Continuity, Transition, and Change

Colonial Medicine in Post-Colonial Times: Continuity, Transition, and Change

First Joint Meeting of the Asian Society of the History of Medicine and History of Medicine in Southeast Asia Indonesian Academy of Science National Library of Indonesia Building Jakarta

27 – 30 June 2018

Apart from the opening session on Wednesday morning, the conference will be held at the 17th floor of the National Library of Indonesia building, at the headquarters of the Indonesian Academy of Sciences (AIPI). Sessions will be held in the following rooms:

Room 1: Soesilo Room R. Soesilo was a leading Indonesian malariologist. He studied medicine at the Batavia Medical College (STOVIA) and the University of Amsterdam. He was the brother of dermatologist and politician R. Soetomo. He was executed by the Japanese in 1943.

Room 2: Achmad Mochtar room Achmad Mochtar was the most prolific Indonesian medical scientist. After studying in the Netherlands, he worked at the Batavia Bacteriological Institute (which was nicknamed the Eijkman Institute). During the Japanese occupation, he became its director. He was executed by the Japanese in 1945 for his alleged involvement in producing tainted vaccines that killed up to 1,000 indentured labourers.

Room 3: Marie Thomas room Marie Thomas was the first woman to graduate from the Batavia Medical College (STOVIA). She was from the predominatly Christian area of Minahasa, the North-easternmost tip of Sulawesi. She continued to practice medicine after marrying. After Indonesia’s independence was recognised, the continued to practice in Sulawesi.

The conference organisers wish to express their gratitude to the Indonesian Academy of Sciences (AIPI), the National Library of Indonesia (PNRI), the University of Sydney, and the Netherlands Society of Tropical Medicine for their generous contributions to this conference.

Wednesday, 27 June 2018 09.00 – 9.30 Welcome Auditorium, National Library of Indonesia, 2nd floor Sangkot Marzuki, President of the Indonesian Academy of Sciences (AIPI) Wen-Ji Wang, Asian Society of the History of Medicine Hans Pols, History of Medicine in Southeast Asia

9.30 – 10.15 Plenary Address Auditorium, National Library of Indonesia, 2nd floor Chair: Hans Pols Probing the Turbulent Transition of 1940-1955: From Eijkman Instituut to Lembaga Eijkman Sangkot Marzuki, President Indonesian Academy of Sciences (AIPI)

10.15 – 10.30 Break

10.30 – 12.15 Plenary Session 1 The Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies (1852-1942): Historical Perspectives Auditorium, National Library of Indonesia, 2nd floor Chair: Sangkot Marzuki, AIPI

The Malaria Expedition of Dr. Robert Koch through Java in 1899 Jan-Peter Verhave, Netherlands Society of Tropical Medicine

Infants, Toddlers and Children in the Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies Anjo Veerman, VU University, Amsterdam

Perspectives on Mental Illness during the Dutch Colonial Era Hans Pols, University of Sydney

Indonesian and Chinese authors in the Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies Liesbeth Hesselink, Independent Scholar

12.15 – 12.30 Book Launch and Presentation of the Taniguchi medal Auditorium, National Library of Indonesia, 2nd floor

Launching of the books: The Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies (1852-1942: A Platform for Medical Research (Jakarta: AIPI, 2017). and Jurnal Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 1852- 1942: Mimbar Penelitian Kedokteran di Hindia Belanda (Jakarta: AIPI, 2018). Launched by Sangkot Marzuki, President AIPI

Presentation of the Taniguchi Medal of the Asian Society of the History of Medicine Wen-Ji Wang, National Yang-Ming University

12.30 – 13.30 Lunch AIPI, 17th floor, National Library of Indonesia Building

13.30 – 15.30 Parallel Sessions A1 and A2 Parallel Session A1: The Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies: Historical Perspectives Soesilo Room Chair: Jan Peter Verhave, Netherlands Society of Tropical Medicine

Eclampsia: An Inquiry into its Origin and Treatment Antoine Keijser, Radboud University Nijmegen

Medical Administration: How Colonial Medical Services Were Organised Geert van Etten, Global Health Advisor

Hospitals Before and After Independence: Continuity, Transition, and Change Sjoerd Zondervan, Independent Scholar

Parallel Session A2: Histories of the Malaria War: Exploring Malaria around the Japanese Occupation of Indonesia and Malaysia Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Hans Pols, University of Sydney

Malay, then Indonesian: Exploring Texts about Malaria before and after the Japanese Occupation James Collins, Kebangsaan Malaysia University

Prevention of Terminal Tropical Illness: Japanese Medical Studies for the War Mayumi Yamamoto, Miyagi University

“The Japanese ... Had Little or no Knowledge of the Disease”: Malaria as the Site of Colonial Knowledge Claims Sandra Manickam, Erasmus University

‘Kehidoepan Njamoek Malaria’ and ‘Obat-Obatan Asli’: Wartime Public Health Efforts seen through Indonesian Print Materials on Java William Bradley Horton, Akita University

15.30 – 16.00 Break

16.00 - 17.30 Parallel Sessions B1 – B2 Parallel session B1: The Future of Medical Research and Medical Care in Asia Soesilo Room Chair: Harry Wu, University of Hong Kong

Direct-to-Consumer Markets for Stem Cells: A Comparative Analysis of Australia, Japan and Singapore Tamra Lysaght, National University of Singapore

Emerging Gene Technologies and their Legalities in Southeast Asia: A Postcolonial Exploration Sonja van Wichelen, University of Sydney

Parallel Session B2: Reshaping Medicine and Nursing after World War II in Taiwan Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Hsiu-yun Wang, National Cheng Kung University

Competing for the State: The Medical Market, the Profession and the Taiwan Medical Association in Early Post-war Taiwan Hung Bin Hsu, National Cheng Kung University

Chow Meiyu and Military Nursing Training in Taiwan, 1950s-1970s Shu-Ching Chang, Chang Gung University, Taiwan

A History of Radioactive Iodine Treatment for Hyperthyroidism in Taiwan Hsiu-yun Wang, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan

18.00 Dinner – at AIPI

Thursday, 28 June 2018 All sessions will take place at AIPI, 17th floor, National Library of Indonesia Building

9.00 – 10.00 Plenary Session 2 Ethics and Medicine Soesilo Room Chair: Warwick Anderson, University of Sydney

Dynamic Cultural Ethics in Treating Human Remains: Intersections of Beliefs, Sciences and Human Values on Re-study, Disposition, Repatriation and Reburial Claudia Surjadjaja, ALERTAsia Foundation

Disenfranchised Exit: Transformation of End-of-Life Care from Moral Economy to Modern Medicine in Hong Kong and Singapore Harry Wu, University of Hong Kong

10.00 – 10.30 Break

10.30 – 12.30 Parallel sessions C1 – C2 Parallel Session C1: Medicine in Colonial Times Soesilo Room Chair: Ravando, University of Melbourne

Filipino Physicians in Spanish Colonial Philippines: The Relation to Imperial Medicine with a Focus on Late 19th Century’s Manila Yoshishiro Chiba, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido

The Changes of the Responses to Epidemics in the Philippines During the Era of American Domination Chenyang Wang, Peking University

Plague and its Handling in the Residence of Surakarta in 1915-1922 Wasino, Semarang State University

Medical Recipe Books in the Dutch East Indies, 1875-1940

Liesbeth Hesselink, Independent Scholar

Parallel session C2: Indonesia’s 1965 Tragedy: Towards a Redefinition of History? Marie Thomas Room Chair: Tyas Suci, Atma Jaya Catholic Univ of Indonesia, Jakarta

Breaking the Silence: Cultural and Religious Pathways of Surviving the Stigma of Indonesia’s 1965 Political Upheaval Ninik Supartini, Elemental Productions, Los Angeles Mahar Agusno, Gadjah Mada University

Silencing the Truth: How Society Confronts the 1965 Tragedy Nani I.R. Nurrachman-Sutoyo, Atma Jaya Catholic Univ of Indonesia, Jakarta

Performing Songs and Staging Theatre Performances as a Way of Working through the Trauma of the 1965 Indonesian Mass Killings Dyah Pitaloka, University of Sydney

12.30 – 13.30 Lunch

13.30 – 15.30 Parallel sessions D1 – D3 Parallel session D1: Modern Cities and Urban Sanitation in Asia Soesilo Room Chair: Bok Kyu Yum, University of Seoul

Changes in the Treatment of Excrement in Korea, 1880-1930s Yunjae Park, Kyung Hee University

Urban Sanitation and Plague Prevention in Modern Shanghai: Focusing on Smallpox Vaccine Jeongeun Jo, Kyung Hee Univesity

The Control of Venereal Diseases in Colonial Delhi and Urban Hygiene Woonok Yeom, Korea Univesity

Parallel Session D2: Insanity, Mental Illness, and Psychiatry, I Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Byron Good, Harvard University

Individuals? Asylum Care in the Netherlands Indies, 1910-1940 Sebastiaan Broere, University of Amsterdam

The Insulin Myth in Chinese Psychiatry: A Study on Insulin Coma Therapy in China Xiaoyang Gu, Capital Medical University, China

Neurasthenia, Psy Sciences, and the Great Leap Forward Wen-Ji Wang, National Yang-Ming University

Media Reports on Suicide in Indonesia (1952-1953) Benny Prawira, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia

Parallel Session D3: Medicine, Power, Trade, and Decolonisation Marie Thomas Room Chair: Anjo Veerman, VU University

The Japanese Medicine Business in the Netherlands East Indies Meta Sekar Puji Astuti, Hasanuddin University

Power Relations and Public Health Knowledge in Bali I Nyoman Wijaya, I Nyoman Sukiada & Anak Agung Ayu Dewi Girindrawardani, Udayana University

Health Equity and Community Empowerment in Indonesia: An example of a Colonial Inheritance in Health Rodri Tanoto, University of Indonesia

The History of Health Care Philanthropy in Indonesia Laksono Trisnantoro, Gadjah Mada University

15.30 – 16.00 Break

16.00 – 17.30 Parallel Sessions E1 – E3 Parallel Session E1: Medicine and Diversity in Modern Japan Soesilo Room Chair: William Bradley Horton, Akita University

The History of Modernization of Psychiatry on Japan’s Peripheries: Taiwan and Okinawa Akira Hashimoto, Aichi Prefectural University

Public Baths and the Concept of Cleanliness in Modern Japan Miki Kawabata, Ritsumeikan University

The Role of Shinto in the History of Psychiatry in Japan Iyo Kaneda, Kyoto University

Parallel Session E2: Insanity, Mental Illness, and Psychiatry, II Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Wen-Ji Wang, National Yang-Ming University

The Problem of Mental Health in Plantungan Amurwani Dwi Lestariningsih, Presidential Museum Balai Kirti

Should the Study of Koro be Repatriated to Indonesia? David Peter Mitchell, Monash University

General Discussion

Parallel Session E3: The History of Psychology in Indonesia Mochtar Room Chair: Nani I.R. Nurrachman-Sutoyo, Atma Jaya Catholic Univ of Indonesia, Jakarta

The Development of Psychology in Post-Colonial Indonesia, 1950-1959 Iwan Wahyu Widayat, Airlangga University

The Historical Transition toward the Emergence of Psychology in Indonesia Eunike Sri Tyas Suci, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta

The Quest for Postcolonial Self: Inter-referencing, Manusia Indonesia, and Psikologi Jawa Fadjar I. Thufail, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)

18.30 Conference Dinner

Friday, 29 June 2018

09.00 – 10.00 Plenary Session 3 Leprosy in Indonesia Soesilo Room Chair: Por Heong Hong, University of Malaya

Ragapadmi and the Failed Health Propaganda on Leprosy in the Dutch East Indies Dimas Iqbal Romadhon, Universitas Islam Raden Rahmat

Winning the Losers: The Life of the Patients in the World of Indonesian Health Moordiati, Gajdah Mada University

10.00 – 10.30 Break

10.30 – 12.30 Parallel Sessions F1 – F2 Parallel Session F1: Traditional Medicine in Transition Soesilo Room Chair: C. Michele Thompson

Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (1954-1975): The Decolonization Process and The Cold War Nara Oda, Kyoto University

The Herb Pharmaceutical Industry in South Korea Eunjeong Ma, Pohang University of Science and Technology

Indian Medicine (Ayurveda) in Malaysia: Globalized Commodification after Decolonization Md. Nazrul Islam, United International College, Beijing Normal University-Hong Kong Baptist University

