Thaipusam in Malaysia: a Hindu Festival in the Tamil Diaspora

Index

A annathanam, 248–49, 260 Adi Dravida castes anti-Brahman movement, 77 association, 109 Appadurai, Arjun, 37–38, 55n11 ban on Kopkamtib, 280 Arasaratnam, S., 8–9, 12n11, 88–89 caste boundaries and inter-caste Arulmigu Dhandayuthapani Temple, perceptions, 89–90 Palani definition of, 34–35 Brahman Thaipusam. See Brahman kangany recruitment, 87–88 Thaipusam, pada yatra Murugan temples, 141 caste deity of Chettiars, 93 Penang Mariamman temples healing traditions, 257 admission to, 89 Idumban, 267 Sangams, 88–89, 91 kavadi ritual, 256 in Thaipusam, 330 mythology, 299–300 Agamic Hinduism, 20, 26, 30, 36–37, Panguni Uttiram, 257 98 self-mortification, 257 Agamicization, in Malaysia, 115–19 Arul Mihu Navasakhti Vinayagar Agamic pantheon, 290 Temple, 277 Agamic temples, 91–93, 96 Aruncalan, M.V., 44 Agastya, 169 astrology, 308 Agnimukhan, 155 asuras, Murugan’s battle with, 334–36 ahamkara, 144 asuric inversion, 150 Akhiresa, 143 axis mundi, as pilgrimage sites, 290, alankara deepam, 200, 301 292, 297 aluga kavadi, 213, 238n82, 250 ayuta puja, 23 Kallar festival, 258 in Penang, 250 B amnesia and trance, 323–24 Babb, Lawrence, 198–99, 270, 309 Amos, Eva, 349n150 Banugopan, 155 anava, 51 Barber, Benjamin, 8 Anbe Sivam, 48 Barron, J.M., 89

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Batu Caves Thaipusam, 297–99 Vaishnavite imagery, 197 abishekam, 207 vel placement, 187 alankara deepam, 200 vibhuti, 225, 229, 235n49, 236n51 asrama, 190 Beardsworth, Timothy, 327 Cave Villa, 194–95, 198 Beck, Brenda, 339–41 chaulum, 207 Bhagavad Gita, 41 crowd maintenance, 202 bhakti movement, South India, 41–43 Dark Cave, 191 impact of, 42 devastanam management, 201, Nayanars, 43–45 233n25, 235n43 and transgressive sacrality, 43–47 foreign tourists, 28 bhuta, spirit worship, 99–101 funfair and retail stalls, 210 Biardeau, Madeleine, 258 Golden Vel, 207, 211 Bilainkin, George, 129n87 Hindu murthis and temples, 186–87, Blackburn, Robin, 67 193, 196 Bose, Subhas Chandra, 4 kaliyuga, 194 brahmadeyas, 26–27, 47 kavadi ritual. See kavadi ritual Brahman food, 283n32 kolattam, 203 Brahmanic Hinduism, 20, 27 kunratal, 234n31 Brahman Thaipusam, pada yatra limestone outcrop, 188, 190 appointment of Kavadi Master, lingam, 234n36 260–61 meelam performers, 203 arrival at Palani, 265–66 Muzium, 197–98 bhajan session, 263, 265–66, 283n34 nadaswaram and drums, 200, 236n54 on the day of Thaipusam, 266–67 navagraha planets, 192 devotees’ apparel, 268 pantarams, 206, 233n30 Ganapati homa ceremony, 260 puja and archanai, 207 kavadi designs, 261–62 sadhu, 233n28 Kavadi Muttirai Nirattal, 261 silver ratham, 201 pilgrimage party organization, Sree Ganesha Temple, 188 259–60 Sri Maha Mariamman Kovil pilgrims, continual arrival at Devastanam, 187–88 Palani, 267–68 Sri Subramanya Swami Kovil, 187 on road travel, Palakkad–Palani, Sungai Batu, 189 262–64 Temple Cave, 190–91, 193–94 spiritual discovery process, 269–70 temple management committee, British colonialism in Malaya, 3 209 British East India Company, 65 Thambusamy Pillai, K., 186–87 British orientalist scholarship, 65–66, thaneer panthals, 204–5 70–71 upayam, 237n62 British racial theory, 70 utsava murthis of Murugan, 189–90, Bryant, Edwin, 25, 56n45 235n44 Bumiputeras, 6

