispeaich.The St. Sophie School,asecondary school foigina,was'treated in the'same way,die chapel beingtransformed intoaHitler Youth gymnasium. Teackimpersennel.--Thereisashortage of teachersin Luxembourg;asin all countriesat present under the Third Reich.- An article inawell-known Germannewspaper afew monthiago enlargedupontie-difficulties dueto the shortage oftrained teachers, causednot only b7 the 'callingto thearmyof those of militaryage,but by the transferof large numbersofschoòl teachers to occupied territoiy(to replace patriotswho had been sent to concentrationtamitgi and to intensify the nazificationof such education att.wasallowed to continue in'the invaded' countries). As itwailintended that Luxembourgshould hente- forth formpart of the Reich, edtjcationwasnot stopped,atiin manyother occupiedcountries, butaconcentrated effortwas made to turn all thechildren intot"goodGermans" by all and every means.All the Luxembourg schoolbooksweredestroyed and replaced by Germantextbooks.,Theuseof Frenchwa's forbidden and only Germanmight be spoken. Allteicrhersin Luxembourg whpwereiinder50yearsof age weresent to Germany to take specialcourses tofamiliarize themwith the active principles ofnational socialism,sothat they could apply these ideasto their pupils. (Thesecoursesincluded military drill.)Many teachersweresent to work in Getmany and had their places takenby Germans. The immediateresult of this changemoverwas onlya nit falling off in theknowledge :P of subjects ofexact science, but also depravationfrom the political, point of view, thechildren being handedover,without ptoteetion, to theses prophets ofthe "Master Race."Patriots wereeliminated fromamong V. the teachingpersimnel.ne kachers whoweresent to Germany for "reueducation"were bullied intosomesort of acceptance of neo-German,thought., Those whoproved unable togrampthe philosophical depthsOff the Third Reich Ideaweredeclared incapabidof being teachers 42 EDUCATIONUNDERENEMYo s ATION and transferredto otherprofessions.Onlypart of there- . catedteacherswere allowed toreturn toLuxembourg.Itwas claystatedthat "noone can beateacher whohasnot devoted h andsoulto theReichand theGermancause." Eliminationofcourses or teachingcontent.Theschgolpro- _ gramswere entirelyrevisedsothatpracticallyonly the"three R's"(reading,writing,andarithmetic),in additionto the Nazi versionsof historyandgeography,weretaught.Instructionis confinedto morningschool, whiletheafternoonsaredevotedto drill,physicalculture,andgames. Consequently,the standardof a educationisnow very low. Substitutionofcourses.Inpre-invasiondays, theLuxem- bourgschoolshada very high standard,whichhasnowbeen completelyabandoned.The Nazishavenodesirethat themass of thepeopleanywhereshould bewelleducated,for theless educatedtheyare,themoredocilesubjectstheyarelikelyto be. In placeof religiotisinstruction,attention isgivesto music; andinsteadof pupilsdevotintbut of theschooldayto science, theyspendthe timein outdooroccupations O suchasdrill. Imposedpropagandainschools.--4tgoeswithoutsaying that . Nazipropagandais imposedin allschools.TheGauleiterpro- claimed:"Letthere benodoubtthat infuturenoboyorgirl will be allowedto set footinanyschool imlessheorshebelongsto the Youthof theFuehrer."Therearrangedprograms of/ schools havelargelycontributedto poisonthe mindandexistence ofthe childrenfromtheirearly youthwith the nionstrositiesof the racialtheciry.Inihesame way, the puttingaside,of allsubjects havingnodirectattraction forthe Naziregime infavor ofothers, suchasphysicalculture, hashadasurprisingeffect.The children are now generallyhealthy,butilliterate. Effectsofthewar on the life ofchildren'andyouthem- Naturally,thefundamentalchangesin the éducationalsystem in Luxembourghave hadaprofoundeffectonthechildren,ashave war conditions ingeneral.Foodrestrictions,forinstance,must be takenintoaccount,althoughit isbelievedthatthere hasnot beena very serious shortageof foodin thecountry.Theshorter school hoursand thegreatlyincreasedtimedevotedto physical culture andopen-air pursuits"havenaturallyhadagood effect onthechildren'shealth inurbandistricts.On theother hand, theatmosphereengenderedbypoliticaltroxitblesarrests,mane- huntsaffectingmany families, deportations,.etc.--46bound ,ti) haveaneffectontheminasof thechildren,more, perhaps, in big centers than inruraldistricts,*here theGestapocannotbe

, 400P . LUXIMBOURG 48 4 so ubiquitousas in towns or maintaintheirtorturevillu,and wherethefoodconditionsare better. Enforcedlaborbychildren.--Wedo beenso prevalent not thinkthatthishas inLuxembourgas insome other countries,althoughboys occupied belowmilitaryage have beenobligedto helptomanantiaaircrafiguns. Meetsso TypesefSelma. Present stateofLuxembourgelementary calinfluence,as practiced education.-- IntheNazi-controlledschoolsin Luxembourg,hasalteredthespiritofour youth. however,have Itseffects, greatlyvaried.Inplaceswhere masterser avowed Germanschool- Luxembourgtraitorscarriedonthe the moralpositionis viorst. teaching, Inotherplacesit islessalarming and itshouldbenotedthatin many ;-,:sparentshaveexercised a modifyinginfluence,tocounteract The e effect ofNaziteaching. thoroughknowledgeofschoolsubjectsAs Luxembouig,hadbeen recognizedby reduced,bytheendof1942,by percentMembersofthe about42 teachingstaffwere alreadycomplaining , thenthattheknowledgeandability had ofallour schoolchildren fallento suchan extentthatsome of them to reador write. hardlyknewhow Secondaryandvocationalschools.It thatthe isobvious,ofcourse, secondaryschoolsmustsuffermore in theelementary comparisonthan schoolsbythereducedstandardof whatiseven education,but more seriousisthemoraldecline,due thelackofreligious notonlyto instruction,butalsoto thedeliberate tionofimmoralitybythe inculca- pennon's.Thereisalsothesystemof sendingboysandgirlsfrom tthesecondaryschoolstospenda compulsory6monthsinatGerman generallywith so-called"labor"camp, direresults,especiallyto thegirls. Universities.--There areno universitiesinLuxembourg, whichisavery smallcountrywith Paris, famousuniversitiessuchas Brussels,andLouvainwithineasy reach. Libraries.7.--Mostof thelibrariesin andprivate, Luxembourg,bothpublic havebeenthoroughlydenudedofall Themagnificent valuableworks. librariesoftheGrand-ducalpalaces lootedandprivate have-been libraries(epeciallythosebelonging andpersons ofknown to Jews anti-Naziopinions) wéreravaged.All 'rareandInterestingbooks andmanuscriptswere stolen.French andEnglishbooksfrombothpublicand private 44. ti benttoGermanyfor librarieswere pulping.Thestocksofbooksellerswere thoroughly"purged."Booksellers and were forbiddento sellFrench Englishbooks,exceptforscholastic purposes. -1) (Tobuyan . 41; t :

4v 41

.11

, 'a. 1t "oftlif t 1;;ILL1721' - r Lt.! 44 EDUCATION UN= ENEMY OCCUPATION

English dictionary it isnecessaryto obtainaspecial permit.)The onlyexception *as theBibliothiqueNationale(National Library),whereacertain number of Frenchand English books areknown to remain, though It is strictlyforbiddento end them out. The National Library hu beenIçompletely transformed and purged of all works which did not conform to theNazi spirit. The Germans replacedagreat dealof Ws material bya mass of rubbish imported from the "Fatherland." In1940, the number ifof volumes in this librarywas450,000, which by 1943had in- creased to 800,000 volumes, andthe Nazis boast that this colL- tion has been builtupinto "one of the biggestand most Learned libraries of Western Germany."Apart from the EmusNui "literature" already mentioned,the number of volumes in the National Librarywas:increased by the addition ofnumerous books brought from publiclibraries in provincial towns,the latter also beingflooded with Nazi booksinstead. We know of onlyoneLuxembourg book which has beenre- published under Nazi rule: the"Rénert,"acomical epic, reminis- cent of the famousmedieval Frenchpoem,"Le Roman de -Renard."This poem, whichwaswritten 70years agobyour national poet, Rodange,embocbring the various dialects of the countiy,wasre-issued in 1942,but with such cuts and deletions *ato make it quitedifferent from the intentions of the poetand the spirit of theoriginal work,as everyallusion to national freedom andeverysatirization of the Germanswereeliminated from the text. Before the invasion,all the schools In Luxembourg possessed libraries, butnothing ofanyvalue remains in them and the French andforeign books isaparticularly destruction of- all severeloss. Tosum up,it is to be feared thatwhen the Germans have been driven outof Luxembourg it will be found that the children will need to becompletely meducated;the mental. and moral poison instilled intothem by the Nazisdriven out; and religious and civic virtues,'together with respect for the authority of the home,incukated. 66*

I 0 EDUCATION INTHE-NIMIERLANDs mina I OCCVPATION batroduaties In the Netherlands we mustdifferentiate between twoperiods of the occupation: V.

