ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS

“DTC IS THE SECRET-EDGE WEAPON OF THE SAF”

DR NG ENG HEN MINISTER FOR DEFENCE The opinions and views expressed in this work are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect II the official views of the Ministry of Defence ENGINEERING SYSTEM-OF-SYSTEMS III TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword

Message

Preface

1 CHAPTER 1 : Evolution and Development of Island Air Defence System-of-Systems

31 CHAPTER 2 : Concepts to Capabilities

39 CHAPTER 3 : Software Systems Design and Realisation

52 CHAPTER 4 : Operations and Support Engineering

69 CHAPTER 5 : Systems Engineering Methodologies and Tools

95 CHAPTER 6 : Organisation and People Development

107 CHAPTER 7 : Beyond Defence

122 CHAPTER 8 : Advancing the DTC's Systems Approach through the Generations

131 CHAPTER 9 : Beyond DTC50

136 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 2

144 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 3

153 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 4

158 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 5

185 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

191 GLOSSARY

197 INDEX FOREWORD

The journey of Singapore’s Defence engineers and scientists stands at the frontier The stories that are told in this book series Technology Community (DTC) parallels of technological progress. Indeed the DTC is should lift the spirits of Singaporeans, old that of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) the secret-edge weapon of the SAF. and young. They celebrate what pioneers – indeed both were co-dependent and and successive generations of committed iterative processes which fed off As the DTC celebrates its 50th anniversary, scientists and engineers have accomplished each other’s success. Pioneers in both we want to thank especially its pioneers over the years. But they also give hope to our communities recognised very early on the who were committed to achieve the future, as they will serve as reminders during stark limitations of a small island with no unthinkable and were not daunted by severe difficult times to overcome challenges and geographical depth and limited manpower. challenges along the way. Their efforts and continue to keep Singapore safe and secure But despite this realisation, they were beliefs have spawned world class agencies for many years to come. undaunted and shared a common resolve such as DSTA and DSO, and the family of to mitigate Singapore’s vulnerabilities Singapore Technologies (ST) companies. and constraints, and build a credible SAF through sheer will, commitment and the More hearteningly, the virtuous effects harnessing of the powers of technology. In extend into mainstream society too. Dr Goh Keng Swee’s words, “we have to Today the defence cluster of DSTA, DSO, Dr Ng Eng Hen supplement the SAF’s manpower with new MINDEF, the SAF and ST employs the Minister for Defence technology, as manpower constraints will largest proportion of scientists and engineers Singapore always be there. Our dependency should in Singapore – almost one in every 12! It be more on technology than manpower. is not an overstatement that these entities And we must develop indigenously that have been the main receptacles to maintain technological edge.” As worthy and the science and technology capabilities in important as these ideals were, it was an our nation, providing life-long careers in the arduous journey for the DTC. With poor process. standards of general education, let alone engineers or scientists, how could Singapore Beyond defence, the DTC has also positively develop such capabilities? impacted our society in a variety of ways: in producing mass thermal scanners to combat This book series chronicles the last 50 years the 2003 SARS outbreak, in designing and of that ascent that begun in 1966. The DTC building the iconic Marina Bay Floating has indeed come a long way from its humble Platform to host the National Day Parades and beginnings and with it, a transformation sports events, in breaking new ground and of the SAF’s capabilities. Today, both old mindsets when we built the underground the SAF and the DTC are respected storage for munitions, in forming the nucleus professional bodies and the requests from to start the MRO (maintenance, repair and advanced economies to collaborate reflect overhaul) industries to service airlines in the standards which we have achieved. Singapore and globally. Our closely-knit community of defence

ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS MESSAGE

The Defence Technology Community (DTC) • The integration of the RSN’s missile renowned R&D partners locally and around has steadily evolved over the last 50 years. We gunboats and missile corvettes which the world, I am confident that the DTC will started off as a small, three-man technical built up the DTC’s confidence to move remain steadfast in delivering the critical department in the Logistics Division in 1966 on to specify and acquire best of breed technologies and innovative solutions for supporting defence equipment procurement systems to integrate into new ships like the SAF and the nation. May the stories in and there was much work to be done. The the frigates. It also laid the foundations these books inspire our current and future Army then was largely equipped with for ST Engineering’s capabilities to design defence engineers and scientists to continue second-hand vehicles and surplus equipment and build ships for the RSN and some to push boundaries and think creatively to left by the British. The Republic of other navies. deliver capabilities that will safeguard our Singapore Navy (RSN) had two boats, one • The conversion of old US Navy’s A-4 sovereignty for the years to come. steel and the other wooden. Recognising the Skyhawk aircraft into the A-4SU Super need to overcome the immutable challenges Skyhawk for the Republic of Singapore of geography and resource constraints Air Force, building up ST Engineering’s facing Singapore, we extended our scope to capabilities to undertake further aircraft include conceptualisation, development and upgrades such as for the F-5E Tiger fighter upgrade of defence systems. These efforts aircraft, and to undertake servicing and Mr Ng Chee Khern leverage the force multiplying effects of repair of commercial aircraft. Permanent Secretary (Defence Development) technology to meet the unique challenges • The system-of-systems integration Ministry of Defence, Singapore and operational requirements of the Singapore efforts to evolve the island air defence Armed Forces (SAF), beyond what could be system, building on legacy systems left had buying off-the-shelf. by the British to seamlessly incorporate new weapons, sensors, and indigenously This four-book “Engineering Singapore’s developed command and control systems Defence – The Early Years” series covers the to extend the range and coverage of entire spectrum of the DTC’s work in the Singapore’s air defence umbrella, and land, air and sea domains to deliver cutting- the build-up of the DTC as a system-of- edge technological capabilities to the SAF. systems to deliver cutting-edge capabilities It chronicles our 50-year journey and and systems to the SAF, and to meet the documents the largely unheard stories of technology requirements of the nation. our people – their challenges, struggles and triumphs, their resolve and ingenuity, and While not exhaustive, these stories provide their persistence in overcoming the odds. us with a glimpse of the “dare-to-do” and These stories include: enterprising spirit that our DTC personnel and forerunners possess. • The upgrading of the French-made AMX-13 light tank to the AMX-13 SM1 There is no end to change and transformation. configuration by the DTC, the Army and Singapore and the SAF will continue to face ST Engineering, laying the foundation for many challenges in the years ahead. However, the design, engineering and production of with the capabilities and expertise developed the Bionix, Bronco and Terrex armoured over the years in its more than 5,000-strong fighting vehicles for the Army. personnel, and its established linkages with

ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS The engineering challenges of safeguarding depth via the use of stealth, speed and fast such as ground-based radars, surface-to-air Singapore’s security have involved overcoming decision cycles, with advanced platform missile systems, aircraft and command and the twin constraints of size (resources, technologies and C4ISR as critical enablers. control (C2) systems that work cooperatively PREFACE especially population) and strategic depth Yet another approach is to employ resilient to defend the skies of Singapore. In Chapter 1 (geographical space). Having a modest number networks and systems, with protective we will look at the history of how Singapore of high quality and high readiness defence technologies and system architectures as built up its IAD capability from the 1960s to systems that are capable of multiple roles critical enablers. the present, first by acquiring and developing provides a strong foundation for our defence, systems and subsequently evolving systems but how can we scale this to the level required Third, the achievement of sustainability over into a Defence SoS in the 2000s. for our needs? time requires efforts in multiple thrusts. One is to design adaptable and resilient systems By Enabling SoS, we refer to an integrated Our defence engineers have applied systems and architectures, including the ability collection of systems that enables the existence thinking and engineering approaches for legacy systems to be enhanced and of the Defence SoS, from designing it, to to overcome some of these challenges. integrated with new systems, enabled by implementing it, to sustaining it throughout A fundamental approach is to create a systems architecting. Another is to ensure its lifetime. An example is the Defence System-of-Systems (SoS) by integrating high reliability and readiness of systems, Technology Community (DTC), comprising individual systems together such that the enabled by a strong engineering and logistics an interdependent ecosystem of engineering SoS will have unique emergent properties capability. Yet another is to have highly organisations and methodologies that work in not available from the constituent systems trained, competent and motivated personnel, concert to deliver the Singapore Armed Forces' in themselves. Some of these properties include enabled by organisational development and technological systems (hardware, software). enhanced situational awareness, cooperative learning. Sound planning and execution Our defence systems have been engineered engagement, speed (both in decision with holistic and longer-term perspectives and supported by the DTC over the past 50 making and execution) as well as resilience. are also key, enabled by a defence capability years. This accumulated knowledge base and development and management system. the experience and expertise of our defence The desired emergent capabilities (or desired Finally, it is important to have a system that engineers form a formidable resource pool defence and security effects) of these SoS encourages innovation and learning, enabled that can be aptly termed an Enabling SoS. may be categorised into effecting force by a culture where its people “dare to dream multiplication, creating strategic depth, and to act upon these dreams”. The rest of the book will expound on the DTC enhancing sustainability and operating Enabling SoS. From Chapters 2 to 8, we will effectively in complex environments. These Fourth, the ability to operate effectively in examine more details of the DTC Enabling are elaborated as follows: complex environments is enabled by sense- SoS. Chapter 2 – Concepts to Capabilities making and C4ISR systems and users that will share more of how concepts and First, force multiplication is the ability to are accustomed to working in complex and requirements for Defence systems and SoS are deploy technology-enabled flexible force uncertain environments and who are tech- formulated before implementation; Chapter structures that can mass at decisive points savvy and well-schooled in complex systems 3 – Software Systems Design and Realisation to achieve superior combat power. The thinking. will elaborate on software systems (C2 and critical enablers for force multiplication are Enterprise Information Technology (IT) interoperability and Command, Control, For the purpose of this book, we will introduce systems) – a critical component that "glues" Communications, Computers, Intelligence, two notional categories of SoS – Defence SoS together different systems into a Defence Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR). and Enabling SoS. SoS; Chapter 4 – Operations and Support Engineering will illuminate a critical area that Second, strategic depth in both the space and By Defence SoS, we refer to an integrated is often away from the limelight, but one that time dimensions can be created via several collection of individual military systems enables defence systems and SoS to sustain complementary approaches. One is to provide required to defend Singapore by fulfilling their performance and viability. Chapter 5 foresight and early warning through the specific military operations such as air defence, – Systems Engineering Methodologies and exploitation and smart use of information, maritime security and land battle. An example Tools will provide more insights on the key with C4ISR and sense-making systems as is the networked Island Air Defence (IAD) SoS systems engineering methodologies and tools critical enablers. Another is to create virtual that comprises a suite of individual systems used in the DTC, in addition to those already

ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS Chapter One covered from Chapters 2 to 5; Chapter 6 offering food for thought in DTC's journey EVOLUTION AND Recollections of Prof Lui Pao Chuen, – Organisation and People Development ahead. Chapter 9 – Beyond DTC50, is a think DEVELOPMENT OF Er. BG (Ret) Wesley D'aranjo and Mr will trace how the organisations within piece with its focus on the decades ahead, William Lau Yue Khei on the journey DTC evolved over time, together with the examining the trends and constants that will ISLAND AIR DEFENCE in building up Singapore's IAD systems build-up of a critical mass of engineering shape the DTC and its contributions to the SYSTEM-OF-SYSTEMS from the 1960s to 1990s. and scientific expertise; Chapter 7 – Beyond long term survival, security and success of Defence will bring the reader beyond the Singapore as a nation. Five Power Defence Arrangements defence context in areas that DTC has and Integrated Air Defence System made significant impact with its engineering A Historical Narrative of Building and scientific expertise; and Chapter 8 – Singapore's Island Air Defence There was great fear that confidence in Advancing DTC's Systems Approach through Systems from the 1960s to 1990s Malaysia and Singapore would dip without the Generations will highlight key success the air umbrella provided by the Royal factors for the DTC thus far, summarising our RADM (Ret) Richard Lim A Journey Fuelled by a Need and Air Force (RAF). To allay this fear, the lineage of systems engineering leaders and Editor, Engineering Systems-of-Systems a Vision United Kingdom (UK) organised a Five Power Defence Conference with Australia, The evolution of Singapore's Island Air New Zealand, Malaysia and Singapore in Defence (IAD) system provides a useful Kuala Lumpur on 10th and 11th June 1968 narrative of the development of a Defence to address the issue of the needs for the System-of-Systems (SoS). At the same time it defence of Malaysia and Singapore. Volatile and Uncertain Environment illustrates the parallel development of some of the engineering capabilities and organisations The five countries agreed that in the that today form the Defence Technology event of an armed attack or such a threat, Community (DTC) – the Enabling SoS for the governments concerned would Force Multiplication, Strategic Depth, Sustainability, Effective Operations in Complex Environment Singapore's defence. immediately consult with one another Defence System-of-Systems (SoS) to decide on measures to be taken. The Mission Systems and Stakeholder Requirements In the early years, there was no established Five Power Defence Arrangements would SoS E.g. Island Air • Mission Performance • Secret Edge systems engineering body of knowledge be established with a Joint Consultative Defence SoS • Affordability • Self-Reliance • Reliability, Maintainability • Smart Buyer to take reference from. The Ministry of Council comprising the respective System System • Radar systems • Availability, Sustainability • Smart User A N • Missile systems • Robustness, Resilience • Etc Defence (MINDEF) Life Cycle Management Permanent Secretaries for defence of • C2 systems • Flexibility, Evolvability • Interoperability (LCM) Manual only came into being many Malaysia and Singapore, and the High System • Etc • Etc B years later. This was a journey of learning Commissioners of the UK, Australia and through trial and error by taking calculated New Zealand, and with an Air Defence risks and measured steps. Two factors made Council responsible for the functioning of this possible. First, the strong belief by the Integrated Air Defence System (IADS) Defence Technology Enabling System-of-Systems senior leadership within MINDEF that we and to provide direction for the Air Defence DTC Organisations and People needed to build a strong indigenous systems Commander. engineering capability and their trust and Systems Engineering Methodologies support given to our young engineers and IADS became operational on 1st September Long-Term Front-End Acquisition Transition Operations System Planning Planning Management to O&S & Support Retirement the fledgling engineering organisations that 1971 just before the complete withdrawal were established. Second, it was probably of UK troops. The headquarters of IADS fortuitous that we had very limited resources (HQ IADS) was located in Royal Malaysian Relationship between Defence SoS and Enabling SoS to engage foreign consultants and defence Air Force (RMAF) Butterworth Air Base contractors to meet our needs. Hence, there and the Commander IADS would be a was no easy way out but to do many things two-star Air Vice-Marshal of the Royal ourselves. Australian Air Force (RAAF). The staff of the IADS would come from the five nations.

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The RAAF with its fighter wing of French- The Bloodhound missile would be accelerated components that required regular servicing. made Mirage fighters would continue to by four boost rocket motors to a speed of Mach The missiles from the missile site at Lim operate from Butterworth, as they had 2.5 in three seconds. The spent rocket casings Chu Kang Hill would have to traverse half since 1955 with two fighter squadrons and would peel away and the Thor ramjet engines the island to get to the maintenance shops one bomber squadron. In 1970 the RAAF would continue propelling the missile to its of the squadron in Seletar. Each trip was a handed over Butterworth Air Base to the target. The prescribed safety distance was major logistics operation as a collision of the Malaysian Government and it became RMAF three miles around the launcher. This safety missile carrying vehicle could cause serious Butterworth Air Base. distance and height constraint around the damage. Because of all the care taken for each missile site resulted in the loss of development operation there were no road accidents with One RAAF Mirage squadron would be potential by the Housing and Development the Bloodhound missiles. deployed to Tengah Air Base from time to Board for Ang Mo Kio New Town. time for exercises to defend the southern From RAF Gombak Radar Unit to Air sector with the Bloodhound surface-to-air One Bloodhound missile was fired during its Defence Radar Unit missile (SAM) squadron. The late Mr Pang Tee Pow (left), then service with the Republic of Singapore Air Permanent Secretary (Defence), accepting Force (RSAF). The firing took place on 24th Bloodhound Surface-to-Air Missiles the handover of the Bloodhound SAM September 1980 at UK Ministry of Defence Squadron from a British Aircraft Corporation (MOD) Aberporth in Wales in the UK. MOD RAF No.65 Squadron with three sections representative in 1974 Aberporth has played a significant part in deployed at the north-eastern end of Seletar the development and testing of a variety of Air Base formed part of the RAF Far East Air military weapons and is still in use today. CPT Force. The Bloodhound Mk2 was the most Martin Baptist, a Bloodhound Engagement modern SAM with a range of 80km covering Controller from 170 Squadron, had the honour altitudes from 150ft to 65,000ft (around 46m of firing a missile selected randomly from the to 20km). The missile, powered by ramjet RSAF's inventory of Bloodhound missiles. engines would achieve a maximum velocity Soon after launch, the missile lost lock with of Mach 2.7 in its flight out to intercept its TIR but it was expertly re-acquired by CPT targets with speed of Mach 2 at a range Martin Baptist who continued to complete The Island Air Defence System in of more than 80km. The missile would be the engagement successfully. A “hit” with the early 1980s guided to its target by a target tracking and a miss distance of 69ft was recorded, well illumination radar (TIR), the Marconi Type within the lethality range of 180ft of the The radars and operations centre of the 97 Scorpion radar. warhead. The missile fired by the RSAF was RAF air defence system for Singapore and Bloodhound missile section deployed at the hundredth Bloodhound missile ever to southern Malaya were located on the top The Bloodhound squadron was however Seletar Air Base be launched. of Bukit Gombak, the second highest hill vulnerable as the launchers were fixed and in Singapore. The civilian air traffic control could be attacked with low-cost mortar The technical challenge in re-deploying the centre at Paya Lebar Airport hosted the bombs. Operational analysis studies showed two sections of Bloodhound missiles from Joint Air Traffic Control Centre (JATCC). A that the vulnerability would be greatly reduced Seletar was its re-integration with the search microwave communication system connected if two sections of Bloodhound missiles could radars and the GL-161 control centre of the the Gombak operations centre with JATCC, be deployed to other parts of the island. The Air Defence Radar Unit (ADRU) on the the operations centres of Tengah Air Base best site would be on the top of Lim Chu Kang top of Bukit Gombak. The air defence and Changi Air Base, and the Bloodhound Hill, just north of the Nanyang University controllers in ADRU would need to be squadron at Seletar. This was the most campus. The second best site would be at connected in real time to the Bloodhound comprehensive air defence system of the RAF Amoy Quee Camp. missile controllers at the three sites to outside the UK. Another view of Bloodhound missile share radar target data. deployment in 1974 The air defence system for northern Malaya The Bloodhound missile was effectively an consisted of radars and a control station unmanned aircraft with two ramjet engines located on Western Hill in Penang with two and electronic and electro-mechanical fighter squadrons based in the RAF airbase