Parallel Session F2: Medical Research and Medical Education in Transition Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Gani Ahmad Jaelani, Padjadjaran University

Apotheker Assistenten School (1920 - 1934): The First School of Pharmaceutical Agents in Java Fathia Lestari, Independent Scholar

Transitions and Training: The Problem of Biomedical Staffing During South Sulawesi’s Post-Independence Period, 1950-1959 Jennifer Nourse, University of Richmond

Developing ‘Centres of Excellence’: The Indian Cancer Research Centre, 1950- 1962 Shirish N. Kavadi, Symbiosis International University, Pune

12.30 – 13.30 Lunch

13.30 – 15.30 Parallel Sessions G1 – G3 Parallel Session G1: Interregional Contact and Collaboration Soesilo Room Chair: Sonja van Wichelen, University of Sydney

Life, Science and Nation: Uramoto Masasaburō’s Physiological Worldview, 1935-1945 Hong Sookyeong, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore

Mobilising Applied Medical Sciences for Indonesia: Soekarnoist Science and Asian-African Solidarity (1950s) Vivek Neelakantan, Independent Scholar

The Chinese Diaspora, the Cholera Pandemic, and Politics in Southeast Asia and China, 1960-1961 Xiaoping Fang, Nanyang Technological University

The Vietnam War (1965-1973) and its Impact on APCO: Emerging Networks of Tropical Medicine through inter-Asian Collaboration, 1965-1974 John P. DiMoia, Seoul National University

Parallel Session G2: Drugs and the Medical Treatment of Addiction in Indonesia Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Jennifer Nourse, University of Richmond

The Hidden History of Cocaine in Indonesia during the Colonial Era Eunike Sri Tyas Suci, Atma Jaya Catholic Univ of Indonesia, Jakarta

Madat and Pemadat: The Strategy of Chinese-Indonesians in Eradicating Opium and Treating Opium Addiction, 1920s-1942 Ravando, University of Melbourne

The Anti-Opium Crusade in Java: The Rise and Development of Anti-Opium Movement in Late Colonial Java, 1915-1942 Abdul Wahid, Gadjah Mada University

Illicit Drugs Policies during the Colonial Era and the Post-Independence Indonesia Sudirman Nasir, Hasanuddin University

The Forgotten Legacy of the Past and the Stagnancy of the Coming Future of Medical Cannabis Policy in Indonesia Asmin Fransiska, Atma Jaya Catholic Univ of Indonesia, Jakarta

Parallel Session G3: Diet, Nutrition, and Health Marie Thomas Room Chair: Liesbeth Hesselink, Independent Scholar

Between Poverty and Ignorance: The Question of Nutrition in Javanese People during the Late Colonial Period Gani Ahmad Jaelani, Padjadjaran University

“Hidden Hunger”: How Nutrition and Culinary Programs used as Government’s Propaganda to Conceal the Famine and Malnutrition Cases in Indonesia (1950 – 1967) Fadly Rahman, Padjadjaran University

The Question of Nutritional Improvement during the New Order Period in Indonesia (1966-1998) Shendy Vegaziandra Arsandy, Siti Hanipah & Rifa Utami Zahara, Padjadjaran University

15.30 – 16.00 Break

16.00 – 17.30 Parallel Sessions H1 – H2 Parallel Session H1: Plantations and Health Care Soesilo Room Chair: Wasino, Semarang State University

Health Service of Plantation Labourers in East Sumatra, 1945-1958 Kiki Maulana Affandi, Universitas Sumatera Utara Junaidi, Gadjah Mada University

The Origin of the Child Health Care in the Sumatra East Coast “Cultuurgebied” Devi Itawan, Gadjah Mada University

Parallel Session H2: Tuberculosis and Zoonosis Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Vivek Neelakantan, Airlangga University

From Tuberculosis to Respiratory Medicine: The Historical Development of Pulmonology in Indonesia Agus Dwi Susanto, University of Indonesia

Rat and Zoonosis Cases in Gunung Kidul: Study on Collective Memory of Health Issue Martina Safitri, State Islamic Institute of Surakarta

18.00 Dinner

Saturday, 30 June 2018

Excursions 10.00 – 12.00 Visit to the Museum on the History of Medicine in Indonesia IMERI building, Faculty of Medicine, University of Indonesia. This museum is located in the new research building of the Faculty of Medicine, next to the building that housed medical teaching in Indonesia since 1919.

12.30 – 15.00 Visit to the Museum of National Awakening This museum is housed in the buildings of the former Batavia Medical College (STOVIA), where a group of medical students led by Sutomo founded Budi Utomo, the first Indonesian nationalist movement in the Dutch East Indies, in 1909.

ABSTRACTS

Abstracts are listed in the order that they appear in the program.

Wednesday 27 June

Plenary Session 1 The Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies (1852-1942): Historical Perspectives Auditorium, National Library of Indonesia, 2nd floor Chair: Sangkot Marzuki, AIPI

This panel investigates the history of the Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies (Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië, hereafter GTNI), which was published from 1852 to 1942. Why study health and health care in the colonial times; disease patterns; (epidemic) diseases, their prevention, and treatment; and attitudes and the behaviour of physicians? In 1962, the famous medical historian Erwin Ackerknecht emphasised the educational benefits of studying previous therapeutic failures. Although his point of view has been criticised, most historians would agree that the last two centuries represent a crucial phase of transformation in the history of medical treatment. A few years ago, a group of physicians and scholars in the history of medicine decided to digitise the GTNI because it is an important for the historical study of the Dutch East Indies, not only of medical history. As the GTNI is almost wholly written in Dutch we thought that it was necessary to publish books in English and Indonesian to provide the broader public insight into this journal.

The Malaria Expedition of Dr. Robert Koch through Java in 1899 Jan Peter Verhave, Netherlands Society for Tropical Medicine

In 1899, the famous professor Robert Koch embarked on a malaria expedition to Italy, Java, and German New Guinea. He stayed in Java for three months. I recount his activities based on the records published in the GTNI, his own accounts, and reports in local newspapers. Upon his arrival in Batavia he was welcomed by the local Medical Society, but it soon turned out that, to his dismay, the physicians there were not yet using microscopes; their diagnosis of malaria was solely based on clinical observation. On his travels throughout Java he observed in adults suffered much less from malarial fevers in rural areas; they had fewer parasites than their children. To explain this, Koch minted the idea of immunity, which today is common knowledge. Nevertheless, his name is hardly ever associated with this discovery, nor is Java known as the location where this discovery was made.

Infants, Toddlers, and Children in the Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies Anjo Veerman, VU University, Amsterdam

In the Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies (GTNI), about 200 articles out of roughly 7,000 were devoted to children. The main topics these articles covered were: infectious diseases, nutrition, and statistics on morbidity and mortality. Among infectious diseases, tuberculosis is most often covered. Relatively few articles deal with malaria and dengue. Both malaria and dengue rarely are the cause of death. The vector for dengue was found to be the Stegomyia mosquito. Nutrition and especially infant feeding demonstrate that many bottle formulas were severely deficient. It is no surprise then, that the mortality among bottle-fed babies was twice as high as among breast-fed babies. In 1901, Grijns described the first vitamin-avant-la-lettre (the term vitamin was coined only in 2011): the anti- beriberi-factor. Later, an interesting series of articles on morbidity and mortality was published. It concluded that many infants succumbed during the first year of life, mainly due to pneumonia, probably in combination with nutritional problems. The infant mortality rate was 7% under Indo- Europeans and as high as 29% among the indigenous population. In one plantation a rate of 47% of infant mortality was recorded. Generally, the health status of European children was comparable to

that in Europe, for the indigenous population it was much lower, and Chinese children scored somewhere in between. In addition, cities and plantations displayed important differences in morbidity and mortality.

Perspectives on Mental Illness during the Dutch Colonial Era Hans Pols, University of Sydney

The articles in the Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies provide fascinating perspectives on the development of mental hospital care in the Dutch East Indies. They also provide insights on Dutch physicians on the specific expression of mental illness among Indonesians. Physicians frequently discussed what we now call culture-bound syndromes, such as amok, koro, and latah. They wondered about the aetiological specifics of these disorders and they theorised about the specific symptomatic expression of disorders such as dementia praecox (schizophrenia) and psychosis in Indonesians. A few concluded that the expression of mental illness in the indigenous population was more emotional in nature than in Europe. In this presentation, I will provide an overview of these discussions.

Indonesian and Chinese authors in the Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies Liesbeth Hesselink, Independent Scholar

For a long time, the GTNI exclusively featured European authors, because there were only European physicians in the colony. However, after the turn of the twentieth century, an increasing number of indigenous physicians graduated and started to publish in the GTNI. This paper not only deals with quantity – the number of articles written by indigenous authors – but also with quality – what topics did they write about and what was the influence of their publications on their career.

Parallel Session A1 The Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies (1852-1942): Historical Perspectives, continued Soesilo Room Chair: Jan Peter Verhave, Netherlands Society of Tropical Medicine

Eclampsia: An Inquiry into its Origin and Treatment Antoine Keijser, Radboud University Nijmegen

A bewildering number of theories have been proposed about the cause of (pre-)eclampsia. With the development of knowledge of the intrinsic functions of the endothelial system, the scientific theories now focused on the relationship between eclampsia and blood circulating. However, no cause of these vascular derailments was established. In the GTNI, the epidemiology and the pathophysiology of eclampsia is compared to facts about beriberi, a vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency characterized by pathological circulatory disturbances. It is possible to support those physicians who opined that eclampsia was related to a thiamine deficiency, which often develops in the last months of pregnancy and during the puerperal lactation period. There is abundant evidence of a generalized dysfunction of the vascular endothelium in pre-eclampsia, which is possibly due to thiamine deficiency. This could possibly cause a biochemical lesion in the production pathways for ATP. The regulatory function of endothelium, which is related to the balance between vasodilatation and vasoconstriction, is defective in eclampsia. From the vantage point of our present knowledge on the functioning of the endothelium and on the metabolic disturbances caused by the lack of vitamin co-factors that we can conclude that eclampsia can be treated prophylactically by the administration of thiamine.

Medical Administration: How Colonial Medical Services Were Organised Geert van Etten, Global Health Advisor

The paper tells the story of how administrators and their chief medical officers shaped the state-based Medical Service (Geneeskundige Dienst) in the Dutch East Indies. This service was established in 1808

as a subdivision of the Army. From the very beginning, it was divided into the Military Medical Service (MGD) and the Civil Medical Service (BGD) to provide medical services to the military and the civilian population respectively. However, throughout the nineteenth century, the BGD did not come off the ground, despite a great number of initiatives to change this. The paper aims to present a comprehensive overview of proposals for strengthening the BGD and discusses the main obstacles to achieve this. Furthermore, it will highlight that a major change occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the BGD became a separate entity and the dominant organisation to provide medical services as well. It will also investigate the circumstances that contributed to the development of an independent BGD. Our review will demonstrate that, for a very long time, the colonial medical administration was overwhelmingly focused on providing medical services for the military and had little or no concern for providing medical care to the indigenous population.

Hospitals Before and After Independence: Continuity, Transition, and Change Sjoerd Zondervan, Independent Scholar

I will investigate the differences between Indonesian hospitals in the period from 1890 to 1940 (the subject of my thesis) and hospitals in the years between 2000 and 2010 (the period of some local hospital visits I made). Some ten years ago, I had the opportunity to visit hospitals in south and north Sulawesi and in East Java, as I was invited by local hospitals to consult on managerial issues. In doing so, I had the opportunity to study health policy and the healthcare environment of the country. I will ask the following questions: 1. Which hospitals managed to continue after independence? 2. Did these hospitals continue to exist in the same or in a different organizational context? 3. Which hospitals failed and closed? 4. Which factors determined success and failure? 5. What were the main changes that took place in Indonesian health care after independence? As there are large differences in numbers and the physical appearances of hospitals between the periods under discussion, my contribution will be a limited exercise, mainly inspired by curiosity. Nevertheless, it may provide opportunities for discussion and exchange of views.