t=;,+- TitsNIIIMBLANtts 45 pi (1)The first year after the 'inv-milofMay1940,in which the Germanstriedto convincethe Dutch thateverything be all would right ifonly: Theydidnot mist;theyloyallysupprted the Germanwar effort;and theyconsideredthemselves thesame "Germanic" to be of originas th%-6 Germansandtherefore preparedto assimilate. Thisattemptfailed. (2) The last3years of theoccupation, in'which%theGermans triedto convince the Dutehthatthey hadthepower to breakany oppositionagainstthespiritualannexationof Holland Germany. by Greater- Thisattemptalso failed. In the followingchaptersweshallsee that theaims German of the enemy withregardtd\ schoolswere alwayssubordinated to the ,Abovc-mentionedpolicy.It millnot bepossible, always 4owever, to distingai.Abetween(1)and(2),asthissurvey is intendedprimarilyto showtheresults. Gemeral(»Needy.f theFiemy In Mefirstperiod theenemy triedto interfere possible aslittleas with saw's,providedtheyfollowedthegeneral linesof his policy.Noschoolswere closed down,except Leyden sity (see Nniver- p.50),buttheywere compelledto admitmembership the "National in YouthStorm,"the Dutch-Quislingequiiralezitof the Hitler-Jugend.Sincethenwehavehearda never-ending ofcomplaints series and lamentsby the"lonely"fewYouthStormers inevery school, whowerepeliteiedand excomniunicated fellow-pupils, by their ignoredormade thelauktingstockof therest by theirteachers.If theydaredmakkuieof their"privileges" goto school to in "uniform,"thenschhjewasAoon made impos- e sible.Neverwere theymore than 1percent ofthe population, total school andeven'intimesofstarvationandscarcityof clothes, whenmany children hadtogo to school barefootin wintertime, could the "privilege!'"of theYouthStormattractmore members thanthis1 percent, althoughtheyincluded:Extrafood,camping andsports facilities, "splendid"uniformswithridingbootsand furcaps, andeven weapons forthe olderset. Muchthesame goesforthe "LaborService"and themili- taryservicein Quisling and Germanunits,.all voluntary of whichwere in this"firstperiodfor theover-sixteens,and which entitledthe volunteer toan"automatic"matriculation,or'school-- leavingcertificate,insteadof theINA& stiffexamination. few thousand Of the volunteeri,most havepaid withtheirlivessome- where011the Germapfrontinkussiafor theirfolly.

4

4; + ' r 46 EDUCATIONUNIZiPENZNYOCCUPATION

Schoolswerealsocompelledto apply the anti-Jewish Nuremberg-acts. Most ofthem resisted successfully by retaining their Jewish pupils,but in the secondperiod the igeneralex- termination ,of DutchJews included Jewishchildren in whatever school theywere.In the fitat period the Dutchauthorities had 9 to erect special prifnary andsecondary schools for Jews; inthe second period thesewereclosed downasthe pupilswerekilled ordeported. In the second periodwefindmuchmoreinterference with school life, although alwaysthrough the Quisling educational authorities, which theGermans had appointed.We give the following instancés,manyof which will befurther discussed in the followingpages. The closing down of all"people's universities"---the highly developed and typically Dutchform of university extension-- because these centen of adulteducation proved to'betowers of strength in the spiritualresistance movement The interference withthe rights of the schoolboards to appoint theirownteachers, in orderto buildup anational socialist teachers Corps.Indenominationalschools this met "Atli

ob. verylittlesuccess,but in governmentschools the Nazis succeeded in appointinganumber of teachers and insecuring certain prin- cipal and headmasterposts fop.9uislings.These, however,were soonboycotted by staff and liupiUalike.Most of them hadto retire afteralong struggle. Noattemptsweremade to appoint Germans. A number of German schools,however,werestarted by the occupation authorities, in the first¡Mace for themanychildren of German civil servants andevacueesin Holland, butmany attempts, withverylittlesuccess, weremade to catch Dutch pupils. A number of special DutchschoolswerestartedonNazi principles, for the training of "YouthStorm" leaders, Labor Service leaders, National siicialist WelfareWorkers, Police, etc. As, however, these schoolswereonly visited by convincedQuis- Hugs, tbey did not harm theyoungergenerationsas awhole. Finally,measiireshave been taken the Germansto limit university studies to theverysmallgrftof 'loyal" students. Thesemeasureshave led to the cicilingdown of practicallyall university institutions.(Seepages50-151..) 4, 1111sairnotionsiIlhaildbes and Equipment As farasis known in London,nowillful destruction of A.buildings and equipment has taken plate,except in the coastal

. . - -- L s r.; 1- ;.4 q TM; Nininuome 47 zone, where lines,.ofdefensehavebeen nright constructedwhichoften r throughtowns. #.1;11-ii: InThikHague,forinstance,a ntaining25,000houseshas belt been taidbareandeveryschoolin thisstretthhubeencompletely anti-tank demolishedtomakeplacefor ditches.Theamountofdamage, been doneto school however,whichhas buildingsandtoequipmentas a result systematicfloodingofthe of the westernprovincesoftheNetherlands, after theinvasionofthecontinent guessed. had Alerted,pinnoteven be TeaelidsilParemael Agreatnumber ofteachersandprofessorswere hostagestakenbythe among the Germansfromevery Dutcbtownofany importance.Allteacherswhowere inthe forceswhen Netherlands&timed war brokeout htvebeentakento prisonersofwar.In Germanyu 1943theGermansstarteda, holdofteachersof drivetoget. militaryage for..forcedlaborin termany, butthanksto thesteadfastattitudeof even when schoolboards,whoref4sed, threatened,togiveany informationwith theirstaffs,theresults rimiardto inprivateschoolswereverypoor.. From Governmentschools,however, AL whereQuislingmayors pftenhad to supplytheinformation,many teachers 4. slavemarket weiedrivento the Asa result of thftlemeastirestherewillbea great short:age ofteachersimmediatelyafter thewar, themore to beciusemany teacherswhohavebeenin the"underground" physically orinGermanyare soweakthattheycannotbe future. calledtkpon in thenear ,*b UndeiAee heading "teachers"it8houl4bementionedthat thebasisof ttieeducational"sistemin the war Netherlandsbaorethe was the axiomthatit isthefightofthe along.which parentstodecide linestheirchildrenwillbeedutated. hadbeenlaiddown Thisright in theDutchConstitutionih1917 ofpoliticalstrugee,and afteryears Itwas thissmmt cheriAedparagraph whichhadalwaysbeenquoted againstattemptsbytheGovern- menttointerferewith thepolicyofprivate attemptof schools.Thusevery theGermanoccupationauthoritiesto theappointment interferewith or dismissalofteachers órwithany other ofpolicywas always point a immediatelyseen in thelightofunbeirable stateinterference,"long beforethemore subtlemotivesfor sucli amovehadbeendiscovered.:qpen lime resistanceagainstsucha was thus the'religiousdtityofinnumerable boards,and parents, sch6ol. I. otherauthorities.Morethan600eases N are known

et

A O 101'01 .114 01,:"1 48 EDUCATION UNDERENEMY °MUTATION

in/London,where teachers have 1:menappointed in opendefiance of the imposed Nazi regulations.This disregardof Nazi-imposed regulations whichwerecontradictory tothe Dutcheducation acts is typical of the spiritual resistanceof theNetherlands. Raving to chowsbetween openlysuppressingedwation andtolerating Dutch self-righteousness in matterseducational. the Germans have chosen the lattercourse.This silenttriumph of Duta educition should notpassunmentioned. Elbainatian and finlostkaldasel Courses Under this headingweshould mention acurious attempt to eliminateHebrewaa anoptional subjectfor matriculation in the Dutel grammarschools.These secondaryecho° ------f the sameIntelleafualstan asAnuricancollege&cater tofuture lawyers,minisiersof religion. ete.Of these, futurestudents of theologyand others take Hebrewalready in the grammarschool. The Germans wbo havebeen slaughteringJews by theAhousands did not succeed in eliminatingHebrew from non, . schools. The study of' German wasintroducedu at smpulsorynew subject in theupperstandards of primaryschools.As, however, the appointmentof tipecial teacher&wasavoided in most schools, thisregulatimi Could be sabotagedon a verylarge scale.One textbook for thenewsubject had to beeliminated by the Germans asall theexamplei itgaveproved to be veiledpropaganda for the alliedcause.. v. Finally.wemust mentionthe attemptsmade to eliminate parts of theeteachtngcontent fromcourseslike history and geography,Many of these attempts were sopetty-mindedor stupid that they madethe authoritiesconcerned the laughing stock of theeducational world: Onewell-knowrichildren's novel wasbanned because it contained thedescription ofafootball match inpm-wardays whereaDuttb teamhad beatenaGernan; while the period.of theFrench occupation ofthe Netherlands in the days of Napoleonand thewuof liberation of 1818was =- celled in the historysyllabus because cunning teachersmight comparethe French occupation with the presentGerman.In cases,however, wince references to theHouse of Orangeorto other realtraditional national values of Dutchhistor*were eliminated, the result of these attempts wasthat pupils used to decorate theirroomswith the frameddeleted paragraphsu cherished souvenirs of better times. NewNazi alibied§ likerace relations and geopolitics wereonly intioduced in Nazischools founded during the occupation.: °"/1.-tNWICUIANDS 49 tO, 4 !selfsamePTtdahelielbools lsolatexiattemptstoenforcethe posters, for use of nationalsocialist instance,YouthStormpropagandamaterial, schoolsmetwith in the Audidisastrou,resultsthatnofurther at puttinglarge-scalz attempts azipropagandainsthoolswas evermfde. EatoroodLabowbyCAMIderim e o attemptswere madeto enforcelabor Labor Service by children.The yearwas madecompulsoryforthme wishedto studentswho enteruniversitiesand forthoseyoung wishedto applyfor pensons who certainjobslikepolice,civilservice,etc. MeetselSheWar au theL.of MitresKomi Vommil Itt?edo not thinkthattheseeffectswilldiffer numt of theWestern very much in Europeancountries.ForHolland, publicationsdeal ma withthisintricAteproblem.A Dutch i. onthesubject authori L. thepsychoanalyst,Dr.A. M. t»oks,4imiuding Meerloo,whose "TotalWarandthe HumanMind."are well knownIntheUnitedState& Therearesome changesto thegood :lions: u a result oftheoppres- Astrongerdevelopedpatrioticfeeling, and less more scpcialunity classdistinction,anda stronger_senw of inminecases. religiousvalues "-Allyonlythosefewwhobello leas thanIpercen. .of to the Quislingfamilieshavebeenaffécted totalitarianidea&:kut by verygreat &mazehasbeencrone Dutchyouth ofsehcoJ.goin to the gage. Phyjudlytheyhavesuffered from cold,lackof clothes,all kindsof infectious nourishment diseases,under& inthecase of thewell-to-doand families,andstarvation of thefarmer in thecase of thepoorerclassesof the bigtowns;all ofthemsuffer from lackof.vitaminsand of foodingene ai.Moral fresh andspiritualdamah-re,however,is perhaps worse. Thebeastlysexual moralsofmany Germansoldiersdid ¡ouchharmto adolescents,andvenereal diseises dangervsly. havespread A Mahy young childrenhavegrown completelyout Of thefatherbeingina camp, hand, a prin,oron fo-.laborin Germany,and themotherhavingtogo out for and welfare, workReligious organizationshavedonewhatever withonly half-time theycould,but chcihcruwingto lackofstaff, buildings, fuel,etc..youth(mu!not bekeptfrom temptation. thestreetsandaway from TheLut_ 3.11tproblem that perhapsliesin thefact patrioticyouthshave learnedfornearly lying,destroying years thatsteal' usefulthings,andmany othernormally ableactsare often depic nekNessiryandoftenlaudablewhenperforrnaJ

