Popular participation in public events and ceremonies in Cardiff in the twenty-first century Doctor of Philosophy 2018 William Roberts The study investigates present-day public events and ceremonies in Cardiff, and how they reflect, illustrate or employ traditional forms of communal activity. It employs the theoretical and empirical approaches of folkloristics, which deals with the identification, documentation and analysis of traditional material and expressive forms. Unusually, the study considers activities of popular origin and habitual practices of institutional origin on the same basis. It is framed largely by practice theory both generally and as applied within folkloristics, but with appropriate recognition given to the significance of performance theory. The topic is addressed through the observation of a range of activities and their associated forms of public engagement. The study was limited to activities taking place outdoors in daylight within the city centre and Cardiff Bay, with most fieldwork between 2010 and 2013. Three themes are addressed: socialising, protesting and remembering. A few activities are largely unorganised, but the majority are organised by public authorities and/or commercial bodies or by members of the public acting together. Many events have been launched in the past decade, and have become established within a recognisable cultural calendar, albeit the concept of a present-day ‘ritual year’ cannot be justified. As the capital city of Wales, certain institutional activities associated with the state, i.e. United Kingdom, are enacted. In contrast, there are few formal celebrations of Cardiff or Wales as such. Informal expressions tend to illustrate the cultural norms of the mainly English-speaking south-east, but the increasing presence of Welsh-speakers is becoming more noticeable, although there are few regular events centred on the language. DECLARATION This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed ………………………………………(candidate) Date………………… STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD. Signed ………………………………………(candidate) Date………………… STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated, and the thesis has not been edited by a third party beyond what is permitted by Cardiff University’s Policy on the Use of Third Party Editors by Research Degree Students. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. The views expressed are my own. Signed ………………………………………(candidate) Date………………… STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available online in the University’s Open Access repository and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ………………………………………(candidate) Date………………… STATEMENT 4: PREVIOUSLY APPROVED BAR ON ACCESS I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available online in the University’s Open Access repository and for inter-library loans after expiry of a bar on access previously approved by the Academic Standards & Quality Committee. Signed ………………………………………(candidate) Date………………… Acknowledgments As supervisors for the research, Professor Colin Williams (2010-2015), Dr Siwan Rosser (2015-2018), and Dr Juliette Wood (2010-2018) provided invaluable support. The insights drawing on their varying academic expertise and interests were particularly relevant to a research topic which touched on a wide range of issues. Having begun formal study of the discipline at Cardiff University Centre for Lifelong Learning in 2005, I also recognise the influence on my approach to Dr Wood, Dr Lisa Tallis and Dr Ian Spring. My thanks also go to many others at Cardiff University, including the academic and administrative staff of the School of Welsh, and staff at various libraries. Fellow- researchers, in the School of Welsh and elsewhere, provided unknowing inspiration. Mr Alan Herbert, Riverside Community Centre, Cardiff, provided useful advice on newer communities in Cardiff, and their public engagement. Many of those involved in ceremonies and events provided valuable information on aspects of their activities which were not immediately obvious. This was often unsolicited, and many showed surprising interest in what I was doing. The few who were antagonistic presented a reminder that the fieldworker’s concerns are not necessarily shared by others. My most heartfelt thanks are to Mrs Elizabeth Roberts, for constant support, throughout the whole process. Contents Summary i Declaration iii Acknowledgments v Chapter 1 - Overview of the research 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Aim and objectives 3 1.3 Structure of the thesis 3 1.4 Methodology 4 1.5 Background research 4 1.6 Fieldwork 5 1.7 Analysis and interpretation 9 Chapter 2 - Public events and ceremonies in context 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Historical overview 15 2.3 Summary 20 Chapter 3 - Theoretical issues 3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 Earlier approaches within folkloristics 21 3.3 Concepts of folklore and tradition 24 3.4 Performance theory 25 