©2009 Nichola Erin Harris ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE IDEA OF LAPIDARY MEDICINE: ITS CIRCULATION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS IN MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN ENGLAND: 1000-1750 by NICHOLA ERIN HARRIS A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in History Written under the direction of Rudolph M. Bell And approved by _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey May 2009 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Idea of Lapidary Medicine: Its Circulation and Practical Applications in Medieval and Early Modern England, 1000-1750 By NICHOLA ERIN HARRIS Dissertation Director: Rudolph M. Bell This dissertation explores the transmission and circulation of ideas related to a rarely studied aspect of medieval and early modern medicine: the therapeutic application of gemstones. It traces the dissemination of ideas about the healing virtues of “stones” beginning with their Western origins in classical Greek and Roman texts to the manuscript culture of medieval Europe. Then the study continues with a close look at the development of lapidary theory in the print culture of early modern England, especially popular advice manuals. Finally, the dissertation examines the practice of lapidary medicine as it is recorded in a range of archival sources, such as wills and apothecary inventories, as well as in iconographic and archeological evidence found in portraits, woodcuts, and surviving examples of jewelry. The study demonstrates that lapidary theory was part of the orthodox medical tradition of early modern England and that ideas about lapidary healing circulated widely through the use of popular medical advice manuals. Furthermore, it presents evidence that lapidary materials were commonly sold ii by seventeenth-century jewelers and apothecary shops and were therefore widely available to early modern consumers. iii AKNOWLEDGEMENT If it takes a village to help raise a child, then it takes a university, or several in my case, to help research and write a dissertation. Over the course of my graduate studies at two schools and time spent in the archives in England, I have accumulated many academic debts that I would now like to acknowledge. First and foremost I express my profound gratitude to my dissertation advisor at Rutgers University, Professor Rudolph Bell, who goes above and beyond the call of duty for his students on a daily basis. Without Dr. Bell’s support and encouragement this project would never have been undertaken; without his patience and insight it would never have been completed. I also owe a great deal to the other members of my committee, Dr. Jennifer Jones and Dr. Phyllis Mack of the Rutgers History Department and Dr. Erik Thunø from the Rutgers Art History Department. I am particularly indebted Jennifer and Phyllis for their suggestions on approaches to demonstrating the practical applications of lapidary medicine through the use of apothecary inventories. Additionally, their insights into the relationship between magic and science in medieval and early modern culture are greatly appreciated. Thanks also to Erik Thunø for his willingness to support my cross- disciplinary approach and for sharing his expertise in medieval art history and the use of gemstones in the middle ages. I also wish to thank several scholars at other institutions: Harold Cook, for sharing his time while at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, and Monica Green at Arizona State University for her insight on methodological approaches to medieval medicine. Many thanks also to Patrick Wallis at the London School of Economics for his help in locating apothecary inventories in the National Archives and for his willingness to iv share some of his own research. I am also grateful to Virginia Smithson and Lindsey Breaks in the Department of Prehistory and Europe at the British Museum for their assistance in locating examples of medicinal jewelry among their holdings. Special thanks to Theresa Jordan for her help over the years and for asking me the “hard questions” about medieval magic and medicine so many years ago at Washington State University. I would like to dedicate this dissertation to the people who made sacrifices so that I could follow my dreams at Rutgers. To Paul, whose love and support make anything possible and whose love of knowledge always inspires me. To my mother, who first taught me the importance of history by telling me about her homeland where the lion and the unicorn once fought for the crown and leprechauns still hide in every garden. Finally, to my father, for always encouraging me in my studies and for never being too tired to read to me when I was too little to read for myself. v CONTENTS ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................................iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS..............................................................................................vi Chapter 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO LAPIDARY MEDICINE .......................................1 2. THE CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL ORIGINS OF EARLY MODERN LAPIDARY MEDICINE...................................................................................45 3. THE IDEA OF LAPIDARY MEDICINE IN ENGLISH PRINT CULTURE 1473-1700 ......................................................................................84 4. EVIDENCE FOR LAPIDARY MEDICINE IN PRACTICE ........................131 5. EPILOGUE .....................................................................................................198 Appendix A. JEWELRY ITEMS LISTED IN SLOANE 2539............................................202 B. WEIGHT SYSTEMS USED BY APOTHECARIES AND JEWELERS......205 C. LAPIDARY ITEMS IN THE INVENTORIES OF ESTWICK AND CONINGSBY..................................................................................................206 Bibliography....................................................................................................................211 Curriculum Vita...............................................................................................................254 vi ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1.1 Silver toadstone ring. England, 17th century...........................................................6 2.1 Man slaying dragon to obtain the stone draconites from Hortus Sanitatis, 1483.......................................................................................................64 2.2 Testing the authenticity of garnets with flies and honey. Hortus Sanitatis, 1483.......................................................................................................80 3.1 Physicians at work, consulting medical texts to aid in their diagnosis and treatment. From a print version of the Hortus Sanitatis printed by Jacob Meydenbach at Mainz, 1491..................................................................................97 3.2 The interior of an apothecary’s shop, showing a reference book and the traditional jars used to hold pharmaceutical materials. Hortus Sanitatis by Johann Prüss, Strasbourg c.1497...........................................................................98 3.3 Bezoar stones derived from the intestines of snakes...........................................124 4.1 A comparison of entries on the stone gagates.....................................................150 4.2 A comparison of the stones found in Sloane 2539..............................................152 4.3 Gold ring, inscribed and set with a cut diamond, England, 17th c.......................159 4.4 Inventories of Estwick & Coningsby 1661, 1664, 1668, 1670, and 1675..........168 4.5 Lapidary Materials in the Estwick & Coningsby Inventories..............................173 4.6 Price versus amount comparisons in the Estwick & Coningsby Inventories.......178 4.7 A silver gray toadstone set in gold. Possibly English. c. 1600-1700.................187 4.8 Engraved gold ring set with a point-cut diamond and rubies. England, c. 1400-1500........................................................................................................188 4.9 Engraved gold ring set with half an uncut diamond crystal, c. 1450-1525.........189 4.10 F. F., Portrait of Three Tudor Children, Rafael Valls Gallery, London.............194 vii 4.11 Unknown, Portrait of a Boy with a Coral Rattle, Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery. English school, c. 1650-60.......................................................195 4.12 George Romney, Mrs. Marton and her son Oliver, Southampton City Art Gallery, Hampshire, 1767-1794...........................................................................196 4.13 A gold rattle with a teething stick of red coral. London, England, 1811-12......197 viii 1 Chapter One: An Introduction to Lapidary Medicine Human beings are fascinated by products of nature more enduring than themselves: the glossy smooth surface of a pearl, the play of fire and light in the depths of a piece of amber, or the magnetic force of a loadstone. From the time people began to collect and investigate such items, a system of beliefs developed based upon their real and imagined physical attributes, including special “virtues”