V. SS

ll1-111

. : .641. . 7 . . - "

50 EDUCATIONtiNDERENEMY OpCUPATION 41% for the nationalcause.j Manyyoungmindsarecompletely at aloss /kith regardtom4nya these moral 'values. Finallyand this gbes for the older sethaving beeù cut oft from the outsidewoildhir suchalong time has narrowed theoutlook ofmanystucténts,although at thesametime their critical facultie's have beensharperíedto the utmost,as anatural defense against the constant stream of Germanpropaganda. The traditional critical mind of tire Dutch livedupto the occasion.

Special EffectsenUniversities s.. In 1940, when the Nazis dismissed the first Jewishprofessor, Dr. Meyers,aLeyden private-law pcholar of worldfame, Prof. Cleveringa of the law faculty protested inafambus address attended by the bulk of the students.After he had finished, Gestapomenentered and tookhiintoaconcentration\camp. Leyden Universitywasforcibly closed and has not been reopened since.Lakeonitwaslearned that six other professorshad Cleveringa's text in their pockets, incasethe Gestapo had pulled him down from the cathedra before he hadfinished. Leyden had livedupto its traditions of being"Praesididfiilibertatis."-the other universities carriedonunder great difficulties:Lack\of books and of laboratory equipment,aPrestsofmanystudents, and appointment ofanumber ofnewpro-Nazi professors. Thereare manycomplaints in Holland about .theattitu4 ofagreat number ofuniversity professors, whowithoutbeing' in the least pro-Germandid notgive their students theneces- sarybacking and moral and practical support intheir resistance movements, maintainingthat they,asacademicwor t,A,had V nothing to do with the "outsideworld"orwith "politicte,''6:'slong asthe Germans did notdisturb them in theirownacademic world. Apart from theattitude of all the Leyden professors, however, it must be statedthatmanyprofessors at other universities have shown greatcouragein the resistance movementorhave given their students all help they could tocontinue their studies "under- ground" when sought by the Gestapo._,N 1943wasgoing to be the decisive yeal, for universitylife in 'Holland. The Germans,needingmoreslave labor, especially from thehitelligentsia, ordered thateverystudent, who wished to continue his acadenticlife, had to signa"declaration of loyalty," promising that he would,neither by deedsnorby words, partici- pate inplyaction agabist the Germans. Those refusing to sign wcould& taken to Germany for forced labor intfie much-bombed warfactories of 010 Reich.Immeditttely85 percent of the students refused.The great majórity "went underground," do. it!NETHERLANDs 51 either to participatein theresistancemovement,orto continue their studieswith theaid ofanumber ofprofessors iñ â clandes- tineway.Many ofthem haveevenpassed clandestineexamina- tions which afterthewarwill receiveofficial sanction.A numbermostlyunderagesignedto satisfy anxiousparents, to finishanearlycompletedcourse,oibecause misguidedby the dubious attitudeofarector.(For the lastreason,the Technical Uhiversity ofDelft isresponsible fornearly half ofthose who signed.)All whosigned willbe excludedafter thewarforever fromanyuniversitycareerand fromallexaminations.These events left the Dutchuniversitieswithafewstudents only:Some pro-Germans,someweaklings,andsome"Streber" (apusher). Now theprofessorsstartedto refuselecturing and,notwith- standingGermanthreats,university life in'Holland gradually dwindleddown. TheCatholicUniversity ofNymegen, thetwo EconomicUniversitiesof Rotterdamand ofTilburg 'closeddown on purpose.Faculties of.otheruniversitiesfollowed,andat present academiclife inHollandtaLpracticallyconetoastand- still.Thegreatest tragedybefell thosethousancAg ofstudents who refused.totiignbut who"dived"too lateor were found out: Theyaredraggingontheir livesasslaves ofthe HerreAvolkin factoriesorbehind thefront. Scoresofnamesof thosewho died ofexhaustionorwhoweretortured todeathorkilledoutright by the Herrenvolkhave reachedusin London!.Nowherein the educational fieldin Hollandhas theGermanboot trampleddown somuchpromisingmaterialas amongouruniversitystudents! SpatialMeetsnLibraries The burningof "black-listed"books hasnot taken placein Holland.The Germapscontentedthemselves withthe orderto all librariansthata.number ofanti-German.or"politicallyun- desirable"books shouldbe lockedupin "poisonrooms." Atthe sametime schooland universitylibrarieswere "enriched" witha number ofbooksonNazi ideologyandanumber ofso-called scientificworks'on othersubjects, givingthe Nazipoint ofview. 4 After thewarthese bookswill be carefullykept to*enableDutch scholarsto write thehistory of Nazifalsification ofscience. Especially inthe field ofhistory,alarge-scalefalsificationtook place:-Books like "Beiträgezur .deutschffi4ederliii4OchenVer- stindigutby theDutch QuislingofGeiiianorigi*.,Dr. Stein- metz, triedtoprovethat the history of the Netherlands.,is really. abranch ofGerman historyandtfiateverythingwent.wrong whenevirDutch 'andGerman intetests,clashed,asin 1648 itthe \

\\ 52 EDUCATIONUNDERENEMY ATION Peaceof Westphalen.These falaticalions,however, didnot penetrateintotheschool 1, textbooksand in 'thelibrariestrust- worthylibrarianshada"poisonsection"of theirownin ordér warn youthful to ihexperiencedreaders. . There hasnot beenmuch willful destructionoflibrariesin Holland,except by thefighting in '1940 andagainin 1944.Butthousandsof bookshavebeen practicallydestroyedbecausetheywerereadto piecesduring theoccupation. Neverhas the youngergenerationbeen readingandstudying to suchan extentasduringtheoccupation.Lendingfigures libraries in havebeatenaupreviousrecords forfiction justas'well asforany type ofscientificworks.Even thelibrariesof the universitieswhichwerecloseddown showrecordlendingfigures. Itcanbe saidthat thelibraryin Hollandhasbecomeone of the mostimportantcenters ofnationalregeneration. Comelhasion Thestory ofDutcheducationunder theNazi heelis perhaps less tragicorheroicthan incountrieslikePoland, butit givesa truereflectionof thenationalcharacter,which iscalm butstub- born; critical,butactingon principles. Whenthe boardsof bore than1,900 outof2,000privateschoolsaffectedbyaNazi order concerningappointments,writean open letter to theauthorities, sayingthat theirconsciencecompelsthemto disregardthisorder, this isaproofthataverage middle-classmenin Holland,ot of whomtheseboardsare composed, stillare prepared to makea stand forthatfreedihnofconscienceand ofthought, forwhich theirancestors havegiven theirlives 400years ago. EDUCATININNRWAYUNDERGERMAN OCCIJPATIN Assoon as the countrywasfullyoccupiedbyenemy troops, i.e.,in thespring of1940,greatdifficultiesbeganto arise for theschools:Both inthetowns andin thecountry districtsthe school buildingswere often the mostsuitableplaces forbilleting troops. Asaresult ofthis, theregularschoolcurriculumwas interrupteduntiltemporary premiseshad beenarrangedfor the schoolsothatsystematicwork couldagain beresumed.But the school work hadoftento bemoreorlessrest icttdoradapted' accordingto theconditions inthe particularplace where .the schoolwashoused. inthosedistrictswhichescaped thebilleting, of q troops theschoolswerefableto continuewithoutanyreal break, and insomeplacesthe !schoolsonlystgpped forafew digseither because theteachershadtoreport to \thedefenseauthoritiesor NORWAY 58

