De Sandino a Los Contras Gilles Bataillon2 École Des Hautes Études En Sciences Sociales 1 Formas Y Prácticas De La Guerra En Nicaragua División De Historia (CIDE)

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De Sandino a Los Contras Gilles Bataillon2 École Des Hautes Études En Sciences Sociales 1 Formas Y Prácticas De La Guerra En Nicaragua División De Historia (CIDE) TRACE 66 (Diciembre 2014): págs. 9-37 www.cemca.org.mx 9 De Sandino a los contras Gilles Bataillon2 École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales 1 Formas y prácticas de la guerra en Nicaragua División de Historia (CIDE) Fecha de recepción: 24 de mayo del 2014 • Fecha de aprobación: 17 de septiembre del 2014 Resumen: ¿Cómo interpretar las guerras civiles Abstract: How are we to interpret the civil Résumé : Comment interpréter les guerres –Somoza/sandinistas; sandinistas/contras– en wars –Somoza vs Sandinsitas: Sandnistas vs civiles –Somoza/sandinistes ; sandinistes/ la trinchera de Nicaragua entre 1978 y 1987? contras– which have struck Nicaragua from contras– dont le Nicaragua a été le théâtre Mientras que la mayor parte de los análisis 1978 to 1987? While most analyses put the de 1978 à 1987 ? Alors que la plus part des destacan los “bloqueos” sociopolíticos internos stress on internal socio-political “deaddlocks” analyses mettent l’accent sur les « blocages » y el rol de las intervenciones extranjeras, se and the part played by foreign interventions, socio-politiques internes et le rôle des inter- analiza aquí dichas guerras, inscribiéndolas en the aim here is to reinstate these two wars ventions étrangères, on analyse ici ces guerres un continuo junto a los otros enfrentamientos in Nicaragua “long term” cycle of violence en les réinscrivant dans un continuum avec les armados que marcaron el siglo XX nicara- enables to understand how violence could autres affrontements armés qui ont marqué güense. Anclar estas dos guerras dentro del become, throught the 20th century, a legiti- le XX siècle nicaraguayen. L’ancrage de ces “tiempo largo” de la violencia nicaragüense mate and codified way of action and how it deux guerres dans un « temps long » de la permite enseguida comprender cómo, a lo lar- made it possible for new socio-political actors violence nicaraguayenne permet ensuite de go de todo el siglo, la violencia fue una moda- to emergeand to gain legitimate access to comprendre comment, tout au long du siècle, lidad de acción legítima y codificada, y cómo economic resources. The article then moves la violence fut une modalité d’action légitime ésta permitió al mismo tiempo el surgimiento on to describe how these actors as well as et codifiée et comment celle-ci permit de tout à de nuevos actores sociopolíticos y, también, the “political culture” of this series of war la fois l’apparition de nouveaux acteurs socio- su legítimo acceso a los recursos económicos. episodes was internally structured. Finally, politiques et, ce faisant, leur accès légitime à Se describe después cuáles fueron las formas the article looks into the changes which have des ressources économiques. On décrit ensuite de estructuración interna de dichos actores y, taken place since the end of the contras/ quelles furent les modalités de structuration en seguida, la “cultura política” en que se ins- sandinistas confrontation and during Violeta interne de ces acteurs, puis la « culture poli- cribió esta sucesión de acciones bélicas. Se Barrios de Chamorro’s mandate. tique » dans laquelle s’inscrivit cette succes- interroga finalmente sobre el vuelco ocurrido sion d’actions guerrières. On s’interroge enfin al término de la confrontación entre contras sur le basculement qui s’est fait jour lors de la y sandinistas a partir del mandato de Violeta fin de l’affrontement contras/sandinistes et lors Barrios de Chamorro. du mandat de Violeta Barrios de Chamorro. Palabras clave: sandinistas, contras, FSLN, Keywords: sandinistas, contras, FSLN, Ni- Mots-clés : sandinistes, contras, FSLN, Nica- Nicaragua, guerra. caragua, war. ragua, guerre. De 1978 a 1987, la vida política nicaragüense estuvo marcada por el predominio de enfrenta- mientos armados. El país conoció en efecto dos guerras civiles. La primera opuso desde 1978 hasta julio de 1979; al Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN), el Consejo Superior de la Empresa Privada (COSEP), el Partido Conservador, social cristianos y comunistas, y sindicatos de todas las filiaciones políticas; contra Anastasio Somoza Debayle y sus partidarios; finalizando con la derrota del dictador. La segunda enfrentó entre 1982 y 1987 al nuevo Estado dominado por los sandinistas frente a una nebulosa de opositores: la Contra, integrada por disidentes del sandinismo, por antiguos partidarios de Somoza y por la organización indígena de la Costa Caribe. Estas dos guerras, se tradujeron en enfrentamientos particularmente cruentos entre los grupos armados y la población civil jamás fue protegida de la crueldad de los diferentes clanes combatientes, todo lo contrario. En cada una de estas guerras civiles se vio a las partes implicadas hacer un amplio D.R. © 2014. Centro de Estudios Mexicanos y Centroamericanos. México, D.F. ISSN: 0185-6286. 