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at Butterworth. Western Hill is the highest provided “raw radar” video to the GL-161 for point in Penang at an elevation of 833m above processing and display. In those days, the Air sea level. A radar deployed at this site could Force operators preferred “raw radar” video detect targets from sea level to radar horizon. because, with experience, they could perceive It would be very difficult for enemy attack from the “raw radar” video information on aircraft to sneak into the defended airspace aircraft turning (that was not available from without being detected. synthetic extracted plots). Hence, they could predict what the targets would do by looking Given the limited height of our hills in at the dynamics of the “raw radar” video. As Singapore for deploying ground-based radars, sensors later became digital, “raw radar” video attacking aircraft flying low and hidden by was replaced by regenerated video (1986) and terrain features could not be detected till they later with symbols (1990s). There was a lot were 10km away. The defeat of attacking of debate in the Air Force then between the aircraft appearing at this range could only utility of “raw” versus “processed” video. It be achieved with low level SAM and anti- An Air Defence controller and his assistant A very large room of vacuum tube was expensive to handle “raw video” all the aircraft (AA) guns. at work in a pitch-dark operations room electronics re-designed and miniaturised way from the radar head. into two racks The two operations centres were connected CPT Wesley D'aranjo, an electrical and Mobile Operations Control Centre by a modern tropospheric scatter radio link electronic engineering graduate from Special Projects Organisation (also known as “troposcatter”). The RAF IADS the University of Manchester Institute of The acquisition from Plessey of a mobile was handed over to Malaysia and Singapore Science and Technology, was posted from In 1979, the Special Projects Organisation operations control centre (MOCC) was during the withdrawal of UK troops. the Singapore Army (the Army) to ADRU. (SPO) headed by then LTC Lui Pao Chuen one of the solutions selected to replace the He learnt the intricacies of radars, radios, as its Special Projects Director (SPD), was GL-161. MINDEF chose to purchase the All the radars deployed on the top of computers and display, and systems integration formed. This was part of MINDEF's efforts MOCC separately from the radar sensors. Bukit Gombak were exposed and could be by being hands-on. He took the initiative to to develop defence technological capabilities This meant that we took upon ourselves the harassed by air and artillery attacks. The replace all the vacuum tube electronics with and to undertake complex defence acquisition responsibility to integrate the MOCC with operations control centre was located inside transistors and integrated circuits. This was projects. SPO comprised five project divisions the radar sensors. The motivation for this a light building that had not been built to the first major upgrade of a complex radar (PD): PD1 to PD5. was the ability to keep knowledge of some of resist weapon effects. Space diversity would and control centre. its capabilities confidential and also to have therefore be required to reduce the chances of GL-161 Air Defence Command and the flexibility to “mix and match” systems to our air operations being disrupted by enemy Control System meet the operational requirements. action. Relocating the large stationary radars was one solution studied. The conclusion of Even at that time, SPD Lui understood that it The plan was to use the MOCC as a launch the operations research studies was that a was important for the then Defence Science pad for the build-up of the defence software mobile radar and mobile operations control Organisation (DSO) to build up capability to capability in DSO. A team comprising six fresh centre would be a more robust solution. The master the software of command and control graduates and experienced technicians from best mobile three-dimensional (3D) radar systems. He called this area “real-time” the Air Force was sent to Surrey, UK to master then was the AN/TPS-43 operated by the software and later DSO called it “defence the inner workings of the Plessey MOCC. US Air Force. The radar was manufactured software”. This real-time software processed by Westinghouse. The radar equipment and data from radar sensors and converted them There were two processing chains in the operational consoles were fitted inside cabins into useful information for the Air Force MOCC, each powered by a DEC PDP-11/34 that could be towed to alternate deployment The team that re-designed, upgraded operators in the control centres. processor. Each chain had a magnetic disk sites within a few hours. and manufactured new electronics for drive, which was not the most reliable for radars and signal processing at ADRU The British left behind the GL-161 which, a transportable cabin. The software was Integration with the GL-161 system in the at that time, was their latest real-time written in a now defunct high-level language operations centre at ADRU was a technical computerised air defence command and called RTL/2. Through RTL/2 the team challenge that kept the radar engineers very control system. The GL-161 was capable learned how to design software in modules busy but happy. of computing air intercepts. Radar sensors (called “bricks”). RTL/2 also had the “CODE”

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statement which allowed the program to The team worked with Plessey to learn how models that specify the radar cross-section jump to assembler coding to achieve critical to integrate the ITT-RS320 radar but did of a given object. There were five types of real-time performance where needed. An the integration with the other two radars Swerling target models using a distribution in important aspect of a command and control independently. the location-scale family of the “chi-squared system that the team learned was how to distribution”. The ITT-RS320 did not meet achieve high availability through the switch- One challenge the team faced was that the the range detection performance the Air over between two processing chains. radar message formats were non-standard, Force wanted. What followed was a very unlike, for example, the Eurocontrol ASTERIX difficult and protracted negotiation with the Indigenous Systems Integration protocols of today. Each radar type had its own manufacturer on how the Swerling target unique interface specifications. This meant The ITT-RS320 radar models had been misinterpreted by us. The When the MOCC team returned to Singapore, that a common suite of utilities could not be performance of the radar was as it was, and it set about integrating the MOCC with three developed to interpret them. Each software Another challenge was that the interfaces were that we should have known better! In short, radars in parallel, almost simultaneously: interface had to be separately developed and of the synchronous type (this required tight the radar manufacturer's response was “you the team had to figure out where and how synchronisation between signal transmission tell me the answer you want and I will give • The existing mobile AN/TPS-43F – first to insert these pieces of software into the and signal reception mechanisms) which you a calculation for it”! Thereafter, this operational in 1975 as the AN/TPS-43DX MOCC. The radar manufacturers did not made them much more difficult to work with. bitter lesson taught us to use an unambiguous and then upgraded to improve radar provide any tools, not even a radar simulator. target – a “clean” F-5E aircraft flying head-on performance and allow integration with The team had no choice but to work with the So how did this team overcome all these into the radar, as the basis for contractual a control centre Interface Requirement Specifications (IRS) of challenges? First, it set about building an in- specification and performance verification. • The new ITT-RS320 each radar type and testing had to be done house tool to decode and process the different • The Hollandse Signaalapparaten LAR2 with live radar data. data formats. In 1985, the team made use Second, we discovered that the primary radar at the Long Range Radar and Display of an Apple IIe computer with an interface plots were out-of-sync with the secondary System I air traffic control centre at card that it fabricated to receive and decode surveillance radar plots. This was discovered Changi Airport – the LAR2 radar was the synchronous data coming from the radar through painstaking data analysis. This was commissioned in 1981 under live test. This must have been one most likely due to a design flaw that was of the first uses of the Apple IIe for serious not discovered during acceptance testing of All three radars were just being brought work! It also used a protocol analyser to the ITT-RS320. The secondary surveillance into service or newly commissioned! view the raw data. By doing this, the team radar plots were received much later and The MOCC came with the source codes was able to verify the correctness of the IRS therefore were not able to correlate with (except for the core operating system and eventually write the driver modules in tracks that were initiated from the primary called MTS-3G) compiler, linker and other the MOCC that were able to take in the radar plots. MINDEF reported the problem software tools. radar data correctly to be processed by the to the manufacturer but they could not fix MOCC tracker. it. The team eventually solved the problem The ITT-RS320 was developed for Sweden by modifying the MOCC tracking software and only 17 such radars were produced – 16 Other Radar Issues to delay the tracking sector which in turn for Sweden and one for Singapore. It was delayed the track-to-plot correlation process. the most advanced “pencil beam steering” Unlike the other two Air Force radars the This allowed more time for the secondary 3D radar available then and an improvement LAR2 was not a 3D radar. As the MOCC surveillance radar plots to come in for proper over the AN/TPS-32. The Swedes used their required plot height data, a fictitious height correlation. radars very cleverly. Each was installed on had to be set as a default value and this caused a 30m mast and protected in silos. Then, a the Air Force operators some consternation The integration of MOCC and ITT-RS320 was game of “musical chairs” would be played when such tracks were displayed, all with a big challenge. The non-release of software and surveillance achieved by elevating and the same height. by Plessey was a painful but very useful lowering the radars tactically. The radar learning exercise. The lessons learned were would be allowed to “blink” during the time We also had several issues with the ITT- applied to the purchase of the next generation it was exposed. The mast was an ordinary The AN/TPS-43F radar at a RS320 radar. First, we learned that one should of command and control system with the mast, the type used at construction sites. deployment site not specify and test radar range detection demand that the software be developed by a performance with theoretical Swerling target joint venture between Singapore Technologies

