Archives of Business Research – Vol.6, No.8 Publication Date: Aug. 25, 2018 DOI: 10.14738/abr.68.5127. Sebby, A. G., & Jordan, K. (2018). Rural Tourism: A Grounded Theory on Limited Stakeholder Advocacy. Archives of Business Research, 6(8), 216-227.
Rural Tourism: A Grounded Theory on Limited Stakeholder Advocacy
Angela G. Sebby Hospitality and Tourism Management, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, N.C.
Kenneth Jordan Hospitality and Tourism Management, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, N.C.
ABSTRACT While many rural areas in the southeast look to tourism to help supplement diminishing financial opportunities due to the decline in manufacturing and farming, many communities still incur obstacles and are unable to sustain a viable tourist destination area. Without entrusting the Destination Marketing Organization (DMO) to identify stakeholders’ contributions for the betterment of the community as a destination brand and visitor demands, expectations cannot be met. Working within small-town politics, nativity of the benefits of tourism, and misaligned brand images, the DMOs and stakeholders appear ineffective in marketing the rural area as a destination that fully embodies the culture, history, and natural resources contained within their respective geographic boundaries. Understanding how to build and obtain stakeholders’ confidence, a DMO can cultivate strategic relationships through social exchanges and strengthen trust within stakeholder groups. These relationships sustain an all-inclusive brand image for the rural destination area, increasing visitor satisfaction, and stakeholder investment.
Keywords: Destination Marketing Organization, rural tourism, social exchange, stakeholder advocacy, trust
INTRODUCTION The loss of financially viable opportunities for residents within rural areas has stemmed from a changing economic environment. The proliferation of industrial farming and the downturn of manufacturing facilities over the past fifty years [38] have led to a decline not only in jobs for residents but also in the financial health and viability of local economies. To help stimulate economic potential, rural communities are exploring a wide range of touristic prospects, fostering an interest in new job opportunities and an optimistic fortuity for the declining communities [35]. From farm-to-table events, cultural/heritage site development, and alfresco leisure, rural communities are embracing a wide range of potential touristic opportunities such as agricultural, traditional, and outdoor adventure tourism in an effort to create niche experiences for tourists within their respective areas.
While periodic tourism events augment taxation, provide temporary financial benefits, slightly improved public amenities, and offer temporary job possibilities [27], the fundamental objective for communities is to establish sustainable tourism within their area. When a community utilizes an organization such as a DMO, with the expertise to strategically manage and market the resources available to the locality, this goal can be realized. Discerning the local customs, heritage, and traditions in conjunction with understanding the current infrastructure, available resources, and lodging conditions are much easier to navigate with the assistance of a Destination Marketing Organization (DMO). Through research, networking, Archives of Business Research (ABR) Vol.6, Issue 8, Aug-2018 planning, and earmarked funding, DMOs are competent in marketing and managing the brand image for rural areas that encompasses all the available resources to create a prodigious experience for travelers.
Due to a lack of understanding of the benefits and the advantages of rural tourism among the DMOs, Economic Development Organization (EDOs), government offices, and those in the community, economic growth is constrained [6]. External stakeholders lack of trust in the DMO to successfully market and manage the rural area as a tourism destination derives from political motivations and maneuvering, naivety in the benefits of the DMO, government tensions, personal interests, and undefined goals and strategies from the community as a whole [31]. However, social exchanges between tourism stakeholders and the DMO can result in increased information and resource contribution for the community and the ability to effectively and efficiently implement defined strategies to address the desire for a unique touristic experience. Tourism planning and development of the rural area are contingent on strategic alliances, vital to a sustainable rural tourism destination [36]. The formation of visitor gratification and repeat visitation can help establish a sustainable rural destination rooted in the formation of trust in the DMO and its ability to provide deliverable and measurable results for the stakeholders and communities alike.