01_Bataillon.indd 9 26/02/2015 09:25:14 a.m. 1100 TRACE 66 (Diciembre 2014) llamado a la ayuda extranjera. Finalmente, los motivos religiosos estuvieron estrechamente im- bricados en los motivos políticos. Se ha propuesto dos interpretaciones para estas guerras. Una pone el acento en los factores internos tanto sociales como políticos, la otra, subraya el papel decisivo de intervenciones ex- ternas. La primera lectura, asociada al nombre de Edelberto Torres Rivas (1985,1986), insiste sobre la desestructuración de las relaciones sociales inducida por el desarrollo socioeconómico que experimentó Nicaragua a partir de los años sesenta. Ve en esos fenómenos el motor de los movimientos reivindicativos y de las revueltas que se multiplicaron desde finales de la década. Subraya también, el trastorno de equilibrios que imperaban al interior de las clases dominan- tes, que favoreció la precipitación sin control de una tiranía incapaz de reformarse; y para los años ochenta, a partir de 1982, la elección de la alternativa armada por parte de la “burguesía opositora” a los sandinistas, quienes ocupaban el poder desde 1979. Estas explicaciones se combinan con un razonamiento inspirado en el funcionalismo. Según esta propuesta de análisis, los actores sociopolíticos fueron conducidos a “radicalizar” sus opciones, como resultado de la incapacidad del “sistema político” de absorber las demandas provenientes de la sociedad, tanto en la época de Anastasio Somoza como durante el periodo sandinista de Daniel Ortega. Supone una incapacidad tal de los gobiernos somocista y después sandinista, de responder a las demandas de actores sociales, no dejándoles más alternativa que adherirse a las opciones armadas más radicales: el FSLN a finales de los años setenta, la Contra en el umbral de los años ochenta. La otra interpretación, explica las dos guerras civiles como resultado del juego de riva- lidades imperiales (Leiken, 1984). Como subraya Alain Touraine, la lucha armada dirigida por el Frente Sandinista sería a partir de 1974 una “guerra de liberación nacional o incluso, una guerra de creación nacional” (1988: 338). La guerra entre contras y sandinistas evidenciaría a su vez, la voluntad del presidente Reagan y sus consejeros, de meter en cintura a una nación aspirante a la soberanía plena y completa, en una zona que estaba bajo su control directo desde inicios del siglo XX. Se oponen a este marco interpretativo aquellos que a su vez subrayan la voluntad de expansión soviética en el “patio trasero” de la “república imperial” según la expre- sión de Raymond Aron, a través de su apoyo a la Cuba de Fidel Castro (Cerdas, 1983, 1989). Sin duda, estas explicaciones no carecieron de mérito al subrayar los fenómenos en el trasfondo de estas dos guerras civiles. Las estructuras sociales nicaragüenses fueron claramente trastor- nadas en el curso de dos decenios de modernización acelerada. Sin embargo, contrariamente a lo que destacan las explicaciones dependentistas, estas transformaciones no condujeron sola- mente al “empobrecimiento de las clases populares y su marginalización” y por consecuencia, a su revuelta; se dieron a la par de la aparición de sentimientos de injusticia que jugaron un rol decisivo en la movilización de amplios sectores de la sociedad nicaragüense, tanto desde los enfrentamientos contra Somoza en 1979 como contra los sandinistas a partir de 1981. De igual modo, si la tesis de la “radicalización” o la de los conflictos de poder entre un nacio- nalismo emergente y las pretensiones imperiales de los Estados Unidos tienen en la evidencia cierto fundamento, no obstante, no se sabría explicar estas dos guerras civiles nicaragüenses solamente en términos de “bloqueo” del juego político o de lucha de “liberación nacional”. Me propongo entonces tomar distancia de tales explicaciones para intentar otra interpre- tación para estas dos guerras (Bataillon, 2008: 150-210). Al margen de sus especificidades sociopolíticas, también parecen inscribirse en la continuidad de una serie de enfrentamientos armados que han marcado la vida política de todo el siglo XX nicaragüense; enfrentamientos de los cuales representan formas paroxísticas, constituyendo de este modo sin duda el terminus ad quem. En efecto, lejos de ser momentos atípicos en la historia nicaragüense del siglo pasado, estas dos guerras aparecen frecuentemente como la continuación o la reanudación de gestos, cuyas primeras manifestaciones son atestiguadas desde principio del siglo con los enfrenta- mientos entre liberales y conservadores, y particularmente durante el levantamiento de Augusto 01_Bataillon.indd 10 26/02/2015 09:25:34 a.m. De Sandino a los contras Gilles Bataillon 1111 César Sandino entre 1927 y 1934, contra el general Emiliano Chamorro y la ocupación del país por parte de tropas norteamericanas. Importa entonces empezar por reconstituir el continuo de las acciones guerrilleras en el cual se inscriben la guerra civil de 1978-1979, y posterior- mente los enfrentamientos sandinistas/contras de 1979-1987. Situar estas dos guerras en un “tiempo largo” de la violencia nicaragüense, permitirá analizar a continuación de qué manera a todo lo largo del siglo XX, la violencia constituyó una modalidad de acción legítima y codificada, y la forma en la cual ésta permitió a la vez, la aparición de nuevos actores sociopolíticos y su acceso legítimo a recursos económicos.
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