RESISTANCE AND RELIEF, GREECE IN WORLD WAR II AND THE GREEK WAR RELIEF ASSOCIATION
AN EXHIBIT
Despina M. Kreatsoulas B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2008
PROJECT
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
HISTORY (Public History)
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
FALL 2010
RESISTANCE AND RELIEF, GREECE IN WORLD WAR II AND THE GREEK WAR RELIEF ASSOCIATION
AN EXHIBIT
A Project
by
Despina M. Kreatsoulas
Approved by:
______, Committee Chair Lee Simpson, PhD.
______, Second Reader Katerina Lagos, PhD.
______Date
ii
Student: Despina M. Kreatsoulas
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the Project.
______, Graduate Coordinator ______Lee Simpson, PhD. Date
Department of History
iii
Abstract
of
RESISTANCE AND RELIEF, GREECE IN WORLD WAR II AND THE GREEK WAR RELIEF ASSOCIATION
AN EXHIBIT
by
Despina M. Kreatsoulas
This project was installed at the Tsakopoulos Gallery of the California State University, Sacramento Library. In preparation for this exhibit, the author worked in several capacities. She conducted research in both the United States and Greece and interned for a semester in the CSUS Special Collections and University Archives (SCUA), assisting in processing and analysis of the Basil J. Vlavianos Collection. Additionally, the author interviewed individuals who participated in the Resistance or in relief efforts; obtained ephemera from individuals throughout the United States to be included in the exhibit; and served on a committee that planned, designed and installed the exhibit entitled “Resistance and Relief, Axis Occupied Greece, 1941-1944” which ran from April 6 through May 1, 2010.
Though coming from different fields of practice, all individuals involved in this exhibit were extremely dedicated to the goal of telling a little-known story about the devastating famine in Greece, the valor of the Greeks who resisted Axis forces and the hugely significant role that Greek-Americans played in both sending relief to and changing political policy affecting Greece.
______, Committee Chair Lee Simpson, PhD.
______Date iv
DEDICATION
For my parents and godparents who instilled in me a thirst for knowledge, a passion for history and a sense of pride for my heritage and faith - thank you for your love, support and patience, even when I may not always have deserved it.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In producing this exhibit, I would like to acknowledge and thank the Hellenic
Studies Program, the Tsakopoulos Foundation, and the Annunciation Endowment Fund for their financial support. Additionally, Sheila O’Neil and Aaron Richardson of the
Special Collections and University Archives at Sacramento State were of great service and support. Gregory Pappas, of the Greek America Foundation generously shared his priceless Greek War Relief Association poster and memorabilia collection – many items of which are one-of-a-kind. Christos Epperson of the Mnimi Foundation provided film footage and authentic German artillery and a rare Fallschirmjager uniform. Many thanks also go to Nick Alexander who shared his mother’s photographs and needles from her service as a Red Cross nurse in World War II as well as a rare postcard depicting the ovens at Dachau.
I would also like to thank Dr. Katerina Lagos - my academic mentor - for the amazing opportunities, support and guidance she has given me during the past five years.
Participating in the production of this most noteworthy project was truly the experience of a lifetime.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Dedication ...... v
Acknowledgments...... vi
List of Figures ...... viii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 11
3. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF “RESISTANCE AND RELIEF” AN EXAMINATION OF AXIS OCCUPIED GREECE AND THE GREEK WAR RELIEF ASSOCIATION ...... 24
4. THE PROJECT ...... 34
5. FINDINGS ...... 50
Appendix A. Text Panels and Illustrations ...... 54
Appendix B. Press Release ...... 92
Appendix C. Promotional Postcard and Poster ...... 94
Bibliography ...... 95
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1. Title Wall ...... 55
2. German Soldier wearing Fallschmjager uniform ...... 56
3. Photograph of Mr. George Tzikas, resistance fighter in Greece ...... 57
4. Basil J. Vlavianos and Ethnikos Keryx ...... 58
5. Triple Occupation of Greece ...... 58
6. German strategic map of Crete ...... 59
7. German helmets and artillery ...... 60
8. Famine and Blockade ...... 62
9. Famine and Blockade text panel ...... 63
10. Famine and Blockade wall ...... 63
11. Famine and Blockade wall (continued) ...... 64
12. View of north side of exhibit ...... 64
13. Story of the Blanket ...... 65
14. Evangelia’s Blanket ...... 66
15. What of the Future? ...... 67
16. Weighing 84 ounces of bread ...... 67
17. Northern walls ...... 68
18. The Greek War Relief Association ...... 68
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19. The Greek War Relief Association – Archbishop Athenagoras, Spyros Skouras and Basil J. Vlavianos...... 70
20. GWRA Fundraising Efforts ...... 70
21. GWRA Propaganda ...... 72
22. Ephemera from Vlavianos collection...... 73
23. Ephemera from Pappas collection ...... 74
24. Ephemera from Greek-American community members ...... 75
25. Aid arrives in Greece ...... 78
26. Relief arrives in Greece ...... 79
27. Relief ships and authentic grain bag used in relief deliveries ...... 79
28. Relief arrives in Greece – soup kitchens and clothing donations ...... 80
29. Greek Resistance Fighters ...... 80
30. Resistance fighters and photo album of Costas Couvaras, a Greek-American who fought with the Greek Resistance ...... 81
31. The Holocaust in Greece ...... 83
32. Holocaust in Greece statistics report ...... 85
33. Red Cross Nurses ...... 87
34. Medical needles belonging to Marietta Alexander ...... 88
35. Mousalimas uniform/medals ...... 89
36. Philips photo album ...... 89
37. Greece is liberated...... 90
38. President Truman, liberation, and Vlavianos ...... 91
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1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In January of 2009, this author began a graduate student internship at the Special
Collections and University Archives (SCUA) at California State University, Sacramento, assisting with the archival processing of the Basil J. Vlavianos Project. As an added benefit of the internship, the researcher was able to use materials found within the collection to work with members of the CSUS Hellenic Studies Program to produce a gallery exhibit. The Hellenic Studies Program “supports, promotes and facilitates university activities and outreach to further the understanding of Greek history, society, economy, culture and language.”1 A primary goal of the exhibit was to bring more focus on the Vlavianos Project, a significant tool for researchers interested in Greece during
World War II, the Greek Civil War and the Greek American War Relief Association.
While this exhibit was organized primarily for the campus community, it would also be promoted amongst the local Greek communities of the Bay Area and Sacramento.
While he was still living, Vlavianos donated a large portion of his library to the
Speros Basil Vryonis Center for the Study of Hellenism, then located in Rancho Cordova,
California. However, in 2000, the Center’s Board of Directors voted for the closure of the Center and sold the entire collection (including the Vlavianos papers) to Angelo K.
Tsakopoulos. In 2002, Tsakopoulos donated the collection to the California State
University, Sacramento and it was thereafter known as the Tsakopoulos Collection. Then
1 Hellenic Studies Center, California State University Sacramento. History Department (URL: http://www.csus.edu/hist/centers/hellenic_minor.html) accessed May 1, 2010. 2
in 2005, the remainder of the Vlavianos library and manuscripts were added to the
Collection via a gift from Zita Vlavianos Hosmer – Basil’s daughter. 2
The Basil J. Vlavianos Collection
The Basil J. Vlavianos Collection contains components that span both his
academic and professional careers, as well as documents from his father’s law practice.
Vlavianos was born in Greece and during his lifetime lived in Germany, France and
finally the United States. He was an incredibly intelligent individual and his interests
were greatly diverse. The collection includes documents from the 1890s through the
1990s. In its entirety, the collection is 331.25 linear feet, or approximately 265 record
cartons.3 The Vlavianos Collection also includes the photographic collection of Costas
Couvaras who was in Greece during both World War II and the Greek Civil War.
At the time this researcher began an internship with the collection, the lead
Archivist Aaron Richardson was finalizing the legal series of the Vlavianos collection.
This particular series included documents from the period in which Vlavianos was in law
school, different legal associations and conferences in which he participated, as well as
documents from his practice of law. The documents in the legal series spanned the 1890s
to the 1930s - included in the series are legal documents from the law practice of John
Vlavianos, the father of Vlavianos.
2 George I. Paganelis, “The Tsakopoulos Hellenic Collection at California State University, Sacramento: A Beacon of Hellenism in the Western United States,” Journal of Modern Greek Studies 26, No. 1 (May 2008), 19-27. 3 California State University, Sacramento, Eureka Library Catalog (URL: http://erueka.lib.csus.edu), accessed October 1, 2010.
3
These early documents are only a small portion of the legal series. Also included were documents from Vlavianos’s time at law school. This was a very interesting array of documents that included student papers; legal texts (in German); flyers from student organizations and activities/events; poems written by Vlavianos; slips of paper with quotes; and so on. When the legal series was completed, we proceeded with review and analysis of the boxes which included items pertaining to the Ethinkos Keryx/National
Herald. There were approximately twenty-six boxes with document dates ranging from
1905 to 1992 to be reviewed; and within each box, there could be as many as fifteen folders. These documents were primarily in English and Greek, though there were a limited number of documents in French and German.
The Ethinkos Keryx/National Herald is a Greek-American newspaper (in publication even today) purchased by Vlavianos in September 1939, with circulation throughout the United States. He served as the editor through 1947 and was instrumental in bringing the news to Greek-Americans throughout the United States. Vlavianos was very passionate in his writings, as well as in his actions, and garnered great support for the Greek cause and its people.
Though he did not shy away from sharing his political views and beliefs in his editorials (Vlavianos never hid the fact in his newspaper that he was an anti-royalist and by no means a fan of the Ioannis Metaxas regime), Vlavianos was incredibly eloquent and skilled as a writer. From his writings, he appears to have been able to assess an incident and understand how best to address it in his newspaper. An excellent example of this artistry is found within an editorial he wrote on October 29, 1940. On that day, he
4 hailed Greece for her refusal on October 28, 1940 to Italy’s demand for surrender to invading troops. Vlavianos compared the defiant Greeks of 1940 who battled the Italians to the legendary 300 Spartans of 480 B.C.E. who refused, to the death, to surrender
Thermopylae to the Persian troops who greatly outnumbered them. What is fascinating about this editorial is that Vlavianos avoided any mention of Metaxas, the monarch- appointed Prime Minister of Greece who issued the resounding “NO.”
Throughout the boxes, letters to the editor were found and serve as a very interesting element of this particular series, speaking to the opinion and fears of the
Greek-American public during the 1940s. Some letters were in Greek, some in English, but all were indicative of the shared concern and passion for Greece and its dire situation.
Vlavianos took the time to respond to so many of these letters, keeping copies in his files.
Even if some of the letters were hostile, argumentative or contrary to what Vlavianos had written in his editorials, his responses showed great restraint, compassion and respect to his readers. He frequently commented in his responding letters that while he and the writer of a letter may not agree on specific details, they were both most surely proud of their homeland and in full support of Greece being a free nation.
With regard to the Ethinkos Keryx/National Herald series, documents included financial records, correspondence related to the publication or issues it addressed, handwritten drafts of editorials, news clippings, foreign office press releases and photographs, telegrams, the aforementioned letters to the editor (and responses), letters to
Greek and American politicians and organizations, and radio broadcast transcripts.
Approximately half the folders in these boxes are from the time period of 1939-1947,
5 which coincides with the timeline of the Italian-Greco War, World War II and the Greek
Civil War.