Parallel session A2 Histories of the Malaria War: Exploring Malaria around the Japanese Occupation of Indonesia and Malaysia Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Hans Pols, University of Sydney

Throughout the 20th century, and into the 21st century, malaria has been one of the most serious public health problems throughout tropical Asia. While virtually all quinine was produced in Taiwan and Java, it was not always available, nor did it result in a permanent resolution. Always a potential problem, malaria is particularly critical during periods of war when normal life patterns and medical efforts are disrupted. This panel focuses on malaria in Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula, with the Japanese occupation period as a critical point from which colonial and post-colonial anti-malaria efforts are investigated. While Japanese occupation authorities have been blamed for perceived increases in malaria, much remains unclear, obfuscated by wartime contingencies and colonial or post-war political expediencies, complicating our efforts to understand the long-term history. Japanese medical authorities naturally brought medical knowledge developed during previous decades and their experience in colonial medicine in Taiwan and other southern islands, but they also compiled local knowledge. The experiences and practices of local medical practitioners, as well as outreach materials which they developed, crossed over different periods. Examination of wartime situations, medical knowledge, public health efforts, and even language change can help us understand the histories of malaria.

Malay, then Indonesian: Exploring Texts about Malaria before and after the Japanese Occupation James Collins, Kebangsaan Malaysia University

This paper will examine the language used in handbooks and ephemera about malaria published in Indonesia before and after independence. Although the focus will the comparison of the lexicon and morphosyntax of these texts, as well as the social register(s) used, the intent of the paper is a preliminary exploration of the social history of medical language through the late colonial period into contemporary Indonesia. Although the early twentieth century was critical in the development of Indonesia’s national language, certainly the Japanese occupation marked a watershed in the development of Indonesian. The starting point of this exploration will be a 32-page book, Malaria, printed in 1939 by Balai Poestaka, apparently for the general public. This text will be compared to selected texts published after 1945, especially Malaria, published in 2016 by Pusat Data dan Informasi Kementerian Kesehatan RI. Changes in government and ideology often obfuscate continuities. For example, before 1990, most Indonesian monolingual dictionaries excluded numerous Dutch loanwords that remained in widespread use throughout Indonesia. But a systematic study of published texts demanded that those words be included as dictionary entries. By comparing texts, this paper will survey changes and continuities in the language of the postcolonial discourse about malaria.

Prevention of Terminal Tropical Illness: Japanese Medical Studies for the War Mayumi Yamamoto, Miyagi University

Medical and hygiene policy undertaken by governments—including both colonial and military governments—both reflect the social situation and is a critical connecting point where policy affects general society. Consideration of medical and hygiene policy based on professional documents related to medical and hygiene at the time can help to develop a “realistic” insights into past social life. Prior to World War II, Japanese public health experts were already interested in tropical diseases, including malaria. Part of their concern was due to the prevalence of malaria on Taiwan and in other South Seas islands under Japanese control, although experts were also aware of other areas in tropical Asia like Thailand and Indonesia. Systematic studies of malaria were conducted in Taiwan with a network of malaria stations throughout the island, and sanitation and medical policies gradually developed based on this knowledge. This study will focus on pre-war Japanese studies on tropical malaria, and the wartime experience in Indonesia and its influence elsewhere by examining documents such as Heiyō eisei-shi [Military Health Journal] (1944) published by the Military Government Superintendent Medical Unit, and aimed primarily at medical professionals.

“The Japanese ... Had Little or no Knowledge of the Disease”: Malaria as the Site of Colonial Knowledge Claims Sandra Manickam, Erasmus University

In a 1983 textbook on malaria, a prominent malariologist asserted that the Japanese in Malaya during the occupation “had little or no knowledge” of malaria and how to tackle growing infection rates. In the immediate post-war period, the returning British reported that malaria infections had increased drastically because of the war and mismanagement by the Japanese, and that areas that once had been free from malaria were now reportedly malarial. The narratives of malaria above highlight an understanding of British and Japanese roles in maintaining health and fighting malaria, and ways of legitimizing or delegitimizing colonial powers in transition. This presentation will focus on reports on malaria during the Japanese occupation and later reminiscences of health during the Japanese occupation to investigate how narratives of malaria and health in general operated as part of Japanese and British colonial cultures during the occupation and the British Military Administration period directly afterwards.

‘Kehidoepan Njamoek Malaria’ and ‘Obat-Obatan Asli’: Wartime Public Health Efforts seen through Indonesian Print Materials on Java William Bradley Horton, Akita University

During the first half of the 20th century, the colonial government in Indonesia engaged in a gradually intensifying effort to control malaria through education, medicines and, occasionally, through ambitious infrastructural campaigns. During the Japanese occupation of 1942-45, Asia Raya, Tjahaja, Soeara Asia, and Pandji Poestaka regularly carried news and information on common health problems—one frequently discussed was malaria. At least on paper, Japanese action was swift, with Dr. Sjoffjan Rassad heading an anti-malaria service, surprisingly with branches in Semarang, Medan and Makassar! Dutch era approaches were subject to criticism, with the intent to chart a different course of action and intensification of efforts to raise awareness of and knowledge about malaria, demonstrating that the Japanese administration was working to improve the lives of Java’s populace. This presentation will survey Indonesian language publications issued on Java before and during the occupation to identify the public activities of Japanese and Indonesian public health and medical practitioners, bringing their once publicly known activities into the light. This study will also assess continuities and discontinuities in anti-malaria efforts, and to identify the changing context as presented to Indonesian audiences during the occupation as a contribution to a more complete medical history of Indonesia.

Parallel session B1 The Future of Medical Research and Medical Care in Asia Soesilo Room Chair: Harry Wu, University of Hong Kong

Direct-to-Consumer Markets for Stem Cells: A Comparative Analysis of Australia, Japan and Singapore Tamra Lysaght, National University of Singapore

In recent years, a global industry has emerged selling products and services marketed as stem cells direct-to-the-consumer (DTC) for the treatment of serious diseases and medical conditions. These products are typically marketed over the Internet for many conditions that have not been approved by regulators or demonstrated as safe and effective in the peer reviewed scientific literature. Industries exploiting this market are now well-established in both Australia and Japan, but not in Singapore; even though all three countries have sophisticated scientific and regulatory infrastructure to protect health consumers while promoting translational stem cell research. I reflect on the salient regulatory frameworks, institutional practices, and socio-political norms that may have shaped this situation where Singapore has emerged as being both highly favourable for biomedical innovation while controlling unwanted marketing practices that threaten the country’s bio-economy. I conclude with considerations of how these factors might inform regulatory and governance frameworks to encourage responsible innovation in the biosciences.

Emerging Gene Technologies and their Legalities in Southeast Asia: A Postcolonial Exploration Sonja van Wichelen, University of Sydney

My paper will explore colonial and postcolonial dimensions in the formation of new legalities around emerging gene technologies in Southeast Asia. My turn to study what has been termed ‘biolegality’ comes from a programmatic persuasion that new conceptual tools are needed to better grasp the extent to which advances in the biosciences reconfigure law and legal knowledge. How do advances and technologies from the biosciences—with an emphasis on genetics—impact legal conceptions around property, personhood, parenthood, and community in Southeast Asia? Asian countries are (becoming) major players in the world of bioscience, and while social science scholarship is emerging to describe how these developments impact people and their societies, the legalities of emerging technologies have yet to be explored. There exist significant differences between Western and Asian approaches to the

legal regulation, application, and understanding of the new biosciences. A thorough examination of these differences will be relevant for future debates on biotechnology’s impact on law and society.

Parallel Session B2 Reshaping Medicine and Nursing after World War II in Taiwan Achmad Mochtar Room Chair: Hsiu-yun Wang, National Cheng Kung University

This panel explores the reshaping of the medical and nursing professions, and medical practice in Taiwan after WWII, focusing on three aspects—the new relationship between the state and the medical profession, nursing knowledge transfer from the US, and the introduction of nuclear medical practice. Focusing on the role of the Taiwan Medical Association (TMA), Hung-Bin Hsu examines the development of the medical profession and its new relationship with the state and the market after WWII. Shu-ching Chang explores the role of the prominent nurse Meiyu Chow, also a general in the KMT (Nationalist) military, in transferring knowledge from the US and shaping nursing education in Taiwan. Hsiu-yun Wang analyses the introduction of radioactive iodine (RAI) for the treatment of hyperthyroidism, particularly the competition between RAI and other existing treatment options such as surgery. Together the three papers will contribute to a new understanding of the complex dynamics that brought about the movement of practitioners, knowledge, and practice in the new circuit of Cold war-era medicine and nursing.

Competing for the State: The Medical Market, the Profession and the Taiwan Medical Association in Early Post-war Taiwan Hung Bin Hsu, National Cheng Kung University

Although the relationship between the medical profession, tge medical market, ethnic groups, and colonial regimes in East and Southeast Asia has been explored by Ming-Cheng Miriam Lo, Warwick Anderson, Hans Pols, and other scholars, the situation after WWII seems less clear. Focusing on the role of the Taiwan Medical Association (TMA), a compulsory professional body legally representing all physicians under the Physicians Act of the new Chinese KMT government in Taiwan after 1945, this paper hopes to present discussions on the development of medical profession and its new relationship with the state and the market after WWII. I argue that the market played an important role in re-shaping the relationship between the medical profession and the state. Enjoying a closed market and a high social and economic status, physicians in colonial Taiwan regarded themselves as freelancers and saw no need to unite. After WWII, with the arrival of the new regime came also a large number of Chinese doctors, including practitioners of Chinese medicine, physicians with unverifiable certification, etc. It was in this context of an overstocked market that the TMA was established, and its primary concern was to regulate this “chaotic” market. The TMA formulated new ethical principles, emphasized the power of unity, and encouraged its members to run in elections for local and central legislator as well as for mayor, creating a new pattern of “politics-medicine cooperation”.

Chow Meiyu and Military Nursing Training in Taiwan, 1950s-1970s Shu-Ching Chang, Chang Gung University, Taiwan

Military nursing training in Taiwan, which was a part of military training that followed the establishment of the Kuomingtang (KMT) government in Taiwan, began in 1949. One of the key figures was Chow Meiyun, a graduate of the prestigious Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), who was in charge of the Department of Nursing at the National Defense Medical College (NDMC) since 1947. Teachers and graduates of the Department of Nursing at the NDMC played a formative role in the development of nursing care in Taiwan after 1950. In this paper, I focus on knowledge transfer, particularly how Chow Meiyu utilized her PUMC social network and her experiences during the Sino- Japanese War to build up military nursing in Taiwan. Chow networked actively with international organizations, including ABMAC (American Board of Medical Aid to China), the National Professional

Women’s Club, and the National Student Nurses Association. These organizations, which offered funds, books, periodicals, and scholarships, were important in the training of military nurses. Drawing on primary sources from the ABMAC archives and interviews with Chow’s students, this paper examines how Chow established her military nursing expertise and expanded care work to civil society.

A History of Radioactive Iodine Treatment for Hyperthyroidism in Taiwan Hsiu-yun Wang, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan

This paper examines the history of the introduction of radioactive iodine (RAI) for the treatment of hyperthyroidism to Taiwan in the context of Cold War science and medicine. I focus on three ways in which RAI competed with existing treatment options: institutionally, in medical practice, and in terms of patients. RAI was introduced to Taiwan in 1957, shortly after US president Eisenhower’s proposal of “atoms for peace” project in 1953. In the context of US dominance during the Cold War, Taiwan enthusiastically promoted nuclear medicine, and RAI was promoted as one of the major breakthroughs in the nuclear age. However, RAI did not become a standard treatment as it did in the US. As late as the 1990s, with the exception of a few major hospitals in Taipei, such as National Taiwan University Hospital, most medical institutions and clinicians were not equipped to use the substance. In the popular imagination, RAI was equated with the aftermath of the atomic bombing of Japan and atoms were far from being as “lovely”, as scientists claimed. The case of RAI in Taiwan demonstrates that, when crossing the borders, medical practice never was a straightforward history of scientific success.

Thursday 28 June

Plenary Session 2 Ethics and Medicine Soesilo Room Chair: Warwick Anderson, University of Sydney

Dynamic Cultural Ethics in Treating Human Remains: Intersections of Beliefs, Sciences, and Human Values on Re-study, Disposition, Repatriation and Reburial Claudia Surjadjaja, ALERTAsia Foundation

Human remains are part of the record of our past. Museums all over the world contain the remains of humans, of which only a small percentage is displayed to the public. Most are more or less forgotten or orphaned, sometimes attracting scientists with specific questions or agendas. Many of the human remains in Dutch museum collections were collected from former colonies, mainly the Netherlands Oost Indië (Netherlands East Indies, currently the Republic of Indonesia). Human remains from all over Indonesia were collected from the late 1700s until the mid-1900s. Most recently studies of our DNA preserved in human remains have begun to unravel deeper mysteries of our origins and evolution, and these will continue to do so. Some human remains however, are more problematic in a social, moral and ethical sense. There has been a conscious attempt to recognize and address the racial and national inequities of the past that can be associated with such collections, highlighting ethical and legal challenges associated with the keeping of such remains in museum stores. There has been an ongoing international trend impelling repatriation and restitution. For some stakeholders, this means the dead finally get justice. However, the issue is not as simple as shipping the remains to their country of origin. Many social, medical/scientific, ethical, and legal elements come into play before a museum can make a sound decision regarding the return of human remains. Should these human remains be kept, repatriated, and reburied.