What is absent from literature is a Grounded Theory study on advocacy for rural tourism, revealing what DMOs and stakeholders consider to be effective in social exchange practices between the parties. Notably relevant in the context of the recent increase in rural tourism, this study is comprised of involved perspectives from DMOs, government officials, industry stakeholders, and residents from six counties in Tennessee that were purposefully sampled. While there have been qualitative studies on tourism, this study acquired in-depth insight on the perceptions of trust in social exchanges between the parties in rural tourism areas to determine and reduce potential impediments to advocacy for sustainability in underdeveloped and resource-poor rural tourism communities.
The aim of this study was to address the following questions: 1) What are the recognized benefits to the rural tourism area if DMOs strategically align with its stakeholders? 2) What are the stakeholders’ perceptions of effectiveness in tourism development if the DMO forms alliances through strategic social exchanges? 3) What level does the EDO develop relationships and align with the DMO and local stakeholders to promote tourism?
LITERATURE REVIEW Rural Tourism Defined As set forth by Lane [18], rural tourism exists in rural settings that function rurally regarding small businesses, are nature-inspired, and of traditional character. Rural areas must develop naturally with local families, thereby demonstrating the complexity of the setting and its environment, as well as the economy and historical aspects. Likewise, the author states development of rural tourism must maintain the integrity of the area utilized for conservation and sustainability, not urbanization and expansion.
Rural tourism describes tourists traveling to rural destinations to pursue satisfying and pleasurable experiences associated with rural settings, nature, historical heritage, and culture [16, 3]. In these settings, travelers’ experiences can consist of farms, natural surroundings, heritage and folklore, traditions and local values, adventures, art and historical sites, leisure, sightseeing, and education [25, 11, 2, 16]. Rural tourism involves activities such as camping,
Copyright © Society for Science and Education, United Kingdom 217 Sebby, A. G., & Jordan, K. (2018). Rural Tourism: A Grounded Theory on Limited Stakeholder Advocacy. Archives of Business Research, 6(8), 216- 227. walking and hiking, driving, farmers’ and craft markets, cultural displays and museums, adventure sports and activities, heritage sites and education, and musical events [14].
Objectives of Rural Tourism and Sustainability According to the OECD [24], the objectives for rural tourism are to (1) establish jobs and sustain them while allowing for further development, (2) preserve and protect the local architecture and environments, (3) support the community, agriculture, and forestry, (4) improve residents’ quality of life, (5) create jobs for the disadvantaged and under-employed, and (6) enrich the quality of life for urban visitors. The perpetuation of the rural culture should be a recognized goal for rural tourism planning [3], going beyond the OECD’s objectives and compounding success for the destination area [4].
McCool and Martin’s [21] research specifies tourism as an alternative means to alleviate economically depressed social or economic levels in rural areas. Economically, tourism directly affects businesses that service the tourist and creates an indirect economic impact on the entire destination area. According to Fleischer & Felsenstein [10], tourism is responsible for generating demand in the rural market and thereby, creates new revenue sources for the rural area and the local government. Tourism’s direct impact generates new income and employment, increases taxes, and economically elevates the level of prosperity for the rural residents [8]. For rural areas that are economically declining, rural tourism is a viable solution to improve the residents’ quality of life [22], and provides the opportunity to increase waning incomes [7].
In achieving the objectives of rural tourism, destination areas must also consider how to sustain the following goals: conservation of the local culture, protection of the rural environment, and continuing economic development [2,18,19]. Lane [18] clarifies sustainable and prosperous tourism development relies on continuing visitor satisfaction created through the efficient development of the rural destination. A viable tourism area must strategically develop and market the destination area, the hospitality services offered, and the destination- defined attractions, either natural or manmade [38,12]. Furthermore, Wilson et al. [38] explain the development of sustainable rural tourism cannot be achieved without community support.