During his tenure as editor, Vlavianos used his title and connections to garner support for Greece in a variety of ways. He frequently wrote letters (copies of which he kept in his files) to United States government officials, noting that his paper was read by thousands of Greek-Americans. He attended and/or spoke at conferences and fundraisers; was interviewed in radio broadcasts; participated in American Hellenic
Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA), Greek American Progressive Association
(GAPA), Greek War Relief Association (GWRA) and Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of
America (GOA) events; and wrote letters to the editors of other ethnic and national newspapers. Likewise, Vlavianos was approached by a variety of people and organizations for his support because of the influence he carried.
With regard to the GWRA, while there was a fair amount of correspondence regarding the association, as well as editorials and articles about their events and activities, there is also a separate series in the collection for the GWRA documents. This is also the case for photographs in the collection. While there were a number of photographs scattered throughout the twenty-six boxes, the bulk of the photographs are in a separate Photograph series and are in the process of being identified and digitized.
The remaining documents in the collection follow Vlavianos’s life after his time as owner and editor of the Ethinkos Keryx/National Herald and span a more than forty- year period. They include articles and editorials for publications with which Vlavianos became involved; news clippings from publications around the world; United Nations
6 conference documents, press releases and publications; drafts and transcripts of speeches he gave; various flyers, invitations and brochures; and, of course, more correspondence.
Though Vlavianos left the Ethinkos Keryx/National Herald in 1947, he did not end his career as a journalist or editor. He became involved with several publications, both Greek-American and American, such as Proini, Perivoli, and the Free World.
Handwritten drafts and edits of articles and editorials are plentiful in the boxes, as are printed copies of these publications. Additionally, his interest in Cypriot, Greek, and world politics, as well as human rights, is evident from the variety of materials he collected and kept.
The Vlavianos Collection also contains substantial documentation with regard to
Cyprus - the 1950 referendum, the tumultuous 1960s (which included an attempted invasion by the Turkish population) of the 1960s, the conflict and split of the Turkish and
Greek Cypriot populations in 1974 and the turmoil that followed, even into the 1980s.
Vlavianos collected news articles, pamphlets, speech transcripts, and publications by
Cypriot organizations. Included in these documents are copies of “The Cyprus Plebiscite and the Greek Parliament, An Appeal of the Greek Chamber of Deputies to the British
Parliament, London 1950”; copy of (now) Vice-President Joe Biden’s speech regarding
Cyprus; and various speeches and articles by noted journalist Elias Demetracopoulos.
Vlavianos followed world politics closely, as well as cases involving human rights. Numerous folders throughout the collection are country specific, with dates ranging from the 1940s to the 1980s. Countries with dedicated folders include Asia,
Argentina, Egypt, Spain, the Sudan, South American, and Russia. Documents in the
7
Spain folder include news clippings regarding Nazis who fled to Spain, as well as a copy
of “The Case for Recognition of the Spanish Republic,” a document that was submitted
to the President of the United States in 1946. In the Argentina folder exists a copy of text
from Juan Peron’s address “Argentine People Hope of World.”
The Collection and the Exhibit
The World War II era in Greek history was a particularly strong area of interest for the author who knew people who had fought in the resistance efforts and survived the
occupation. The Vlavianos collection included a wealth of information, documentation
and ephemera relating to the Greek War Relief Association (GWRA), an association that
was formed to raise funds, as well as political awareness for the people of Greece.
Vlavianos was one of its most prominent supporters.
Prior to the Axis invasion of Greece, Winston Churchill sanctioned a blockade of
all Axis occupied territories. This blockade proved crippling to the people of Greece as
the country relied heavily on shipments of wheat and foodstuffs. During the winter of
1941-42, as many as 1,000 people died every day from starvation. Yet the people of
Greece aggressively fought invading Axis powers. Though the Greek military disbanded
upon the Nazis’ entrance into Greece, a resistance movement ran through the course of the War. This resistance movement received attention and acclaim from around the
world, with President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill commenting on its
ferocity. Though the famine, occupation and acts of atrocity combined had devastating
effects on the Greek people, countless Greeks - men, women, and children – still resisted
the Axis powers.
8
From 1939 to 1947, Vlavianos owned and served as editor of the Ethinkos
Keryx/National Herald. When Greece entered the war, Vlavianos informed Greek-
Americans of the state of affairs on a daily basis. Once the Axis powers occupied Greece and famine befell the country, Vlavianos worked diligently to raise awareness and aid for the Greek people. He also used his position and notoriety as editor of the paper to gain access to American government officials and urge them to send aid to Greece as well.
Uupon learning of the conditions in Greece, Greek-Americans mobilized. They
raised millions of dollars by selling war bonds, hosting various events, and even selling
flowers on street corners. They collected clothing, and canned foods and their efforts
saved the Greek people from further suffering in one of the most brutal famines in
history. Lastly, and quite impressively, Americans, through united efforts, were able to
motivate President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration to demand a response and
action by the British with regard to the blockade.
The resistance is well-known and recognized in Greek history. However, the
story of the famine and the role of Greek-Americans is not as widely recognized. For
many who lived through the famine and occupation, they chose to leave those memories
in the past and not speak again of the suffering. As for the success of the Greek-
American community and its influence, it is one small, though significant, story of human
triumph in a battle that spanned six years and an entire world. But for a diverse group of
people who came together in the spring of 2009, these stories held great significance for
them and this exhibit was their opportunity to honor the Greek chapter in World War II
history.
9
The exhibit team was comprised of Dr. Katerina Lagos, Director of the Hellenic
Studies Department; Sheila O’Neil, Director of SCUA; Aaron Richardson, a special
archivist assigned to the Basil J. Vlavianos Collection; Jason Smith, a graduate student
who had worked on graphic production for a number of exhibits the Hellenic Studies
program had produced in the past; and, lastly, this author. The consensus amongst the
team was that an exhibit that drew attention to the Vlavianos Collection’s World War II
era documents and ephemera was significant as it demonstrated the political influence
that a united ethnic community in the United States could yield. The Greek-American
community serves as an example of how a group of people, bonded not only by ethnicity,
but by a common goal, influenced political opinion and spurred international reaction.
Their actions forced Churchill to respond and take action with the blockade that was
crippling Europe.
In August 2009, after initial research and discussion with Dr. Lagos and the
SCUA archivists, this author proposed an exhibit tentatively titled, “Resistance and
Relief, Greece in World War II and the Greek War Relief Association.” The initial plan
was to use materials from the BJV collection and examine the famine of 1941-1942 in
Greece, the Resistance fighters and the relief efforts by Greek-Americans. The Vlavianos
collection had not yet been fully processed, so this exhibit would help garner attention to
significant elements of the collection.
However, there was simply not enough time to review twenty-six cartons of materials that had not yet been fully analyzed, processed and catalogued. The team also wanted to give the exhibit a more personal feel – it should not be comprised of materials
10
from only one perspective, or one collection. It was at this time that this researcher was
given the assignment to reach out to Greek-American communities and organizations across the United States to research their participation in relief efforts and include the
findings in the exhibit. Greek-Americans who lived in Greece or the United States from
1940 to 1945, Greek Orthodox churches, Hellenic associations and other groups were
contacted to provide ephemera and/or recollections of this era.
Additionally, the team decided that focusing on only a two-year timeframe could
not give adequate attention to the Greek-American relief efforts. From 1941through
1945, the Greek War Relief Association raised over $100,000,000 and successfully sent
101 relief missions to Greece. In addition to opening the timeframe, the scope of
research and outreach expanded as well. From November 2009 through March 2010, this
author conducted research in both the United States and Greece. On March 29, 2010,
installation of the exhibit followed by the grand opening and reception on April 6, 2010.
April 6 also commemorated the 69th anniversary of German troops first arriving in
Athens, Greece in 1941. The exhibit ran through May 1, 2010 with close to 1,000 visitors recorded.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
While this exhibit was a temporary installation in a college gallery, the primary goal was to share historically significant events and “educate” an audience that most likely had no previous knowledge of these events. As such, this researcher reviewed literature that addressed museum and gallery exhibitions as educational forums and how best to present the intended “lesson.” Since the 1970s, the value of museums and galleries as educational forums have become more prevalent and, according to Stephen E. Weil,
“with the publication of Museums for a New Century in 1984, education was declared to be a ‘primary’ purpose of museums.”4 In addition to reading literature by noted experts, exhibit manuals and case studies proved an excellent source of information.
George E. Hein’s Learning in the Museum is highly regarded by museum professionals and is included in the reading lists of numerous Museum Studies programs.
Hein served on the boards of the International Council of Museums (ICOM)/Committee for Education and Cultural Action (CECA) and the American Association of Museums
(AAM)/ICOM. He is considered by his peers as a leader in the field. In Learning, Hein discusses different learning methodologies as well as theories of knowledge.
Additionally, he utilizes museum surveys to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each theory. Hein highlights how each of the methodologies can be put to practical
4 Stephen E. Weil, Making Museums Matter, (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 2002), 32. Weil discusses the progress of associations to incorporate education as a part of their mission and goal.
12
use in museum exhibits and what components should or will be included. Learning
serves as a how-to in establishing an exhibit’s educational goals and identifying an
audience and its potential learning abilities. Hein compares museum education to
parenting
All parents educate their children; all have a parenting style and approach. In most families the theory on which their actions are based is not conscious, it is deeply embedded in the cultural and social network of the society in which the parents live and its characteristics are part of a more general cultural landscape… Similarly, our education practices in museums follow some pattern, adhere to some theory, and reflect the beliefs of the staff and the larger culture in which they are embedded.5
In conclusion, Hein notes that visitors will take away their own meaning, but the museum
can help to shape that meaning by carefully crafting the experience.
The premise of shaping meaning recurs in much of the literature. Many authors
concur that museums serve as all-inclusive classrooms that provide “lessons” to their
visitors/students who are welcome, regardless of their learning pace or challenges; Gary
Edson and David Dean discuss just how the museum evolved into an institution of
learning. Edson and Dean are with the Museum Training Program and the University
Museum at Texas Tech University where Edson serves as Director. Together, they wrote
the The Handbook for Museums, which includes a foreword by Paul Perrot, former
Assistant Secretary for Museums at the Smithsonian. Perrot calls the Handbook a major milestone and veritable textbook for museum management. He commended the authors stating that the “goals implied in the creation of the International Council of Museums in
5 George E. Hein, Learning in the Museum (New York: Routledge, 1998), 15. Hein discusses the necessity of educational theory and that museums “need to have a conscious educational policy.” There must be some effort to follow a pattern or the goal of sending an educational message may be lost.
13
1946, will be closer to realization on account of this” text. Though written more than a decade ago, the book is a useful tool presenting museum professionals with a guide to best practices.
Like many of their contemporaries, Edson and Dean point out that while most programs have target audiences, the most successful will recognize that even museum visitors in a similar target group will most likely approach and absorb information differently. The authors refer to the psychology of learning (that it is cognitive/rational or affective/emotional) and that words, images and/or the senses can help transmit information. When an exhibit fully engages the visitor, the intended meaning is more likely to be completely absorbed. 6
Edson and Dean detail the advantages of each learning methodology and invite their
reader to consider and utilize the technique that they feel will be most effective in
achieving the educational aim of their exhibit. However, throughout the their book, they
remind the reader that it is not enough to simply have a message or lesson for an exhibit
to impart. The wise museum professional understands that each individual who visits is
just that – an individual. It is important to understand not only the focus of the exhibit,
but the array of visitors who will visit and that they will not all take in information in the
same manner.