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(ST) and Ericsson Microwave System called • Two squadrons of Hawker Hunter The pilot would need to aim at the target Twelve fire units, each comprising one unit “Software Engineering of Singapore”. fighter aircraft and to release the bombs. The time for this of fire control equipment and two guns, • Two squadrons of Next Generation depended on the skill of the pilot. Experienced were purchased (the guns are highly reliable The lessons learned from bravely taking fighter aircraft pilots would take less than two seconds and and with proper maintenance they remain on the systems integration tasks for the • Two airbases (Tengah and Changi) “rookies” up to six seconds. Thus the window operational to date). The analogue computer MOCC enabled the team to increase its • One squadron of Bloodhound SAM system of opportunity to shoot a fighter down would of the Superfledermaus was replaced in the confidence to take on more challenging • One air defence radar unit be between two to six seconds. early 1980s after about 10 years of service. projects in the future. • One mobile 3D air defence radar The tracking radar and optical sights had also

• One squadron of low level SAM system The Pk would therefore depend on the number seen many upgrades. The only original parts Link to HQ IADS Butterworth (Rapier was the prime candidate) of rounds the AA guns could fire in a two- of the Superfledermaus still in service are the • One squadron of Oerlikon 35mm second burst. The designer of the Oerlikon cabinets and mechanical components. Around 1987, MINDEF had offered to cross- AA guns 35mm AA guns had figured this out and had tell tracks from the MOCC to HQ IADS two barrels in each gun. With a combined rate- The maximum engagement range of 5km by at Butterworth in Malaysia to facilitate The acquisition of AA guns to protect vital of-fire of 1,100 rounds per minute from the the Oerlikon guns will require the target to exercises. The team developed and installed a assets began in early 1968 with the evaluation two barrels it was clearly superior compared be detected beyond this range. A search radar PDP11/34 serial interface card in the MOCC of the Bofors 40mm AA gun from Sweden to the single barrel Bofors gun which had a with a range exceeding 10km will enhance and another external interface box to re- and the Oerlikon twin 35mm AA guns from rate-of-fire of 330 rounds per minute. the effectiveness of the fire unit. format the track messages and send them via Switzerland. The fire control system of the a leased telephone line to Butterworth. At the Bofors 40mm AA gun, the L4/5, was made In 1969 a team comprising LTC M S Gill, Chief The radars at ADRU could not detect attackers Singapore end, the team also implemented a by Hollandse Signaalapparaten. The fire of Artillery, LTC Chew Bak Khoon, Chief approaching at low level. The Giraffe radar with large screen display projected from a Barco control equipment for the 35mm AA guns, Communications and Electronics Officer, a 12m high antenna mast, made by Ericsson projector connected to an International Superfledermaus, was made by Contraves of CPT Henry Cheong and CPT Lui Pao Chuen Microwave Systems for the Swedish Armed Business Machines Corporation (IBM) 286 Switzerland. visited Switzerland and Holland to verify Forces, was found to be the most effective radar AT PC that interpreted the tracks coming the performance of both systems during to cover the low level gap. It could provide from the interface box. The first study visit to Switzerland in March firing exercises and the logistics support direction to the Superfledermaus fire control 1968 was conducted by COL Kirpa Ram Vij, required. tracking radar to search and track targets. Singapore Air Defence System, Version 1 Director SAFTI and CPT Lui Pao Chuen, then Head Technical Department, Logistics The candidates for the low level SAM missile Following the decision to purchase the Division. system and their average fire unit cost (in Hunter fighter aircraft and Bloodhound Singapore dollars) were: SAM system, the Singapore Government The Bofors 40mm AA gun had the advantage decided expatriate officers would be of being the AA gun of the allied navies • Rapier (UK), $8m employed to build up the Air Force, during World War II. It was battle proven • Blindfire Rapier (UK), $14m known then as the Singapore Air Defence and remained the market leader after • Roland II (Germany), $21m Command (SADC). the war. • Crotale (France), $21m • Indigo (Italy), $20m In 1971 Brigadier General (BG) John Langer Operations research had shown that the was seconded by the RAF to be the first claims of both manufacturers (that the All the systems, except for Rapier, were radar

Director of Air Staff, MINDEF. The Head Probability of Kill (Pk) exceeded 0.8) were CPT Lui Pao Chuen (left) and CPT Henry guided and had an effective engagement range of Air Operations was Group Captain (GC) true only for the engagement of targets Cheong (second from left) in discussion with of 10km when there was a line-of-sight to the Marie Turnbull. The Head Air Logistics was flying straight and level, such as when firing personnel from Hollandse Signaalapparaten target beyond this range. Operations research GC Basil Fox. Head Air Engineering was Mr at banner targets towed by an aircraft. In in 1969 during the evaluation of the fire in the UK showed that in most scenarios Wong Yeok Yeok, a very experienced and an attack, fighters would be “jinking”, i.e. control radar for AA guns. detection of low flying aircraft could only be respected aircraft engineer seconded from executing evasive manoeuvres with sudden achieved by 10km and therefore a maximum Singapore Airlines. changes in direction, which made it very On completion of the evaluation the team engagement range of 6km for the missile difficult for the fire control system to predict recommended the Oerlikon 35mm AA guns would be sufficient. Rapier and Blindfire The SADC Order of Battle (ORBAT) would the future position of the aircraft for the AA and Superfledermaus fire control equipment Rapier had been designed to defeat attacking consist of: rounds to score a hit. for the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). targets at 6km.