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C de Sales, Anne, 289 cakra, 335–36 dharmasastra (dharmic law), 22 Caldwell, Robert, 68–69 Dirks, Nicholas, 74, 85n110 Cave Villa, 194–95, 198 divination process, 307–12 Central Indian Association of Malaya, Divine Life Society, 112 4 Divine Reality, 153 Ceylonese Tamils, 3 Dravidianism, 107, 109–10. See also Champakalakshmi, R., 25, 47, 54n2, Adi Dravida caste 86–87 Chettiar community, 93–95 E Chettiar management of Penang Ellis, Francis Whyte, 68 Thaipusam Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 327 chariot halts for devotees, 247, 249 chariot journey from Kovil Veedu, F 247 fasting, 315–16 kavadi bearers, 246–47 Federation of Malaya Census Report, marriage ceremony, 249–50 3 mass feedings, 248–49 Fijian Hinduism musical arrangements, 247–48 firewalking ceremony, 275 pongal ceremony, 246 history of, 274–75 reception of official guests, 248, Thaipusam festival, 276 282n5 firewalking ceremony timiti( ), 270, 275 Chettiar temples, in Malaysia, 94 Flood, Gavin, 353n221 Chitrai Puruvum, 258 Fuller, C.J., 97 Chola dynasty, 26–27 Clothey, Fred W., 134, 135, 140 G coconut shattering, 253–54, 283n11 Govindaraj, Datuk S., 114–15 Collins, Elizabeth Fuller, 203, 237n61, gramadevata, 99 241n108, 242n115, 350n161 guardian deities, 99 colonialism/colonial knowledge Gupta era, 25 British orientalist scholarship, Guru-Guhan, 154 65–66 mosaic ethnology, 66–69 H Social Darwinism. See Social HAB. See Hindu Advisory Board Darwinism (HAB) communal trance, 320 Hartsuiker, Dolf, 292 headwriting (talai elluttu), 303–5 D HEB. See Hindu Endowment Board Daniel, E. Valentine, 303–4, 306, 310 (HEB) Dark Cave, 191 Hiltebeital, Alf, 47 de Gobineau, Arthur, 69 Hindraf. See Hindu Rights Action demon devotee, 329–31 Force (Hindraf)

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Hindu Advisory Board (HAB), 272 kavadi ritual, 167–71 Hindu Dravidian India, 19 aluga kavadi, 213, 225, 238n82 Hindu Endowment Board (HEB), 108, arati, 222–23 272 arrangements, 224, 230 Hindu mediums, 308 Arulmigu Dhandayuthapani Hindu pilgrimage sites, features of, Temple, Palani, 256–57 297 bhajans, 223 Hindu Rights Action Force (Hindraf), bongo drums, 227 5, 10–11, 120–23 Chitrai Puruvum at Tiruchendur, Hiranyan, 155 258 Hodgson, Brian Houghton, 68 Christian colonial writers on, homa fire, 260, 282n4 257–58 Idumban puja, 230–31 I kalasha kavadi, 240n93 iccha sakti, 166 for Kali/Durga, 215 Idumban puja, 230–31, 338–39 Kallar festival, 258 independent assisted workers, 2–3 karumbu kavadi, 214 Indonesian Hinduism, 279–81 kavadi-c-cindu, 226 inspiration trance, 320 kavadi dance, 226–27 maccha kavadi, 239n93 J mayil kavadi, 239n93 Jaffna Tamil temples, 95–97 Muneeswaran/Muniandy jajmani system, 23, 302 devotees, 215 Jalan Batu Caves, 228 Nagercoil Murugan temple, 259 James, William, 323 paal kavadi, 212–13, 238n82 jati (caste), 31, 34 pallava kavadi, 240n93 Jeyakumar, D., 10, 12n22 pannir kavadi, 239n93 Johnstone, Charles, 83n49 pantarams, 229 Jones, William, 66–68 pujari (spiritual leader), 219–21 Puranic mythology, 212, 223 K puspha kavadi, 214 Kalagam in Singapore, 271 rudraksha seeds, 218 kalasha kavadi, 240n93 sandhana kavadi, 240n93 kalavu, 166 spontaneous trance states, 223 Kallar festival, 258 Temple Cave, 228–29 Kampong Medan incident (2001), 9 trance training, 219, 221–22, 226 Kanthashasti, 148 tulasi/sandalwood seeds, 218–19 karmam, 51, 205, 217, 306–7, 310, 312 Vaikasi Visakam at karumbu kavadi, 214 Tirupparankunram, 257 Kataragama temple, 273 vel kavadi, 213–14, 217, 224–25 kavadi-c-cindu, 226 worship of Murugan, 224, 299–300 Kavadi Muttirai Nirattal, 261 Kerling incident, 119–20