In looking at the issue of projected goals, this researcher referred to a contemporary
of Hein’s, Stephen Weil who began his museum career in 1967. Weil has seen the
6 Gary Edson, David Dean, The Handbook for Museums (New York: Routledge, 1994), xi, xii, 178, 193- 196.
14
evolution of post-World War II museum theories on education and experiences and his
book Making Museums Matter is extremely useful in assessing exhibit objectives. He
asks the fundamental question regarding museums – do they collect or educate? Like his
colleague Hein, Weil emphasizes education is at the core of a museum’s existence,
though there are different theories as to how a message can be delivered. However,
always present is the underlying theme that meaning must exist and be communicated:
…the establishment and operation of a museum is not an end in itself but is only justifiable by the museum’s dedication to one or more public purposes… Museums matter only to the extent that they are perceived to provide the communities they serve with something of value beyond their own mere existence.7
Simply to convey information though is not the only goal. Diane Matthias, curator
of education at the Snite Museum, has put to use the Socratic Method to teach her students not merely about art, but rather how to understand and be affected by art. While
she focuses on art education, Matthias’s message about the value of museum education is
clear – the experience is one that is deeply personal in both how the visitor will ingest
and understand, but the experience can impart great knowledge. She maintains that while
there are many ways in which a museum may deliver its message, the manner in which it
can and should be received is just as diverse. Matthias encourages hers students to
experience both an intellectual and emotional response because of the effect “this kind of knowing can have on many aspects of life and learning.” The goals of the “Resistance and Relief” exhibit was not only to teach about a particular incident in history, but also
7 Stephen E. Weil, Making Museums Matter, (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 2002), 4-5. Weil discusses and interprets the role of the modern museum and its community.
15 evoke a response from the visitor about wartime atrocities as well as heroic activities by everyday citizens, Matthias’s focus on intellectual and emotional effect was of great interest.8
This concept of education through the museum experience is reiterated by Elizabeth
Vallance, who has written extensively on art and museum education, curriculum and strategy. Vallance notes in her article “Museum Education as a Curriculum” that “[t]he
‘teaching’ function of the museum environment also includes the visitors themselves, who create meaning through interaction with each other and with the museum materials in a way not fully controllable even by the best exhibition design.”9 She discusses the complexities of museum exhibits and the responsibility of museum professionals, including many who may not necessarily be educators.
Vallance points to the fact that in any given classroom, a teacher will have a set curriculum with an expected audience (students of a particular grade or study). However, in a museum, the “student” varies with each individual who walks through the door as each visitor to the museum will most likely be different in age, educational background, expectations, and so on. Additionally, all museum professionals working on any particular exhibit may not all have the same knowledge or anticipate the same results from an exhibit. Vallance reviews four models pointing out the pros and cons of each and then proposes a fifth model in which the museum serves to tell a story, with
8 Diana C. J. Matthias, “Education and the University Museum,” Journal of Aesthetic Education/ 21, No. 3 (Autumn, 1987), 95. 9 Elizabeth Vallance, “Museum Education as Curriculum: Four Models, Leading to a Fifth,” Studies in Art Education/ 45, No. 4 (Summer, 2004), 345.
16
“purpose… and invitation to engagement.. and a conclusion that invites reflection.” 10
Through design, presentation, and use of ephemera, museums professionals are presenting material that will, indeed, provoke a response from the visitor as well as leave some lasting lesson in them.11
A particularly challenging aspect of the exhibit was the sensitive nature of the
subject matter in several sections of the “Resistance and Relief” exhibit. The goal was to educate an audience about the famine, as well as provoke a response from them that would perhaps be similar to that of the Greek-American communities who saw these images and were motivated to raise millions of dollars for aid as well as insist that their government speak out against the atrocities in Greece. During the semester spent researching the Vlavianos Archives, this researcher saw photographs from the
International Red Cross, AP Press and Greek Press agencies detailing the famine or occupation in Greece.
These images evoked an array of emotions – heartbreak, despair, shock and revulsion. Within the collection, there were images of people on the streets of Greece dead and even photographs of entire villages that the Germans had decimated with
villagers hung from trees or burned and/or mutilated. The most disturbing were images
of the children – some executed (as young as eight or nine years old) for running
messages to Resistance fighters, others who were bloated or skeletal-like due to
10 Vallance, “Museum Education as Curriculum: Four Models, Leading to a Fifth,” 352. 11 Vallance, “Museum Education as Curriculum: Four Models, Leading to a Fifth,” 345, 352.
17
starvation. This was incredibly sensitive and provocative imagery, but key to the story.
Should these images be included? If so, how many of them and how graphic?
The answer lay in an article “Memory, Distortion and History in the Museum” by
Susan A. Crane, Associate Professor of History at the University of Arizona. As part of her study, she examined two rather controversial museum events – the Smithsonian’s
Enola Gay exhibit and the opening of the Holocaust Memorial Museum. Both of these exhibits dealt with very delicate history of World War II. The Enola Gay exhibit was carefully orchestrated to not include the horrific effects of the atomic bombings.
However, the Holocaust Memorial Museum did not shy away from exhibiting its very emotional and vivid images. The Enola Gay exhibit has been greatly discussed amongst museum professionals and Crane’s evaluation points to a significant factor that must be addressed when designing exhibits – should the visitor be shielded from what may be controversial or shocking? Crane notes
the Holocaust Memorial Museum, by making choices regarding the degree rather than the kind of horror which would be exhibited, succeeded in creating a learning site of memory, while the Enola Gay exhibit was purged of horrors to such an extent that the final exhibit contained only a partial fuselage of the plane and minimal information about the crew.12
Crane’s article, along with other pieces written on the subject of museum education
directly relating to World War II exhibits were of particular interest to this researcher.
12 Susan A. Crane, “Memory, Distortion, and History in the Museum,” History and Theory/ 36, No. 4, Theme Issue 36: Producing the Past: Making Histories Inside and Outside the Academy (Dec., 1997), 61. Crane discusses what was to be included in the Enola Gay and Holocaust Memorial exhibits – how “visceral” did a genocide exhibit need to be? Curators needed to consider that their exhibits would be viewed by postwar American audiences, imagery would “assault their expectations and memories regarding the history they had learned: would the images at either museum constitute a “physical experience” of horror for viewers?”
18
One such article was by Steven Lubar who spent twenty years at the Smithsonian
Institution as a historian, curator and finally Chairman of the Smithsonian’s Division of
History of Technology at the National Museum of American History. Lubar discusses
objects and artifacts in exhibits and transforming them from “souvenirs” to “evidence” of
events. The key is interpretation. He points out that in preparing for his World War II
exhibit, “[m]emories stand on their own; a good history exhibit provides context. We had
to somehow join the two… The way to do this was to share the job of interpretation, of
creating meaning with our visitors.”13
Lubar’s exhibit was divided into different sections and under each specifically titled
area, he used objects to help evoke memory for each of those areas. Lubar accomplished
the goal of education by engaging his audience - he picked objects that would relay a
message, but he also expected the objects to evoke a response in his audience to which
they would place their own interpretation. Using music, everyday household items, and
images that would evoke emotion/reaction in his visitors, Lubar established that history is
intensely personal and therefore the public should be involved in the process of
interpretation and education.
In examining the technical issues associated with making this exhibit an educational
opportunity, Arminta Neal’s Exhibits for the Small Museum, A Handbook was of great
assistance. Neal was the curator for the Denver Museum of Natural History; a number of
authors who discuss the practical methods involved in presenting information in a
13 Steven Lubar, “Exhibiting Memories,” in Exhibiting Dilemmas, Issues of Representation at the Smithsonian, eds. Amy Henderson and Adreinne L. Kaeppler, (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1997) 18.
19
museum setting have commended and referenced her work as a helpful step-by-step manual for small museums and/or exhibits. Neal’s book provides instructions on how to build displays, what effective text size is for labeling, and most importantly for this researcher, how text panels can effectively relay the educational message an exhibit seeks to present. Neal notes that while the literal definition of a museum is a place that holds collections or archives, it is, more importantly, a place of learning and therefore must have an atmosphere conducive to education. Labeling is a key function in delivering a
successful message and Neal provides statistics that should be carefully considered when
preparing text for an exhibit.
Neal’s book includes an introduction by H.J. Swinney who edited the American
Association of Museums third edition of the Professional Standards for Accreditation.
Together, Swinney and Neal indicate that the average museum visitor has the ability to
read 250 to 300 words a minute; however, they will commonly not read more than 50-60
words on a text panel.14 Neal points out that the purpose of the label is only one – to
communicate a message. Therefore, one of the greatest challenges an exhibit can pose is
how to deliver the educational message in short concise delivery. Not only must one
carefully scrutinize the message for it to be effective, but also the language used must be
direct and uncomplicated. If the goal of an exhibit is to convey knowledge to its
audience, it must be conscious of its audience’s limitations.
14 Arminta Neal, Exhibits for the Small Museum, a Handbook (Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1978), 4, 122.
20
Text panels were an area of great consideration while preparing for this exhibit.
The intent was not to tell the story of each photograph, but rather to use the photographs
as evidence of the story being told. After much consideration and conversation, the
planning team decided to have several large panels throughout the exhibit as central
informational pieces in each section. Because the researcher had a wealth of information
for a relatively little-known story, it was necessary to be incredibly precise with the
captions and information on each label, as well as carefully choosing the
corresponding/supporting images or documents.
Beverly Serrell’s book Exhibit Labels provided valuable information in
accomplishing this goal. Serrell served as an exhibit and evaluation consultant at
numerous institutions. She was also a guest scholar at the J. Paul Getty Museum in 1995.
From teaching methodologies to creating titles to composition, Serrell discusses the
crucial role of education in any type of museum. Like Neal and Swinney, Serrell
believes the message must be brief and concise, that visitors will spend only a brief
amount of time at each panel. Group labels, as the researcher intended to use, should be
limited to 150 words or less, whereas introductory labels may be as many as 300 words.
Serrell also discusses learning styles, modalities and exhibit development. She
discusses several methods of learning (sequenced or not, pace-controlled, peer or authority-led, active or vicarious, verbal or not stimuli, as well as concrete or abstract experiences) and how to incorporate them into exhibits. She does point out that regardless of the methods a museum or exhibit team may use, visitors come with their own goals and strategies for what they intend to see and take away. A successful exhibit
21 will make its intent well-known, as well as which methodologies and approaches it takes in its aim to relay knowledge. Regardless of the techniques used, Serrell’s goal is to help educational exhibits be just that – educational. Her research and techniques are of valuable assistance to museum and exhibit development teams.15
The necessity for concise messaging and its purpose is repeated in a multitude of essays included in Museum & Gallery Education, A Manual of Good Practice. In
“Developing and Revising and Educational Policy” Hanneke de Man, curator of interpretation at the Boijmans Van Beuningen Museum in Roterdam, points out that the text panel (as well as leaflets and brochures) have become a key element in relaying educational messages. As educational theories and strategies changed in the 1970s, it became apparent that the written word was replacing the tour guide. De Man concludes that museums and exhibits were created to “satisfy the interested visitor’s thirst for information.”16 The authors who contributed to Museum & Gallery Education represent institutions from around the world; despite global diversity, they all appear to endorse a universal goal of education.
There is a clear consensus in the literature that the museum and gallery are neither buildings in which artifacts are contained, nor establishments simply for the elite and privileged. They have become institutes of learning, open to all who enter their doors.
15 Beverly Serrell, Exhibit Labels, (Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press, 1996), x, 51-62, 83. In her introduction, Serrell corrects previous assumptions in her earlier book. She seeks to be more responsive to museum visitors’ interest and capacity for learning. Throughout the book, she uses examples from various museums and/or gallery exhibits and comments on their effectiveness to convey information. She refers to numerous case studies from different institutions, from art galleries to natural science museums and so on. 16 Hanneke de Man, “Developing and Revising an Education Policy,” in Museum & Gallery Education, A Manual of Good Practice eds. Hazel Moffat and Vicky Woollard, (Lanham: Alta Mira Press 1999), 23.