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Rapier was selected for the SAF. Rapier had Stinger versus RBS-70 be defeated by fighter aircraft manoeuvre while searching and acquiring targets. The the cost advantage and being modular in and flares. critical need of target acquisition was met and design allowed a night engagement capability In 1974 the Army had determined an enhanced with the use of the Giraffe radar to to be added with the DN181 “Blindfire” operational need for the defence of Army The command line-of-sight guidance of detect targets and designate them to the fire radar. Slightly earlier, the US Air Force had units in the field. Though foliage and Blowpipe required the operator to guide the unit. The operator would then need to search conducted a competition for the acquisition camouflage would provide the best defence missile to target with a thumb joy stick on in the designated piece of sky and acquire of a low level air defence SAM system for from air attacks, the movement of armoured the aiming unit clipped to the launching tube. it as soon as it appeared in his sight. Target the protection of their airbases in Europe. units along roads and open ground would Target acquisition was very difficult and to identification would be determined initially However, Roland II was the winner of this expose them to attacks by fighter ground guide the missile required skills that would by air defence controllers in the Giraffe radar competition. attack aircraft and attack helicopters. be difficult for National Servicemen (NSmen). control cabin via their own aircraft situation This assessment was proven correct by the picture which was also connected to the Mr Norman Augustine, Under Secretary of Mobile air defence of armoured units is very operational use of Blowpipe by UK troops in regional air force operations control centre. the US Army, visited Singapore in the mid demanding. The very short range of combat the Falklands War. There were reports that The commander and gunner would make 1970s. A member of his delegation was BG required automatic detection and tracking of the 100 Blowpipe missiles launched only the final confirmation using IFF and optical John Dean, the project officer who had led of targets from the moving AA tank and nine scored hits against slow flying aircraft recognition. The chance of fratricide of RBS- the competition for the US Air Force low engagement within the dead zone of 1km and helicopters. 70 was greatly reduced as compared to Stinger. level air defence SAM system. He shared that of SAMs. Dr Buehler, then Chairman of The missile was immune to flares as it was Roland II won because it had an automatic Oerlikon, had identified this need and used The two finalists were Stinger and the Bofors guided to target riding on a laser beam that missile loader and a magazine that allowed company funds to develop a turret armed with RBS-70 used by the Swedish Army. the missile operator aimed at the target. 12 missiles to be launched before requiring twin Oerlikon 35mm AA guns and a radar reloading. Rapier had only four rounds on fire control mounted on a Leopard chassis. The advantage of Stinger was its “fire-and- RBS-70 was clearly a superior air defence fixed launcher rails. The RAF had found that The German Army evaluated and found forget” capability. However, target acquisition weapon system. However, one disadvantage in scenarios of less than 18 attacking aircraft, that this system best met their operational was a serious problem as the operator would assessed was that the operator would need a target defended by six Rapier fire units was requirements and purchased it. This AA tank need to find his target in his sight from verbal to track the target to keep the laser beam the most cost-effective system. In the most was named “Gepard”. directions provided by the commander and on it. This required the operator to be well demanding scenario of the US Air Force, with other crew members of his vehicle. Fratricide trained and calm when engaging a target. 54 attacking aircraft, Roland II was superior Unlike the German Army, the US Army was assessed to be a serious challenge as As operators could be expected to be excited as engagement opportunities were lost during did not have such a stringent operational the commander and gunner would have to and scared during combat, there was a need reloading of Rapier missiles. requirement. In their concept of operation decide if a target was “friend or foe” mainly to assess the loss of intercept performance a conflict would begin with air superiority by visual aircraft recognition. The simple under emotional stress. This information was helpful as it confirmed missions, which the US Air Force would Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) equipment the cost effectiveness of Rapier, determined undertake and complete before combat on mounted on the sight could help to identify To confirm the performance of our operators by our operations analysis studies. the ground began. A simple man-portable friendly aircraft if their IFF transponders locally, Bofors was requested to bring a training SAM, “Redeye”, was issued to their armoured were switched on. However, an aircraft system to Singapore for test and evaluation units for self-defence. Development of without IFF returns could be a friendly with from September to October 1977. The air Stinger to replace Redeye began in 1967 and its IFF turned off or not serviceable. The defence of army units was the responsibility adopted for service in 1972. commander with the help of his binoculars of the Army. Thus G5 Army led the test and would have to make the final decision to evaluation programme. The Chief of Artillery Our Army wanted Stinger as Gepard did launch the missile. The missile seeker was was the Senior Specialist Staff Officer for not meet their operational requirement. The assessed to be vulnerable to flares dropped by Army air defence and 160 Battalion, the AA candidates for this competition were: attacking aircraft. The weight of the launcher gun battalion, was an artillery unit then. The and missile at 15kg was heavy for our soldiers RSAF experts on SAM operation were from the • Redeye (US) to carry on their shoulders to search and 170 Squadron, the Bloodhound SAM unit. Air • Blowpipe (UK) acquire targets. Operations Department was a key participant • Stinger (US) as flying of aircraft for the tests would be its Illustration of multi-layered Island Air • RBS-70 (Sweden) For the RBS-70, the Swedes overcame the responsibility. Technical evaluation would be Defence System weight problem by using a stand to support done by Systems Integration Management Redeye was ruled out, as the missile could the launcher. The operator could then sit Team and Electronic Test Centre (now

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known as DSO). This test and evaluation to Bofors to be trained on the operation and • Dedicated communications system The following were the requirements for programme was a landmark with the Army maintenance of RBS-70. In May 1980, on between commander and firer the new system. In effect, a completely new working closely with the RSAF in the completion of the training programme, a live- • IFF system with the antenna integrated system evolved: planning and execution of the programme. firing exercise was conducted at the Swedish with the transceiver Eight Non-Commissioned Officers from the missile range RFN located at Vidsel, close to • Target data receiver (TDR) • The fire unit had to be installed in 160 Battalion and 170 Squadron were trained the Arctic Circle. • Missiles the V-200 and operated in two modes by a team from Bofors on the operation of – inside the vehicle for transit and the RBS-70 missile system. A series of flight The RBS-70 project was the first project of The fire unit communicated with the Giraffe administrative moves, and elevated for trials was conducted in Changi and the final the Project Management Team (PMT) formed radar via the TDR only. target engagement. demonstration was conducted for VIPs in to take care of air defence projects. The PMT • The V-200 needed the following new October 1977. was the predecessor, and later formed one of mechanical parts: the divisions of the SPO. Today, we speak o redesigned top deck In the operational evaluation of RBS-70 in easily and confidently about missile systems, o new cupola standalone configuration and using fighter interfaces, integration, command line-of-sight o ready-use-missile container on the aircraft as targets, the average reaction time guidance, radars, data links and so on. At new top deck was found to be longer as compared to the that time, all of these were entirely new and o easy-to-use elevating platform to timing in the specifications. The latter could perhaps even “Greek” to novices who had to which the sight and stand were rarely be achieved even under ideal conditions. deliver such projects. “Daring” engineering installed and secured easily, and However, the test and evaluation was done work was undertaken by ourselves, despite the removed quickly if the fire unit needed without the critical Giraffe radar to enhance fact that we were completely inexperienced to redeploy outside the vehicle target acquisition. With the subsequent and had very few teachers to learn from. The o racks for missile storage in the V-200 integration of a Giraffe radar and the Air SAF constantly needed something “different”. o adjustable stand for the TDR Force air operations centres, reaction time Yet, the conventional wisdom was to leave • The fire unit communications system would be shorter and this would improve such requests for changes and modifications had to be interfaced to the combat radio the performance of RBS-70 and allow the to the overseas manufacturers. system of the V-200, and CVC helmets maximum range of the missile to be exploited. used instead of the RBS-70 headset. In order to keep up with armoured units, • The IFF antenna had to be split from its the RBS-70 system had to be installed in an transceiver and placed in front of the armoured vehicle. The V-200 was selected Firing of an RBS-70 missile from sight; the IFF transceiver was placed for this. This meant we decided to design, a V-200 vehicle low on the RBS-70 and lost line-of-sight develop, test locally as well as conduct live- when installed in the V-200 even in the firing in Sweden, and go into series production elevated mode. all on our own! • Ensure that operational and system technical performance – safety, shock The RBS-70 system was operated by a and vibration profiles, missile guidance, commander and firer. The complete fire unit DC power, ergonomics, coming-into- was designed for a “soft” ride and each major action and engagement workflow – was Local flight trials of RBS-70, component had its own protective transit case. not degraded by the new environment viewed by MINDEF officials, at Changi RBS-70 was designed for deployment on the in which the system was to be installed, Air Base in October 1977 ground; the Swedish Army had developed an transported and operated. optimal workflow for fire unit deployment • Conduct local trials to prove the viability RBS-70 was the obvious winner of the and target engagement. of the new system design (with very competition for an air defence weapon of limited test means and instrumentation the Army when the US disallowed the export The fire unit consisted of: available). of Stinger to Singapore. An initial purchase MINDEF and RSAF officials and • Prepare for live-firing trials at was made of one Giraffe radar and RBS-70 • Sight Singapore Air Defence Artillery operators Robotförsöksplats Norr (RFN) Vidsel, fire units and missiles for training in 1979. A • Stand with tripod legs onto which the at the live-firing exercise conducted at the Swedish missile test range inside team of 14 officers and 10 technicians went sight was attached RFN, Vidsel, circa 1980 the Arctic Circle.