3.5 Practice theory 28 3.6 Theoretical approaches to ceremonies and events 34 3.7 Authenticity 37 3.8 Identity 41 3.9 The study of folklore in Wales 45 3.10 Subsequent analysis 47 Chapter 4 – Socialising 4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Crowds for major events 49 4.3 Parades 56 4.4 Markets and fairs 65 4.5 Analysis of socialising events 71 4.6 Issues particular to Wales and/or Cardiff 87 4.7 Summary 89 Chapter 5 - Protesting 5.1 Introduction 91 5.2 Trade union demonstrations 93 5.3 Other demonstrations 97 5.4 Analysis of demonstrations 108 5.5 Issues particular to Wales and/or Cardiff 122 5.6 Summary 124 Chapter 6 - Remembering 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 Remembrance 126 6.3 Recognition 139 6.4 Analysis of civil-military events 145 6.5 Commemoration 156 6.6 Public grief 158 6.7 Analysis of temporary memorials 160 6.8 Issues particular to Wales and/or Cardiff 166 6.9 Summary 166 Chapter 7 – Conclusions 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Objective 1 170 7.3 Objective 2 172 7.4 Objective 3 178 7.5 Objective 4 202 7.6 Summary 208 Bibliography 213 Appendix 1 - Timeline of events 231 Appendix 2 - Comparative table of genres 257 Appendix 3 – Illustrations 263 Chapter 1 – Overview of the research ‘…the rhythms of the British year are timeless, and impose certain perpetual patterns upon calendar customs: a yearning for light, greenery, warmth and joy in mid-winter, a propensity to celebrate the spring with symbols of rebirth, and impulse to make merry in the sunlight and open air during the summer, and a tendency for thought to turn towards death and the uncanny at the onset of winter’ (Hutton, 2001, 426). ‘Definitions of folklore are as many and varied as the versions of a well-known tale’ (Ben-Amos 1972, 3). ‘The pragmatics of demography, economy and politics…are never divorced from the intimate world of folklore and tradition, but are too rarely explored’ (Brewer, 1994, 6-7). 1.1 Introduction This study considers present-day popular engagement with public events and ceremonies in Cardiff. In common with other British cities, Cardiff has undergone major infrastructure developments since the mid-1990s, including the development of new sports stadiums, performance venues, retail centres and traffic-free outdoor spaces. However, while the underlying economic intention is similar to elsewhere, the political context is unique, the enactment of many public activities being informed by Cardiff’s being the capital city of Wales (since 1955) and seat of the National Assembly for Wales (1999). People have always engaged with public events and ceremonies, many of which celebrate the time of year, or are associated with dates or periods of communal significance; other activities are influenced by social, economic and political imperatives and concerns. Some have longstanding precedents in urban settings, e.g. regular markets and fairs, and less regular public protests; others are more recent, e.g. certain civil-military ceremonies and organised sports. The majority can be considered as being or employing traditional 1 forms, including most recent introductions which have become well enough established to be considered as new traditions. The common understandings of ‘tradition’ and ‘traditional’ are employed here by necessity, but as with the many and varied definitions, folkloristic interpretation can be significantly different, a point considered later, and which informs the study throughout. While few of the activities introduced in the past two decades have direct antecedents, they all have recognisable precedents, and in general, it is often the longevity and endurance of the basic form of event or ceremony which is significant. They are an aspect of a civil society, which provides the context for free, public engagement with cultural and political organisations, and both partnership with, and opposition to public authority at all levels (Day et al. 2000, 26-27). The number and range of activities illustrate this point, and the substantial participation, in many cases, negates the common presumption that people are now more concerned with personal rather than collective relationships and calendars. Within this study, the term ‘popular participation’ is employed to encompass any recognisable level of involvement. Given the foregoing, the topic is considered both intrinsically interesting and to have academic relevance. It is addressed through the discipline of folkloristics, which is concerned with ‘the identification, documentation, characterization, and analysis of traditional expressive forms…[and]…processes’ (Georges and Jones, 1995, 1), and which is underpinned by the recognition that folklore is a ‘describable and transmissible entity’ (Georges and Jones 1995, 93). The centrality of popular participation is evident in Santino’s definition of folklore as ‘the intersection of the personal and the public, informing personal expression by means of public, conventional, and traditional forms’ (2004, 372).