because therewas a certain feelingof insecuritythroughout the country. A longperiod,however,elapsed beforetherewas any sign th0 theoccupyingpower intended to meddlein theeduca- tional affairs ofthecountry,orin theorganization ofthe schools, the teaching plans,ortheteachingprofession,etc.Assoon as the school authoritieshadobtained thenecessat7 premises in lieu of those whichhad beencommandeered,the ordinaryschool curriculumwascarriedonalmostundisturbed. Suchwastheposition untilSeptember 25,1940, when ReichskommisarTerboveninadictaiorialcommandremoved the NorwegianAdministrativeCounciland in itsplace appointeda number of headsof ministryas "commissar councillors."With afew exceptionsall thesewereNazisu was also the head of the Ministry ofChurch andEducation.After thisitwasnot long before Itbecameclear toall goodNorwegiansthat the schools wouldsoon0bein thefiringline*-Jrrueto theirNazi models andto thepolitical"development"into whichthe schools alloverGermanyhad beenforced, theNorwegianNazis tried to obtain completecontrol ofthe schoolsfor thepromulgation of Nazi teachingandthrough thismeansthey hopedto force the Norwegian youthto accept Naziideals. Allschoolswereinvolved, from thihumblestelementary schoolinaremote countrydistrict to the universitythe technicalschools,aswellasthe secondary schools. Forthe youth ofNorway, thatis, thosewhoconstituted the country'sfuture,werethemenandwomenwhowere to,Mum, the foundationof "thenew Norway."Itwas, therefor%neces- sarythat theeduiationof theseyoung people should in\every detail aimat making themactivetools in theservice ofthe tuling state and thatallindividualistictraits in theirminds andchar- acters should besuppressed. Theschoolsmust implantin them therightbeliefsregarding theperfectionof the "Herrenvoik" and itssatellites, theInferiority ofothernations, andthecons.- quent duty ofthose othernations tosubordinatethemselvesto their overlords-inblind andslavishobedience.Itwasthe teach- ing profession'shighest dutyto the Stateto makethisattitudea reality to theirpupils.Themore willing the teacherswere to carryout this taskand themordaring themethodsthey employedin this work,thesooner would "the NewEra" winthe dayAnNorwayand thecountry becomeaworthypart of the "Niw E4rope."The unificationofNorwaydepended,therefore,on whetherthe teachingprofessionwas willing tocarry out the orders 'oftheirnewrulersorwhetherIt wished\to followits calling,protect Norwegianyouth,maintainfreedom ofconscience 54 EDUCATION UNDERENEMY OCCUPATION

and theinviolabilityof theprofession,servetruth andrightin loyaltyand faithfulnessto their countryand nation. Theworld knowswell that theteachers of Norwaydidnot submitto the Nazidemands, butpresentedafront whichhas gainedthem thedeepestrespect from all thecivilizednations. Everyattempt tobreak thisfront hassofar failed.Teachers and pupilshave madeasolid stand,inspired bythe strengthand example giventhem bythose teacherswhowerearrestedandsent to Kirkenes.Foran account of this eventtogetherwith file meaning itgained inrelationto the wholenationalstrugglein Norwaywewould referyouto "Norway'sSchools in theBattle forFreedom." We admireall themorethe solidarityboth withinthe ranks of theteachers themselvesand betweenthe teachersand their pupils whenwerealize thatthe destructionof schoolbuildings by thewarand thecommandeeringof school giildingsforother purposesmade alldiscussion ofthescioolsituationextremely difficult.Alloverthecountry it happenedthat theclasses belong- ing toone particular schoolweredispersed inmanydifferent difections, oftenonlyoneclass andoneteacherremainingatone particularspot.Everymeetipgbetween theteachersortheir trusted friendshad tobeiriedout secretly.Germanpolice and NorwegianN-Sformationstried tocarry out espionage everywhereand to hinderany organization of thenationalopposi- tion.But itseemsalmostasif thedifficultiesstimftlatedthe teachers andtheir pupilsto asharperopposition andalso_ todo their bestin the ordinarywork ofthe school,althoughthis becameagreat dealmoredifficultas aresult ofthe destruction of schoolequipment Andteachingmaterial carriedout by the enemy. From theverybeginningboth teachersand scholarswere conscious thatthreats hungovertheir headsfor thelocalparty groupstried by suchmethods (ifwarfareto ingratiatdthemselves with theirleaders in Osloand establishmorefirmly theirposition in theeyesof the localparty leadersin theirdistricts.Individual schoolswerethreatened withclosing, andthe individualteacher withdismissal.And thesethreatswere realized toan ever- increasingextentIf It hasproved possiblitosave most of the schools frombeing closed,notichoolescapedfrequent andsome- timesverylong breaksin teaching,insomeplaces causedby local disputes,bqtoverlargerareasAnd in thecountryas awhole by regulationsabout Pfuelholidays" andthe factthat theteachers

. 1pa.i. byOaRoyalNorwegian and Wasiingio GoIrerameatitInformation Mikela Illoatnal.Load" NORWAY 65 , and pupilswere moreorless forcedto take part in seasonal work. Neitherwasitso easy tokeep the workof'aschool going when the teaching staff ofaschoolor adittrict might atanymoment be weakened by conditionalimprisonmentordismissalsorthe forced removals ofthe teachersorthe taught.Neithtr the German apthoritiesnorthe NorwegianN-S officialsseemto have hadanyconsideration forthe párticular conditionsofany par- ticular school,Ili,for instance, thejustifiable interestsofafinish- ing classorthe need forexperts inanyparticular line.As early asthe autumn of 1940therewereseveral imprisonmentsand dismissals. Soon afterthe New Year1941 the DirectorGeneral of the School Departmentof the Ministryof Educatipnwasdis- missed from hispost and then followedsimilar incidentsin various parts of thecountry until thegreat school crisis took place inFebriary1942.°On the *wholeitmaybe said thata succession of dismissalstook place,involving schooldirectors, headmasters and teachersat the setiondary,schools, and also elementary school teachers.Furthermore, the legallyappointed members of the Main StateAdvisory Bodies, suchasthe Councils for Secondary Schools,the Council forPrimary Schoolsand Training'Colleges, and theCouncil of TechnicalSchools, began to be slowly ireplaced by "ieliable"N-S personnel,generally setting aside the specialqualifications which shouldbenecessary

in such responsiblepositions. . With regard to theremoval of materialrequired forinstruc- tion in particular subjects,it is to be noticedthat thenewNazi authorities immediately beganto work out greatplans for reform, both in theorganization of the schoolsand in teaching.The Mini n of Educationwasinformed atanearly date thatagreat many reprofessionalmen,i.e.,teachers,wereto be drafted into the Ministry inthe position ofdepartmental headsandas advisers---a reform which hadfor long beenunder discussion

and. had partly beenrealized.In thecaseof the elementary school department theybegan to appoint schooldirectors for the various "fylker" instead ofthe 'dioceses.This alsowas Anidea whichwasfar fromnew.The reliable non-Nazidirectorswere dismissed, andacouple of themwereimprisoned forashort period.With regardto the curriculum, thenewauthorities wouldiot,ofcourse,sanction Englishas asubject in the elementary schools;In the two top classesGermanwas,to be' taught and bicame,therefore, the trot foreignlanguage in the Norwftianschools.The teaching of sixquestionswasto be s nit tt ee

r A * 56 EDUCATIONUNDERENEMYOCCUPATION abolishedwith hystericaloutburstsin theQuislingpr=.16%,f-just as,in thisconneption,one visualizedthorough-goingreforms nature in teaching.Andasthe schoolswereto be madeintoan importantpower-instrumentfprspreadingNazi ideas,the of choice materialinreligion,history,and theteaching ofthemother tongue hadto befundamentallyrevised.Anythingthatsmacked of democracy,ideals ofhumanity,tolerationin religion,national and internationalaffairs,andpacifismmust all beexcluded,and particularlyanypoint ofview whichcastafavorablelight British on history.In theirplacecameNationalSocialism,the theory oftheHerrenvolkand thedoctrine that"mightis right" were proclaimedpurelyandsimply, andthegreat andsmall prophetsaroundtheall-powerfulGerman Fuehrerandconqueror of theworldspoke their"essentiallysound"languageto Nor- wegianyouth.But theseonsets justbouncedoff thehard,surface . of theopposition oftheteachersand theirpupils.Anynew educationalbooksproduced bkconvincedN-Sauthorswere lack- ing intalent and*ere oftenimpracticalandtoo crudein their propaganda.Withregardto thesubject ofhistorywhichstands in thecenter of thiscontroversy, itsoon became evidentthat therewere no qualified people.available.Theteacherswho formedthemselvesinto bodiesto dealwithsuchquestionspro- tested against theintroduction ofthenewbooksintotheschools, and the pupilsthemselverandtheirrelationsraised,ontheiraide, Equallyeffectiveprotests.Then theauthoritieshadto comfort themselveswith theknowledgethat Qiisling'spiettire,as a result ofacircularfrom theMinistryofEducation,andunder the carefulsupervisionof local N-S(NationalSocialist)leaders, had beengivenaplace intheschools,althoughitwas oftena place whichwasfar fromhonorableand wellhiddenfromview. On theother handitwas nousetryingto introducetheNazi salute,which thenew authorities called"the oldgorwegian salute." TheUniversity addthe otherhighierunits oflearning,the TechnicalCollege inTrondheim,theCommercialCollegein Bergen, theCollege ofAgricultureat AasnearOsloand the College ofDentistryand theVeterinarySchoolin Oslo,each is ina class byitselfsofarasits_ treatment isconsidered.Insome of themunpleasantepisodes tookplace, forinstance,theimprison- ment ofbothstudents andteachers,'theinterferencein the students' self-goveinmentand theirfreecommunallife,chicanery andvexationiagainst theprofessors.However,onthewhole the workwasableto continueforakong Miteundisturbed;whenany , NoftwAY 57 b. , newuniversityprofessorwasappointed afterthe establishment of the Nazi "commissar"committees hislecturèswereentirely ignored.Itwas not until the state ofemergencyin the capital and its surroundingdistrictsin September 194tthat the situation became acute for theUniVersity.Then itsrectorwasarrested and taken toaconcentrationcamp(later deportedto Germany) and the students'special' andjoint comngtteesweretakenover by *Waling 'students.But :whenthe state ofemergency was raised, the workwasable tocontinue withseemingnormality in spite of the factthatmanystudents had chosento withdraw to theirownhomesoratanyrate keepawayfrom thevicinity of the University. On the 30thof November1943 the finalblow to theUniver- sitywasstruck. Therehad beenacertain feelingof criaisduring the whole of theautumn termas aresult of ^theattempts made by the Universityto regulate theentry of studentsaccordingto newregulations.Thesegavethe Nazirector thepowerto keep awaystudents whowerenot considereddesirable.In their Wace he took otherswhosequalifications,*perhaps,were alittle below the acceptedstandard.On the 28thof Novembertherewas a so-calledconflagrationanindisputable provocationto the Ger- manGestapoaut.borities-4warning thatthe Universitarhad becomeafocus pointof opposition.Two dayslater the Uni- versity andall itsinstitutes,aswellasthe UniversityLibrary, wereoccupied byS.S. troops,1,200 studentsand 80 professors and otherteacherswerearrested andtaken toacoptentration camptogether withanotherparty of Universitylecturers and students whohad been ariestedearlier, andonthe 9th ofDecem- ber 1943 andthe 8th ofJangary 1944boAtswent to Germany with, in all,about 700students. This is howthe Universityof Norwaywasclosed.The College of Dentistryeventually shiredthesamefateasthe University,asit had been incorpoiatedas a beparate faculty. Asaresult of decisionsmade by theauthorities, theCommercial College at Bergenhad takenno newstudentssince 1942,sothat the Collegetherewasalso closedto all intents andpurposes. Hence, anti theTechnicalCollegeat Trondheim,The 'Collegeof Agriculture, andthe Collegeof the VeterinarySciencesarestill functioning. Finally, itmaybe mentionedthat the largeraswellasthe smallirso-called "people'slibraries" havehadasorrowfulset- back,particularly distressingin view of theirconsiderablegrowth during thelast fewyearsof the 1930's.Theirnewbooks have - r-6" --- .