Disenfranchised Exit: Transformation of End-of-Life Care from Moral Economy to Modern Medicine in Hong Kong and Singapore Harry Wu, University of Hong Kong

In recent years, the pursuit of a “good death” has become heatedly debated worldwide, as well as in Chinese contexts. In the “Good Death Index” report produced by The Economist (2015), Singapore and Hong Kong are ranked 12th and 22nd globally. This report, however, does not represent the distress perceived locally about the constraints of death location, inadequacy of manpower and inappropriate cost of futile medicine. In Chinese culture, a “good death” has always referred to the status of completion free from pain and suffering. In addition to personal control, maintaining social relationships with families is equally important. In Hong Kong and Singapore, where Chinese immigrants resided from mid-19th Century, the care for the dying was first arranged as a behavior of moral economy during hardship. When modern medicine was introduced along with colonialism in late 19th Century, traditional end-of-life care, however, was replaced by institution-based and medicalized practice. Such a transformation, however, did not occur without obstacles. This paper examines the historical, social and cultural factors that shaped the pushing and pulling forces regarding the institutionalization of end-of-life care in Hong Kong and Singapore. It argues: through urbanization, the space for dying people has progressively been compartmentalized. With the emergence of professionalism on end-of-life issues and its labor division, the capacity of care among citizens has also been gradually disenfranchised.

Parallel Session C1 Medicine in Colonial Times Soesilo Room Chair: Warwick Anderson, University of Sydney

Filipino Physicians in Spanish Colonial Philippines: The Relation to Imperial Medicine with a Focus on Late 19th Century’s Manila Yoshishiro Chiba, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido

This paper discusses the emergence of Filipino physicians in Spanish Philippines, focusing on Manila of the late 19th century. The purpose is to consider the historical significance of the medical profession for Filipino society. A group of wealthy Filipino people emerged in the 19th century, as an increased quantity of agricultural products were exported to the world market. They formed an educated wealthy class called the Ilustrados and led the Propaganda Movement, which became the basis of the Philippine Revolution. Filipino physicians were among them and, simultaneously, occupied the posts of medical officers in the late 19th century. Both medicine and welfare in governmental services were connected in such medical posts. This Spanish imperial medicine had been closely related to the Catholic Church. The number of Filipino physicians who obtained medical degrees from the University of Santo Tomas increased up to the 1890s. Further, as a result of the cholera epidemics in the 1880s and the Philippine Revolution in 1896, some Spanish physicians asked to resign from their own posts and return to Spain. The employment of Spanish and Filipino physicians largely oscillated in the 1890s. In general, they mainly provided medical treatment in patients’ homes, and they used native medicinal plants. At this time, one Filipino physician who criticized Spanish imperial medicine appeared. He did not only think that Spanish medical dignitaries fell behind western medical science of those days, but also reacted against Spanish imperial medicine. The critical views against Western imperial medicine continued during American colonial times and were against American medical officers.

The Changes of the Responses to Epidemics in the Philippines during the Era of American Domination Chenyang Wang, Peking University

Taking responses to epidemics is not only an indispensable part of public health practice, but also a crucial affair that all social classes may participate actively in. Especially in colonial situations, the intense measures taken by colonial governments may frequently cause acute reactions in local society, and this medical task can be seen as a process of power redistribution and social order reconstruction. My research takes the responses to cholera epidemics in the Philippines during the era of American domination as an example. Since the militarized early stage of occupation to the following more stable period, the responses to epidemics revealed significant and lasting changes. By analyzing three specific aspects, through which a more profound understanding of the whole process can be acquired: the status of decision makers and executors; specific measures against infectious disease; and the effects of these measures to local society. My research will emphasize the different roles of the colonized. Their active resistance and reactions were indeed a remarkable reason for colonial policy adjustment and modification. The interaction of colonial administrators and two major local social classes, namely the “elite” and the “subaltern” will also be a key point of discussion.

Plague and its Handling in the Residence of Surakarta in 1915-1922 Wasino, Semarang State University

Plague is an epidemic disease that struck several big cities in Java in the early 20th century. The disease caused by germs transferred by rats spread from one city to other ones which were connected by the railway transportation network. One of the cities exposed to plague was Solo and its surrounding areas, which were included in the residence of Surakarta. Plague began to appear in Solo in March 1915. The victims of this disease initially emerged in the areas which were close to the Jebres train station. Thus, the residents of Surakarta reported that this disease was coming to them through the goods transported

by train. This disease spread to several areas around the station, and then many places in Solo and other areas, such as the district of Klaten, Boyolali, Sragen, Wonogiri, and Karang Anyar. Therefore, both the colonial and local governments cooperated to stop the spread of plague in those areas via several strategies. First, the initial action was implemented through examining the corpses by the doctors, investigating dead rats in the laboratory by using samples from several areas, isolating the villages infected by plague, and spraying the houses infected by plague. Second, the demolition and rebuilding of houses which had been the rats’ hiding places, with new buildings that were not such easy hideouts for rats. The home improvement policy was carried out extensively, and as recorded by January 1st, 1920, 38,924 new houses had been built in the residence of Surakarta. Third, keeping houses clean was encouraged, by asking people to clean their own houses regularly, once a week. Other environmental hygiene activities included cleaning ditches of trash and mud, to make the environment cleaner. Fourth, a health promotor was appointed to inform people about the ways to prevent and to handle plague. Moreover, the eradication of plague was given financial support from both the government and the sugarcane plantation enterprises, either belonging to Praja Mangkunegaran or the western private ones. It is interesting that behind the eradication of the plague was corruption by the implementing officers.

Medical Recipe Books in the Dutch East Indies, 1875-1940 Liesbeth Hesselink, Independent Scholar

Taking care of oneself when ill (domestic medicine) is the most common form of therapy, in the past and today. Nowadays, most people consult the internet; in the past there were medical handbooks which people could consult. In my presentation I will give an overview of the medical handbooks written for laypeople in the Dutch Indies. Some handbooks were written by European physicians—men with a medical education—and were published from 1829 on. Other handbooks were written by Indo- European women, who had no formal medical education. Most handbooks were written in Dutch, some were translated into Malay. Most were reprinted several times, apparently because there was a great demand for them. On the one hand, these handbooks emphasised acclimatisation, with advice for daily life in a tropical climate; on the other hand, they provide recipes to treat diseases. I will compare the treatment for illnesses like fever, diarrhoea, and whooping cough (pertussis) the authors provided. Remarkable is the attention to young children: some handbooks even deal exclusively with the care and treatment of children. Analysing these handbooks will shed a new light on individual health care in the Dutch Indies.

Parallel session C2 Indonesia’s 1965 Tragedy: Towards a Redefinition of History? Marie Thomas Room Chair: Tyas Suci, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta

History is always considered as the lieu de mémoire or the site of memory for the construction of a nation. Within this context, history can justify the reason of being a nation or a group of people, and its shared identity. Since Indonesia declared independence in 1945 the most divisive and disturbing social violence was the Gerakan 30 September 1965 (G30-S 1965 or Gestapu), when the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) was accused of kidnaping and killing seven army generals. This led to more than six months of citizens killing citizens in the name of destroying the PKI and establishing peace and order. More than fifty years after the 1965 tragedy Indonesia still has to find its way to come to terms with its past. This panel presentation will outline how Indonesia’s society socially and psychologically is trying to come to terms with its past at the individual and societal level while facing the problem of transforming its social memory of national tragedies into acceptable narratives.

Several severe civil conflicts and human rights violations have colored the history of the Republic of Indonesia. Since Indonesia declared independence in 1945, the most divisive and disturbing of these was the Gerakan 30 September 1965 (G30-S 1965 or Gestapu), when the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) was accused of kidnaping and killing seven army generals. This led to more than six months of citizens killing citizens in the name of destroying the PKI and establishing peace and order. Between one and three million Indonesians were killed. This case study focuses on the pathways of surviving the intergenerational trauma caused by these events, how survivors gave meaning to their suffering, and how they used it to empower themselves to lead a meaningful life. The study also put forward what the mental health community has done to promote sustainable recovery of the survivors. The study was part of the “40 Years of Silence” film project, conducted in Yogyakarta in 2002-2014.

Silencing the Truth: How Society Confronts the 1965 Tragedy Nani I.R. Nurrachman-Sutoyo, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta

History is never without its tragedy. Fifty years after the 1965 tragedy Indonesia has yet still to find its way to come to terms with its past. While various attempts in truth-seeking tend to be hampered by politicalization of the PKI stigma, which carries a strong ‘us versus them’ attitude on its citizens the question of the trauma experienced by the victims and their families still looms without any signs of closure. The coming to terms with the past binds two disciplines: politics and psychology, each with its own paradigm. It pushes the boundaries of knowledge about what is trauma, and what is, and what is not caused by this tragic prolonged historical event. This paper tries to explore the intricate web of power relations and subjective perceptions of and within the society that are influenced by a complex relation of psycho-socio-cultural and historical aspects that make up Indonesia, a nation so diverse and plural in its endeavour to come to terms with its past 1965 tragedy. Although the different languages that politicians and psychologist speak lead to different interpretations, it is the language of those experiencing the trauma which is most meaningful. It is within this context that psychology can and should play its role.

Performing Songs and Staging Theatre Performances as a Way of Working through the Trauma of the 1965 Indonesian Mass Killings Dyah Pitaloka, University of Sydney

Only after the fall of Suharto in May 1998 did a small number of survivors of the 1965/66 mass killings start to discuss their experiences. Many of them have attempted to work through their trauma and gain recognition for their suffering. In this paper, I follow the activities of the Jakarta-based Dialita choir and Kiper (Kiprah Perempuan – Women’s Action), a Yogyakarta-based theatre group. The women in the choir and theatre group aim to express their suffering while, at the same time, embody a voice of hope. Through singing, Dialita members co-construct their localised experiences of healing and involve the younger generations in a dialogue about hope and resilience. Together, they co-construct alternative narratives about 1965. Theatrical performances, for Kiper is a source of support and empowerment. By articulating pain, sorrow, and struggle in their performances, Kiper members situate the meanings of healing within their local contexts. The theatre performances which combines act, music and singing, restore the survivors’ sense of pride and identity and create a communicate space where the community members are no longer seen themselves as victims, but survivors.

Parallel session D1 Modern Cities and Urban Sanitation in Asia Soesilo Room Chair: Bok Kyu Yum, University of Seoul

This panel deals with urban sanitation in Asia in the modern era. Since the 19th century, Asian cities have begun to make efforts to improve their urban sanitary conditions to prevent disease: urban improvement work has been executed that includes cleaning the roads and the installation of modern water supply and sewage systems. Western medical technology was introduced, and modern system of public health was established. This panel includes three topics: the treatment of excretion in Korea (1880s-1930s), urban sanitation and plague prevention in modern Shanghai, and control systems of venereal diseases in colonial Dehli.

Changes in the Treatment of Excrement in Korea, 1880-1930s Yunjae Park, Kyung Hee University

In the 1880s, human excrement began to be recognized as a main cause of infectious diseases in Korea. Although making excrement into fertilizer was possible, the remaining parasites continued to be a problem. The Korean colonial government asked a parasitology professor to study the treatment of excrement. Because of his research, decomposition was scientifically proven to be a best way to treat excretion.

Urban Sanitation and Plague Prevention in Modern Shanghai: Focusing on Smallpox Vaccine Jeongeun Jo, Kyung Hee University

In modern China, smallpox was seen as one of the most threatening diseases with a mortality rate of 30%. Therefore, the medical missionaries from the West dedicated to spread the Jenner’s vaccine, instead of traditional Chinese variolation. After the middle of the 19th century, the Health Office managed several sub-district offices and hospitals to provide free vaccinations. This was very important in establishing urban sanitation because if the people who have not been vaccinated were infected with smallpox, the health of all residents would be in danger. Urban residents have benefited from a sanitary system, such as free vaccination, more than did the people who lived in rural areas. However, Shanghai grew because of large numbers of immigrants and had a large slum population. The urban sanitation system could not keep up with the city’s growth. Overcrowding and the uncleanliness of place and person made the spread of infection of smallpox possible. In addition, the people of Shanghai had different perceptions of plague prevention and it became an obstacle to the establishment of urban sanitation systems. For example, some Chinese people still relied on Chinese style variolation and not on Jenner’s vaccine. Reducing this gap had been the key to the success of hygiene policies.