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• Take into consideration and prepare for both parties. The Bofors engineers were eventual production vis-à-vis the build-up pleasantly surprised by the amount of of Singapore Air Defence Artillery (SADA) information on operational concepts they battalions. had gained in the exchange. They were impressed by our solutions and concluded Work on the installation started towards the that the mounting would be safe and end of 1979. The team was well tutored by acceptable for firing the RBS-70 missile. SPD Lui. It consisted of CPT Wesley D'aranjo, one electronics technician “borrowed” from RBS-70 was designed for deployment on the ADRU and two mechanical technicians from ground. The Bofors engineers cautioned that Singapore Automotive Engineering, Mr Khoo the back blast of the missile could hit the top Wai Yeow and Mr Richard Kwok (now Dr deck of the V-200 for high elevation firings. Richard Kwok). SPD Lui was kind enough The back blast might rock the vehicle and to allow much time to complete the vehicle cause the laser guidance beam to be deflected V-200 and RBS-70 during for live-firing tests in Sweden. The second too much for the missile in flight resulting National Day Parade prototype had to be ready well before the in guidance loss and failure. To check if this firing date, which had already been set for would be a problem, we conducted two local early May 1980! simulated “high angle” firings with dummy Armburst missiles. Vehicle movements were The design for mounting the RBS-70 on measured and compared with the RBS-70 the V-200 – the “elevating platform” – was specifications for the allowable angular completed by March 1980. Two prototypes rotation rates of sight. were fabricated. The first prototype was used for various technical trials – vibration, During the May 1980 live firing exercise in shock, ergonomics and simulated firings – Sweden, and prior to each firing, the RBS- so as to verify the suitability of the design 70 sight was used intensely for numerous for operational use of the RBS-70. The first practice engagements. Ten missiles were fired prototype was subjected to a 5,000 mile successfully from the V-200. Our users, the endurance test over roads, tracks and cross- Swedish Army and Bofors were pleased with country at the Sungei Gedong armour driving the data collected based on a working model test track. Defects were analysed and the of the RBS-70 in the V-200. These firings design iterated to eliminate the causes of marked the end of the development period the defects. that lasted less than a year.

Some months later, we learned that Bofors By mid 1981, six prototype RBS-70/V-200 was planning to install RBS-70 in the vehicles were produced for further operational M113. Two engineers from Bofors came for evaluation and troop trials. These were a week to study our prototype. They wanted completed by September 1981 and all designs Air Defence Weapon Operators operating the RBS-70 Ground-Based Air Defence system to learn the methods we had adopted to “frozen”. Approval for series production was mounted on the V-200 Armoured Fighting Vehicle during Exercise Wallaby 2016 solve various problems, like the attenuation given and, in total, Singapore Automotive of vehicle vibrations, and elevating the sight Engineering delivered a considerable number RBS-70 versus Rapier out country. These units could enhance the from inside the vehicle to firing position. To of production vehicles by 1983. coverage but could not replace the need for encourage a more open exchange of views The selection of the Giraffe radar and RBS- national low level air defence units. and information, we took time to study their The RBS-70/V-200 vehicles have continued 70 precipitated a question as to whether air drawings and gave them our comments. to be used for air defence, air base defence defence units built for the Army could also be The second question was if the needs for In exchange, we received their drawings and island defence for many years. used for the low level air defence of Singapore. national low level air defence could be met by which contained some useful designs. This But, this would create a gap in the defence RBS-70. There would be economic benefits exchange of information was of benefit to of Singapore when the units were deployed to invest in RBS-70 instead of Rapier.

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Rapier had a larger coverage against unserviceable assemblies and these would on fixed on-site infrastructure, it had the Army and MICOM were very resistant to manoeuvring targets equal to three times be replaced with spares. The assemblies flexibility to be deployed in other parts of the any configuration changes and dissuaded us that of RBS-70. Comparison of costs would be removed would then be sent to the battery island beyond the existing SAM sites. This from doing so. Their constant refrain was: “If based on one unit of Rapier versus three units maintenance unit for tests by an Automatic would enable the land at the Bloodhound anything goes wrong, it's your responsibility”. of RBS-70. As national air defence would need Test Equipment (ATE) and the sub-assemblies missile sites at Seletar and Amoy Quee to In addition to introducing the Super Giraffes, to be operational over long periods, the extent identified to be unserviceable would be sent to be returned to the State for re-development. we made several other configuration changes of manning time was a critical parameter. the manufacturer for repairs. The turnaround The lifting of height constraints to buildings that resulted in better performance and used time was long using this maintenance support in the immediate vicinity of Amoy Quee more modern equipment than those offered system. would also unlock development potential by the US Army. This resulted in considerable of the surrounding area. Overall, this would savings and significantly lower life cycle As distances to the deployment sites in result in huge benefits to the nation. costs. Two examples are described here. Singapore were short, a central supply and maintenance base using factory test The US Army deployed I-Hawk in a The power source for I-Hawk was the equipment and technicians would be standard “battalion” configuration. Studies MEP-115, a venerable 60kW, 400Hz diesel more efficient. Initially, the manufacturer of other users worldwide revealed that generator. It was antiquated and expensive. objected, as this had never done before, the deployment area for the “battalion” The MEP-115 was the US Army standard but was persuaded by our defence engineers configuration was large and Sweden diesel generator of which thousands had been and eventually agreed to the technical had found a way to reduce deployment produced. Hence, they were deliverable items The Rapier system being deployed soundness of the alternative solution. requirements and increase the mobility in our FMS case. More importantly, the MEP- of the fire unit. The Swedes had developed 115 was inadequate for the planned product Mr Quek Gim Pew became a defence engineer a new radar based on the Giraffe radar, the improvements (PIP-2) that our I-Hawk system in 1981 and expressed interest to do Research Super Giraffe, and had integrated it with would come with. It did not have the reserve and Development (R&D) at DSO. Due to the high power illuminator of the I-Hawk power capacity and was not responsive the urgency of building up our air defence and two sets of missile launchers. This enough for the PIP-2 upgrades. These upgrades capabilities, he was persuaded to manage was the ideal configuration for Singapore demanded more power from the diesel an acquisition project first. He managed as it would be very mobile, quick to deploy generator, as new equipment was added to the Rapier successfully and was then posted and camouflage, and required a very the fire unit, and the launchers were made to DSO. small footprint. to slew more rapidly for simultaneous and multiple target engagements. The increased Improved Hawk and Super Giraffe The US Army Missile Command (MICOM) surge power demand caused the generators did not support the integration of I-Hawk to “trip”, which in turn caused the computers Personnel preparing for the first The case for the replacement of Bloodhound with Super Giraffe. Their position was that in the control post to fail at the most critical Rapier live firing with Improved Hawk (I-Hawk) was made the MICOM would only sell complete fire phase of a target engagement. On the other on operational grounds and economics. The units. The smallest fire unit of the US Army hand, the US Army did not have any plans Rapier could be upgraded with DN181 Bloodhound missile would prevent an enemy was the Improved Assault Fire Unit (IAFU). to replace the MEP-115 in the near future. “Blindfire” radar for operation at night and from using medium and high altitudes to The solution to meet the demands of MICOM Thus, we decided to design and build new in time of poor visibility. This was considered perform its mission. It could not contribute to and our operational requirement was the diesel generators to our own specifications. to be another important capability. After the low level air defence of Singapore. Besides procurement of three IAFUs, the minimum all the operational studies and cost benefit medium and high altitude air defence, the order quantity, and five sets of equipment to From Raytheon we learned that a small analysis, MINDEF accepted the case for the I-Hawk missile could contribute to low level be integrated with Super Giraffe radars, which company had made a proposal to the US Air Force to acquire Rapier. air defence. MICOM termed the Modified Improved Army for replacement of the MEP-115, but Assault Fire Unit (MIAFU). approval for this would take years due to the The UK Army had developed Rapier to equip A squadron of I-Hawk was estimated to cost staffing process of the US Army. The company the units of the “British Army On the Rhine”. S$100m. The I-Hawk was also assessed to I-Hawk was the most costly system acquired was called Vallely Power and was owned by Maintenance would be done at three levels: have a lower operating cost compared to for SADA. The Foreign Military Sales James (“Jim”) Vallely – a very practical and the fire unit, the battery and the base level the Bloodhound, and an annual savings of (FMS) case for its purchase was signed in experienced specialist in customising power at the manufacturer of Rapier in the UK. S$5m could be achieved. As I-Hawk was February 1980. Eight Super Giraffe radars generators for demanding environments. He Trouble shooting at the fire unit would locate a mobile system that was not dependent complemented the I-Hawk system. The US briefed us on his proposal to the US Army.