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Kirsch, Jonathan, 133n158 guardian deities, 99 Knipe, David, 45 Hindraf, 120–23 Knox, R.A., 317 Hindu reform movements, 107–8 Krttika maidens, 146 Kerling incident, 119–20 ksatriyas, 30–31 Malaysian Hindu Sangam, 114–15 Kulandai Veylayudaswami Temple, non-Agamic temples, 101 266 overview of, 86–87 kulavarna tantra, 331 plantation temples, 102–3 kundalini, 335 popular Hinduism, 97 kunratal, 172 Ramakrishna Mission, 111 kurukkals, 39 ritual specialists, 104–5 sabhas and sangams, 108 L Sanskritization/Agamicization in, Lewis, I.M., 317–18 115–19 Lim Teck Ghee, 132n146 Satthya Sai Baba, 112–13 lunar cycle, 174 Shiva Family, 112 Lyall, Charles, 82n35 spirit worship, 99–101 Tamil Reform Association, 113–14 M Temple of Fine Arts, 112 maccha kavadi, 239n93 Thaipongal festival, 106–7 macrocosm, 154 Thaipusam festival, 105–7 Mahadevas, 142 tutelary deities, 99 mahapralaya, 164 urban temples, 103 Mahathir Mohamad, 8 village deities, 97–99 Mahavani festival, 23 wayside shrines/temples, 103–4 Making of New World Slavery, The Malaysian Hindu Sangam, 114–15, (Blackburn), 67 216 Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), Malaysian Indians 5 Hindu Rights Action Force, 10–11 Malayan Indian Congress, 5, 9 independent assisted workers, 2–3 Malay ethnicity, 7 kangany recruitment in, 2 Malay political paramountcy, 6 labour in, 1–2 Malaysian Hinduism non-assisted workers, 2–3 Adi Dravida castes. See Adi Dravida plantation culture, 8–10 castes population, 5 Agamic temples, 91–93 race and religion, 5–8 Ceylonese “Jaffna” Tamils, 95–97 Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), Chettiars, 93–95 209 Deepavali festival, 106–7 Malaysian pilgrimage site, Batu Divine Life Society, 112 Caves, 297–99 Dravidianism, 109–10 Manu Dharma Sastra, 66–68 evangelical challenge, 123–24 Marimuthu Pillai, 280, 287n103

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mass feedings. See annathanam ritual chronometry, 173–75 matal hobbyhorse, 166 sacred geography, 171–73 mattyanam, 174 Sanskritic Skanda, 136–38 Mauritian Thaipusam, 278–79 Skanda-Murugan, 139–41 Mauryan era, 24 Muthukumarasamy, M.D., 324–25 maya (illusion), 51 Muzium, 197–98 mayil kavadi, 239n93 MCA. See Malayan Chinese N Association (MCA) nadis (web of nerves), 154 Medan, Indonesia Nagercoil Murugan temple, 259 Kopkamtib ban, 280 Najib Abdul Razak, 11, 121–22, 191, Marimuthu Pillai, 280 209 temple construction in, 279 nakasastra pucam, 174 meelam, traditional instruments, 39 Nattukottai Chettiar community, 246 Merdeka (1957), 3, 5, 208 Navaratri festival, 23 Metcalf, Thomas, 80 Nayanars, 41, 43–45 MIC. See Malaysian Indian Congress Neo-Hinduism, 75, 107 (MIC) Neo-Shaivism, 77–79, 107 Michell, George, 148 New Economic Policy (NEP), 6 microcosm, 154 non-Agamic temples, 40, 101 Miller, Cynthia J., 127n31 non-assisted workers, 2–3 Mill, James, 68 moksha, attainment of, 44, 294 O Moronis, Alan, 291–92 Obeyeskere, Gannanath, 128n53, 329 mosaic ethnology, 66–69 O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger, 347n80 Mother Goddess, 98 O’Malley, L.S.S., 256–57 Mukundan, K.A., 89 On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 69 muladhara cakra, 170–71, 335 otuvars, 48 Muller, Max, 68 Muneeswaran temples, 117–18 P murthi, 39–40 paal kavadi, 213 Murugan–Devayanai–Valli triad, 334 pada yatra. See Brahman Thaipusam, Murugan, Tamil deity pada yatra battle with asuras, 334–36 Palaiyakkarars, 29 cosmic history, 134–36, 332–33 Palani temple. See Arulmigu cultus, 173–75 Dhandayuthapani Temple, Palani implications of marriages, 162–67 Pallava dynasty, 26–27, 41 kavadi ritual, 167–71 pallava kavadi, 240n93 marriage to Valli, 158–62 Pallava rule, 26 Northern–Southern fusion, 138–39 Panguni Uttiram, 257, 270, 282n7 Puranic mythology. See Puranic pannir kavadi, 239n93 mythology pantarams, 105