Sustainable Tourism through Destination Marketing Organizations The means to sustainable tourism requires comprehending the subtleties between tourism, the community, and those promoting tourism [38]. Lane [18] affirms management of rural tourism must be comprised of leaders with the following skills: analytical, communicative, advocacy, and continuous improvement. Soteriades’ [32] research asserts effective collaboration marketing efforts require strong leadership, administrative support, shared vision, goal accomplishment and open communication. Leadership can be achieved by employing a Destination Marketing Organization (DMO) to manage the tourism networks (industry stakeholders, community, government, and visitors) through providing information, coordinating meetings and marketing campaigns, acting as a liaison, and building teams and partnerships [37]. The author also indicates the DMO is the leader for establishing and marketing the destination brand image and coordinating the funding to do so.
Managing the subtleties of tourism, government, and community also requires a different set of soft skills: the strength of vulnerability, the capacity to be humble, disposition to foster relationships to build trust, and the inclination to ask for help. Each of these unconventional soft skills are conditions for building trust in rural tourism. Thibaut and Kelley [33] maintain that trust and commitment abate vulnerability through the development of advocacy. Trust in
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Archives of Business Research (ABR) Vol.6, Issue 8, Aug-2018 the DMO is based upon the mutual effort of the DMO and the tourism stakeholders satisfying tourism objectives with each party fulfilling their obligations [1]. Trust is necessary to lessen the risk and fear of commitments while supporting further advocacy and commitment to the relationship [23,17,15]. When a relationship is more advantageous than the deficiency of the vulnerability incurred from the other party, cooperation ensues.
As trust expands, additional resources and time are devoted to the development of tourism and stakeholder relationships, furthering the disposition of confidence in the DMO’s ability to bolster tourism and sustain the tourism area’s objectives [20,29]. However, trust is constantly being reassessed as to whether both parties are fulfilling their obligations. Understanding that sustainable tourism development is contingent upon all parties working conjointly, the DMO must possess the inclination to ask for help and collaborate with the public sector. Reducing uncertainty in the DMO’s management of the rural tourism area will encourage other participants to be proactive and share resources and information. Robinson and Rousseau [28] argue that deeper relationships are then formed, resulting in increased trust and resource support to effectively market the tourism area. With cohesive tourism planning, development of the tourism destination, and increased urban regeneration, these alliances are important in developing a sustainable rural tourism area [36].
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY To develop a greater understanding of social exchange and the trust involved in the relationships between DMOs and community stakeholders, a qualitative methodology was selected for this study. Participants disclosed their individual experiences and understanding via one-on-one interviews. According to Hatch [13], multiple realities exist due to different individual perceptions, and in this study, it was found that perceptions of social exchange and trust varied among the different participants. Direct observations of the participants were also conducted during local communities' tourism meetings to allow for an unbiased perspective of the social and professional relationships between the parties, as well as the appearance and management of rural tourism.
Qualitative research allowed a deeper understanding of social exchanges between the DMO and stakeholders in Tennessee’s rural tourism communities, while Grounded Theory was used to study the social relationships and group behaviors between the parties involved. It allowed for rich, thick descriptions of the social exchanges that were categorized into concepts and categories, later converted into a working theory of the central phenomenon.
Selection of Rural Counties and Target Population For the purpose of this study, the definition from the USDA’s Economic Research Service Rural- Urban Commuting Areas [34] was utilized. The Tennessee Department of Tourism Development website was utilized to select the counties for this study. Of the ninety-five counties within Tennessee, six counties were chosen. Using the 2014 Economic Impact of Travel on Tennessee Counties report to select the counties for this study, two counties were selected from each region: west, middle, and east Tennessee. The six counties were chosen based on their tax revenue rankings listed in the report. The highest and the lowest ranked counties (derived from the tax revenue rankings) were selected within each of the three geographic regions.