a 4 I. 68 EDUCATION a UNintiENEMYOcCUPATION been more andmore confinedto themany-eidedpropaganda writingsof thenew "Ministry ofCultureandNationalInform- tion"--:-and at thesame time certainboob have been,andare, putonthe indexand haveto be removed:Every the encroachmenton purchasingpowerand theactivitiesof thelibrarieswasfelt 'all themore keenly bythe peopleastheurgeto readrodbooks, booksonpopularscience, andprofessionalliterature to the was, owing pressure of thewar,the black-otit,thefetteringof fivepress the andlecturingin general,muchgreater thaninpeace- time.There hadbeenaninereasiin thenumber of by the bookslent' librariesaslongastheywerefreefrominterferenceand conformity whichspeaksforitself.Wemayonlyhopethatthe scientific and learnedlibrarieswill havebeen ableto hidetheir greatesttreasures againstthe daywhentheGermansor the Norwegian Naziauthoritimcarry outathoroughclearanceof certainbooks andcertainauthon. Ifwe want finallyto tryto createforourselvesapictureof UT effects ofthewar on the varioustypes ofschools ,indteaching we must first ofall study amidconditions. The featurethatstrikesone most stronglyinNorwegian schoolsof thepresent dayis thestate ofdisrepair.Theplaster onthe walls has badpatchesas a result ofalack ofrepair.The woodenbuildingsare not much better.Theremay,of coursé, begreat differencesbetweentheschools,orrathirbetweendis- trict And district, or'betweenmunicipalityandmunicipality,for it isnot the `lackofwillpowerbut thelick ofmaterialth4t is tipcause of thedisrepair.Insomeplaces'many have beenmore fortunately placed,but thegreaternumberofschoolsnotonly in the countrydistricts,but inthetowns And iheso-calledbuilt-up areas around thetownsarein*adeplorablestate.It *nobetter with the inside ofthebuildings.Theclassroomsand UMspecial studyroomslookthoroughly*miserableandareuglyand as'a cheerless result of lackofplastering.From thepoint ofview ofthe cost ofrepair, stairs,thresholds, ss floorswill betheworst. ''! Theyare so badlywornthat inmany they haveto be totally renewed.Where\any particularsejloolI - atanytimebeen used by theGilmantroops repairhas oftenbecomea crying need, ptovidedthat theWehrmachthavenotthemselveslookedafter I therepairing ofthepremises. .

. O In thetowns andin thecounttydistrjetswhere theGermans have billetedtroops, the bestWilding'shavebeencommandeered O by theoccupyingpower, innianyplacesrightfrom theslimmer ,x or autumn of 1940.MuchverymucláofUm schoolfurniture ....

Va.; , i, 6,....1 e .. t Ap.);,4 i .6 ' . . 1 ' . s ' 4.1a- 4 ; Lt14't ':)2111*..314.1.;.a. '")-:.---;21.'1::: ".-. -:_--..-,,,.11 ;...;i.. -:74%,744L'-6E_214.9.1 :7'.;2.4 .2)1_ail_.'i!;i4Tt :1^iiiitialt :412rLait''Itib t 4 4 A

o * NIMWAY 59 must have been damaged.It hasbeenespeciallyhardon apparatus and scientific handicraftinstructionmaterial.Themilitary have partlydestroyedortakenawayIluchthings, instruments and especially experimentalandlaboratorymaterial.Any- thing whichcould becalledtools hasparticularlybeenthe object of the troops'mostrecklessremovalor destructiolu What we have beensayingconcerns elementaryschools, secondary(andworking-class)schools.Withregard People's High to the Schoolsthepositionon,thewholemaybechar- acterizedbysayingthat thenewestand thebestschool ments establish- were commandeeredfortinGermansorfortheuse secret Nazi of institutions,whiletheolder,dilapidated,andmore modest schoolpremiseswereleftto housea children's parish school,a school,or a people's highschool.Incertainplacesit had .to givewayto adifferentkind 'ofschool,especiallytheelementary school inthat particularplace.As farastheSpecialSchoolsare concerned,several havebeenused forotherpurposes, andseveral of the. _baitpren#seshavebeen badlytreatedas a result elaborate of rearrangement.Otherwisethetechnical schdolshave onthe whole been abletocarry on theirworkundisturbed.Never- theless, thetechnic41schoolsin Oslohavehadgreat and have difficulties had togive.uppremisesforlongperiodstogether. . The schoolswhichhavesufferedmostas a resultof the commandeering of thesclxolbuildingshaveundoubtedlybeen theelementary andthesecondaryschools.Thiswas the throughout case thecountry, butespeciallyin OsloandAkerwhere therewere considerabletroopconcentrations, andwherethe 411. largeGermancivilservantapparatusantltheinsattable of the demands Gestapoforofficespaceanddwellinghousesalsocreated greatdifficulties.Ina number ofour provincial housing towns the conditionshavealso been.very precarious. Kristiansund, Trondhe111011, andStavangermaybementionedParticularlyin thisconnection. p. It isunnecessary to examine furtheithe unforiunite of the results heaVydifficultiestheschoolshavehadtoovercome 'in connectionwith thislack ofspace from thepointsofviewof administration,teaching,andhealth.A singleheadmaster have might himdamesspreadoutover a wideareain hisdistrictand *at a number ofdifferentplaces.He isinmanycases practically uoable to supervisethem,and hehas oftenno connectionwitha classotherthanthroughits formmaster'spersonal cluses ¡Deports.The are relegatedto premiseswhichwerenever meantto be usedac schools,and%were unsuitable inposition,andunsatisfacip

f ;0000gamirS1/4,:._ 60 EDUCATIONUNDliENEMY OCCUPATION

toryasregardssize andcubicspace,light, stair conditions, ventilation, lavatories,etc.In their free time the pupils hive often had.poplace in which toplay other than perhaps the'pave- ment inastreet with heavy traffic andconsequent risks.The fact thatmanyclassesareheld in private housesmeansthat there is lack of the ordinaryteaching material and not enoughtable spacefor writing work,noblackboards, andso on. Nevertheless, educationhas continued, and,onthewiwie,has been carriedon verywell. But certain subjectsareinapeculiarly unfortunate pmition andsomehave had to be entirelydiscon- tinued, others have hadto be continued witha'reducedtime table and shortened hours.The explanation of thePict thatall hasgone aswellasit undoubtedly has isthat all parties,not least the pupilsthemselves, have the willtoovercomedifficulties and that theycarry onthe scool work in good spirits.'The teachersnevertire of emphuizing that theirgreatexpe Akr. in this dreadful time and thecloser touch they have estabsrlsM with their pupils is thepowerwhich gives themcontinuallynew strength tocarry onthe work: A solidarityand sympathyof extraordinary strengthinspiresallthe work,reduces the tindrances, and counteracts all thatdepresses the homes,alarms the parents, and lays dailyprvssure onthe lives of thechildren themselves.Inawordagood "j6saing-spirit"is thesourceof the strength which ,upholdstheir school life.Apparently it bi also thanks to this spirit thatdisciplinecanbe maintainedin spite of the fact that the chijdren's schoolday is characterizedin so many waysby disorganization. However,eventhe best "j6ssing-spirit"cannot prevent the effectsonthe children's healthofAke difficult schoolaccommoda- tion. Whenonereflects that chirtn andyoungpeopleare cer- tainly that part of the population who are'most affected by mal- t--nutrition, it becomes obvious that bad schoolconditions. further accent the gravity of the situation.Neither must the factsbe ignored that the clothing difficulties havenowbecome acute, boots and show particularlyarewretched, and the sicknesspotentiality is thereby increased.In this respect thecountry is perhaps in the greatest difficulties. Wooden soled shoesintroduced inmany cases agait which not only is ugly butactually harmful.The doctors and school doctors with whom I havespoken have aclmowledged that it surprises themthat the position fa notworse than it is, but, they,say, ournational healthhas, during these 4 yisars ofwar,recetvedashock and it isimpossible tosayhow long it will take toconquerthis fateful fact,regain that which r -0- I.