22
The industry has created standards and guidelines so that educational goals can be achieved while still recognizing that each visitor will arrive with his/her own individual expectations, their own capacity for learning. Additionally, successful museums and galleries recognize that they cannot censor the information they present. Professionals have readily accepted the responsibility to educate their visitors who come hoping to be engaged and informed.
While an academic oversaw the “Resistance and Relief” exhibit project, this researcher was primarily responsible for researching and proposing images and ephemera as well as the basic storyline for the exhibit. During the preparatory phase, a chief concern was attempting to understand how a visitor with no previous knowledge of these historical events would interpret and respond to imagery and artifacts. The storyline had to be concise and complete so that visitors, no matter their level of awareness, would leave informed.
It should be noted that this author is of Greek descent, grew up actively participating in a Greek-American community and had heard many stories during her lifetime of people who had lived in either Greece or in the United States during this era.
Looking at a photograph and already having knowledge or background of the incidents could prove an obstacle in the ability to present effectively the material to an audience that may not have had the same previous exposure.
Considering the tools and guidelines set forth by museum professionals and reviewed herein, this author carefully approached the historical material looking to provide the most concise and most thought-provoking information. “Resistance and
23
Relief” was created and designed to educate its visitors about a somewhat unknown, yet still very significant, event in Greek and American history. The selection of images and ephemera, as well as the composition of text and layout design, were critical in relaying this story that spanned four years of World War II.
The team wanted the exhibit to be more than just artifacts and data – the objective was to create an exhibit that would, in essence, allow the visitor to see, touch, hear, and experience what the Greek and Greek-American people of this era did. It was not just an educational message that the exhibit team sought to deliver to the attendee, the goal was to impact the visitor on an emotional level so that whatever lesson they took home, it was one that would never be forgotten.
24
Chapter 3
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF “RESISITANCE AND RELIEF” AN EXAMINATION OF AXIS OCCUPIED GREECE AND THE GREEK WAR RELIEF ASSOCIATION
On September 3, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany. In Greece,
Ioannes Metaxas (dictator of Greece, 1936-41) was concerned that this was not to be a
contained battle. He hoped for the sake of his country that he could maintain a position of
neutrality with the battling nations. However, conditions in Europe became increasingly
tenuous; by June 1940, most of Europe had fallen to the Germans.
Metaxas had hoped his country could stay out of the widening conflict. But when
Italy entered the War, neutrality proved impossible. On October 28, 1940, the
anniversary of his March on Rome, Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini sent an ultimatum to Metaxas. Mussolini was quite confident that acquiring Greece would be a quick and effortless endeavor; however, Metaxas firmly opposed surrendering, issuing his famous response of “oxi” (no). When he met with Greek journalists two days later,
Metaxas told them “Greece is not fighting for victory. She fights for Glory. And for her honor.
She owes it to herself to remain worthy of her history.” 17 By mid-November, the Greek army
had pushed Italian troops up into Albania. 18 The Greco-Italian war would be one of the first
defeats of the Axis powers during World War II.
17 John G. Bitzes, Greece in World War II to April 1941 (Manhattan: Sunflower University Press, 1982), 79. 18 John G. Bitzes, Greece in World War II to April 1941 (Manhattan: Sunflower University Press, 1982), 79.
25
Anticipating that Greece would need assistance and relief, Archbishop Athenagoras, leader of the Greek Orthodox Churches of North and South America, convened a meeting with representatives of the Greek communities from within his Archdiocese on November 7, 1940.
His goal was to join forces and campaign for aid to Greece. Just two days later, the representatives had created the Greek War Relief Association (GWRA). The GWRA was then granted by the U.S. Department of State incorporation and license to raise funds for the relief of
Greece. Athenagoras appointed Spyros Skouras, then president of 20th Century Fox Films, to
the position of GWRA National President. 19
Within one week, 350 church communities and more than 2000 associations and fraternal organizations joined the GWRA from across the United States, Canada and South
America. They tried to bring awareness for the Greek cause and raise money to send aid in the way of food, medical supplies and clothing. The two main Greek language newspapers in the
United States, the Ethnikos Keryx (National Herald) and Atlantis, overcame their political differences and became avid supporters of the GWRA. In a matter of months, the GWRA consisted of 964 local chapters. 20
During the time that Greek-Americans were mobilizing to aid their motherland,
Metaxas remained hopeful that he too could assist his country by avoiding further aggravation of the Axis powers. In the months that followed the failed Italian attempt at invasion, Metaxas refused assistance from the British while continuing talks with Germany’s Chancellor Adolf
Hitler assuring him that Greece was in a position of neutrality. But on January 29, 1941,
19 Alexandros K. Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” in Greece’s Pivotal Role in World War II and its Importance to the U.S. Today, ed.Eugene T. Rossides (Washington D.C.: American Hellenic Institute Foundation, 2001), 111. 20 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 112-113.
26
Metaxas died leaving Greece vulnerable and in the hands of a timid new government - King
George of Greece appointed banker, Alexandros Koryzis as Metaxas’ successor who quickly turned to the British for assistance.21
Two months later, Hitler commenced his plan “Operation Marita” - the invasion of the
Balkans. His troops were redirected from the planned invasion of Russia (“Operation
Barbarossa”) and began marching into Yugoslavia, straight down into Greece. Greek and
British forces could not hold back Hitler’s troops. Koryzis decided to kill himself instead of
surrendering to the Nazis and King George was forced to select another Prime Minister, this
time banker Emmanuel Tsouderos. Together, the King and Tsouderos left the capitol for Crete
and then to Cairo, Egypt. 22
Twenty-one days after Operation Marita began, German troops arrived in the city of
Athens. Greek general Georgios Tsolakoglou decided to negotiate an armistice, though he did
not have the support or agreement of any of the other Greek military leaders. The Germans
accepted, placing Tsolakoglou in charge of the occupationist government. A few weeks later,
the Germans sought to complete their occupation of Greece and attacked the island of Crete.
Though the people of Crete fought with what Churchill called “a severity and fierceness which
the Germans have not previously encountered in their walk through Europe” the island fell
after ten days. 23
American President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed his country on May 27,
1941 stating that war was imminent for the United States and that Americans had the
21 Richard Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, 2ed., (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 119. 22 Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, 2ed., 119. 23 Martin Gilbert, Churchill, A Life (New York: Henry Holt Company, 1991), 699.
27
obligation to unite in both the war relief efforts, as well as prepare to defend the pursuit
of freedom, just as those nations across the ocean were doing. He pointed to the example
of Greece. The Nazis were no longer just an enemy of Europe, they were now the enemy of the world. Roosevelt’s two addresses, the Pan-American Speech followed by the
Proclamation of National Emergency, ended with the famous sentence: “the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”24
For months, Greece had dominated newspaper headlines across the United States.
Even in the days after the Germans took Crete, front-page news heralded the bravery of the
Greek people who rushed from their homes armed with tools and kitchen utensils to battle the
paratroopers. But nothing could prepare the American public for the shocking news of death
and devastation that began to come out of Greece in the following months. 25
In additional to military attack, many other factors were working against the country.
Greece had suffered a significant crop deficit of 15-30% in 1940.26 However, as the Germas
marched down through Greece in the early spring, confiscating what little food existed was a
common practice. Additionally, in August 1940, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
announced “a strict blockade, not only of Germany… [but] all other countries that [had] fallen
into the German Power.”27 For a country like Greece that depended heavily on imports of
wheat and other foodstuffs, occupation coupled with a blockade proved devastating.
24 Roosevelt, “Pan American” May 2, 1941 Speech in FDR’s Fireside Chats, 174-87. 25 G.C. Kiriakopoulos, The Nazi Occupation of Crete, 1941-1945, (Westport: Praeger Publishers, 1995), 6. 26 Michael Palairet, The Four Ends of the Greek Hyperinflation of 1941-46, (Denmark: Narayana Press, Gylling, 2000), 26. 27 Winston Churchill, “The Few”, Speech before the House of Commons, August 20, 1940 (URL: www.churchill-society-london.org.uk), accessed March 18, 2010.
28
Through December 1941, British policy had remained unchanged with regard to the
blockade. Churchill argued in defense of the blockade stating that all foodstuffs going into enemy occupied lands would only benefit the Axis forces. An additional stipulation of the blockade declared that all goods traded with enemy or enemy-occupied countries were to be
deemed contraband and either confiscated or prevented from proceeding to their destination.
Churchill’s blockade allowed no food into continental Europe until it saw liberation from the
Axis powers – food and freedom came together.28 But without food, famine and death had fallen upon Greece.
The Germans used the situation to their advantage and claimed in their propaganda that
the famine now occurring in Greece was not their fault; rather, the British and their naval blockade were the sole cause. 29 The Greek government-in-exile, diplomatic representatives,
and escapees all began sending information, documentation and photographs depicting the
degree to which starvation was systematically wiping out the Greek population. Though
Churchill had intended to cut supplies to the Axis troops, his actions brought catastrophe to
Greece.30
When the Axis occupation of Greece was solidified by Germany, Italy and Bulgaria,
the GWRA stopped sending funds to Greece so that they would not fall into enemy hands.
Though the GWRA had raised and delivered close to $3.8 million to Greece from November
28 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” in Greece’s Pivotal Role in World War II and its Importance to the U.S. Today, ed.Eugene T. Rossides (Washington D.C.: American Hellenic Institute Foundation, 2001), 113. 29 Violetta Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 1941-44, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006) 17. 30 Alexandros K. Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” in Greece’s Pivotal Role in World War II and its Importance to the U.S. Today, ed.Eugene T. Rossides (Washington D.C.: American Hellenic Institute Foundation, 2001), 113.
29
1940 through the end of March 1941, the change of circumstances in Greece required the group
to devise a new relief plan. The GWRA began to focus on sending food and medical supplies
to relieve the famine that was quickly decimating the Greek population.31 Charity drives began
throughout the United States for foodstuffs, clothing, medical supplies and money that would
pay for the shipment of these items. Communities held fundraisers, children sold flowers on street corners, and the American government issued war bonds and postage stamps.
While monies and materials were being gathered in the United States, currency and commodities in Greece were being destroyed. The occupation and famine caused Greece to
suffer rapid hyperinflation. A pair of shoes that cost 450 drachmas in 1940 increased to
2,204,000,000 drachmas only a year later. Even more shocking was the fact that prior to
October 1940, the average daily bread consumption per person was 406 grams ( 14.3 ounces)
that fell to as little as 84 grams (2.9 ounces) by February 1942.32
During the winter of 1941-42, fear, exhaustion, and the lack of food and fuel led the people of Greece to suffer starvation, illness and disease, even tuberculosis. The lack of nutrition and repressive nature of the Nazi occupation left people physically and mentally exhausted. A common sight in the city was to see people collapsing in the streets. Some
would just lie in doorways or prop themselves against a wall. Most would never stand up
again.33
Soup kitchens were overrun and unable to handle the demand. Some people gathered
wild grass or other weeds to boil; others rummaged through garbage. The Germans, who had
31 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 111-113. 32 Michael Palairet, The Four Ends of the Greek Hyperinflation of 1941-46, (Denmark: Narayana Press, Gylling, 2000), 40. 33 Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 1941-44, 14, 196.
30
begun their practice of confiscating food during their march down from the Balkan Peninsula,
amused themselves by throwing scraps of food into the street to see children fight for them.