Participants were recruited from tourism-planning meetings in the rural counties, referrals from tourism stakeholders, direct observations by the researchers, and online searches. Direct observations (during county tours and at tourism meetings) were employed to (1) gain a thick description of the county, (2) identify key tourism stakeholders, and (3) to determine non-
Copyright © Society for Science and Education, United Kingdom 219 Sebby, A. G., & Jordan, K. (2018). Rural Tourism: A Grounded Theory on Limited Stakeholder Advocacy. Archives of Business Research, 6(8), 216- 227. participatory stakeholders. Selection was based on the following criterion: involvement in tourism in the given county, assessment of adequate representation in reference to the tourism industry, and willingness to participate and provide quality stakeholder information (likelihood to participate in the study, logistics, and availability). Study participants included: Destination Marketing Organization (DMO) representatives (Chamber of Commerce and/or Convention and Visitor Bureau) and community stakeholders from the Economic Development Organization (EDO), governmental stakeholders (mayor, planner, or board trustee), and local businesses (hospitality, restaurant, or retail business owners/managers).
Data Collection and Interview Process Data was collected using multiple techniques: observations, interviews, elicited material (emails and questionnaires), websites, documents (newspapers, government reports, organizational information), literature reviews, secondary data (USDA reports, Tennessee Tourism reports, and previous Tennessee rural study by researcher), journals, memos, and field notes.
A criterion sampling strategy-purposeful sampling method was employed for the study. Participants were identified as either active or inactive stakeholders in the development of tourism with numerous years of experience in tourism, economic development, government, or business. Data collection was utilized using informal, unstructured, and open-ended interviews [26] in an effort to bring out feelings, thoughts, and perceptions of the social exchanges and trust with the DMO and other stakeholders [9]. An interview protocol was established with one lead-off question and follow up questions if necessary. The first question related to the DMO and what it does for the stakeholders, the second question related to whether or not the stakeholder trusted the DMO. The final question related to the EDO’s involvement in tourism.
Data Analysis After each interview, rich and thick descriptions were created for the location, participants, and the interview process. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed within twenty-four hours to identify prevailing concepts and necessary for ensuring that proceeding interviews would be representative of theoretical sampling. Using inductive analysis, the analysis involved breaking down the data to identify concepts and develop a core category.
Open coding consisted of field notes, memos, secondary data, observations, and then transcripts of the interviews. Prevailing terms and sentences were highlighted with notes and reflections in the margins. This line by line process compiled 138 significant codes of which were further analyzed for relevancy and discord with other passages. Codes were then segmented, compared, and arranged in categories that were further narrowed and analyzed. This open and axial coding was utilized concurrently throughout the interviews and data collection. Throughout this process, new data was compared to pre-existing codes, new codes to previous codes and categories, and new categories to former categories to be to unite them. This assisted in removing duplications, integrating the grounded theory, and substantiating the main category.
An illustrative model was utilized to identify the main variables relating to the social exchanges, connect the codes, erase gaps in the theory formation, and progress the conceptual analysis. Theoretical integration was then implemented to transform the abstract depiction of the social exchanges into a grounded theory. Studying literature on social exchanges, trust, rural tourism, and alliances, allowed for identifiable theoretical categories to be integrated. A
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Archives of Business Research (ABR) Vol.6, Issue 8, Aug-2018 description and conceptual summary memo were written to allow conversion into a grounded theory.
Quality and validation of Grounded Theory Methodological congruence was established through the following: researcher’s paradigms, stated the purpose of the study, consistent methods, audit trail, rigor, and multiple methods of triangulation. The audit trail was well-defined and encompassed the selection of data, interview protocol, collection techniques, and recordings establishing dependability and confirmation. Credibility was established through triangulation with the diverse participants, personal engagement, multiple data collection techniques, and reflective journaling to reduce biases and pre-dispositions.
RESULTS The purpose of this study was to gain in-depth knowledge on the perceptions of trust in social exchanges between DMOs and stakeholders in rural tourism areas develop advocacy for rural tourism by exploring the following: recognized benefits, discernment of effectiveness, and awareness of trust. Using the Grounded Theory axial coding paradigm, the results of the questions posed to participants were examined into the following four categories allowing for the context and intervening conditions: Causal condition, central phenomenon, strategy, and consequences. The coding paradigm is listed below in Table 1.