The Control of Venereal Diseases in Colonial Delhi and Urban Hygiene Woonok Yeom, Korea University

After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Delhi emerged as the central city of British colonial rule in India instead of Calcutta. The coronation of Queen Victoria as the Indian Empress was held in 1877 in Delhi; Edward VII and George V were crowned as Indian Emperors in 1903 and in 1911, also in Delhi. The British Raj started to construct the new capital city of Delhi, which represented the visual and material conquest of India. The control of venereal disease was closely related with military cantonment. The size of the military force in Delhi increased after the Rebellion of 1857. In 1872, 532 troops of the British army stayed in Delhi. The main actors of the control system of prostitution were the military authorities, local governments, activists of moral hygiene, and others. The legal system, which framed prostitution, was also important factor. The Contagious Disease Act, which forced compulsory inspection of the bodies of prostitutes, was introduced in 1870 and abolished in 1888. This paper analyses the control system of venereal diseases focusing on the urban spaces of Delhi.

Parallel Session D2 Insanity, Mental Illness, and Psychiatry, I Chair: Byron Good, Harvard University

Individuals? Asylum Care in the Netherlands Indies, 1910-1940 Sebastiaan Broere, University of Amsterdam

This paper seeks to supplement recent scholarship on colonial psychiatry by focusing on a group of actors which hitherto have received considerably less attention than the psychiatrists: the patients. I will argue that listening to the patients’ stories and examining the everyday realities of asylum life has historical value, exactly because the logics of asylum life worked towards erasing their individuality. The patient was never considered an individual. In general, the historiography of colonial psychiatry starts to get a human face. Whereas earlier accounts tended to paint the lives of colonial psychiatrists with a broad brush, recent investigations present a more nuanced picture. Yet whereas colonial psychiatrists are currently turned into human beings, the voices of the de-individualized themselves are hardly heard. On the basis of patient records obtained from a former asylum in Java, this paper is an attempt to break this stalemate. It commences with a set of simple questions. How was asylum life regimented? How were patients diagnosed and how did diagnostic reasoning inform treatment? What types of treatment did staff members apply, and under which conditions? More fundamentally, I intend to examine the potentially decolonizing consequences of conducting “history from below” for the historiography of colonial psychiatry.

The Insulin Myth in Chinese Psychiatry: A Study on Insulin Coma Therapy in China Xiaoyang Gu, Capital Medical University, China

As one of the major physical treatments for schizophrenia in the history of psychiatry, insulin coma therapy (ICT) was “invented” by Manfred Sakel in the 1920s. Starting with the controversial article The Insulin Myth, which argued t h a t ICT was less effective than it appeared and even placed patients in unnecessary danger, ICT started facing more and more doubts from inside and outside medical society in the 1950s. Most countries abandoned this therapy around the 1960s when several clinical trials showed that it was not as safe and no more effective than antipsychotic drugs. In China, the application of ICT in medical practice started in 1937 and reached its peak in the 1950s, right before the wide use of chlorpromazine began around 1957. Essays about ICT can still be seen widely in medical journals in China during the 1980s. In the 1990s, the World Health Organization (WHO) pointed out that China and the Soviet Union were the only two countries still recommending ICT. By studying the essays about ICT and other materials, the author discusses the rise and decline of ICT in China and the political, ideological, scientific, and sociological factors that influenced the process.

Neurasthenia, Psy Sciences, and the Great Leap Forward Wen-Ji Wang, National Yang-Ming University

The scholarly attention to the history of neurasthenia in China has so far been devoted to its social and cultural meanings in the Republican era, and in the 1970s and 1980s. The present study looks into the much-neglected history of the disease in Mao’s China, examining in particular the relationship between neurasthenia, the psy sciences, and political movements in the 1950s and the early 60s. In an era of mass political and scientific mobilization, a variety of methods was tried to treat neurasthenia, among which the most famous was the “Speedy Synthetic Method” designed by the psychologists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the psychiatrists from Beijing Medical College in the late 1950s. The method—a combination of persuasion, psychotherapy, physical and medicinal therapies, regimen, and political group meetings—was said to have immediate miraculous therapeutic effect, and it won the support of local politicians and a part of the Chinese psychiatric profession. For contemporary commentators, the Speedy Synthetic Method has been considered a milestone in Chinese psychotherapy. The study revisits this period of intense study of neurasthenia by psy scientists, putting

a special emphasis on the ways in which they strove to manoeuvre or even flourish in a highly politicized environment.

Media Reports on Suicide in Indonesia (1952-1953) Benny Prawira, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia

The history of suicide in Indonesia has rarely been investigated. I will present how media reported suicide cases in the Indonesian Old Order, a historical period after Indonesian independence. It is expected that there would be suicide reports in the local media related to societal transition at that time. Several articles from Harian Rakjat in 1952-1953 were investigated. Media content analysis is utilised to understand how the media covered suicide at that time. Most of the articles reported suicide deaths, suicide attempts, and few murder-suicides cases. The news only mentioned single causal factors for explaining suicide. These single factors include epilepsy/neurological diseases, chronic diseases, romantic relationship issues, and financial issues. Most articles explicitly mentioned the methods used to commit suicide. Few articles reported suicide warning signs. At the time, suicide was seen as a foolish and desperate act, but it was not associated with religious stigma.

Parallel Session D3 Medicine, Power, Trade, and Decolonisation Chair: Anjo Veerman, VU University

The Japanese Medicine Business in the Netherlands East Indies Meta Sekar Puji Astuti, Hasanuddin University

In the Netherlands East Indies, Japanese merchants sold many brands of Japanese medicine products. These included famous brands that had been sold since the Meiji Period (1868-1911). Among them were Inochi no Haha (a product of the Sasaoka Chemical Works Company), Chujoto (Tsumura Juntendo Company), Senkintan (Akasawa Company), Shinyaku, Ken Nougan and mnay more. These medicines were catagorized as patent medicines and folklore medicines. In the Dutch East Indies, the sale of Japanese patent medicine was conducted through the network of Japanese merchants, generally called the toko Jepang community. The largest medical agents in Java were toko Ogawa, Yokoyama Yoko, and Nanyo Shokai. Unfortunately, almost no information is available to ascertain how many and what kinds or types of Japanese medicines were sold. This paper aims to describe the history of the Japanese medicine business in the Dutch East Indies. How did the Japanese medicine business spread there? How popular were Japanese medicine products among Indonesians? Lastly, how did Japanese medicine impact on Indonesian social history?

Power Relations and Public Health Knowledge in Bali I Nyoman Wijaya, I Nyoman Sukiada & Anak Agung Ayu Dewi Girindrawardani, Udayana University

Although he was weak in the field of demographic planning compared to Soeharto, President Soekarno paid attention to the health sector in general by establishing the Faculty of Medicine of Udayana University in 1962, to complete the establishment of Sanglah Hospital (1959). Cooperation between the two institutions has graduated local doctors who were able to reduce the dependence on doctors from outside Bali. The young local doctors spread almost to all public health centers at the sub-district level in Bali, one of them was in Selat, Karangasem. The young doctors replaced the position of the mantri, health officials who already existed since the colonial era. The presence of mantris can be regarded as the transition from traditional to modern medicine. Due to the low level of public health knowledge, despite the existence of health officials such as mantris, but in colonial times, indigenous medical practitioners or shamans were dominant. Such knowledge was captured by missionaries to become powerful for the benefit of their religion, by combining medication and prayer. This study will attempt

to answer research questions regarding the power relations and public health knowledge of the Balinese from colonial times to the New Order to see whether or not there is continuity, transition and change.

Health Equity and Community Empowerment in Indonesia: An Example of a Colonial Inheritance in Health Rodri Tanoto, University of Indonesia

This review aims to give an overview of equity and empowerment in Indonesia during the period of Dutch colonization, and how it influenced the current health system. In the Dutch East Indies, health was dominated by a biomedicalising discourse, which perceived natives as child-like and fragile. It was therefore thought to be impossible and even dangerous to teach the natives to live healthily. This discourse was partly challenged by the Rockefeller Foundation, which, although using “gentle persuasion”, did not acknowledge local wisdom and social determinants. After independence, neglected rural health was taken as a main focus. However, the system was centralised, creating one solution for all, and disregarding regional variations. Moreover, though Soekarno tried to counter colonial medicine by calling for a self-sufficient health system, he inadvertently acknowledged the superiority of the biomedical discourse of health. The health care of the “New Order” era mirrored the authoritarian regime, focusing on infrastructure and medical advancement. The so-called community participation of Posyandu, is in fact just coercion under false flag of “gotong royong”, which dictated participation according to biomedical standards. The Reformation era would later mirror this in the form of t h e Desa Siaga Akti programme. In conclusion, the biomedicalising discourse of health by Western medicine, starting with colonial medicine in the Dutch East Indies, has never truly left the health discourse in Indonesia.

The history of health care philanthropy in Indonesia Laksono Trisnantoro, Gadjah Mada University

Financing health care is a complex policy in Indonesia. At the moment, the main source of health funding comes from the tax system. Philanthropy as a source of health finance is very small. This study investigated the development of health care philanthropy since the Dutch Administration. The results of this study will be used for strengthening current health finance. During the Dutch colonial era, the major source of funding for health care was the military and the colonial government for maintaining the power of the colonial government. For ordinary people, funding was limited, which induced philanthropy. Health care philanthropy is classified into two major groups: religious and ethnicity groups. The missionary (Protestant) movement was initiated by religious philanthropist interested in health care, at the end of 19th century. The Catholic group followed, and Moslem health care started in the 1920s. The Chinese community built charity hospitals in big cities such as Jakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya. The ethical policies of the Dutch government supported this philanthropy. However, the health care philanthropy movement declined after the end of colonial government, until the current period.

Parallel Session E1 Medicine and Diversity in Modern Japan Soesilo Room Chair: Akira or someone else

Japanese medicine has developed under the influence of various cultures, traditions, theories and technologies. In particular, it can be said that dramatic changes were brought about by the introduction of Western medicine in the late nineteenth century. Traditional Chinese medicine, folk therapies, and religious treatments were now considered to be obsolete. It seems, on the other hand, that people’s thoughts and attitudes towards health and illness remained conservative, despite the modernization policy of medicine by the Meiji centralized government. Moreover, traditional remedies and practices were sometimes thought to be comparable to modern medicine. This panel will focus on the diversity

of medicine in modern Japan. In other words, it will focus on the fields of health problems, which cannot be always explained in the context of Western modern medicine. Each paper of the panel will take an example, which did not merge into modernization or Westernization of medicine, and will explore the reason and background from a geographical, cultural, ethical or religious viewpoint.

The History of the Modernization of Psychiatry on Japan’s Peripheries: Taiwan and Okinawa Akira Hashimoto, Aichi Prefectural University

In the process of forming a nation-state, Japan modernized the treatment of mental patients. The governors, however, were less concerned with the modernization of psychiatry on Japan’s peripheries. In Taiwan during Japanese rule (1895-1945), the establishment of psychiatric institutions was incomplete. According to the Office of the Governor-General in Taipei, the number of mental patients per capita in Taiwan was much smaller than in mainland Japan on account of their “low culture and a simpler society”. In the 1930s, however, several mental hospitals were built, and mental health laws of mainland Japan were enforced in Taiwan as well, even if under limited financial support by the government. On the other hand, psychiatry in Okinawa, the most southern islands of today’s Japan, was more undeveloped than in Taiwan. There was neither a mental hospital nor a higher medical education institution in the islands before the end of World War II. Although the American occupation of Okinawa began in 1945, the Japanese former law enacted in 1900 was effective until 1960. Then the self- government of Okinawa established the Mental Hygiene Act. But due to the lack of psychiatric beds, the law allowed families to confine mental patients at home until 1972, when Okinawa was returned to Japan.