One survivor noted that the “(German) aim was to starve the people as a means of degrading
them, to reduce their energy and hence bring about their inertia and subjection.”34
While Roosevelt worked through diplomatic channels and urged Britain to change its policy, the GWRA began working with the Red Cross on a plan to send aid to Greece. A
British commercial corporation, by and through the GWRA, would purchase foodstuffs from
Turkey. However, Turkey would insist that only foodstuffs produced in their country could be included in the shipments.35 The International Red Cross would then ship and distribute the
goods to the Greek people. Churchill agreed to the American suggested plan and hoped that it would also bring Turkey closer to the Allies and their entry into the war. On October 29, 1941,
the plan was executed; foodstuffs and medical supplies reached the people of Greece.36
Though the GWRA contributed more than a $1,000,000.00 toward relief efforts and hoped to transport 50,000 tons of food, Turkey shipped only 14,031 tons to Greece causing the GWRA to seek alternative shipping methods while continuing their fundraising and supply collection efforts.
At the same time, Roosevelt had begun to question Churchill regarding the blockade.
The pressure came not only from the American president, but also from the American public greatly influenced by a united Greek-American campaign to make public the horrendous state
34 Costas Stassinopoulos, Modern Greeks, Greece in World War II, The German Occupation and National Resistance, The Civil War, (Washington D.C.: American Hellenic Institute Foundation, 1997), 147. 35Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 130. 36 Alexandros K. Kyrou, “The Greek-American Community and the Famine in Axis-occupied Greece,” in Bearing Gifts to Greeks, Humanitarian Aid to Greece in the 1940s, ed. Richard Clogg (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) 65-68.
31
of affairs in Greece. On December 3, 1941, the American government requested a formal
response to the accusations voiced by the Germans blaming the famine on British actions.
While not immediately responding Churchill did allow during the months of January and
February, shipments of wheat to be sent to Greece. By the end of February 1942, Churchill
reassessed the British position and finally conceded to the outside pressure; and lifted its blockade of relief convoys.37
With the blockade lifted, relief options once again changed drastically. Skouras,
national president of the GWRA, took a proposal to Assistant Secretary of State Sumner
Welles. The GWRA would charter a vessel from a neutral country, load it primarily with
wheat, and dispatch it to Greece. The plan, ‘Operation Blockade’, was fully endorsed in the
United States.38 The British accepted the plan, in principle, but mandated that the plan be perceived as coming from a neutral country; this action was mostly to preserve their reputation.
In essence, the Greek-American community had undermined the blockade due to the pressure placed on the British government. Britain requested that Sweden, not the GWRA, be presented as the source of relief. The GWRA agreed, their only focus being to get the much-needed relief to Greece.39
During the winter of 1941-42, between 100,000 to 200,000 adults and children died.
Approximately 6.1% of the population died because of this famine which today is considered a
“rare occasion” in world famine research. The death rates in Greece during the Axis
37Violetta Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 1941-44, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006) 17. 38 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 115-116. 39 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 122.
32
occupation were primarily a result of starvation – not disease.40 Had it not been for the
lobbying activities of the GWRA and AHEPA, the Roosevelt administration might not have
taken such a firm position with Britain and its naval blockade policy. However, from October
1941 through March 1945, the GWRA sent 101 successful relief missions to Greece. This translated into approximately 600,000 tons of wheat and other foodstuffs, 3,000 tons of clothing, and 20,000 tons of medicine and related goods – a value of more than $100,000,000.
With these shipments of foodstuffs and medical supplies, the famine of 1941- 2 was never again to be repeated. The survival of the Greek people was due largely in part to the
GWRA efforts - foodstuffs and supplies sent prevented a repetition of the previous winter’s devastating famine and high death rates. One can easily argue that had it not been for the actions of the GWRA and all Greek-Americans, the starvation in Greece would have lasted up through the end of the war. The GWRA relief missions significantly helped the people of
Greece to survive until liberation reached their country. 41
While many people have heard of the events of October 28, 1940 (Metaxas’s “No”)
and May 20, 1941 (the invasion of Crete), the suffering, resistance and triumph of Greek and
Greek-American people is not as well known or discussed, even within the ethnic communities.
One visitor who attended this exhibit and had grown up in Greece during the occupation explained to this author that after the War, he and his family wanted to forget the suffering, never speak of it again and look only to the possibility of the future. He never discussed with his own children what he saw, what his family endured, during those years. This was the case
40 Hionidou, Famine and Death, 2, 158. 41 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 125-126.
33 for many of the survivors. But this is not a story to be forgotten, nor is the success of the
Greek-American community changing government policy something that should ever be overlooked. The exhibit was a small step to ensure that the heroes of both the Resistance and the Relief movement will not be forgotten.
34
Chapter 4
THE PROJECT
Location and Audience
The location for this exhibit was the small gallery (Gallery Annex) located in the
California State University, Sacramento (CSUS) Library. The CSUS Library houses the
Tsakopoulos Hellenic Collection, which contains over 70,000 volumes primarily concerning Greek, Balkan and Ottoman history. The Basil J. Vlavianos archives accompany the Collection as well.42
The Hellenic Studies Program has hosted a number of exhibits in the Gallery Annex that are representative of Greek culture, heritage and history. In addition to the campus community, Greek Americans from surrounding communities (including Stockton,
Modesto, San Francisco and Monterey) have also attended these exhibits. While many of visitors of the various exhibits were previously familiar with the Tsakopoulos Collection, others became aware of it for the first time through these exhibits and have returned repeatedly to explore the Collection further.
Research in the Basil J. Vlavianos Archives
This researcher, who had completed two semesters of Modern Greek language and had a familiarity with the language, spent the Spring 2009 semester as in intern in SCUA helping with the analysis and archival processing for the Basil J. Vlavianos Project.
42 California State University Sacramento 2008, accessed November 8, 2009.
35
Knowledge of the language, even if basic, was of great assistance as most of the pertinent information (editorials, pamphlets, letters to the editor, etc.) were written in Greek. There was an abundance of information in the collection, from newspaper articles, to press releases, statistical charts, and so on. The challenge though was in finding appropriate and significant photographs.
Many of the photographs in the collection were either undated or not yet digitized.
While many photographs looked as if they could be from the World War II era, we could not be sure of what exactly they depicted. One such example was a photograph of women sewing clothes that were to be sent to Greece. It was an ideal image – Greek-
American citizens preparing relief items. However, upon further examination of the photograph, we learned that it was an image of women in Buenos Aires preparing relief items. We had a responsibility to the integrity of the exhibit and had to include items that were not just excellent representations, but rather items that were genuine to the story.
Within the Vlavianos project, there were ample text documents that could be included in the exhibit. However, as research indicates, visitors will not spend countless hours reading in an exhibit. We needed to find more images and ephemera that reflected events in Greece as well as in the United States. It was at this time, approximately
November 2009 that the Hellenic Studies Director decided to expand the scope of the exhibit. This researcher began contacting local Greek-American communities and individuals seeking photographs, artifacts and personal recollections of what had been in occurring in Greece and in the United States from 1941 to 1945.
36
Contacting Greek-American Communities Across the United States
From November 2009 through March 2010, the author made countless phone calls and sent emails to organizations across the United States. This researcher contacted to the all the Greek Orthodox churches in California, Washington, Oregon and New York that had been in existence during the 1940s requesting information about any fundraising activities or sponsorship drives they may have organized.
Additionally, an invitation was sent to all the priests to provide this researcher’s name and telephone number to any individuals either living in Greece or in the United
States that may have recollections, they would be willing to share of that time period.
Phone calls and emails began pouring in with accounts of the war, resistance and relief efforts. Some people sent in photographs, a few sent books. Their responses were generous in spirit and emotionally overwhelming as almost all these messages also came with gratitude to the exhibit team for wanting to share this story with the world.
One of the more disappointing instances occurred when a local Greek-American historian was contacted. At first, the individual was very excited to share information he had compiled over the years. He had many rare items, including radio broadcast recordings of a Greek-American news show. He was intending to write a book about many of the “never-before seen by this generation” items. While he was initially very excited, as the exhibit grew closer, he simply stopped returning telephone calls. The team sought other options.
37
While there were occasions of disappointment, there were also incredibly uplifting stories as well. One of the deeply touching results from the exhibit was with regard to a blanket. A Greek-American gentleman from a neighboring community lent a brightly colored blanket to the exhibit that his mother had made when she was a young girl.
While many people, upon first glance, could not understand the correlation of this blanket to World War II, upon reading the text panel, they learned that a young woman had fled her village in Greece as it was being invaded by Germans. At some point, artillery fire began and her youngest child ran away. She grabbed the blanket and ran after him. The blanket was all that remained of her family’s home and possessions, and she never repaired the holes made by German gunfire.
The story of the blanket does not end there though. Due to an error in scheduling at the CSUS concert hall, a young Music studies undergraduate had to schedule his senior concert in the library gallery. As he passed from the Gallery Annex into the main library, he came across the blanket and was deeply moved by the story. This young man returned on several occasions to see the blanket and re-read the story, he frequently brought friends or encouraged other students to visit the exhibit and see this artifact. Shortly before the exhibit came to a close, he sent a message to this author. He wanted to let the family who owned the blanket know that he had been greatly inspired by the story and had composed a song “The Blanket of Evangelia” which he would be playing at his senior concert. This researcher relayed the message to the family who were deeply moved and not only attended the concert, but brought the blanket to the concert as well.
38
Many of the individuals who were contacted were incredibly gracious and generous
in offering their belongings for the exhibit. Andrew S. Mousalimas, the Greek-American
war veteran who spoke at the opening reception, offered his uniform and medals. And
only days before the exhibit was to open, Nick Alexander, a Sacramento native, contacted this researcher to offer the medical needles his mother used during her time as a World
War II Red Cross nurse.
On the day Alexander came to deliver the items to the Gallery Annex, he brought with him an old postcard that had been amongst his mother’s things. While he knew it depicted the ovens in Dachau, he could not read the Greek. One of the members of the installation team, who was also a Greek language teacher and native speaker translated the card as follows
I am sending you this card so you can see the furnaces of Dachau. From the top door, they put in the people with the fire coming from below; they took the fat to the tanks. On the iron shown, they put on the carrier and pushed it in.
The message on the postcard was deeply disturbing, yet we chose to include it in the exhibit because, according to Dr. Lagos, it is a rare piece of proof that the Holocaust occurred. Prior to World War II, there was a Jewish population that had existed throughout Greece for thousands of years. The Germans deported approximately 67,000
Jewish Greeks, this accounted for approximately 87% of the Jewish population of
Greece. Though there were only three smaller panels addressing the Holocaust, we did not feel it would have been appropriate to discuss World War II without acknowledging the Holocaust, especially as Greece had the highest percentage of Jewish loss of any
39
officially occupied country. As a side note, when the donor learned of the historical
significance of this postcard, he took into consideration donating the postcard but was
still unsure as to whether it would be locally or to the Holocaust Museum in Thessaloniki,
Greece.
The Hellenic Studies program director had also been in contact with the Mnimni
Foundation that had previously produced a documentary about the invasion of Crete. The
director, Christos Epperson, generously donated to the exhibit authentic German weapons
and a rare Fallschirmjager uniform. While traveling and researching in Greece, this
author collected a German helmet and an American canteen that were also included in the
exhibit.
Weaponry posed an interesting challenge in this exhibit. Two community members
and gun collectors offered their antique German and American World War II weapons for the exhibit. In order to display the guns, Dr. Lagos was required to notify the Campus
Police Department to have the weapons checked. When the serial numbers were run, one of the German guns came up as a stolen weapon. After several hours, interviews with Dr.
Lagos, as well as with the current owner of the weapon, campus police discovered that the serial number of the stolen weapon was actually for a handgun, not the rifle being considered for the exhibit.