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His design utilised current state-of-the-art We did not need the AN/TPQ-29 to be project manager and Mr Kent Drefeldt was in The next day, I was called to attend an engines and alternators, and accurate and fast transportable as it would serve as a static charge of our Basic and Super Giraffe radars. unscheduled Defence Committee meeting at responding electronic “governors” compared simulator in the I-Hawk unit. Normal mains the Istana with Prime Minister Lee. Minister to the old mechanical governors of the MEP- power was thus used for the AN/TPQ-29. A US Army major gave the first briefing. In for Defence Goh Chok Tong and Second 115. The only shortcoming, in our opinion, Instead of using mil-spec 115VAC, 400Hz air- typical US Army style he stood erect and Minister for Defence Yeo Ning Hong were was that the power capacity of this new conditioning units, we over-cooled the AN/ stiff in front of us, hands clasped behind present. Dr Goh said, “Philip says we need design just matched the requirements of TPQ-29 with commercial and inexpensive his back and he delivered his presentation this [E-2C Hawkeye airborne early warning the PIP-2 upgrade. We suggested adding a Toshiba air-conditioners. The Commanding very formally and in staccato from his slides. aircraft].” Mr Lee asked what the next step more powerful diesel engine and a much Officer of the I-Hawk unit reported that the When he came to the MIAFU, he said “…. was. I replied that I would be going to the larger alternator. Jim Vallely agreed and we AN/TPQ-29 was heavily used and that its the Singaporeans have decided to adopt Pentagon. The meeting lasted less than two tested a prototype of the Singapore diesel serviceability and availability was always both the IAFU and MIAFU; IAFU stands minutes. No memo was needed. generator, which worked very well. We used high. The AN/TPQ-29 was delivered to for “Improved Assault Fire Unit” and the our own diesel generators for the first firing Singapore towards the end of 1982 and retired US has termed the MIAFU the “Mini- In Washington, I met up with John Lehman, of our I-Hawk system at the White Sands from service use in 2004. Improved Assault Fire Unit”. Secretary of the US Navy. The US Department missile test range in New Mexico. The firing of Defense Letter of Offer and Acceptance took place on 15th September 1982 and was Unlike Mr Bo Johannsen who was large to Singapore was US$601 million for four a success. The Singapore diesel generators and spoke loudly, Mr Kent Drefeldt was a Hawkeye E-2Cs and a basic integrated Logistics are still in service with the RSAF. Only two slightly built and generally soft-spoken man. System package. Our project staff completed have been replaced after more than 30 years He put up his hand and said: “Excuse me, but the overall programme for US$340 million …” of reliable service. in Sweden we call the MIAFU the “Much Improved Assault Fire Unit”. The silence in As E-2C was considered to be a strategic The AN/TPQ-29, the I-Hawk training the room was so thick you could have cut it system by the US, it took more than three simulator, was also a deliverable item in with a knife! years of staffing before the Letter of Offer and our FMS case. It was a transportable system Acceptance (LOA) would be sent to Singapore. that would be shipped together with an E-2C Airborne Early Warning (AEW) I-Hawk system that was deployed overseas. Aircraft – Changing the Rules of the The disruptive innovation the E-2C brought It used old vacuum tube technology and Game for Island Air Defence about was the breaking of the constraint of was powered by the 60kW, 400Hz MEP-115 “line-of-sight” to our air defence system. diesel generator. In turn, this necessitated the Introduction The disruptive change was created when we use of 400Hz “mobile” air-conditioning units. An I-HAWK MIAFU deployed in Sweden could position the E-2C and detect adversarial Very compact, maintenance intensive, mil- In the book “Up close with Lee Kuan Yew: fighters at a significantly further range that our spec 115VAC, 400Hz air-conditioning units The lesson learned from our experience with Insights from colleagues and friends”, Mr ground-based radars could and consequently were part of the system. In all, the AN/TPQ- the Bloodhound simulator is that electronics Philip Yeo recalls the following incidents also intercept them at extended ranges from 29 was an expensive and antiquated simulator equipment, especially analogue vacuum tube that took place when he was Second Singapore using our fighter aircraft. With with equally expensive and antiquated systems, should be cooled to as low a Permanent Secretary of MINDEF. The surface radars we could detect incoming power supplies and air-conditioning systems. temperature as practically possible. So while following is an extract from pages 94-95: fighters flying at 150 feet to approximately However, it was needed for training I-Hawk we over-cooled the AN/TPQ-29 – the vacuum 10km from their targets. Fighter interceptors SAM controllers locally. tubes were very happy, the reliability of the “… in February 1979, Dr Goh Keng Swee asked and medium level SAM would be useless simulator was very high – the trainees felt me to take charge of Air Defence build-up against such threats. Hence, our 1978 Air 170 Squadron operated and had much they were in Siberia! portfolio … Sometime later, he called me Defence Plan was based on Giraffe radars, experience with its Bloodhound Engagement to his office for our usual ten-minute catch- 35mm anti-aircraft artillery and the RBS-70, Controller Simulator, which was introduced A funny situation arose during a project up. He asked me how my SADA (Singapore Rapier and the I-Hawk SAM systems. With in 1971 and retired in 1990. It was, likewise, meeting: Mr Bo Johannsen and Mr Kent Air Defence Artillery) build-up was going. E-2C, the new air defence plan was changed to designed and produced from the era of Drefeldt of Ericsson Microwave Systems I replied that we needed Airborne Early be based on fighters complemented by SAMs. vacuum tube equipment. The main reason for joined us for a project meeting with the Warning capabilities to complete the air its high failure rate and general unreliability US Army, MICOM, Raytheon and others defence build-up. He knew what equipment In May 1982 during the Falklands War, Dr was the large amount of heat generated from at MICOM in Huntsville Alabama. Mr Bo was needed and asked how many I wanted. I Goh Keng Swee, then Minister for Education, the vacuum tubes. Johannsen was our Super Giraffe MIAFU replied, three. He countered, “Two is enough.” observed that the Royal Navy was lucky that

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the bombs delivered by Argentinian A-4 The E-2C Project 1982-1987 programme was handed to MAJ Wesley few people developed a distaste for travel due Skyhawks that had struck their ships did D'aranjo who was appointed the Programme to the distances involved and the discomfort not explode. He observed that the lack of The vulnerability of Singapore to aerial Director. MAJ Wesley D'aranjo remembers of flying economy class in those days. AEW nearly caused the UK to lose the war assault was a big problem, due to the lack of clearly the briefing he received one Saturday and concluded that E-2C would be critical strategic depth to provide sufficient warning morning from his boss, SPD Lui: “I think you The first project meeting with USN Naval for the air defence of Singapore. Though time of threats to the entire country – “our know by now that we've decided to buy the Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), the the cost would be very high he stated that: front door is our back door!”. If we were E-2C and I want you to be in-charge”. (And, USN E-2C project management office, was “It is still cheaper than one oil refinery”. to allow enemy aircraft into our airspace, yes, we worked Saturdays then.) When MAJ held in Bethpage in December 1983. COL anywhere in Singapore would be bombed Wesley D'aranjo reminded SPD Lui that his Lui Pao Chuen, SPD, spoke on behalf of the An AEW radar was not part of the within seconds. An increase in our warning contract would end soon, as his scholarship Republic of Singapore and voiced his concerns consideration in the original design of time is crucial if we are not to be caught by bond expired in July 1983, SPD Lui said: “Please in the management of the programme. His Singapore's air defence system. We had surprise. Hence, the E-2C. tell that to DS (Air Force)”. Lim Ming Seong introductory speech (see page 28) is worth never even dreamed of it. Immediately, we was the DS (Air Force) then. He listened, said recounting. researched all that we could gather and learn The E-2C is the USN's airborne surveillance, “not acceptable”, and the rest is history. about the E-2C from our library – there was and command and control (C2) aircraft Managing the project involved a great amount no Internet or Wikipedia then. Once we knew designed and built to operate off an aircraft Intense negotiations between USN-Grumman of detailed work; this being the nature of large- and understood what operational capability carrier to support a naval task force. A fleet of and MINDEF preceded the signing of the scale systems integration work and logistics. and advantage the E-2C would bring to the four E-2Cs was estimated to cost more than LOA. As we now understood the E-2C better, Our aim was to build an infrastructure that air defence of Singapore, we thought we had S$1 billion in 1982. The other US alternative having just completed an extensive logistics would enable the squadron to maintain its “died and gone to Heaven”. then was the US Air Force Airborne Warning planning exercise on it, we wanted several intended operational readiness throughout and Control System E-3 Sentry which was software changes to better suit the RSAF's the life of the aircraft. Hence, not only Grumman Corporation, the designer and even more costly. There was also the Nimrod operational requirements; alternatives for did the hardware and logistics need to be manufacturer of the E-2C system, was quick proposed by the British. Fortunately, we did support and logistics implementation; as well purchased and installed on time, the equally to respond. In early 1982, it set up a regional not consider it as that project encountered as better terms and industrial offsets from important tasks of training adequate numbers office in Singapore and relocated the vice- many technical and insurmountable Grumman. The protracted delay caused the of operators, engineers, technical officers and president of their Tokyo office, Mr Herb difficulties and was eventually cancelled. Pentagon concern as approval for the release technicians on a continual basis had to be Moska, to Singapore. We would not have considered the Russian of E-2C to Singapore was given by President planned for and implemented. When the Bison. Ronald Reagan himself. Mr Jim White, an first aircraft arrived in Singapore in 1987, the In November 1982 a team of 11 senior staff Under Secretary at the Pentagon, travelled project team had prepared the logistics and from the RSAF, DSO and SPO was despatched For comparison, the most sophisticated to Singapore in mid September 1983 to meet operational infrastructure such that flying to the Grumman plant in Bethpage, New York aircraft operated by the RSAF then was the with SPD Lui and MAJ Wesley D'aranjo. could begin immediately, and it did! This is a to learn about the E-2C. The course lasted for F-5; and the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system After the pleasantries, he gingerly asked if testament to the sound groundwork laid more five weeks and ended just before Christmas. had just been approved at an estimated cost of the LOA would be signed as it would expire than 30 years before – and which continues S$5 billion. Compared to the MRT, a brand on 30th September 1983. Mr Jim White was to this day by the present generation of AEW A US Navy (USN) and Grumman team arrived new concept of transportation eagerly awaited left speechless when SPD Lui instructed MAJ operators and maintainers. While other in Singapore in January 1983 to work out the by the entire population of Singapore, the Wesley D'aranjo to draft and type, on the countries sometimes rely on foreign help even terms of reference for a logistics planning thought of spending S$1 billion for a mere spot, a letter confirming the purchase of the after many years, Singapore set a target to be conference (LPC) that was scheduled for four aircraft was quite daunting. As expected, E-2C with support, which SPD Lui signed self-reliant within two years. April 1983. US Congressional approval for the Singapore Government was engaged in and handed to him. The LOAs were signed the sale of E-2C to Singapore was obtained on a good amount of debate with opposition on 30th September 1983. As a legacy of the E-2C, the management of 17th May 1983 at a ceiling price of US$601m. members questioning the need for this large such large and complex projects was never The LOAs for four E-2Cs and support were expenditure. The press reported on the debate Two project teams under the direction of the same again from the project management presented by the USN at the end of July 1983. and Singaporeans got to know about the MAJ Wesley D'aranjo were established: one perspective. Our ability to integrate complex Detailed clarifications were held with USN E-2C. However, the E-2C was an essential at the Grumman plant in Bethpage, New systems, thereby producing a very effective officials in August and September 1983 to component in Singapore's defence strategy York headed by Mr Chinniah Manohara, SoS, was put to the test and we succeeded. review the scope and essential items with and had to be bought. and the other in Singapore headed by CPT respect to our requirements. The LOAs were John Wong. There was much travel between signed on 30th September 1983. The responsibility for managing this huge Singapore and New York. As a result, quite a