Table 1: Coding Paradigm: Categories and sub-categories [30] Coding Category Sub-categories Paradigm Causal Expanding Social Benefits • Economic growth in the Conditions community • Economic development • Social experiences • Revitalizing the community Phenomenon Commitment to Change • Unification • Responsible involvement • Passionate Strategies Visionary Sustainability • Identify and produce • Vision Context Recognition • Value • Credibility • Leverage • The area’s magnitude of tourism Intervening Predisposition Toward • Resistance to change Conditions Tourism Development • Enlightenment • Communication • Legitimacy • Perception of trust Consequences Inclusive Community Identity • Improved relationships • Cooperation and the domino effect • Identity: Present themselves as an inclusive community Copyright © Society for Science and Education, United Kingdom 221 Sebby, A. G., & Jordan, K. (2018). Rural Tourism: A Grounded Theory on Limited Stakeholder Advocacy. Archives of Business Research, 6(8), 216- 227.
Causal Condition: Expanding Social Benefits It was established that the main causal condition for trust in the DMO is to successfully build tourism in a rural area and foster social exchanges dependent on the social benefits for the stakeholders and the community. All participants identified personal advantages of supporting the DMO’s management of tourism, as well as the community’s benefits. Economic growth and development, social experience, and revitalization were specified as priorities for the community. Two-thirds of those interviewed stated that the loss of economic opportunities– manufacturing, farming, and a viable talent pool–over the past thirty years had depressed the economy, the community, and the residents. Indicated by five of the six counties, tourism would encourage economic growth in the community, as well as economic development.
Central Phenomenon: Commitment to Change The data revealed that one’s commitment to change encourages trust in social exchanges between DMOs and tourism stakeholders even if there has been previous distrust in the DMOs effectiveness, diverse objectives, and tense relationships. It is grounded in the awareness that for change to take effect, one must support it to receive the benefits, but with committed leadership and support. The subcategories of commitment to change were found to be unification, responsible involvement, and passion for the growth of tourism.
Realizing that aligning with the DMO and other stakeholders obligates one to exchange resources, time, and activities, many in these communities prefer to delay advocacy until they notice the materialization of societal benefits. For those involved in the social exchanges, they recognize that working with the DMO will unifying their efforts, will result in increased personal and societal benefits. One Chamber Director stated, “Right now, it's in their interest to work together and if everybody else is working together versus one person or one entity, then that entity will suffer.” Not all of the Tennessee rural tourism towns studied experience the level of involvement and commitment to change they would prefer to encounter. The mayor of one of the lowest ranking tourism area indicated “There's a lot of jealousy, but we know enough to know that we've got to go outside these boundaries.” All DMOs stressed the commitment to be selective with alliance partners, even if they are in need. It was emphasized that partners must be unified, steadfast, and decisive in their commitment to change.
Tourism development requires extensive time, effort, and commitment to the alliances. Understanding the influence of tourism in their rural areas, many participants believed it would be advantageous to align with the DMO, partner with other stakeholders, and invest the time and energy into the alliances. All participants indicated they were passionate about their community, culture, and history. This has prompted them to be committed to change, create alliances, and be responsibly involved in the tourism development process resulting in additional tourism generating resources, local business support, and societal benefits for tourist and the community.
Strategy: Visionary Sustainability Two visible features were identified that encompassed the particular context of recognizing stakeholders’ advocacy and their predispositions to tourism development: commitment to a vision and the ability to identify and produce. Five of the six counties had established a straightforward vision for their tourism destination and the communities. Through the DMO’s passion for sharing tourism development initiatives with stakeholders, all participants agreed they would support their DMO’s master plan. With that, a crucial social exchange between the DMO and stakeholders was noticed; the identification of prospective resources and the government of them for maximum gain for the rural area. It was determined this could be
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Archives of Business Research (ABR) Vol.6, Issue 8, Aug-2018 accomplished through the following subcategories: identifying resources, recognizing the significance of master planning, coordinating services and events, engaging proactively, attracting tourism, and the call to action.