Public Baths and the Concept of Cleanliness in Modern Japan Miki Kawabata, Ritsumeikan University

This report investigates the norms concerning cleanliness and the process of establishing public baths in Modern Japan. It is based on journals and books written by hygienists, medical doctors, social workers, and ethicists during the Meiji and Taisho eras. According to the documents, since the late Meiji era, hygienists and doctors who had been to Europe have observed the relationship between bathing and sanitary practices in the West, and claimed that the Japanese people are “cleanlier” than the Westerners because of the custom of bathing since ancient times. However, under the influence of western culture, public baths and bathing itself were redefined as contemporary means of hygiene and became part of the social work system, and the Japanese national character has changed from “cleanliness” to “purity” during the same time. Ethicists used the word “purity” to refer to the connection of body and spirit, and the behavior of bathing was seen as an example of the purity of the body, while Bushido was seen as the purity of the spirit. This presentation concludes that, during the Meiji era and Taisho eras, the concept of cleanliness was transformed into purity, and the connection between bathing and Bushido were strengthened during this transformation.

The Role of Shinto in the History of Psychiatry in Japan Iyo Kaneda, Kyoto University

Historically, before the establishment of mental hospitals in Japan, mental patients typically took refuge in Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples. Shinto is the indigenous Japanese religion that worships kami (deities) enshrined in jinja (shrines); it was influenced by Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism since the 7th century. In the late 19th century, the Meiji government of Japan surveyed mental patients who had been cared for in shrines and temples, but the impact of psychiatry on Shinto religion remains unstudied. Despite the advances of modern medicine, even today mental patients sometimes pray in shrines. Relying on Meiji Government reports, I found 9 shrines in Japan where mental patients take refuge or pray. This study illuminates the role of these Shinto shrines in mental care and elabotrtes on the influence of Shinto on psychiatric practice.

Parallel Session E2 Insanity, Mental Illness, and Psychiatry, II Chair: Wen-Ji Wang, National Yang-Ming University

The Problem of Mental Health in Plantungan Amurwani Dwi Lestariningsih, Presidential Museum Balai Kirti

Plantungan is a village in the Kendal district near Semarang. Plantungan was originally a military hospital, which was later used as a leprosy hospital during the colonial period. In postcolonial times, Plantungan was used as a place for political prisoners. The people interned in the Plantungan Camp, just like leprosy patients, were shunned by society and their families. Leprosy is believed by the community to be an infectious disease, and a “curse” that has no cure. The difficulty of life in camps with the stigma of “ideological leprosy” prompted residents to avoid contact with the inhabitants, as well as with their families. In various ways the biological children of residents attempted to update their status to avoid “ideological leprosy”. The change in the status of these children was undertaken until the stigma attached to the camp occupants was avoided. Rehabilitation was undertaken by the New Order government to change the communist ideology that was the reason for the internment of the camp occupants. Psychological rehabilitation through santiaji, that is, how to internalize the ideology of Pancasila, was undertaken in Camp Plantungan. The internalization of religious values was also given by the New Order government, until the return of the inhabitants of the camp, to embrace a religion as their lifeline. After they are considered eligible to socialize in the community, the residents were released. There is a strong stigma attached to the inhabitants of the Plantungan Camp. To eliminate this stigma, they changed their identity to a new one, so that the surrounding community does not know their association with the former Plantungan Camp. The trauma nevertheless continued to be part of their lives.

Should the Study of Koro be Repatriated to Indonesia? David Peter Mitchell, Monash University Colonial era investigations in the Netherlands Indies introduced the genital retraction syndromes to international medicine as a culture-bound psychiatric condition named koro. After independence these syndromes were left to traditional healers and largely ignored by postcolonial medicine in Indonesia. Early post-colonial studies of koro came from Southeast Asia, but while Singapore documented transient koro panic attacks like those seen in South Sulawesi, the Hong Kong studies described a very diﬀerent persisting anxiety syndrome. The international study of genital retraction syndromes has become confusing because it has not revealed a single entity but rather a cluster of related overlapping syndromes with multiple aetiological factors, requiring a polythetic approach to classification. Indonesia today provides excellent research opportunities for investigating these overlapping syndromes and multiple etiological factors. Preliminary surveys have shown that koro still occurs in South Sulawesi where its Bugis-Makassar name koroq was first recorded in 1859. Comparable folk illnesses occur nearby in Flores and Sumba. Given the accessibility of patients and healers, and the availability of anthropological and medical expertise, inexpensive studies could bring greater coherence and deeper understanding of koro, completing the task begun in colonial times.

Parallel Session E3 The History of Psychology in Indonesia Chair: Nani I.R. Nurrachman-Sutoyo, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta

The Development of Psychology in Post-Colonial Indonesia, 1950-1959 Iwan Wahyu Widayat, Airlangga University

Psychology in Indonesia was formally born in 1953, with the establishment of a department of psychology under the medical school in the University of Indonesia in Jakarta. However, psychological studies, especially those involving the use of psychological knowledge to solve practical problems in

people’s daily lives, can be traced long before the formal establishment. Since the Dutch colonial era, psychological studies have been conducted in the Dutch East Indies (the former name of Indonesia), either by anthropologists, psychiatrists or pedagogues. This provides evidence that psychology in Indonesia did not develop in a vacuum. In some ways, psychology in Indonesia also grew out of non- western psychology that coexisted in the field of science studied at universities. This paper will explore the early development of Indonesian psychology in the 1950s, and the link between the development of western and non-western psychology, especially in Jogjakarta

The Historical Transition toward the Emergence of Psychology in Indonesia Eunike Sri Tyas Suci, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta

The history of psychology in Indonesia has not been well explored. This paper introduces the history before psychology was founded in Indonesia, during the historical transition of the colonialism. In 1904, Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), a well-known German psychiatrist, who visited the mental hospital in Buitenzorg, the first Western mental hospital built in Java in 1882. He did comparative research on mental illness in indigenous patients and compared them to patients in Germany. He found that dementia praecox occurred at the same frequency in both groups, but that the symptoms might be influenced by race, climate, and culture. Kraepelin later established a concept of cross-cultural psychiatry. In this paper, I link the concept of cross-cultural psychiatry with Javanese philosophy and beliefs in explaining mental health, derived from the dissertation of Soemantri Hardjoprakoso, the founder and the first Dean of the Psychology Department of Padjajaran University. The dissertation of Hardjoprakoso, usually called Pak Mantri, was in Dutch and therefore hardly any Indonesians know about it. Indeed, the title was translated in Indonesian as “Candra Jiwa Indonesia” as the basis of psychotherapy. It has been developed by Javanese Pangestu believers as the “transcendence to the depth of the heart and beyond.”

The Quest for Postcolonial Self: Inter-referencing, Manusia Indonesia, and Psikologi Jawa Fadjar I. Thufail, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)

When psychologist-cum-poet Darmanto Jatman published Psikologi Jawa in 1997, he reinvigorated a search for a cultural form to represent manusia Indonesia seutuhnya (a solid Indonesian Man), a figure that has haunted the Indonesian political public since the early 20th century. Colonial nationalists and postcolonial intellectuals have long since struggled hard to imagine the “national-self”—what makes Indonesian people “Indonesian”—in addition to their shared colonial experience. This paper argues that the 1945 independence marks political decolonization but did not lead to the decolonization of self. A 1977 public lecture delivered by Mochtar Lubis highlights the problem of decolonization of self, when he lists several social and psychological characteristics he claims to constitute manusia Indonesia. The characteristics have since then been widely debated, and twenty years later, Darmanto Jatman returned to the same question. This paper addresses a question: How does discourse of manusia Indonesia seutuhnya highlight a reflexive process of desiring a postcolonial national-self? In so doing, this paper returns to Darmanto Jatman’s Psikologi Jawa and Mochtar Lubis’s Manusia Indonesia to discuss inter- referencing as a process of desiring the modern and the traditional. Drawing on psychology, Jatman and Lubis trace the contours of the modern and traditional psyche and draw on them to talk about manusia Indonesia as a cultural form. By looking at the inter-referencing process manifested in the relation between psyche and self-figuration, this paper demonstrates that decolonization in Indonesia is a bifurcated reflexive process of desiring a complete and solid psyche in the quest for a postcolonial national-self.

Friday 29 June

Plenary Session 3 Leprosy in Indonesia Soesilo Room Chair: Por Heong Hong, University of Malaya

Ragapadmi and the Failed Health Propaganda on Leprosy in the Dutch East Indies Dimas Iqbal Romadhon, Universitas Islam Raden Rahmat

This paper examines Dutch colonial efforts in conducting health propaganda on leprosy in the Dutch East Indies. I analyse a popular leprosy folktale from Madura, which had the highest leprosy endemic in the Dutch East Indies, which was used as the center of discussion. The folktale, known by the Madurese as Bangsacara - Ragapadmi, was the best documented and most widely published folktale from Madura during the Dutch administration in the Dutch East Indies. When a leprosy outbreak in Madura caught global attention, the folktale was modified and taught within the colonial academic system. This paper presents Dutch publications about Ragapadmi, and their failure to understand that the nature of leprosy transmission contributed, in part, to the negative stigma of leprosy held by the Indonesian people at this time.

Winning the Losers: The Life of the Patients in the World of Indonesian Health Moordiati, Gajdah Mada University

This paper will discuss what has not been seen, discussed, or explained more comprehensively when analyzing Indonesia’s health problems. Although the existence of patients is very important in many health settings, apparently this has thus far not been considered as a suitable topic for analysis. Quite a bit of the available evidence has demonstrated that the patients are just the object of various treatments or health problems. This is one reason this paper will attempt to uncover what really happened with leprosy patients. Why are they still treated differently from patients with other diseases? Is this treatment or action a part of past ideas? Historical approaches and methods are deliberately used in my research to get an in-depth explanation of the “history” of leprosy patients in Indonesia.

Parallel Session F1 Traditional Medicine in Transition Chair: C. Michele Thompson

Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (1954-1975): The Decolonization Process and The Cold War Nara Oda, Kyoto University

This presentation aims to consider the complex modern history of traditional Vietnamese medicine vis- à-vis Chinese medicine during Vietnam’s decolonization process and nation-building. It examines the extent to which, as well as how, the government of South and North Vietnam institutionalized ‘Eastern medicine,’ i.e., traditional medicine, within its medical system, as seen through official documents and reports from hospitals and newspapers at this time. Vietnamese traditional medicine consists of Thuoc Nam (medicine of the south) and Thuoc Bac (medicine of the north, i.e., China). It has been said that North Vietnam made a policy to improve Vietnamese medicine, whereas the South did not take such an initiative. However, this presentation argues that South Vietnam did in fact try to promote traditional medicine and to integrate it into the public healthcare system through lawmaking. This presentation examines this from two main perspectives; 1) how French-trained doctors and local practitioners aimed to create traditional medicine using their notion of ‘science’; and, 2) how both governments tried to get

rid of Chinese influences to create a traditional Vietnamese medicine. These historical processes show decolonization in the medical field in divided states under the cold war. The Herb Pharmaceutical Industry in South Korea Eunjeong Ma, Pohang University of Science and Technology

This paper presents a recent history of the herbal pharmaceutical industry in South Korea. After analyzing the governmental initiatives to mass-produce herbal medicines, the case of one biotechnology company that produces functional health foods and natural drugs is discussed. In 2015, Naturalendo Tech was at the center of public outcry over its market hit, the phytoestrogen product line purportedly containing Cynanchum wilfordii. It was discovered that this plant was actually not present in the intended consumer health products, but a morphologically similar plant was being used instead. The subsequent public outcry exposed the entangled nature of the industry by posing the following questions: How is quality, safety and efficacy of functional foods derived from Korean medicines being assessed and secured? This seemingly straightforward question placed the entire herbal pharmaceutical industry under intense public scrutiny. This case provides the entry point for analyzing the emergence of the herbal pharmaceutical industry in South Korea, focusing on tensions between globalizing strategies, regulatory regimes and the domestic market. The paper shows that the industry is best understood as an asymmetric assemblage of post-colonial relations linking domestic and international regulatory authorities, consumer market agencies, techno-scientific research institutions, the academy, and medicinal plants.