O NORWAY" 61 1. has bettielost, laya newfoundationforthe-Workof national health intime districtsofour countrywhichhavebeenbadly hit, andrestore.thosewhosepower ofresistancehas, War, been reduced. duringthe 1 additionto thefactorswhichhavebeenindicatedas fluencing the in.. healthof thechildren- littlecubicspace pupil; bador no ventilation; per overcrowdingandresultinginsuf11- dent cleaning;thesmallspace for freemovement periods; bad duringrest lighting;. difficultiesinprockiringfor thechildrena correct workingposition,particularlywhenwriting; of the school theclosing bat4s; de,'othersmigi,itbemehtioned in greater ashaving or smallerdegreeaneffecton mental hygiene.First of all, thepostponementof tintime forstudytothe at leaqtevery other afternoon. monthas several schoolshadto beheldin thesame building----,wasaparticularlyunsatisfactory rhythm.The working children'sworkingtimebecomee dilikulttoco- ordinatewiththat oftheholm,andformanyof the is difficult childrenit toAccustomthemselvesto dotheirhomework thing inthe thefirst morninginsteadof inTheevening,uusual.Then agai4it isdifficultforthemtb revertto .their when it ',ordinaryroutine is theirturnto doso.Finally,undersuch there is conditions altogethertoo little freetime formanyof thechildren, evén innomecasesnone at all.It°must alsobé the long rememberedthat distanceofschoolfromthehome,in Oslooftenright Across the town,ithortensthefreetimewhichmight be available otherwise when thehomeworkisfinished.Coniider,further, what theblack-outmeans, both in-actualanger, the girls, particularlyfor and its-effectonthenerves both ofthechildrenand of theirparents whofeel e. responsibilityandhenceoftenlivein a constánt stati ofanxietyas to whatmay happen.The ference ofthe Hird inter- andthe S.S.troopsin theschoolshumany atime Justified.thisanxiety. Noone can doubt thitwartimehashadabadeffecton school- the children'smentalhealth.Butinthisdomainit is,of course, a great dealmore 4ifficultthanin thephysicalto obtain Tareliablepicture ofthesituatiori.As isalwaysthe spiritual cfse with conditions,muchescapes observation,and itis farfrom aneasy matter, evenfor thesharpestandmostdiscreetobserver, to realizethemany detailswhichareofinterestin these clarifying conditions.On thewhole,itmaybesaid,however, thestate of that thiNrs isbetterthanmighthavebeenexpected. this But géneralcharacteristicmuitnot misleadone to shut one's to the eyes many stela whohavebecomementallydebilitatedunder -

r 62 EDUCATION UNDERENEMY OCCUPATION

the varioustypes of strain caused by thew4yearsofwar, and thereanprobably few whotoday have not drawnupontheir mentalreserves.Wemastalso reckon with tbe fact that the end of thewarwill bringagenerAl reaction with not insignificant result&Hippilynature has great recuperativepowersand Allis war,like the formerworldwar, shown what almost incredible powersof adaptingthemselves hut beingspossess.Thusan overwhelmingnumber of children andyoungpeopleuwellas

people in the other '',H11-groupshave saved their mental soundness through all theirtrials.But how far this number will be reduced by the comingevents it is impossible to prophesy. The question GNP asto whether the youth of thecountry has enough mental reservesto meet the time whichstill remains beforewe arefree4 from the foreignandour owntyrants depends essentiallyon whether it willbe pomibleto avoidafurther deterioration in the food situationwhich would bringwith italowering in standards of bodily health.It depends alsoonwhether the schools will be sparedanyfurthersuch deep-rooted and ail-embracing crisesu those into which theNazi regime forced them during the first2 yearsof the occupation.Neithermustweforget that the spiritual state of theyoungisverydependentuponhow far the mental state of the hoII d the teaching profession-4s sound.' And the adults in tW.home and the teachers in the schoolsareagain dependentonthe general conditionsin the community and the particular conditions producedby.the treatnuint ofourpeople by the occupation authoritiesand the conduct of the Germans during E the lastp 4:of the occupation. "I YOUTH ANDEDUCATI6NIN OCCUPIED POLAND , If Americanswant to realize in full the extent of the destruc- tion inflictedonPolish educationallift and scientific work, they have to remember thatthe persecutions in Polandisurpauin .atrocky and fury anythingdone by -the Nazis in other countries. .Thereareseveralreaeonsforthib. First, during the firstyearofwar,Polandwasthe only occupied -country andwastherefore submittedto diabolic experi- ments, whichwerelater to be appliedto other couutries. Secondly, all Polish territorywasincluded by theNasblinto (-1\ their Lebensraum, andconsequently from theverybeginning the behavior of the Germantroops and administrationwudeliber- ately destructive in orderto p.kar thewayfor futile* Nui bi conquests iniheEast.< Thirdly, the western part.of Polandwasdirectly incorporated

I 1, so

POUND 63 a into the political systemof theReich,andthisact of-riolence, contraveningallinternitionallaws,meant thetotalcessation of Polish educationahdtheeradicationof Ptz Ughculturein these districts. Fourthly, the 'occupationofPolandhas.lastedlongerthan inanyother country,and thdattitudeof theNazis hasnot been moderatedby any kind ofcompromise,uOfepeople ofPoland have never'surrenderedandare still offeringactiveresistance totheenemy everywhere. Fifthly, theGermanscaimedthat Polishpeoplewere sible for all the respon- hardshipsof thewar,onthegroundsthat Poland wasthe first countrywhichhaddaredto resistthe"peaceful penetration"of theNazis. 4 sixthly,allattemptstocome toan agreementwith Polish people findto findaQuislingamong them failedand this born relentless stub- meistancraugntenWdtheGermanhatred destructivespirit. and eventhly, Polandmail' a springboardfor therh11ita/1opera- tions of theGermanArmyinEuternEurope, ind, special efforti therefore, were madetosuppress the PolishUnderground Movement and alleducationalinfluenceswhichmightindirectly havethreatenedtheNazis'militaryoperations. To allThesefactorstheremust beaddedthe 'fear of Nazis'growing revenge andUmconclusionthat thebestway to the safety ensure oftheGermansfromthejustvengeance of the people 'wu Polish to depriveWiandof herfightingspiritfindcultural leadership,andtodesfroyOr demoralizeheryoung generation. Immediately aftertheoccupationof Poland,theNaziGover- nor,Frank,declaredto the Polishrepresentatives:"In with accordancp the willofour Fuehrer,you are to beasocietyof andworkers. peasants We donot needthe Polishculturalclass,the Reich hasplenty of herown."tskedforpermissiontoopensome Polishsecondary schools,hi\reptied:"ThePolishKnecbtvolkdo not needany. education.Ptimaryschoolswill be enough more than foryou. There willnot beanyhigherschoolsin Poland. Yourcounjzymust berha4ean intellectualdesert." added: And he "ThePolishpeoplelitreextraordinarilydullif they notunderstand do thatGermans'Lebensraum*mustmean Polish Todetraum."(Livingspace--ADeathspace.) This line was religiously followedby allNazielements.While militaryoperationswere still inprogresi,the ately Germans delil4r- bombedmany Polishuniversities..and culturalItotitutions, withoutany military purpose. lAter *dentinecollections,laborat- 64 EDUCATIONUNDER ENEMYOCCUPATION -

;4;

tories, andlibrarieswerepillaged andlaidwas : In Warsaw, schoolequipmentwasthrownout in disorderand partially seized and carriedoff by theGermans. Itwasof sinistersignificancethat the buildinga the MinistryofEducationbecameatoncethe seat of theGestapo, and such buildingsas bescaped becamethe officesof the Sicherheits-Polizei(SafetyPolice),and thestudents' hostelswere turned intopolice barracks.From t4e halls iihichsorecently% had beenserving scienceandeducation, orderswereissued in theveryfirst weekof theoccupation abolishingall Polish scien- tificactivities.All academicbuildings andcultural institution& weretakenoverby the Nazisand givento the Germans'adminis- tration,orto newlycreated Germanschools. Asexamplesmay be quoted,the MiningAcademy in Xraków,where the officesof the GovernorGeneralwere installed; the buildings ofthe Chief %SchoolofArchitecture,frop which300 cheits ofbookswere carried off;the ChiefSchool ofCommercialSciences;and hundiédsofsecondark schools.Further damagewasinflictedon these buildingswhile theywerebeing hastilyemptiedto..be' ready to receive theArmy, andruthlesslyadaptedto theinew use. In theirfirst frantichasteto put all Polish cational establishmentsout of action,the Nazisonwantedto mashu everything theyfound in theschools,evensuch scientific histru- ments and booksasmight havebeen ofuseto themselves;this .crazydestructionwassometimesevidentlyagainst theirown interests.But aftera year orsothe pillagebecamemore systematic.Pieciousequipmentwasofficially Confiscatedand sent to Germanyunder thesupervision ofGermanscientists. All educationáland artisticmuseumsaqd collectionsweresub- inittedto the mostruthless pillage.TheÌviereregularlyvisited by Germanofficials who robbedthem of' themost 'Valuableobjects which theylater presentedasgiftsonvarious,state occasions. Any attempt bythe Polishpeople toinitiaterescuework after thecessation ofhostilitieswasrenderedimpossible.In mostcasesthe Germansprohibitedaccessof the occupi *nstitu- ,,A dons, confiscated theirfunds, andrefusedto afford I -b. 'alor laboi forany reconstruction. During5yearsof occupati s losses havegrow,ntosuch°anextent thatthey havecreatedadesPerate situation which willrequireespeciallystrongmeasures during the od of ieconstruction.The damage . will, of . . , course,inmany

cases- Irreparable. . , . *.. As regardslibr "the followingis worthnoting. In1940, anorderwasissued iwithdr!tw fOincirculation about3,000 \-