Identifying resources It was identified in all the rural towns participating, residents take ownership of their communities and are sometimes known to be less receptive to relocated inhabitants and their abilities to identify resources. However, for those communities that were flourishing, the DMO would intercede on behalf of the non-locals to gather support for the initiatives, garnering their trust and support for future initiatives.
Master plans Although the participants in all counties were involved or aware of a master plan, only four of the counties had developed a written master plan for tourism development in their areas. For those with master plans, they recognized the importance of an internal and external analysis of the area and that producing detailed goals and objectives is essential in identifying opportunities and resources. Some counties were in the development stages of tourism planning with abstract visions, but established detailed objectives offering a prompt return.
Coordination services and events All stakeholders agreed that collaborating with the DMO on planning, coordinating, and scheduling events and festivals cultivated successful events. Stakeholders from the highest tourism revenue counties mentioned that by using the DMO as a collective tourism source, they were able to schedule events without overlap, thereby increasing visitor count. Strategic coordination of events in rural areas was found to contribute to visitor satisfaction, repeat visitation, and increased tourism.
Proactive Recognizing that some opportunities are fleeting, rural tourism DMOs and stakeholders stated they must always be proactive. One downtown developer in the third largest tourism area stated, “we've always been proactive, but it ebbs and flows depending what monies we have to do with, like anything else, but you cannot let the opportunities pass you by.”
Attracting tourism Understanding that social exchanges with the DMO and between stakeholders identifies more opportunities and presents more tourism attractions as a collective tourism source, one DMO emphasized “The more you have collectively, the more people you have working together, the bigger the chance that you're going to have somebody captivated here.” Through strategic alliances strengthened through consistent and positive social exchanges, DMOs work with their partners to determine the most advantageous way to fulfill the strategy. The mayor/tourism director of the smallest tourism town said regarding tourism events, “This thing may explode on us, but it's okay. We will put them all the way down Main Street, and we put them up side streets. Shut the street down. We'll put them somewhere.”
Call to action Of those interviewed supporting the effectiveness of the DMO in tourism growth and development, all perceived that committing to change and establishing the appropriate strategies would be ineffective without trust, positive social exchanges, and advocacy for rural tourism development. One Chamber Director said, “Don't go home and try to do this, because unless you've got city, county government, unless you've got your chamber, unless you've got the public and private sector working well together, this won't work.”
Copyright © Society for Science and Education, United Kingdom 223 Sebby, A. G., & Jordan, K. (2018). Rural Tourism: A Grounded Theory on Limited Stakeholder Advocacy. Archives of Business Research, 6(8), 216- 227.
Consequences: Advocacy of DMO and Inclusive Community Identity The consequences for commitment to change through social exchanges with the DMO in rural tourism areas were found to be favorable for all parties involved, as well as the community as a whole. With increased social exchanges, expanded responsibilities to accommodate growth and development, all participants indicated that trust in the DMO increased and their alliances were reinforced. DMOs believed this reinforced the stakeholders’ further commitment to change for the additional societal benefits. In addition to the causal effect–expanding social benefits–three other benefits were realized for the rural area: relationships were improved, cooperation had a domino effect, and communities became inclusive.
Improved relationships With the continual process of commitment to change, improved relationships among alliance members and with the DMO were realized. All new DMOs reported that early in their careers they realized the importance of building personal relationships with stakeholders was effective in establishing a rapport with stakeholders before building a tourism business relationship. Later in their careers, they realized that long-standing relationships with community members assisted in strategic alliances and furthered their commitment to social exchanges vital in fulfilling the tourism vision for the rural area.
Domino effect Observed by all participants was the domino effect of cooperation between the DMO, the stakeholders, and consequently, the community. They realize the DMO is critical in nurturing the relationships, continuing the development process, and influential in acquiring resources needed to effectively manage a sustainable tourism destination. Through strategic alliances fostered by the DMO, cooperation has intensified between stakeholders. One hotelier said, “They all cooperate together. They all see the big picture and work together on these programs.” Participants also stated that the entire community is encouraged by rural tourism development and “it all feeds down into it,” and everyone gains from tourism as it “feeds off to each other.”
