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Film and Video Censorship in New Zealand, 1976-1994 By

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Film and Video Censorship in New Zealand, 1976-1994 By FILM AND VIDEO CENSORSHIP IN NEW ZEALAND, 1976-1994 BY DUNCAN GRAHAM ANDERSON A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington (2017) ii Abstract This thesis is an historical analysis of cinema and video censorship in New Zealand focusing on the period from 1976 to 1994. This is bookended by two significant changes in censorship legislation: the introduction of the concept of “injurious to the public good” as the guiding principle for film censorship in 1976, and the consolidation of censorship of film, video and other publications under one censorship authority in 1993 legislation (which came into force in 1994). My theoretical approach can be broadly classified as institutionalist political economy. The emphasis is on what Des Freedman regards as the “deeply political” nature of media policy development and implementation1, as well as the role of many key actors, including politicians and civil servants, but also lobbyists and pressure groups, and “the importance of informal as well as formal modes of policy behaviour”.2 Also, rather than simply looking at censorship decisions as the work of individuals, I have examined the way in which, as B. Guy Peters notes, “structures persist while individual members of those structures come and go”, and that “structures (institutions) create more regularity of human behaviour than would otherwise exist”.3 Rather than attempting to provide an exhaustive narrative of film censorship during this period, the focus is on detailed case studies of individual films which were the subject of censorship controversy in New Zealand, including Last Tango in Paris, Mad Max, Life of Brian, I Spit on Your Grave, Hail Mary and Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer. As these were contentious decisions, with a number of different voices competing for discursive legitimacy, they help to illustrate what Annette Kuhn describes as the idea of censorship as “a matter of relations…a process, not an object”, emphasising “the interactions between the various institutional practices involved….the relations between them, the ensemble of practices condensed in any one instance of film censorship”.4 These case studies also provide significant insight into the decision-making process of the film censors, demonstrating that this goes far beyond “objective” judgements about the manifest content of the films, and into more contentious and subjective areas such as the 1 Des Freedman, The Politics of Media Policy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008), 1. 2 Ibid., 217. 3 B. Guy Peters, “Institutional theory: problems and prospects.” In Debating institutionalism, edited by Jon Pierre, B. Guy Peters and Gerry Stoker (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2008), 6. 4 Annette Kuhn, Cinema, censorship, and sexuality, 1909-1925 (London: Routledge, 1988), 127. iii perceived tone of films (how they present certain content, rather than simply the content itself), views on media effects, the imagined audience, and the wider societal context. The decisions made by the censors depend very much on how these various factors are weighed, and which are given the most importance in the decision-making process. I have also examined the operation of formal home video censorship in New Zealand, which was introduced in 1987, taking a broader approach rather than focusing on individual film case studies, as no individual videos resulted in the level of controversy or media coverage as the film case studies. iv Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr. Peter Thompson, Dr. Miriam Ross and Dr. Alfio Leotta, for their assistance, support and encouragement. I would also like to thank my interviewees, Arthur Everard, Jane Wrightson and Dr. Andrew Jack, for their time and insights. I also acknowledge the assistance of the Office of Film and Literature Classification, as well as the financial assistance of Victoria University through the Victoria Doctoral Scholarship and Victoria Doctoral Submission Scholarship. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support during the last few years. v Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. iv Table of contents...................................................................................................... v Figures ................................................................................................................... viii Abbreviations used ................................................................................................. ix A note on the text ..................................................................................................... x Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 General overview .................................................................................................... 1 Research questions and data ................................................................................. 7 Thesis structure ...................................................................................................... 8 Chapter One: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ............................ 15 Chapter overview .................................................................................................. 15 Defining “censorship” ............................................................................................ 15 Film and video censorship literature...................................................................... 20 Theoretical perspective ......................................................................................... 27 Film and video censorship in New Zealand – an overview .................................... 35 Chapter summary ................................................................................................. 46 Chapter Two: Methodology and Data Collection ................................................ 47 Chapter overview .................................................................................................. 47 Data collection ...................................................................................................... 48 Archival material ................................................................................................... 48 Newspapers .......................................................................................................... 51 Interviews .............................................................................................................. 52 Film case studies .................................................................................................. 54 Approach to data analysis ..................................................................................... 55 Typology of censorship decision-making rationalisation ....................................... 59 Chapter summary ................................................................................................. 62 Chapter Three: Chief Censor Bernard Tunnicliffe, 1976-1983 ............................ 63 Chapter overview .................................................................................................. 63 Last Tango in Paris – historical narrative .............................................................. 64 Other early censorship under the Cinematograph Films Act 1976 ........................ 75 Last Tango in Paris – analysis .............................................................................. 76 vi Mad Max – historical narrative .............................................................................. 83 The Films Censorship Board of Review ................................................................ 89 Mad Max – analysis .............................................................................................. 91 Angel Mine and Goodbye Pork Pie – historical narrative ...................................... 94 Angel Mine and Goodbye Pork Pie – analysis .................................................... 105 Life of Brian – historical narrative ........................................................................ 106 Life of Brian – analysis ........................................................................................ 112 The emergence of home video ........................................................................... 113 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 116 Chapter Four: Chief Censor Arthur Everard, 1984-1987 ................................... 117 Chapter overview ................................................................................................ 117 I Spit on Your Grave and The Driller Killer – historical narrative ......................... 117 I Spit on Your Grave and The Driller Killer – analysis ......................................... 135 The problem of home video censorship .............................................................. 139 The “video nasties” compilation tape – historical narrative.................................. 142 The “video nasties” compilation tape – analysis .................................................. 149 The passage of the Video Recordings
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