-40°

. - . sfe ." ... g( 4' 4. :v. - : f, 1 !!:!11- .. . POLAND 65 differéntPolish books.Thislonglisthassince Britain,anditmade reachedGreat mostinterestingreading,&owing Reichconsideredas dangerous whatthe fortheirpoliticalplans.Thelist comprised,besidestheworksofthegreat the19thand20th patrioticwritersof centuries,numerousworksbyEnglishor Frenchwriterstranslatedinto of Polish.Forinstance,allworks JosephConradwere condemnedthe literature wholePolishhistorical was mutilated;andthewithdrawalwas of allbooksdealingwiththe alsAordered the "incorporated"territos.Even greatPolishastronomer,Nicholas ontheindex. Copernicus,foundhimself Ifan anthologyorL. anyofthe collectiveeditioncomprised forbiddenworks,theorderwas to cut orderwas thoroughly themout.The carriedout, andpracticallydeprived .schoolchildrenofall Polish textbooks,as privatepossessionof bookswas alsoforbidden. these TheNazistookadvantageofany excuse fordestroyinglibrariesofall kiiids. All teachersinPolandhavebeén Hostageswere often relentlesslypersecuted. choseNfrom'among them,and alsofrequentlyvictims they.were ofmass executions.SecretNazi tionsgave orderstodeprive instruc- Polandofherintelligentsiabyany means available.Teachersofsecondary tocontinue schoolswere notallowed theirwork.Specialattentionwag paid fessorsofPolish to thepro- collegesanduniversities.Hundredsof were ariestedandsentto them concentrationcamps.Theirliving conditionswere indescribable;every day tortureá. theywere subjectedto Theyweresystematicallybeaten, were constAntly andsome ofthem bleedingfromtheblows Priestsand theyhadreceived. professorsofJewishoriginwere shut criminals.Inthese up with circumstancestherewasa heavydeath among theprofessors,and toll it isknownthatmore than200 wemustalsotakeinto died. accountthatmany teacherswere killedon the fieldofbattle.ThePolish estimate Undergroundauthorities thatabout50percentofallPolish consideredaslostto tbe teachers.must be profession.Moreovertherehasbeen no possibilityoftrainingyoung teachers Thus duringthewaryears. Polishschoolsare facingavery difficult postewaryears. situationinthe TheProblemofthe 1, . discussionofcurriculamchangesfor Polistschoolsismuch °amplifiedas inost All ofthemwere closed. universitiesandcollegesweW.liquidated."In porited" the"Worm° A districts'anytuitioiinPolishwas prohibited. so-called"General Inthe Gouvernement,"teaching'wasállowedto Issormatedinto tile rantiras theseatofgovernment.

Alb

Oil

) J, ,;.% , . 66 EDUCATION UNDERENEMY OCCUPATION

continue ifiprimaryschoois,but their curriculuinwassubmitted tomanyessential changes.History and geographywereexcluded,

and theessential textbookconsisted ofaperiodical .containing sometrivial informationandalot of propaganda. Everyoppor- tunity is seizedte emphasize the necessity ofworking for Ger-

many,and the noduty ofeveryPolish childto beagood worker. A few prof .4616.0schoolswerefounded in strict accordance 4 with German jdìtrineeds.As they afforded insome sort substitutes for **Maryeducation, theywerefavored byyoung people.Itsoonfr,;(iiiiameclear, however, that their chieftaskwas toprewirecandidatès forlaborcampsin Germany;manyboys and girls met thi4fateeen'viirdoutpusing thetr final examina- tions. Thus these schoolsconstitutedatrap rather thana means of education. That the Germaneducational system aimedat the annihila- tioh ofPolisiicultural influencewasclearly evident inwestern Poland.Nothingwasleft to chance, andeverywheel of, the destructive machinecooperated unerringly with thegeneral policy of the Nazis.Parentsarecompelled to work Mrd until the lateevening.This affords theGerman authoritiesan oppor- tunity to protect and mindall children.Boys and girls live in the Nazi atmosphereto whichthéparentscan opposeonlya

couple of hours spent togetherat home. ry TheGerminteachers do not hesitate tousemost abominable methods of spyingand provocation.Theysay,for instance, offering tfie childsweets, "And whatlanguagedoyou,speak at home?Polish, don't you?"Theunwarychild nods, and the parelitsareheavily penalized,or aresimply sent to thenearest concentrationcamp.Finally, the childbegips to understand the position, and realizes that Polishmust be spoken only secretly at home. Andsofrom earliest childhood thereappearsthe urgent need for lying and hypocrisy.Germansongs, games, playmates-- everything injects the poisonous influenceintoyoungsouls.This robbery of living humancreatures is committedmost consciously and cynically. Amanwanted by the Gestapo,went into hiding, andonly paid his family occasionalvisits.Ononeof these, heonly fiat escaped the Nazi pursuit.The Gestapo irrested hiswholi family, consisting of his wife andthreechildren,7, 5, and 4yeasold, respectively.ThtywereOnes*beaten and tertiarized,but, nevertheless, they ref*sedto that they had-seen their father. The 5-year-oldgirl asserted tbatshe had forgotten how . . , f ,4

a

*, s. ! s . ,

*.1 1 ; r 4 't Poime 67

her father.looked;and the7-yearso1dboy, askedmanytimes, answeredthat thepipe givenhim byhis fatherwufound by himonthestreet.Finally, themotherwas sent toa concentra- tioncamp, and all thechildrenwere deported intoGermany. Thisexample throwssomelightontheeducationalconditions in Poland.Children ofPolishJewry have'beentreatedwith specialcruelty.During themass slaughters, --theywere killed with theirparents insteam and gisdeathchambers,orburned alive,ormachine-gunned.In theirbestiality,theGermans have surpassedevery invention humancrueltycoulddevise.About these zhildrenthe'memorandumot thePolishUnderground authoritiescontainsoneshortsentence:"The Jewishchildren have beenmurdered:they haveceasedto exist." The fateof thePolishchildren isnot muchbetter.The regulationsof thefamousconcentrationcampinOswiecimstate that childrenover12must beIncludedin theusualworking parties ofprisoners.Youngerchildrenare not admittedto the camp.; butsimply killedonthespot.The losses"amongyoung peopleare very heavy. A fewexamples willillustrate themethods applied bythozi Naziregime. InSeptember1939,morethan 100 boyscoutsweremurdered inBydgoszcz.Before themassexec*, don tookplace, the'boyssangthe Polishnationalinthem.In thebeginning of1940,oneof thewindows ofthepolice postin Gdyniawasbroken.:*All schoolchildrenweredriventoan open place andbeaten with rubbersticks byS. S.men. . After that, 10 of themwereshotas a warning forthefuture,and the remainderwere deported toGermany.Thereare hundreds of instances of thesamekindavailable. ..4 Therectuitment ofschoolchildrenfor forcedlabor inthe Reichdeserves specialmention.Pupils oftradeschoolsarein specialdanger, butnoother childissecure. A trade schoolat Gorlica,where thepupilswerebetween theagesof 12and 16, wusurroundedby policeduringschoolhoursallcontact with teachetrs andOttrentswag severed.The childreiwet* leftin the school Mindingwithout fòoduntil theevening, andthentrans- portainlorries toa tempoistrycampfromwhich,somedays Wei,-theyWén sent tofoitedlabot inGermany.The'deathrate anionsthem Ismost alarmitgr.It is(Moaktosayeliactlyhow nkanf'thotisaidióf 'Polishchildrenhave fallenvictimsof this hidiötis Wittedagainst Adenselesihumancristures, but thenuMber 1sudóùbte. 'Vek3i . = :h. A.' Not:content with deprivaigPolishchildrenandyoung people ofeducation:Mid1Culturid'entertainment,the Nazisdo theirbest it, A

: ' . e %:** " , ( -; . I O. . I -1; t/g ' ." .t.'t }, . : d.r. u., 4.- P. . So .141. .0. ;('' 0,kfvot g v g4!,tt o.1tV. '4.4 241:.Fi *C i! - .10. ' a.-t. 68 EDUCATIONUNDEREMILYOCCUPATION