Inclusivity A sense of belonging and a destination brand image representative of the rural community was reported by most participants as another motivating factor for commitment to change. For all counties, the DMOs reported that increased tourism has generated additional residents in the rural area: non-locals. Encouraging stakeholders to nurture inclusion and a sense of belonging to non-locals has garnered advocacy for rural tourism growth, inheriting an authentic community feel for all families and residents. Beyond the initial causal effect, stakeholders recognized the additional gain of inclusive community identity as a motivating benefit that propels them to a resolute commitment to change, furthering trust and social exchanges, and thereby increasing one’s advocacy for rural tourism. Moreover, counties with further developed tourism programs relay a matureness in the social exchanges and trust between the DMO and stakeholders. One hotelier stated, “We're not only involved in this room. We're involved in this community. There's not one person at this table who's not involved in this community.” Another participant emphasized that tourism is expanding in their rural area because it is their identity.
CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Grounded Theory in this study was utilized to focus on the social exchanges between stakeholders and DMOs in rural tourism areas. Identifying social exchanges and perceptions of trust, this study ascertained the social processes needed to expand social benefits for the
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Archives of Business Research (ABR) Vol.6, Issue 8, Aug-2018 community. The research isolated effective strategies and recognized a unique context for each rural area. Finally, the social process clarifies the concepts vital to the processes and the community as a whole.
The findings were analyzed from a theoretical perspective and are considered to have significant relevance in the development of the rural tourism industry. Specifically, the commitment to change is necessary to implement the strategies needed for societal benefits and community identity. Commitment to change was determined as the core category of the social process, providing clarification of the overall process. Commitment to change responded to these social processes in the following main categories: (1) expanded social benefits, (2) sustainability, (3) recognition, (4) tourism development and (5) an inclusive community identity.
Use of purposeful sampling techniques in grounded theory comes with limitations. First, the generalizability of the study, limited to rural counties and not all counties within the state of Tennessee. Second, the rural tourism alliances were limited to the DMO and the stakeholders. Findings may not be generalizable to rural areas that do not have a DMO or is managed by the local government. Data collection was limited to six rural areas and does not take into consideration areas in the middle of the economic spectrum. The analysis was collected based on individuals’ perceptions of other individuals’ capabilities. Findings may not be generalizable to areas going through a period of adversity, decline, or in the initial planning stages. Data analysis in grounded theory is used to deconstruct the data, identify the concepts, and subsequently, using the concepts to develop a core category that addresses the totality of the categories [5].
Committing to change depicts the social processes between DMOs and their stakeholders in rural Tennessee tourism areas. Deductively developed through participants’ perceptions and experience, grounded theory illustrates how commitment to change is vital social exchanges. Alliance formation with local hospitality/tourism businesses, lack of incentives, or strained relationships can inhibit collaboration among stakeholders. The paradigm also indicates where breakdowns can occur in the process; when the context is not recognized and with stakeholder’s predispositions to development.
Practical implications consist of conducting a social process analysis to address each stage to assist DMOs in counteracting the disconnect between stakeholders, DMOs, EDOs, and the community at large. Furthermore, the analysis provides DMOs with the following implications: (1) recognizing the social benefits desired to motivate stakeholders (2) realizing the needs of different alliances to provide support and build trust (3) understanding context will allow DMOs to effectively utilize resources (4) realizing stakeholders’ predisposition to tourism development and how they affect the DMO’s ability to function within its respective role (5) creation of a master tourism development plan can be improved from an analysis that incorporates social benefits, commitment to change, recognition, and predisposition to tourism development and (6) a DMO can discern the analysis of the consequences of the social process and use them as a motivational tool for stakeholder involvement and ultimately, build trust.
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