Indian Medicine (Ayurveda) in Malaysia: Globalized Commodification after Decolonization Md. Nazrul Islam, United International College, Beijing Normal University-Hong Kong Baptist University

Both India and Malaysian were decolonized more than a half century ago, and a significant percentage of Malaysian citizens are ethnic Indian. Ayurveda was brought into and practiced in Malaysia from the early years of ethnic Indian migration across the Southeast Asian region during British colonial rule. According to the statistical data obtained from the Division of Traditional and Complementary Medicine (T&CM), Ministry of Health Malaysia, as of 2015, a total of 13,846 local T&CM practitioners had registered with the e-PENGAMAL system since 2008, 58 of them being practitioners of Traditional Indian Medicine. However, a large number of stores across Malaysia sell various Ayurvedic preparatory medicine and health products manufactured in India. This study conducted an ethnographic investigation in Little India Street in Kuala Lumpur, and Himalaya Herbal Healthcare store in Sunway Pyramid Shopping Mall in Selangor state. All these stores exclusively sell health products, beauty and cosmetic products and toiletries under the brand name of Ayurvedic product or preparatory medicine, echoing a trend of globalized commodification after decolonization.

Parallel Session F2 Medical Research and Medical Education in Transition Chair: Liesbeth Hesselink, Independent Scholar

Apotheker Assistenten School (1920 - 1934): The First School of Pharmaceutical Agents in Java Fathia Lestari, Independent Scholar

The development of science to the practice of medicine in some areas of Southeast Asia cannot be separated from the arrival of European nations, both politically and socially. These political and social practices gave birth to a culture, including the so-called “Western medical culture”. Although Europeans have long since abandoned the region of Southeast Asia, until now, Western medical culture has continued and expanded without looking at the political aspect as it once did. The question is, why does this happen? If the answer is that the medical culture is present only because of political factors, it is possible that the medical culture has not existed to this day. This paper will try to answer that question by looking at a small part of the medical culture, the pharmacy, commonly known as the science of

medicine. The culture of Western medicine cannot be separated from pharmaceuticals because the end of the western treatment process is drug. In this paper, I will discuss the Dutch East Indies as one example of pharmaceutical development in Southeast Asia, by discussing the first pharmaceutical agent school in Java. The school was named Apothekers Assistenten School, which was inaugurated in 1920 by the Dutch East Indies government. Some of the things that will be discussed are; (1) the curriculum used during the lessons; (2) students and teachers; and (3) the graduates of the school. The source used was the first pharmaceutical magazine in the Dutch East Indies, Pharmaceutiche Tijdschrift voor Nederlands Indië. The magazine was issued by the Dutch Indies Pharmaceutical organization Nederlandsch-Indische Apotheker-Vereeniging (NIAV). Based on the sources gathered, in practice the Dutch East Indies used “Education” as a political and social path to bring up the pharmaceutical culture (medicine) of the West, which continues to take place.

Transitions and Training: The Problem of Biomedical Staffing During South Sulawesi’s Post- Independence Period, 1950-1959 Jennifer Nourse, University of Richmond

The following paper focuses on health infrastructure and staffing in Makassar, in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. During 1949-1950, after the Japanese occupation, Makassar became the headquarters for Dutch administration of Eastern Indonesia, called NICA, NIT, and the Great East government. Dutch administrators staffed and managed medical facilities, giving lip service to native self-governance. In 1946, the Allies donated 6,000 tons of medical equipment to NICA (confiscated Japanese x-ray machines, Allied beds, autoclaves, and lab equipment). These materials and the well-trained Dutch personnel facilitated rebuilding of bombed hospitals and clinics, allowing for a quick return to full medical service. During 1950-59, when complete independence from the Dutch was achieved, almost all of the Dutch nurses, doctors, and Red Cross volunteers returned to Europe. This left South Sulawesi healthcare services without the majority of its medical personnel. To keep services running, South Sulawesians relied on minimally trained personnel, dentists, and thabib or interim international doctors, and occasional visits from Mercy Ships. Remote villagers and the poor relied upon traditional and Chinese healers. In 1956, the region’s first medical school opened (Hassanuddin), but few of its graduates could pass medical exams. This paper argues that despite such setbacks, the memory of the region’s status as a medical mecca motivated the small biomedical community to persevere to improve its medical services.

Developing ‘Centres of Excellence’: The Indian Cancer Research Centre, 1950-1962 Shirish N. Kavadi, Symbiosis International University, Pune

Medical research under British colonial rule was an imperial preserve, defined by political and racial exclusiveness, that generated great dissatisfaction among the Indian medical profession and nationalists. After independence, the Indian government actively pursued an ambitious plan for developing scientific research that included the upgrading of existing medical colleges and institutes for postgraduate education and research. V.R. Khanolkar, Director of the Indian Cancer Research Centre in Bombay, believed that it was important to bridge the gap in scientific advancement between the West and India; reducing the country’s dependence on the West; and, for Indians to address the medical problems of India themselves. He encouraged young medical researchers to train abroad and on their return offered them suitable positions and facilities at the ICRC. The Rockefeller Foundation, whose policy was to support “the already good to become even better” and, of “making the peaks higher”, enthusiastically aided Khanolkar. This paper examines the efforts of Khanolkar and the RF to develop the ICRC into a ‘centre of excellence’ and to train a new generation of Indian medical researchers in the context of change and continuity in colonial policy.

Parallel Session G1 Interregional Contact and Collaboration Chair:

Life, Science and Nation: Uramoto Masasaburō’s Physiological Worldview, 1935-1945 Hong Sookyeong, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore

This paper analyzes a Japanese physiologist’s activities and writings during the Sino-Japanese and the Pacific Wars. Uramoto Masasaburō (浦本政三郎, 1891-1965) was one of the leading physiologists of pre-war Japan, whose expertise spanned from general physiology, reflex theory, kinesiology to sports medicine. As a founding member of the Physiological Society of Japan (PSJ) and physiology professor at the Jikei University of Medicine, Uramoto actively engaged in the public discourse regarding the relationship between nation (minzoku), science, national vitality, and the role of physiology/medicine in society. Ultimately, he resonated with a group of his contemporaries who sought to construct nationally defined philosophy of science and medicine. This particularistic approach to science and medicine faced fierce criticism and was often labelled as “unscientific and irrational Japanism (nihonshugi)” by critically minded scientists, especially the Marxist scientist group. Although Uramoto and his like-minded physiologists have long been forgotten, his active involvement in the conceptual and institutional pursuit of wartime medical new order (igaku shintaisei)—centering on the role of a nation-state—left lasting legacies in postwar Japan.

Mobilising Applied Medical Sciences for Indonesia: Soekarnoist Science and Asian-African Solidarity (1950s) Vivek Neelakantan, Independent Scholar

In his novel Jejak Langkah (Footsteps), Pramoedya Ananta Toer observed that physicians occupied a unique niche in the Dutch East Indies’ colonial setting. Physicians not only stimulated scientific consciousness but also sensitised the population on social issues. In a similar vein, in 1958—thirteen years after the proclamation of Indonesian independence—President Soekarno expressed optimism that science would serve as a conduit in realising the revolutionary ideal of a just and prosperous society. This paper examines the context in which Indonesia mobilised applied medical sciences, particularly nutrition and paediatrics, into nation-building during the 1950s. The most salient feature of Soekarnoist science was the reflection of the proverbial Bandung Spirit that envisioned Indonesia’s technological self-sufficiency, without dependence on either the US or the USSR, and solidarity with postcolonial Asian and African nations. Soekarno understood science strategically with reference to Indonesia’s needs and its Cold War aspirations as leader of the Non-Aligned Bloc. This paper problematizes the notion of Soekarnoist science. Given Soekarno’s engineering background and his syncretism in appropriating international ideas, it is unclear what his contribution to postcolonial Indonesian science actually was.

The Chinese Diaspora, the Cholera Pandemic, and Politics in Southeast Asia and China, 1960- 1961 Xiaoping Fang, Nanyang Technological University

Until the late 1950s, the cholera caused by the El Tor Vibrio cholerae was confined to endemic foci on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi (Celebes), where it had broken out four times between 1937 and 1945. At the end of the 1950s, the Indonesian Sukarno government maneuvered its troops between Makassar and Sulawesi to suppress an internal rebellion, then in May 1959 it issued a decree to revoke the trading licenses of aliens in rural areas. Further policy changes came in January 1960, when the Indonesian and Chinese governments signed the Treaty on Dual Citizenship between Indonesia and China. These events unexpectedly caused both domestic and transnational mobility on a large scale. Another outcome was the spread of El Tor cholera, which escalated from an endemic disease into a global pandemic. This paper discusses Indonesian Chinese and the cholera pandemic in Southeast Asia and China and analyzes the disease and its mobility in the context of transnational politics during the early 1960s.

The Vietnam War (1965-1973) and its Impact on APCO: Emerging Networks of Tropical Medicine through inter-Asian Collaboration, 1965-1974 John P. DiMoia, Seoul National University

APCO, or the Asian Parasite Control Organization was formed in 1974, representing a collaborative outreach effort between Japan and South Korea to Southeast Asian partners in the areas of Family Planning and Parasite control. On the Korean side, the activity directed against parasites is usually told as a national story, following the Anti-Parasite school-based campaigns beginning in the late 1960s. However, the Korean medical presence during the Vietnam War provides an additional, and formative, context for a specifically Asian post-colonial medicine. A number of the key figures, including Dr. Seo Byung Seol, trained under wartime Japan, and then became leaders of the domestic effort, culminating with formation of KAPE (Korea Anti-Parasite Eradication, 1964). This ambitious mobilization intersected almost immediately with the dispatch of Korean troops to Vietnam, where they would be exposed to an array of parasites, a tropical climate, and multiple diseases, including malaria and dengue. The Vietnam experience provided Korean medical personnel with an experimental space in which to learn, thereby holding implications for the school campaigns, as well as for APCO. If APCO brought Japanese and Korean expertise together, its origin story as a benevolent, development project tends to elide its historical roots in Japanese imperialism and Korean sub-imperialism.

Parallel Session G2 Drugs and the Medical Treatment of Addiction in Indonesia Chair: Jennifer Nourse, University of Richmond

The Hidden History of Cocaine in Indonesia during the Colonial Era Tyas Suci, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta

It is hardly known that coca trees were grown in Java during the colonial era. In 1878 the Dutch colonial government started cultivating coca plants in the botanical garden of Buitenzorg, now called Kebun Raya Bogor. Brought by a Belgium company, the plant grew very well in Bogor and then later the colonial government expanded growing it in other areas in Java, Madura, and Sumatra. The coca leaves cultivated in the East Indies had a high alkaloid component, which gives a stimulant effect stronger than the ones from Latin America. Since it gave an enormous profit to the Dutch government, the production of coca leaves increased significantly. In 1905, Java exported 67,000 kilograms of coca leaves producing about 1,000 kilograms of coca. Six years later in 1911 it exported 750,000 kilograms producing 10,250 kilograms of coca. At the time the world needed about 12,000 kilograms of coca. It can be said that Java was once the biggest coca producer in the world. Later on, the world situation of World War I and the high cost of shipment made the production of coca leaves in Java decrease, and finally disappear forever.

Madat and Pemadat: The Strategy of Chinese-Indonesians in Eradicating Opium and Treating Opium Addiction, 1920s-1942 Ravando, University of Melbourne

It cannot be denied that the Dutch colonial government enjoyed tremendous advantages from the opium trade. Based on a report issued by the Ministry of Colonial Territories in 1916, in Java alone, the net revenue from the opium trade increased significantly from 1 million guilders in 1814 to 116 million guilders in 1880. The opium revenue accounted for 10% of total colonial income, and it exceeded 14% after 1880. On the other hand, the Chinese-Indonesian community considered opium as the most significant challenge they had to face throughout the 20th century. They were the leading consumer of the drug. Opium was regarded as a symbol of prestige among Chinese-Indonesians. This item became essential to the Chinese middle class and was often served when a guest came to visit. However, because of the addictive substances contained in it, most of the Chinese-Indonesian people could not escape

from the dependence on this stuff. The Chinese-Indonesian could spend more than f. 30,000,000 per year for this product. Sin Po, the most prominent Chinese-Indonesian newspaper, even wrote that if the Chinese-Indonesians could stop consuming opium for at least ten years, they could build modern warships like “Java” or “Sumatra” with the money (Sin Po, 17 June 1933). The Chinese-Indonesian community decided to prevent further spread of opium in Indonesia. One crucial way was through the establishment of anti-opium hospitals in several cities to treat opium addicts. Other solutions were through propaganda, public lectures, or posters, which contained the danger of opium and how opium could destroy someone’s life. This paper seeks to analyze the emergence of the anti-opium hospital in various cities in Java, which were born after a series of discussions about the adverse effects caused by opium. How did the hospitals handle these opium addicts? How did the hospitals control the opium patients after they were discharged? Besides, it is also interesting to see the various strategies undertaken among the Chinese to socialize the dangers of opium to the community, such as through caricatures, folklore, and so forth. If possible, this paper will attempt to explore the cooperation between the Chinese community and other communities in facing this opium hazard.