The exhibit team was quickly required to become knowledgeable, even on a basic level, of weaponry. In order to be included the guns had to be inoperable and the team was asked to examine the weapons for pins. Two rifles offered for the exhibit were still in working condition with pins; therefore, they could not be accepted for inclusion in the
40 display. Because of security and liability issues, the team also took extra care with the weaponry included in the exhibit – each evening, the guns were taken from the exhibit and off campus for storage. While there were many valuable objects in the exhibit, the team felt that weaponry simply could not be left on campus, no matter how secure the
Annex was.
Though difficult to make initial contact, the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of
America also proved of great assistance in providing photographs and documents for the exhibit. Amongt the items, they provided were minutes from GWRA meetings, a copy of a telegram reporting the success of relief missions, and photographs of Archbishop
Athenagoras with Spyros Skouras.
Using Social Media to Find Information
The internet proved an extremely helpful tool in seeking out Greek-American organizations. Via a search on Facebook, this author encountered Gregory Pappas, director of the Greek American Foundation, which is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois.
Pappas owns one of the largest private collections of Greek War Relief Association ephemera as well as rare GWRA posters. After only a few emails and two telephone calls, Pappas generously offered a portion of his collection for our exhibition. Included in the shipment we received were:
. First day cover United States Postal Service stamps promoting support for Greece;
. A poster which is most likely the last existing copy from the GWRA fundraising
campaign;
. An authentic wheat sack that was used to transport wheat to Greece;
41
. A red vinyl record with a radio promotion for the GWRA;
. Three volumes of news releases from Greece during the 1941-45 era;
. Time and Life Magazines from significant events occurring in Greece;
. GWRA pins and matchbook covers;
. International Red Cross photographs from Greece; and
. Program book from the first American exhibit of El Greco’s artwork – an event that
was specifically organized to raise funds for the GWRA.
Organization of the Exhibit
The Gallery Annex consists of just over 1,000 square feet of exhibit space. This area provides sufficient room for pedestals, display cases, and audio visual presentation.
Visitors enter the Annex through the main library entrance. The exhibit was designed with the intent that a docent would be seated at the entrance to greet visitors and encourage them to view the exhibit at its starting point (to the visitor’s left when entering the Gallery Annex). Though the exhibit was designed to present materials in a somewhat chronological manner, the team also took into consideration that not everyone may start at point A and end at point Z. Therefore, each section can logically stand on its own and tell a significant part of this story.
The exhibit has nine thematic sections, each with a significant text panel that provides factual historic information:
1. Basil J. Vlavianos biography;
2. Newsreel footage of war torn Greece
3. Background on the blockade and famine;
42
4. Introduction to the Greek War Relief Association (GWRA)
5. Success of GWRA in raising funds to send relief to Greece;
6. Resistance fighters in Greece;
7. The Jewish holocaust in Greece;
8. Greek-Americans fighting in Greece; and
9. President Harry S. Truman and the Marshall Plan.
To tie in the Vlavianos project and the significant role that Vlavianos and his newspaper
Ethnikos Keryx/National Herald played during this era, each section of the exhibit
contains newspaper headlines and articles as well as statistical reports that correlate to the
images. The visitor, in essence, is receiving information, as did Greek-Americans who opened their newspapers each morning to these reports and photographs. In 1941, there was no internet, nor text message. Not every home had a television. People received news via the radio or in their daily newspapers. Each new day held new stories and images – and in this exhibit, each new section contained the same.
Another goal of the exhibit team was to create an exhibit that related to as many of
the human senses as possible. We were able to engage four of the senses, or at least
attempt to invite engagement of these senses.
SOUND
Greek songs of the era played softly in the background. Some songs were
humorous and upbeat, encouraging Greece to battle on, and others were melancholy
mirroring the tragedy that had befallen Greece. Sophia Vembo was one of the most
hailed and beloved songstresses of the World War II era in Greece. Her songs inspired
43
troops, mocked Mussolini, and reminded lovers not to waste their precious moments
together. Her songs were listened to in Greece, yet many Greek-Americans in the United
States were also playing her records. Vasilis Tsitsanis, a famous rembetiko (Greek blues)
composer and singer wrote “Sinefiasmeni Kyriaki” which translates to “Cloudy Sunday.”
The first line of the song laments “Cloudy Sunday is so much like my heart, so full of clouds.” April 27, 1941 fell on a Sunday, the day that the Nazis arrived in Athens.
SIGHT
The exhibit contained a wide variety of photographs – from happy children participating in fundraisers, to decimated villages and executed men. The imagery, as well as newspaper headlines, was vital in relaying the story of resistance and relief.
Visitors to the gallery did not have to read the panels to understand the grief and devastation occurring in Greece. The team intentionally chose images that needed little explanation but provided great impact – villagers armed with rifles, well-dressed women packing foodstuffs, sacks of wheat being taken from ships, children receiving food in soup kitchens, a cart full of dead bodies. In addition to these images, actual newsreel footage played on the title wall. Images included paratroopers (invasion of Crete), bomber planes, German troops parading in Athens, people lining up at soup kitchens, and images of emaciated children and adults.
TASTE
A loaf of brown bread, made of unprocessed wheat flour and water only, was placed on one of the pedestals. Along with it was a small placard that read “During the famine in Greece, the average daily bread consumption per person was 406 grams ( 14.3
44 ounces); it was drastically reduced to as little as 84 grams (2.9 ounces).” One piece of bread sat on a scale that showed the bread to weigh 82 grams. While no one was encouraged to actually eat this bread, the idea behind the display was to show the density of the brown bread people had to eat during the famine if, in fact, they were lucky enough to eat mildewed bread. The display was such that people could pick up the bread, feel it, smell it, imagine how dry the taste would have been.
TOUCH
As previously discussed herein, the bread display was such that people could pick up the bread and feel its coarseness and density. Additionally, in two areas of the exhibit we placed photo albums – both belonging to Greek-Americans who went to Greece via military service – that guests could turn through. These albums were personal photographs depicting young American soldiers living amongst Greek villagers and resistance fighters. There were pictures of children playing, village celebrations, and young men and women living as best they could under the circumstances. The family of
Alex J. Philips donated copies of his photo album. Mr. Phillips served in the military with (former Senator) Nicholas Petris as well as with Andrew Mousalimas who was the guest speaker on the opening night. The album included pictures of Piggy – the dog that
Alex adopted when he reached Greece. Piggy was even suited for a parachute and became the squadron’s mascot. In addition to adding something that people could touch and experience in a more personal manner, the photograph albums were a very humanizing touch to the exhibit.
45
Writing Text Panels
One of the most challenging tasks in producing the exhibit was writing the text panels/exhibit labels. Though museum literature recommends the limiting of text on panels, the team had a significant amount of information to relay. After much discussion, a decision was made that there would be a central panel in each section; each should not exceed 500 words, though in two cases it did. These panels would be the only text presented in the exhibit.
In creating each section’s text panel, the graphic designer reviewed images
collected for the exhibit and chose what he thought would be the best “lead” image for
each section. He then created a 4’x8’ panel that included title, text and an image for five
sections (relating to Basil J. Vlavianos, blockade and famine, the GWRA, relief reaches
Greece, and the OSS).
Text size was a minimum of 36 point so that it could be read from a distance. Titles
were in 72 point and were carefully worded so that they properly tied in with the imagery
displayed in each section of the exhibit. They were also reviewed so that if a visitor read
only one or two paragraphs, the primary message would still be presented. Additionally,
a brochure was printed that included all text from the exhibit so that visitors could take
the information and read at a later time what they may not have read during the exhibit.
Installing the Exhibit
Set-up of the exhibit was scheduled to begin on March 31, 2010. The exhibit team
had drawn diagrams for each of the sections. Additionally, a title banner had been
created for the entrance wall. However, upon seeing the actual placement of panels and
46
ephemera, the installation team felt that focus was incorrectly balanced in some sections.
From March 31 through April 5, 2010 (the day before the opening), the exhibit went
through several design changes.
One of the initial concerns was the title wall. A six foot tall banner had been
created with the title “Resistance and Relief” above the image of German soldiers
hanging the swastika flag at the Parthenon in Athens, Greece. The installation team felt
that this sole image, along with a German strategic map of the island of Crete gave too
much focus to the German invasion. The imagery was of defeat, not resistance.
The revised wall, as seen in Figure 2, had a large text banner (170 inches wide) with the title of the exhibit, the same 6’ image of German soldiers hanging the flag on the left side of the wall, but now on the right side of the wall was an image of a young Greek resistance fighter. Between the two images played newsreel footage of the Germans invading Greece and images of starving children. Additionally, the team included two mannequins – one on the left wearing an authentic Fallshirmjager uniform and one on the right wearing a replica of traditional Cretan dress (however, the sash on the Cretan fighter was an authentic Cretan sash belonging to the son of the man shown in the 6’ foot image).
The “Blockade and Famine” wall was revised slightly in that the installation team wanted to include more of the images that had been collected during research. In this area, we included 8” x 10” images as well as statistical reports on housing, starvation and inflation. It was in this area that the literature on graphic imagery came most into play.
International Red Cross photographs depicted skeletal children, people lying dead in the
47
city streets, and women digging through garbage for food. We included many of these
images. However, we chose to include images of crying children, even a child lying dead
in the street, but did not include the photograph of skeletal children as it seemed a bit too graphic.
In the next section which featured the Greek War Relief Association, the installation team hung the section text panel and once again decided that the image did
not relay the most powerful message. Two young girls in Greek traditional costumes
were included with this particular text panel. Because we definitely wanted to include
this image of children helping in the relief efforts, we made the decision to cut the panel
in half and use the text in another manner as well as hang the image of the children within
the section. From the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, we had obtained a
photograph of Archbishop Athenagoras, Spyros Skouras and Basil J. Vlavianos. This
photograph, along with a copy the GWRA Charter and the text panel hung in the lead
section of the GWRA section.
Additionally, in the GWRA section we included several large framed GWRA
posters we had received from the Greek America Foundation. The original design had
four of the framed posters hanging on the short back wall, but the team decided that the
short wall was a key focal point and the “Relief Reaches Greece” should be on this wall.
The decision was made to hang three of the GWRA posters on the same wall as the text
panel. The “Relief” wall was modified only in that the images used were all reprinted
from 8”x10” to 22”x24” images.
48
The installation team decided to add two new sections – resistance fighters and
World War II nurses. A large GWRA propaganda poster “Greece Fights On” was used as the focal point on the resistance fighter wall. We also reproduced a photograph album belonging to a Greek-American who fought with the resistance fighters. Five images of resistance fighters were added (this included women resistance fighters) as well as a newspaper article depicting their struggle from the Ethnikos Keryx/National Herald.
The World War II nurses section, as well as an expansion of the Holocaust section came about on April 3, 2010. A local Greek-American, Nick Alexander, had heard about the exhibit and wanted to donate his mother’s Red Cross needles. He also brought a photograph of the Red Cross hospital she had worked in, and a photograph of her with two other nurses. While the section was small, the installation team felt it appropriate to acknowledge the work of the Red Cross. The gentleman who brought these items also brought in a postcard depicting the ovens at Dachau. As previously discussed, the postcard is a valuable piece of history. Both sides of the card were scanned and blown up; the panel also included the translation of the postcard.
By the end of the day on Monday, April 5, 2010, more than 70% of the exhibit had been altered. While the same material was being presented, we had been able to better position some of the materials, increase the sizing of significant images and present a stronger representation of the historical events. The exhibit officially opened on April 6,
2010. Within the next four weeks, close to 1,000 people visited the exhibit, and many of them returned several times, bringing friends, family, colleagues and classmates.