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Parasivam, 164 Veerabahu, 146 paricanankal, 36 Yoga-Sakti, 153 Paripatal, 138 Purusa Sakta, 30 Parmer, J. Norman, 12n9 puspha kavadi, 214 Pasupati, 50 Pati–pacu–paca, 49–53 Q pattars, 39 qualities, human (kunams), 305–6, 313 Penang Thaipusam Chettiar management of, 246–50 R coconuts as vow fulfilment, 253–54, rajadharma system, 28 283n11 Raja Rajesvariyamman Temple, 116 non-Chettiar kavadi worship, 250–53 rajas (passion), 313–14, 316 thaneer panthals, construction of, Ramachandran, C.P., 12n1 254–55 Ramakrishna Mission, 111 Periyanayaki Amman temple, 267–68 Ramanathan Kalimuthu, 91, 95 Periya Purunam, 41, 48 Ramasami, E.V., 79 pey, spirit worship, 99–101 Ramayana Gallery, 198 phase of separation of ritual, 289 Ratnam, K.J., 12n19 piratakkalam, 174 Ravindra K. Jain, 126n10 plantation-oriented culture, 8–10 Reptiles Galore, 198 plantation temples, 102–3, 121 reincorporative phase of ritual, 289 popular Hinduism, 97 rishi Agastya, 48 Portuguese Catholicism, 97 Risley, H.H., 73 possession trance, 320 rita dharma, 149 post-war reform movements, 4 ritual, phases of, 289 Pravana Aum, 146 rites of separation, 303–7 pretas, spirit worship, 99–101 Rouget, Gilbert, 317, 320–21, 323–24 Pugh, Judy, 308 rural–urban migration, 9 Puranic mythology, 24–25, 212, 234n33 advidya, 152 S asuras, 141–42, 145, 149 sacred chronometry, 173–75 cakras, 155 sacred geography, 171–73 devas, 145, 154 sadhaka’s level of spiritual Guru-Guhan, 154 development, 269–70 Kashyapar and rishi, 143–44 sahasrara cakra, 171 Krownchan, 147 Saiva Agamas, 48 maram, 156 Saiva Siddhanta mayai, 143 Agamas, 48 Pravana Aum, 151 definition of, 47 Siva’s wedding to Uma, 142–43 mathas, 49 Skanda Shasti, 148 Pati, Pacu, Paca, 49–53 tapas, 144 philosophy, 20, 49–54, 163

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Saiva Siddhanta Church, 112 South African Hinduism, 274 Saiva–Vaishnava traditions, 32 South Indian dynastic polity, 21 Sakti, 50 South Indian Hinduism sanctum sanctorum, 38, 187, 193 Agamic/Sanskritic religion of, 20 sandhana kavadi, 240n93 bhakti movement of. See bhakti Sandhu, K.S., 2 movement, South India sangam, 24–30 caste in, 30–35 sannyasin, 293, 311 development of, 20 Sanskritic Skanda, 136–38 non-Agamic and popular temples, Sanskritization, in Malaysia, 115–19 40 Sastras, 37 Saiva Siddhanta, 47–53 Satthya Sai Baba, 112–13 sangam and dynastic Hinduism, sattva (lightness), 313–14, 316–17 24–30 self-mortification, 257 state and kingship, 21–24 Seychelles Thaipusam, 276–77 temples and kingship in, 35–40 Shiva Family, 112 transgressive sacrality and. See silapasastra, 37 transgressive sacrality Singapore Hindu Association, 114 South Indian kingship, 21–24, Singapore Thaipusam, 270–72 300–303 Sinha, Vineeta, 291 South Indian labour, 2 Sivajnanabodham, 49 South Indian Reform Movements Skanda-Karttikeya, 136–38 anti-Brahman movement, 77 Skanda-Murugan, 139–41 colonial ideologies, 76, 79 Skanda Purana, 140 Neo-Shaivism, 77–79 Smartha Brahman community, 262 spiritual discovery process, 269–70 Social Darwinism Sree Ganesha Temple, 188 archeological and geological Sri Lanka discoveries, 69 Asala festival, 272–73 British orientalist scholarship, kavadi ritual at Kataragama 70–71 temple, 273–74 British racial theory, 70 Sri Maha Mariamman Devastanam, caste categories, 72–73 187–88, 216 Indian bioracial taxonomy, 71 Sri Paranjothy Vinayagar temple, 206 Lemuria, 71 Sri Subramanya Swami Kovil, 187 On the Origin of Species (Darwin), Sri Thandayuthapani Kovil, 206 69 Stein, Burton, 19, 28, 54n1 of racial theories, 6, 8 sudras, 30 religious traditions, 73–76 Sungai Batu, 189 solar cycle, 174 Surapadman, 143 Somaskanda, 26 susumna nadi, 335 Sontheimer, Gunther, 30 Swamimalai temple, 172