4 to cbrruptthem.Directmethodsappliedin schoolsdonot bring them muchsuccess.torthisreason they organizehundredsof shameless shows,andiffordevery facility foradmission.They publish severalperiodicalswithdemoralizingcontents.They encourage all kindsofgamblingbyorganizing gambling' .and houses advertisingthemamongyoung people. Theysell/alcoholat relatively low Pricesandalloweverybodyto buyit.Responsible circles ofthePolishnation haveofferedthestrongest possible oppositionto thesetendencies,butweakercharactersare never- thelessinfluenced,andmanyaseriousproblemis beingcreated for thepost-warperiod. Massdeportationsandslaughtersoftendepriveschool childrenof theirparents. Amore enterprising andindependent boy, awaitingin vainthereturn ofhismother,hungryandlonely, finallystarts lookingfor help,andbecomesa tramp and tbena thief.Often ifachildis adopted bystrangers, .hegets into unsuitablecompany, gets overburdenedby hardwork,and is madeto begorpeddle.Thesight ofachild,barefootedandhalf naked, shiviringwithcold,kneelingfor hoursonthewet ground, orsellingsomesuch triflesas matchesorsaccharinis quite and usual profoundlyshocking.Sometimestheytry togivethemselves importancebysmokingcheaptobaccoordrinkingvodka.The numberof thesevagabondchildrenisgrowingdaily. The generillhealth ofPolishchildrenis alsorapidlyde- teriorating.This isduemostlyto piolongedundernourishment. The foodallocatedto Polishchildrenis muchinferiorboth in quality andquantititoihatof theGerman Children,andclearly belowany minimumrequirementThecompletelack ofvitamins IsespeciallyharmfuhRealizingthisgravedangir,the Polish voluntarysocial ivelfaredid itsutmostto givechildrenextra food.But inthesummerof .pt 1942,Grinanpartrauthoritiesinter- vened,issuinganumber ofordersandprohibitions.Allboirding schoolswereliquidated, andany subsidiaryformofextranourish- moat forchildrenwas categoricallyforbidden.Welfareinstall- lions hadto closedown andtheirmedicalequipmentwas greedily snatchedupby theGermanauthorities.In1948 alldistribution of foodin schoolswas severely peohibited.Thusallwaysid assisting childrenwereclosed. :* *.. In theseappallingconditions,thePolishnationnevertheless continues it'sstubbornandrelentlesgeffortto protecttheyounger generation. Teachersfromevery type ofschool,thoughhungry andpoor, beatenandpersecuted,haveorganizedsecretclasses, when)they givetheir puyinsa knowledstr, ofhistory,geograRhy,

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and Polishculture.Evensecondaryteachingexists inclandestine form. . Solemncelebrationsofnationalanniversariesareheld, and also concirtsand dramaticperformances,thoughtheterrible threatof theNaziagents isalwayspresentSomescientists manage to continuetheirpre-war activity andevento writenew textbooksandprepare them fôrpublication. Thus allthe Germans'effottshavenot broughtthemany decisivesuccess. They haveinflictedenormous losses, 'buthave not brokenthe spiritof resistance,afidhavehot compelledthe Polishnationtocome toanykindof understandingwith the Nazis.The ufirtidiffört-ofyoung people, teachers,and the whole Polishsociety hasgivenexcellentresults,andaugurs well for thepossibilitiesof effectivereconstructionafter thecessationof hostilities. Thereareabout20 cl f:Is e papers and, periodicalsfor young people in Poland.Naturallytheseareeditedand printed by theyoung people themselves.Itmust bestrewed thatbecause ottheenonnops lossesamongthe adultpopulation,youth playsa , very active part inall theculturalactivitiesof thePolish UndergroundMovement Oneof thesepapers, "Bhidronka"(The Ladybird)is the onlyclandestinepaperfor childrenpublishedin occupiedEurope. It frequentlycontainsinstructionsfor boysand girlsadaptedto present conditionsin Poland.,Thecopyof January1944contains somesignificantlessonsconcerningsecrecy : . . , Ifyou are admittedtoa secret,orifyouleant by&cadentofsomething' that is goingoninyour own home,orthat is beingdone by*your neighbors againsttbe Germansto regain theitreedomof Poland,youshould that know you have been admittedto the Great Secret,andyou must be silentas adun*,man,forevery wordyouwhispetwill do hamto 'yourcotmtry. Donot tryyourselfto findouiabout theclandestineactivitiesofgrown-up people, asit is betterfor childrennot to know anythingabout them,sothat in thecase of misfortune, theycanbesure that children willnot reveal anything, becausethey knownothing. Inconsiderlhthe generalsituationof primaryschoolsin Poland,we must emphasizethat in thewestern, districtsincor- porated ink)the Reich,theseschools havebecomeGerman,and have ..beendeprivedof all Polishinfluence.In otherparts of Poland,Polishprimaryeducationis still inexistence,thoughit has suffered.gravelosiesin equipmentand teachers.-.Their 4numbirhasvaried considerablyin; accordancewith thédifferent decisionsof localGermanauthoritieswhosemotives havere* manedquite, un)cnown.Asaremit, thenumberpfchildren attendingprimaryschoolsis lidnitre than half whatitwas

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70 EDUCATION UNDEREMILY OCCUPATION

t a. . 4 beforetilewar e.g.,in Warsaw in1988 therewere880 elenlim- tar7 schools with141,000 pupils, whileat the beginning of1941 ,

therewereonly 175 schools withabout 82,000 pupils,though the .

population. of the Polishcapital had 1ncreued.4 curriculum have forbiddenthe teaching of all subjectshaving 3 anything to do withPolish history and nationalculture.The secret tiaching of boys andgirls cannot be devqlopedon a very large scale,asit would greatly endangerboth teachersand children. Theprivations caused by thewar arespecially felt in primary schools, and makethe work,of teachersvery'difficult The destructioad theP91ish relief systemin 1942was a severe blow, of which theconsequençesfor the pupils ofprimary schools Aremil deplorable. ndary education for Polishchildren ceasedtoeiistfrom the days of the occupation.Clandestine teachingcanreplace regulgr schools oily ivithmanyessential limitations.'Teachers cannot obtain thenecessaryequipment.Theyaredeprived of textbooks and laboratorids.Thereforé, thoughtheyaredoing real miracles, the possibilitiesarerelatiyely restricted.Naturally onlyasmall percentage ofpupils attending seconglaryschools in pre-warPolandcanbenefit by this secret education.Owing to insufficient *goodand the atmosphere of fearand tirror,their nerves ate¡trainedto the utmost.. The rebuildingof thepre-wa system of secondary educationwill presentvery grave and dint- cult problems. There willbemanyyoungpeople whoseeducation wasNiterruptedby thewar,and who would liketo continue their studies.It must, therefore, beprivum! that thenumber of candidates for secondaryichools will -increase.Ontheother hAnd, there will beveryfew school buildings,noequipment,no libraries,notextbooks, andaninsufficient numberof teachers. Trade schoolswereapparently treated withless brutality. Some of themwere evenconsideredto be useful.ItsoonVeal* evident, however, thatiheircurriculum andorganization weie adapted exclusivelyto German needs.Physical work playeda

prominent part.. Therewereonly .2 *belts'holiday, A4d, theronly careof the German authoritieswas . to obtain workersfor jbe Nazi industrial .machineanquicklyaspossible. ,. Thereforii.,. úi e V .4"

form of .education4. . , musiPbeA ..- considered. s' . - aimed'agaippt,R the, t' u ...

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: .. : All Polish unlyersities. find collegeshavebe'elacioa 4.1 %tor, great number of prpfespors . sent to concentration: ciunps:i'tw jc:f morethan 200 died fro* starvationandU9O8UNTwo german , : r r rt,- s 1 ,: ..s.; institutionsAre . .:*bineziateice*t Cr4wand - r .7.1 # A -4*4' ;Pk %tilt+ !!".P.

. .. t . , 4. e ' a forbidden-toPolishstudents;-theirpurpose.flit*prepareaGenniiir cadre forthe coinbairaisin#Polish nationalculture. Thewholeworld ofPolishscience hubeen *profoundly affectedby /thedestructIonof allscientificapparatus.Polish leariedsocietieshave beengraduallyclosed,and finallyliquidated withoutexception,theirproperty being,gonfiscated.Poland possessedalargenumber of.private institutionswhichsupported learning,scholars,and scientists,suchasthe PolishAcademyof Scienceand 'Awningand the WarsawLearned`Society. Under ea, . thepeculation theycould havehadgreat importance.No- scruples deterredthetwiny, however, andthese purelyprivate institutionswereplunderedlike therest.Furthermore,all scientists'were totally deprivedof fundsand bankdeposits;thus the onlymeansof existencefor learned-menwasthe saleof their lastpossessionsand theundertakingof variousjobs quite at_ variance_with their-qualifications.Forinstance,aformer chancellorandaformerdean ofWarsawUniversity, dboth prominentscientistsof worldrenown,wereworkingascentral heating stokers.It lanot difficultto imaginewhatthe stateof things willbeat the end ofthewar.Oneof themost important factorsto be reckonedwith inplanningthe'reconstructionof Polandwill bethe needof university4rainedmen*andwomen. t _The devastationofPolishlibrarieslanowappalling.The em many pu tfiTna _ valuablebothfro11the culturaland theeducationalpoint ofview. The publicationofanybooks,'newspapers, periodicals,journals, ormusic,except those issuedby theNazis,wasprohibited,and all ',suppliesofnewpiiblicationswere cut.As relationswith foreigncountrieswerebroken off,nobooksarrivedfrom abroad savepoisonousGermanpropagandaonly fitfor immediate destruction. Besides thebig centrallibraries,about20,090small libraries overthq wholeterritory ofPolandhadto be handedover to the Nazis, whoburnt theirbooksorsent themto thepaper mills to be pulped.Every kindof collectionhas beensystematically robbed of allobjects ofgreater value.Thestocksof Polishbooks in the bookshopswirealso pulped. Certainof the lossessuffered bythe librariesareirreparable, and their.present stAteisoneof the greatestthreatsto Polish culture. ThePolish Undergroim4attitoriUesfully"valize this (Wiser,and at°*unitsavast work pfrestoration,thesuccess of whichwill -dependin large measure im the.extent andshape. of International . . relief. afforded-to thecountry. , * a. & Simms*PRINTING,OrOnsg:worposisos e

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