The Anti-Opium Crusade in Java: The Rise and Development of Anti-Opium Movement in Late Colonial Java, 1915-1942 Abdul Wahid, Gadjah Mada University

At the turn of twentieth century, an emerging ‘civil society’ started to question the Dutch colonial policy concerning opium in the Indies. Consisting of journalists, physicians, Christian missionaries, and intellectuals, they condemned the Dutch colonial government for continuing its opium business in the colony, and for its failures in creating a reliable system of opium consumption control, in curbing opium smuggling and related crimes (including violence and corruption), and in tackling the growing addiction problems in the colony. In the absence of such political will, some of them organized series of anti- opium campaigns in the forms of public education, medical treatment, and legal advocacy. By focusing on these campaigns, this paper seeks to reveal another aspect of socio-cultural activism in late colonial Java, which became part and parcel of the blossoming political aspiration and colonial ‘citizenship’ practice. Perusing the rarely used historical sources, particularly the Dutch colonial archives and newspapers, this paper argues that this anti-opium movement was primarily a response to the Dutch’s ambivalent opium policy and to the rise of anti-opium movements elsewhere in Southeast Asia or Asia.

Illicit Drugs Policies during the Colonial Era and the Post-Independence Indonesia Sudirman Nasir, Hasanuddin University

Illicit drugs and their health, social and legal impacts were serious problems both in the colonial era and post-independence Indonesia. Opium was the most common narcotic more than 100 years ago in the Netherlands East-Indies. The colonial authorities, through the 1893 legislation named the Opium Regie (Opium Monopoly), completely controlled the trade of this substance. Raw Indian opium was purchased through an agent at the Calcutta auction with the British Colonial Government ensuring the quality of the product. Though the Netherlands East-Indies colonial government declared that this policy was also aimed to maintain health and reduce numerous harms related to the consumption and selling of opium, economic motives dominated the policy. The government enjoyed huge financial benefits from this policy. The Opium Regie was adjusted frequently to maintain the economic benefits and generally overlook the health consequences of wide opium use. Not very different from the colonial government, the post-independence Indonesian governments, including the current Joko Widodo administration, also view drugs as a serious problem. Differing from the colonial government, drug polices of the Indonesian Government emphasise moralistic and highly punitive approaches to drugs, thus also overlooking a more evidence-based policy to minimise harms related to drugs.

The Forgotten Legacy of the Past and the Stagnancy of the Coming Future of Medical Cannabis Policy in Indonesia Asmin Fransiska, Atma Jaya Catholic Univ of Indonesia, Jakarta

During the Dutch colonial era in Indonesia there was a foundation of a regulated drug market, mostly for opium, and particularly for cannabis. The Dutch regulated the threshold on quantities and qualities of drugs, from consumption to distribution, and played an important role in the drug market, despite the ethical debate over this policy. Cannabis use has been reported since 10th century in Java, and since the 19th century cannabis was used recreationally and medicinally. Indonesia has joined the international prohibition regime by ratifying the UN Drug Control Conventions in 1971. Since then, all drugs under Schedule I are prohibited, including cannabis. The prohibitionist approach created negative consequences. Cannabis users, predominately youth communities, have been targeted with imprisonment and denied their right to health care. This paper aims to describe the regressive movement from the Colonial Era to Indonesia today, and the extent to which the current policy creates the stagnancy in research on the medical benefit of cannabis. The paper will use historical literature and current policy, and also cases related to the research.

Parallel Session G3 Diet, Nutrition, and Health Chair: Gani Ahmad Jaelani, Padjadjaran University

Between Poverty and Ignorance: The Question of Nutrition in Javanese People during the Late Colonial Period Gani Ahmad Jaelani, Padjadjaran University

The report of the Intergovernmental Conference of Far-Eastern Countries on Rural Hygiene in 1937 stated that alimentation was an important subject in the domain of public hygiene, and for this reason it became one of the subjects discussed in the conference. The main question focused on the amount of food required for the body’s dietary needs in order to assure health. Lack of nutrition, which was not always caused by the lack quantity of food, can endanger health. In the case of the Javanese people, malnutrition is not always an economic question, but also a question of knowledge; not only poverty can lead to malnutrition but also the state of ignorance of the Javanese. The fact that this question is not only a medical question, but also economic and political ones, means that it involves not only physicians, but also laboratory analysts, public health propaganda, and is a responsibility of the agriculture department. Using the treatises, scientific journals, and the report of the Instituut voor Volksvoeding, this paper will analyze the practice of daily menu related to the nutrition. The paper will also examine the socio-economic background related to consumption. Lastly, this paper will attempt to analyze the reasons for the interest of the colonial government in this question.

After the Independence War (1945-1949), during the 1950s-1960s certain areas in Indonesia were facing famine and malnutrition. In 1962, Associated Press journalist Peter Arnett, reported about this. According to Arnett, famines occurred because the government mismanaged food crops. President Sukarno was upset by Arnett’s reporting. Apparently, in the name of political reputation, the government was trying to hide the cases of hunger and malnutrition from international condemnation. Some propaganda was then implemented, especially the nutrition program “Empat Sehat Lima Sempurna” (4 healthy, 5 perfect) led by Dr. Poorwo Soedarmo, by publishing a series of culinary books. This study tries to excavate more of Pierre van der Eng’s study (2012) on famines in Indonesia during 1950s – 1960s by showing the new facts related to how the Indonesian government systematically hid famine and malnutrition cases through their nutrition and culinary propaganda. The peak was in 1967

when the first Indonesian national cookbook Mustika Rasa (Crown of Taste) was published under the orders of Sukarno.

The Question of Nutritional Improvement during the New Order Period in Indonesia (1966-1998) Shendy Vegaziandra Arsandy, Siti Hanipah & Rifa Utami Zahara, Padjadjaran University

This paper will examine the problem of nutrition in the population during the New Order period. Poor health conditions along with the economic crisis, which consisted of inflation and high poverty rates at the end of the Soekarno era, caused Indonesia’s development to be hampered. Accordingly, health improvement became one of the main programs of the New Order to prepare a more productive young generation. Nutritional needs for the younger generation at the beginning of the New Order period was essential, which explains why this question was at the core of their occupation. A number of nutrition- related workshops were organized from 1967 by LIPI (The Indonesian Institute of Science) in collaboration with other departments, such as the Departemen Kesehatan (Ministry of Health) and Bappenas (Indonesian Ministry of National Development Planning). In 1968, the department of nutrition at IPB conducted intensive nutrition education for undergraduate degree students. A number of studies have also been conducted since the 1970s. Using research reports, scientific journal articles, as well as monographs, this paper will analyze the issues debated on the improvement of the quality of public nutrition. This paper will also analyze which segments of society were targeted in this nutritional improvement program. Finally, this paper will analyze why the question of nutrition was important during the New Order’s political policies.

Parallel Session H1 Plantations and Health Care Chair: Wasino, Semarang State University

Health Service of Plantation Labourers in East Sumatra, 1945-1958 Kiki Maulana Affandi, Universitas Sumatera Utara Junaidi, Gadjah Mada University

The health development of East Sumatra, a plantation area, cannot be separated from the condition and situation of the labourers at the plantations. Labour is the main entity in this issue. In the colonial period, the large migration of labourers who came to work in the plantations of East Sumatra created health problems, such as the spread of epidemics and disease, high mortality rates, as well as environmental and hygiene problems. This caused the planters to try to improve the health services of workers in plantations. It was also driven by the economic interests of plantation entrepreneurs to maintain the healthy condition of their workers, so that the planation production would be maintained and increased. Some policies were to build health facilities such as polyclinics, disease research institutions, and hospitals. In addition, health care efforts were also undertaken. Plantation labourers were provided with adequate food and water intake, and settlement systems within the plantation environment were improved. The various health care policies were pursued by all the plantations in the region. Various health-care efforts were successful in reducing the rate of labour deaths in the transition from the 19th century to the 20th century. The policy efforts of the health services in the colonial period continued after the independence of Indonesia, despite some changes such as the management of health institutions and the welfare of laborers living on plantations.

The Origin of the Child Health Care in the Sumatra East Coast “Cultuurgebied” Devi Itawan, Gadjah Mada University

Colonial plantation companies have played the main role in research and healthcare of tropical diseases in the east coast of Sumatra. This was the beginning of public health awareness in east coast Sumatra, even in the Dutch East Indies. Health policy at the East coast Sumatra was underpinned by the practical

consideration of the availability of healthy coolies in the plantation. With the increasing number of married coolies, the concerns of health care shifted to women and children. The necessity for coolies forced women and children to also be involved in the workshops and plantations. East coast Sumatra’s plantations were harsh environments. There often were tropical diseases that became endemic. In this kind of place, children were more susceptible to the tropical infectious diseases such as dysentery, malaria, and typhus fever. An account by Koninklijke Vereeniging Koloniaal Instituut-Afdeeling Tropische Hygiëne showed that child mortality (1-15 years old) was about 10% in the 1920s. Because of this report, the plantation companies were convinced to take further care of children’s health, as it would have a direct effect on plantation hygiene and population growth of the region. At the East coast Sumatra, the children’s health care discourse was a proxy for the interests of colonial capitalism, hygiene problems, and the needs of population growth.

Parallel Session H2 Tuberculosis and Zoonosis Meeting Room 2 Chair: Vivek Neelakantan, Airlangga University

From Tuberculosis to Respiratory Medicine: The Historical Development of Pulmonology in Indonesia Agus Dwi Susanto, University of Indonesia

Respiratory medicine in Indonesia has undergone a unique development, which was closely related to the national history of the country. This history goes back to the year 1930, when the Dutch colonial government started a control program for tuberculosis. The government decided to train some local general physicians to perform the detection of tuberculosis. The trainees called themselves “longarts” (pulmonologists). By the end of the Dutch occupation, there were several longarts in some main cities in Indonesia. During the occupation by the Japanese that took over the Dutch colony, there had been no improvement in the situation. After the Proclamation of Independence, the Indonesian government training of new pulmonologists was restarted in Jakarta, Surabaya, Padang, and Medan. In the year 1950, longarts from all over Indonesia met in Lawang, East Java and came to develop pulmonology to a level similar to other branches of medicine, and sought to establish Departments of Pulmonology in every School of Medicine. In 1965, the Minister of Health of Indonesia, Dr. M. Siwabessy, instructed the Director of RSCM to re-establish the training of pulmonologists in Jakarta. For this purpose, Dr. Rasmin Rasjid was appointed to carry out the training program in Persahabatan Hospital, and was appointed as the Head of the Department of Pulmonology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia. In 1975 pulmonologists all over Indonesia agreed to establish a professional organization named the IDPI (Ikatan Dokter Paru Indonesia or, the Indonesian Association of Pulmonologists), followed by the First National Congress of Pumonology in Jakarta in 1976. At present the IDPI, which has now become the PDPI, has 26 branches representing the whole country. In 1995, Professor Hadiarto was the first to use the term “respiratory medicine,” and after that the name of the Department and the Program was then called Pulmonology and Respiratory Medicine.

Rat and Zoonosis Cases in Gunung Kidul: Study on Collective Memory of Health Issue Martina Safitri, State Islamic Institute of Surakarta

This paper was triggered by a Kejadian Luar Biasa (KLB, Extraordinary Incident) of leptospirosis due to rat urine in 2010 that caused casualties in Yogyakarta. Leptospirosis is an acute infection caused by the bacteria leptospira contained in rat urine. For decades, this disease got less attention because of its endemic nature, until the 2010 Yogyakarta Extraordinary Incident, due to the number of victims of leptospirosis. The most alarming incident occurred in the districts of Bantul, Sleman and Kulonprogro. Compared to other districts in Yogyakarta, the number of victims in Gunung Kidul was relatively small. It was assumed this was related to the collective memory of rat-related incidents in the past. Zoonotic diseases caused by rats happened repeatedly. Frequent hunger and the worsening level of health of the

population were used as alerts to mitigate zoonotic diseases. In a historical perspective, health issues were not always focused on determining factors of the disease or how many victims recorded. Collective memory is another concern that will lead to an understanding that can benefit in the future. This study used an oral history approach. It is a method to explore the experiences of common people due to limited written documents. Interviews were conducted to collect data on personal experiences, the myths and local vocabularies that describe bad experiences.