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T Tirumantiram, 48, 50 Tai Pongal, 282n3 Tirumular’s aphorism, 48 tamas (darkness), 313–14, 316, 332 Tirumurukarruppatai (TMP), 138 Tamil chronometry, 173 Tirupparankunram temple, 173, 257 Tamil colours in Thaipusam, 339–41 Tiruttani Murugan temple, 173 Tamil Hinduism. See South Indian Tiruttontar Purana, 48 Hinduism TMP. See Tirumurukarruppatai (TMP) Tamil Reform Association (TRA), Tower of Babel, 81n17 109–10, 113–14, 271 TRA. See Tamil Reform Association Tanah Melayu, 122 (TRA) Temple Cave, 190–91, 193–94, 336–38 TRAC. See Tradition, Religion, Temple of Fine Arts (TFA), 112 Aspiration and Culture (TRAC) tempocosm, 307 traditional society, caste system in, 35 Tenaga Nasional, 204 Tradition, Religion, Aspiration and Tevaram, 41 Culture (TRAC), 113 TFA. See Temple of Fine Arts (TFA) trance state Thambusamy Pillai, K., 186–87, Agamic gods, 325–26 232n13, 297 amnesia and, 323–24 thaneer panthals, in Penang arul, 324–25 Thaipusam, 254–55 attainment of, 331–33 Tharpar, Romila, 75 bhakti, 326 Thondar Padai, 4 definition of, 317 tirtha yatra demon devotee, 329–31 ascetic practices, 293–94 individual impact, 322–23 attainment of moksha, 294 induction of, 320–22, 326–28 axis mundi, 290, 292, 297 key themes in, 318–19 boons of deities, 294–95 Rouget’s classification, 320 deity’s history, association with, training, 328 291–92 trance training, 219, 221–22 fulfilment of vow, 294–95 transformative phase of ritual, 289 geographical features, 292–93 transgressive sacrality imbued leavings, 296 concept of, 45 local divine worship vs., 290 Nayanars and, 43–45 mutual transfer, deity and devotee, and popular Hinduism, 45–47 296 Turner, Victor, 289 ragas, 313 tutelary deities, 99 sannyasa/renunciation, 293 trance as. See trance state U Tiruchendur Murugan temple, 173 United Malays National Organisation tirukkalam, 173 (UMNO), 4–7 Tirumai, 41 urban temples, 103

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Ussher, James, 81n13 Vinayakar Agaval, 234n35 utsava murthis, Murugan, 189–90, 200, virabhadras, 45–46 235n44 vow fulfilment, 309–10 coconut smashing, 253–54, 283n11 V fasting, 315–16 Vaikasi Visakam, 257 vaisyas, 30 W valangai/idangai divisions, 33 Ward, Colleen, 324 van Gennep, Arnold (ritual phases Washbrook, David, 76 conception), 289 wayside shrines/temples, 103–4 varna dharma, 168 Whitehead, Henry, 256–57 varna system, 30–31 Wilson, C., 89 vastu purusa mandala, 37 womb chamber, 38 vel kavadi, 213–14, 217, 224–25 Vellalar caste, 31, 33, 49 Y veriyattal, 162 Yoga Sakti, 154 vidya, 312–13 Vijayadisami festival, 23–24 Z Vijayanagara dynasty, 28–29 Zaehner, R.C., 53 village deities, 97–99 Zvelebil, Kamil, 148

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