49
Promoting the Exhibit
A press release was written by the exhibit team and issued on March 25, 2010.
The date is significant in Greek history as it marks the date that occupied Greece began their fight for independence from the Ottoman occupation. The press release was issued to CSUS, the Sacramento Bee, the Greek Orthodox Diocese of San Francisco and the
Modern Greek Studies Association. The press release was also sent to a local news reporter who was of Greek descent. Additionally, postcards were created and more than
400 of them were circulated at the local Greek Orthodox Church. A Facebook calendar event was also created and shared publicly. Due to these efforts, the opening night reception was attended by over 100 people, one of the largest opening night receptions the Hellenic Studies Program had experienced in its last three years of exhibits.
50
Chapter 5
FINDINGS
Success of the Exhibit
Much of the literature reviewed noted that success of an exhibit is not necessarily
understood in how the information is presented, but rather in how it is received. Susan A.
Crane recommends the use of a guestbook, noting that it is an excellent resource to
document what a visitor takes away from their experience (be it positive, or negative).43
The team was very interested in how this particular gallery exhibit would be received as
it focused on a small, and mostly unknown, segment of World War II history. It
appeared that people who visited the exhibit were relatively unaware of the famine in
Greece, as well as the Greek-American community playing a significant role in relief
efforts and lifting the British blockade; however, their comments in the guestbook were
overwhelmingly positive
J. & N. “This brought back many sad and real memories.”
D. “Inspiring to be able to see and enjoy this period my husband fought in.”
M., J., and P. “Thank you for opening our eyes, so informative!”
W. “Thanks, it is wonderful to learn of others survival, strength and peace allways.” [sic]
P. “It’s good to learn something we were not taught about in high school. Thank you.”
M. “Wonderful work in telling an amazing story of strength.”
43 Crane, “Memory, Distortion, and History in the Museum,” 44-47, 53, 56.
51
The opening night reception was well attended by members of the local Greek
community. Many had never visited exhibits at the Gallery Annex before and were
somewhat surprised to find the level of professionalism and the quality of artifacts with
which the exhibit had been produced. Visitors for the opening came from as far as
Oakland and Modesto.
Unexpected Response
What we had not anticipated was the hesitation of older Greek-Americans to attend the exhibit. Even those who were in the United States during this time and participating
in the relief efforts recalled the time with great sadness. For many who participated in
the relief efforts, they could only think of family members left in Greece to suffer through
this time.
The Greek-American community members were very supportive in telling their
stories and offering ephemera, but many simply found it too difficult to visit the exhibit
and relive such a painful part of their past. One couple, in particular, did come to the
exhibit as they knew the exhibit team personally and wanted to offer their support.
However, they both became extremely emotional and shaken upon seeing the images,
recalling the great loss and tragedy of that time, and vividly remembering the emotions
when relief finally arrived in their villages.
The response of countless young Greek-Americans was that they had not heard about this part of their history. It was the story of hardship and loss that their parents had
52
not shared with them. For those young people that attended, there was a greater
understanding of their elders’ silence about the War era.
Exposure for the Vlavianos Collection
One of the key motivations for this exhibit was not only to bring focus on a little
known story, but also to give exposure to the Vlavianos Collection housed at SCUA.
This goal was well achieved. A number of scholars learned of the exhibit through the
Modern Greek Studies Association notice and either inquired further about the collection
or attended the exhibit and met the archivist. Additionally, Gregory Pappas of the Greek
America Foundation had the opportunity to later visit the Vlavianos Collection and hopes
to include documentation in his upcoming traveling exhibit.
Overall, the “Resistance and Relief” exhibit surpassed the goals set by the exhibit
team. The campus community received the exhibit incredibly well, as did the Greek-
American community. Shortly before the exhibit ended, the team came to understand
that the exhibit could not simply close and be stored away. At this time, a Web site is in
development so that “Resistance and Relief” will become a permanent virtual exhibit as
part of the Hellenic Studies Web site. Additionally, other Greek-American communities and organizations are enquiring as to the potential of the exhibit being brought to their locale.
We more than amply achieved our initial goal, to bring focus onto the rich Basil J.
Vlavianos archives, as well. A number of researchers throughout the United States, as well as in Greece, have inquired as to the Ethnikos Keryx/National Herald collection.
Several researchers have now visited the collection
53
The exhibit team is now considering how the next chapter of this story can be
presented. Following World War II, Greece suffered a Civil War and the Greek War
Relief Association continued in its efforts to send aid to Greece. The Ethnikos
Keryx/National Herald became a sounding board for Greek-Americans concerned as to
the political situation in Greece. Though Vlavianos remained owner and editor of the
newspaper only until 1947, he became a lifelong advocate in the United States for the people of Greece.
54
APPENDIX A
Text Panels and Illustrations
How Greece Was Brought into World War II
On September 3, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany. Prime Minister
of Greece Ioannis Metaxas, concerned that this was not to be a contained battle, sought to maintain a position of neutrality for his country, a challenge once Italy joined forces with
Germany in the summer of 1940.
Only a few months later on October 28, 1940, Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini
informed Metaxas that Italy was to occupy strategic areas of Greece or face invasion. This
ultimatum came at 3:00 a.m., with the invasion to begin only three hours later. Metaxas
responded with a resounding “OXI” (no). When he met with Greek journalists two days later,
Metaxas told them “Greece is not fighting for victory. She fights for Glory. And for her honor.
She owes it to herself to remain worthy of her history.” Worthy she was – by mid-November,
the Greek army had pushed Italian troops up into Albania. 44
Nevertheless, Metaxas took steps to avoid further aggravating the Axis powers –
refusing assistance from the British and continuing talks with Germany’s Chancellor Adolf
Hitler. But on January 29, 1941, Metaxas died leaving Greece vulnerable in the hands of a
new government. Shortly thereafter, Hitler commenced with plan Operation Marita - the
taking of the Balkans. Troops were redirected from the planned invasion of Russia and began
44 John G. Bitzes, Greece in World War II to April 1941 (Manhattan: Sunflower University Press, 1982), 79.
55
marching into Yugoslavia, down into Greece. Upon entering the city of Athens on April 27,
the German troops raised the Swastika flag over the Acropolis – two young Greeks tore it down
in a defiant act resistance to the occupation.
Less than a month later, the Germans sought to complete their occupation of Greece
and attacked the island of Crete. In the early morning hours of May 20, 1941, they began
bombing the island, with German paratroopers descending shortly thereafter. The people of
Crete, along with Allied forces, fought with what Churchill called “a severity and fierceness which the Germans have not previously encountered in their walk through Europe.” 45
Figure 1: Title Wall
45 Martin Gilbert, Churchill, A Life (New York: Henry Holt Company, 1991), 699.
56
Figure 2: German soldier wearing Fallschirmjager uniform
57
Figure 3: Photograph of Mr. George Tzikas, resistance fighter in Greece. The mannequin is wearing a traditional Cretan scarf owned by Mr. Tzikas’s son.
58
Figure 4: Basil J. Vlavianos and Ethnikos Keryx
Figure 5: Triple Occupation of Greece
59
Figure 6: German strategic map of Crete
Figure 7: German helmets and artillery
60
Blockade and Famine
On August 20, 1940, Churchill announced “a strict blockade, not only of Germany…
[but] all other countries that [had] fallen into the German Power.”46 The aim was to stop any form of supplies from reaching the enemy. Since the Germans controlled the occupied countries of Europe, goods traded with enemy or enemy-occupied countries were declared
contraband and either confiscated or prevented from proceeding to their destination. He argued
that all foodstuffs going into enemy occupied lands would only benefit the Axis forces.
Therefore, no food should be allowed into continental Europe until it was liberated; food and
freedom would only come together. In addition, Greece had suffered a poor harvest in 1941,
causing a crop deficit of 15-30%.47 Though Churchill’s intentions were to cut supplies from reaching the Axis troops, his actions directly led to the famine in Greece.48
During this occupation, and more specifically during the blockade, the people of
Greece suffered rapid hyperinflation and horrific starvation. A pair of shoes that cost 450
drachmas in 1940 increased to 2,204,000,000 drachmas only a year later. Even more shocking
was the fact that prior to October 1940, the average daily bread consumption per person was
406 grams ( 14.3 ounces) to as little as 84 grams (2.9 ounces) by February 1942.49
46 Winston Churchill, “The Few”, Speech before the House of Commons, August 20, 1940 (URL: www.churchill-society-london.org.uk), accessed March 18, 2010. 47 Michael Palairet, The Four Ends of the Greek Hyperinflation of 1941-46, (Denmark: Narayana Press, Gylling, 2000), 26. 48 Alexandros K. Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” in Greece’s Pivotal Role in World War II and its Importance to the U.S. Today, ed.Eugene T. Rossides (Washington D.C.: American Hellenic Institute Foundation, 2001), 113. 49 Michael Palairet, The Four Ends of the Greek Hyperinflation of 1941-46, (Denmark: Narayana Press, Gylling, 2000), 40.
61
In the winter of 1941-42, lack of food and fuel, as well as fear and exhaustion, led to people suffering from boils, fever, and even tuberculosis. Soup kitchens were overrun and unable to handle the demand.
The lack of nutrition and repressive nature of the Nazi occupation left people physically and mentally exhausted. A common sight in the city was to see Athenians collapsing; a woman walking with her two malnourished children suddenly fainted, leaving her children to cry.
Some would just lie in doorways or prop themselves against a wall. Most would never stand up again.
Some people gathered wild grass or other weeds to boil; others rummaged through garbage. The Germans, who had begun their practice of confiscating food during their march down from the Balkan Peninsula, amused themselves by throwing scraps of food into the street to see children fight for them. One survivor noted that the “(German) aim was to starve the people as a means of degrading them, to reduce their energy and hence bring about their inertia and subjection.”50
Between 100,000 to 200,000 adults and children died during the winter of 1941-42. It is estimated that as much of 6.1% of the population died as a result of this famine. Considered a “rare occasion” in world famine research, the death rates in Greece during the Axis occupation were primarily a result of starvation – not disease.51
The Greek government-in-exile, Greek diplomatic representatives, and Greek escapees all sent information regarding the degree to which starvation was decimating the Greek
50 Costas Stassinopoulos, Modern Greeks, Greece in World War II, The German Occupation and National Resistance, The Civil War, (Washington D.C.: American Hellenic Institute Foundation, 1997), 147. 51 Violetta Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 1941-44, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006) 2, 158.
62 population. The Greek government-in-exile put together a pamphlet of images, entitled
‘Conditions in Greece: Confidential Photographic Record’ in 1942 and sent copies to the
British and United States governments. These extremely disturbing images helped galvanize foreign assistance, especially from the United States.
Figure 8: Famine and Blockade
63
Figure 9: Famine and Blockade text panel
Figure 10: Famine and Blockade wall
64
Figure 11: Famine and Blockade wall (continued)
Figure 12 View of north side of exhibit
65
Figure 13: Story of the Blanket
66
Figure 14: Evangelia’s Blanket
67
Figure 15: What of the Future?
68
Figure 16: Weighing 84 ounces of bread
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The Greek War Relief Association
On November 7, 1940, only days after the start of the Italian-Greco conflict,
Archbishop Athenagoras, leader of the Greek Orthodox Churches of North and South America,
convened a meeting with representatives of Greek communities from within his Archdiocese.
Their goal was to join forces and campaign for aid to Greece. Only two days later, the Greek
War Relief Association (GWRA) was both incorporated and licensed by the United States
Department of State to raise funds for the relief of Greece. Spyros Skouras, president of 20th
Century Fox Films, was appointed GWRA National President.
Across the United States, Canada and South America, and in only a week’s time, 350 church communities and more than 2000 associations and fraternal organizations joined the
GWRA and began their efforts to bring awareness for the Greek cause and raise money to send aid in the way of food, medical supplies and clothing.
A few months later, the GWRA consisted of 964 local chapters. By the end of March
1941, the GWRA had sent close to $3.8 million to Greece. When the Germans occupied
Greece in April of that year, the GWRA stopped sending funds. The GWRA devised a new plan for assistance to Greece; their main focus was to deal with the famine that was quickly decimating the Greek population.52
52 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 111-113.
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Figure 17: Northern walls
Figure 18: The Greek War Relief Association
71
Figure19: The Greek War Relief Association - Archbishop Athenagoras, Spyros Skouras and Basil J. Vlavianos
Figure 20: GWRA Fundraising Efforts
72
Figure 21: GWRA Propaganda
73
Figure 22: Ephemera from Vlavianos collection
74
Figure 23: Ephemera from Pappas collection
75
Figure 24: Ephemera from Greek-American community members
76
Relief Reaches Greece
From August 1940 through December 1941, British policy had remained unchanged with regard to the blockade. The Germans used the situation to their advantage and claimed in their propaganda that the famine in Greece was not their fault; rather, the British and their naval blockade were the sole cause. 53
While Roosevelt worked through diplomatic channels and urged Britain to change its policy, the GWRA began working with the Red Cross on a new plan to send aid to Greece.
Foodstuffs would be purchased from Turkey by a British commercial corporation (by and through the GWRA) and then shipped to Greece to be distributed to the Greeks by the
International Red Cross. Churchill agreed, hoping it would bring Turkey closer to the Allies and entry into the war. On October 29, 1941, the plan was executed and foodstuffs and medical supplies reached the people of Greece.54
The GWRA contributed more than a $1,000,000.00 to the project. While the goal was to transport 50,000 tons of food, only 14,031 tons were shipped from Turkey to Greece. Only foodstuffs produced in Turkey could be placed in the shipments sent to Greece, per the agreement.55
During this time, Roosevelt began openly questioning Churchill regarding the blockade. On December 3, 1941, the US government requested a formal response to the accusations voiced by the Germans blaming the famine on British actions. The American
53 Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 17. 54 Alexandros K. Kyrou, “The Greek-American Community and the Famine in Axis-occupied Greece,” in Bearing Gifts to Greeks, Humanitarian Aid to Greece in the 1940s, ed. Richard Clogg (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) 65-68. 55Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 130.
77 inquiry carried great weight and by the end of February 1942, Churchill reassessed the British position. In a surprising statement on 12 January, Churchill announced that a shipment of
8,000 tons of wheat would be shipped to Greece. This was a one-time only shipment, but it represented to the Greeks and Greek-Americans that the British naval blockade was coming to an end. Churchill announced on 16 February that shipments of aid to Greece would be allowed to come from outside of the blockade zone. One week later, Churchill finally conceded to outside pressure; Britain was lifting its blockade of relief convoys.56
With the blockade lifted, relief options changed drastically. Skouras, national president of the GWRA, took a proposal to Assistant Secretary of State Sumner Welles. The GWRA would charter a neutral vessel, from a neutral country, load it primarily with wheat, and dispatch it to Greece. The plan, ‘Operation Blockade’, was fully endorsed in the US.57
The British accepted the plan, in principle. They were concerned for their reputation – the blockade, in essence, was lifted due to pressures by the Greek American community.
Britain insisted that Sweden be presented as the source of relief. The GWRA agreed, their primary focus being to get the much-needed relief to Greece.58
The GWRA sent 101 relief missions to Greece by March 7, 1945. This translated into approximately 600,000 tons of wheat and other foodstuffs, 3,000 tons of clothing, and 20,000 tons of medicine and related goods – a value of more than $100,000,000. Due in large part to
56Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 17. 57 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 115-116. 58 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 122.
78 the GWRA efforts, a repetition of the catastrophic winter famine of 1941-42 was avoided and the people of Greece survived until liberation reached their country. 59
Figure 25: Aid Arrives in Greece
59 Kyrou, “Operation Blockade: Greek-American Humanitarianism During World War II,” 125-126.
79
Figure 26: Relief Arrives in Greece text panel
Figure 27: Relief ships and authentic grain bag used in relief deliveries
80
Figure 28: Relief arrives in Greece – soup kitchens and clothing donations
Figure 29: Greek Resistance Fighters
81
Figure 30: Resistance fighters and photo album of Costas Couvaras, a Greek-American who fought with the Greek Resistance
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The Holocaust in Greece
The indigenous Jewish communities of Greece represent the longest continuous Jewish presence in Europe. These communities, along with those who settled in Greece after their expulsion from Spain, were almost completely destroyed during the Holocaust. In the spring of
1941, the Germans defeated the Greek army and occupied Greece until October of 1944. The country was divided into three zones of occupation: Bulgaria annexed Thrace and Yugoslav
Macedonia; Germany occupied Greek Macedonia, including Thessaloniki, Piraeus, and western Crete; and Italy occupied the remainder of the mainland and the islands. Where Jews resided in Greece determined not only their subsequent fate, but also their ultimate possibility of escape.
In November 1942, the first confiscations of Jewish property in Thessaloniki occurred.
The systematic expropriation and requisitioning of Jewish property began in January. In
February, the Nazis issued orders forcing all but foreign Jews to be marked with armbands and yellow stars, and their stores identified as Jewish with appropriate notices. The first deportations began the same month. By August, about 46,000 Thessaloniki Jews had been deported to Auschwitz and Birkenau.
The "final solution" was delayed for the other, smaller, Jewish settlements in Greece because these were within the Italian-occupied zones. The Italians had refused to participate in the Nazi measures. Italy's withdrawal from the Axis in September 1943 meant the beginning of
Jewish persecution all over the country, which now came under Nazi occupation. The Athens
Jews were ordered to register in October, but very few did so. Aided by EAM, Chief Rabbi
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Barzalai burned the registers and escaped to the mountains. Jewish property was promptly
confiscated in the capital.
In a series of raids in the spring of 1944, about 5,000 Jews were seized and deported in
Athens and the rest of the mainland. Relatively few Jews were rounded up in the Volos-
Trikala-Larissa area, where EAM-ELAS were powerful, but in the northwestern town of
Ioannina almost all of the small communities were deported. The same occurred with the small
communities on the islands of Rhodes, Corfu, and Crete. The 300 or so Jews on the island of
Zakinthos were allowed by the Austrian commander there to escape to Italy before the arrival of the Nazi SS.
The Holocaust would claim six million Jews, among them over 67,000 Greek Jews,
87% of the Jewish population of Greece, statistically the highest percentage of Jewish loss of any officially occupied country.60
60 Dr. Katerina Lagos, “The Holocaust in Greece.” The text is taken from the storyboard written for the “Resistance and Relief” exhibit by Dr. Lagos.
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Figure 31: The Holocaust in Greece
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Figure 32: Holocaust in Greece – statistics report
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Greek American Operational Group
In late 1942, the Joint Chiefs of Staff authorized the Office of Strategic Services to run
American commando units behind enemy lines. Shortly thereafter, the US Army assembled
small “Operational Groups,” mostly comprised of young men from ethnic communities in
America. Known as the 2671st Special Reconnaissance Battalion, these men were sent to
Europe and Asia in 1944 to fight with partisan groups.61
The 122nd Infantry Battalion, aka ‘Greek Battalion’, was founded not long after by an executive order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. He gave the group its name to mark one
hundred and twenty two years of Greek independence from Ottoman oppression and
occupation. Members of the 122nd were either native-born Greeks or sons of Greek immigrant
families. Their Battalion Commander was Major Peter D. Clainos, the first Greek-born
American to graduate from the West Point Academy. Major Clainos, was also a co-founder of
the Sons of Pericles, a fraternal organization for the promotion of Hellenic culture, traditions
and ideas. 62
From April to September 1944, 147 men went into Nazi occupied Greece to work with resistance fighters against occupying forces. A key objective was to impede and deter German withdrawal from Greece, as well as attack German troops and destroy their equipment. These young men eventually returned to the US, unaware of the enormous impact their mission had on events in Greece. For years, many of them remained silent about their time with the OSS,
61 Central Intelligence Agency, “The Office of Strategic Services: America’s First Intelligence Agency,” CIA Library (URL: www.cia.gov/library, March 2007) accessed March 13, 2010. 62 Hellenic American Veterans Memorial, The Valiant members of Co. C2671 Special Reconnaissance Battalion aka Greek/United States Operational Group (URL: www.havm.org/GAOG.htm), accessed March 13, 2010.
87 unable to even share the experiences with their families. The story of the Greek-American OGs remained classified for more than 40 years. 63
Figure 33: Red Cross Nurses
63 Embassy of Greece in Washington DC, Press & Communications Office, Greece, A News Review from the Embassy of Greece in Washington DC (URL: www.greekembassy.org) , accessed March 13, 2010)
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Figure 34: Medical needles belonging to Marietta Alexander
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Figure 35: Mousalimas uniform/medals
Figure 36: Philips photo album
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Figure 37: Greece is liberated
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Figure 38: President Truman, liberation, and Vlavianos
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APPENDIX B
Press Release
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE March 25, 2010 EXHIBIT HONORING GREECE AND GREEK AMERICANS OF THE WORLD WAR II ERA OPENS AT UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GALLERY, SACRAMENTO STATE UNIVERSITY
SACRAMENTO, CA – The Hellenic Studies Program and Tsakopoulos Hellenic Foundation have come together to present the exhibit “Resistance and Relief – Axis Occupied Greece, 1941-1944” at the University Library Gallery, Sacramento State University from April 6, 2010 through May 1, 2010. The exhibit is free to the general public and will celebrate its grand opening on April 9, 2010 with a hosted reception and presentation.
“We are really excited. The project stemmed from the Basil J. Vlavianos and National Herald collection which is housed at the University Library, Department of Special Collections and University Archives at California State University, Sacramento. When we decided on the topic of World War II, we wanted to acknowledge the Greek people who were in Greece and in the United States and honor them for their significant roles and heroism during the War. We have been overwhelmed by the generosity of people who are sharing their stories and personal mementos for this exhibit,” says Dr. Katerina Lagos, director of the Hellenic Studies Program at Sacramento State. “We could not believe our good fortune when Gregory Pappas of the Greek America Foundation offered part of his collection from the Defenders of Democracy exhibit to us as well.”
Dr. Lagos and a team of graduate students have been preparing for this exhibit for more than a year. The exhibit includes rare items like Gregory Pappas’s Greek War Relief Association poster and memorabilia collection; war medals from a Greek-American who served in the OSS Special Operational Groups; and a Greek woman’s blanket in which she wrapped her children as she fled her village – the hole in the blanket made by German artillery is still visible.
About the Axis occupation and famine in Greece:
In 1941, Axis powers invaded and occupied Greece. Despite famine (due in part to the 1940 sanctioned British blockade) and devastating brutality and destruction by Axis forces, the people of Greece resisted and never surrendered to the enemy. Reports of the events made newspaper headlines throughout the United States. Through the efforts of dedicated Greek American citizens, who joined together as the Greek War
93
Relief Association (GWRA), US government opinion was significantly affected. The GWRA also raised millions of dollars to send aid (foodstuffs, medicine and clothing) to the people of Greece.
The Resistance and Relief exhibit is open Tuesday through Saturday from 10:00 am to 5:00 pm.
# # # Contact: Despina Kreatsoulas [email protected] 916.505.6843
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APPENDIX C
Promotional Postcard and Poster
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