20 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 21 Chapter 1 EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAND AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM-OF-SYSTEMS Chapter 1 EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAND AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM-OF-SYSTEMS

The E-2C Programme Spawned Several “Firsts” squadron. The senior squadron officers in the initial batch were the same officers managing It was the first SAF programme estimated at the local office of the project, thus ensuring a billion Singapore dollars. that they were the ones who had to live with the decisions they made. Upon returning It had the first full-time Government of from Grumman, most of the GOSPO staff Singapore Programme Office (GOSPO) were assigned to the squadron or took up established overseas: appointments in Air Logistics Department responsible for the E-2C. • Apart from the aircraft programme, GOSPO also took responsibility for The USN initiated each E-2C FMS project the spares management and housing / COL Lui Pao Chuen delivering his with a massive LPC. During the LPC, each accommodation for trainees, which at one speech during the handover ceremony and every main and subsystem – hardware point built up to about 140 such personnel A Project Management Review meeting and software – and sometimes up to the in the US. To the best knowledge of at Grumman – inspecting the fabrication individual component of the aircraft system the Programme Director, MAJ Wesley of a fuselage section was examined from the perspective of mission D'aranjo, this had not been done before needs. The operational, logistical and other on such a scale, nor has the range and local support needed to fulfil the mission was span of responsibilities been assigned derived and documented thoroughly in an to a single project office for subsequent implementation plan called the Technical and programmes or projects. Logistics Development Plan. This was very • Much of the work done at the GOSPO logical and commendable. However, a major was duplicated by Grumman for another mismatch in expectations arose soon after FMS programme that was running the start of the LPC. NAVAIR 231, the USN concurrently. Even our requirements for E-2C project management office, had limited aircrew flying suits, which we compiled COL Lui Pao Chuen (left) and BG George experience dealing with FMS customers and, based on the physical profile of our Yeo, then Chief of Staff (Air Staff) and understandably, assumed that what was good trainees, were accepted by the Egyptians. concurrently Director of Joint Operations for the USN was applicable for others as well. This was because the Egyptian pilots and Planning Directorate, taking a Many who came for the LPC were from found that the suits issued by Grumman commemorative photo with the E-2Cs USN fleet squadrons or bases and were only obviously did not fit, as the USN pilots Handover of Singapore's first E-2C in schooled in the USN way of doing things. were of much bigger build. January 1986 by Mr George Skurla, President What Was Learned? To make matters worse, the LPC for Japan of Grumman, to COL Lui Pao Chuen had been “successfully” completed recently The E-2C squadron was the first to In dealing with the USN, we had to learn a new and it was taken as an additional reference. incorporate maintenance of hardware set of vocabulary: FMSGEL, NAVAIR, ASO, For example, the Japanese required extensive and software within the squadron. Much NAVILCO, ILSMT, CINCPACFLT, FCDSSA, local manufacturing capability, which we confidence was gained from this project GOSPO, NAVSUP, TLDP, COMNAVAIRPAC, did not. They also wanted a complete radar in our own ability to maintain, repair and NAVFAC, SPAWARSYSCEN ………. The list test range for testing rotodomes (the rotating modify high technology equipment. of “NAVSpeak” is even longer. antenna of the E-2C radar); and the eight This mentality is still ingrained in the Japanese E-2Cs would be deployed at more SAF today. We learned a systematic way of managing than one operating base across Japan. To projects. This was the first time we managed the USN, it seemed obvious that Singapore's The USN is a professional and focused a project in such an integrated way; in what requirements had to be similar to those of organisation. Once they agree to do is today called “Ops-Tech” integration. The the Japanese. something, they do so without a fuss. skeleton crew of the squadron was formed Our first aircraft was handed over in March and both operators and logistics personnel The Singapore team assigned for the LPC 1986 during a six-monthly programme review were involved in the planning of the project, spent considerable time first learning how the at Grumman. including the physical requirements of the USN did things, then aligning expectations

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and finally examining and outlining LMIS, and it continues to be implemented During the meeting with Mr Jim White, we standard IT hardware but very few had alternative cost-effective approaches to in SAP, albeit an updated version ECC6 took a chance and explained the dilemma and experience in implementing “interoperability” local and relevant industial support needs. Enhancement Pack 4. risk that Link ∑ posed to us. We asked if Link or working with classified US Government The support required for the E-2C – spares, 11 could be released to us. We were surprised datalinks. ground support equipment, a software Interoperability when Mr Jim White said he would staff our development facility and training – was request through USN and the Pentagon. It In mid 1984, we issued a request for proposal specified and decisions taken whether to buy The USN, and in general the US Armed Forces, was our turn to be speechless when we were to two companies, Grumman and Rockwell- them through the USN or directly from their interoperate via classified datalinks. The main granted release not only of Link 11 but also of Collins, for the development of a GES to manufacturers. This saved us an enormous datalinks used by the USN then were Link Link 4/4A, i.e. the USN's own configuration! interface the E-2C to our C2 system. Both amount of money. In all, teams from the 11 and Link 4/4A, the former for linking C2 This removed a big worry from our minds companies were asked to propose modern RSAF, DSO, Singapore Aerospace, other centres and the latter for the E-2C to “talk” to and saved at least US$26m. Often we are IT hardware and software solutions. local companies and SPO spent five weeks fighter aircraft. These datalinks encapsulate afraid to ask because we are afraid of negative Grumman's non-recurring development cooped up in a local hotel working with 40 decades of thought, war fighting experience and answers. The learning point here was to ask costs were very high and we continued with USN, Grumman and subcontractor personnel lessons learned by the USN. A “Book of sincerely, or innocently, in order to get the Rockwell-Collins. during the LPC. The USN estimated the LPC Standards” defines and disciplines every answer you wanted. However, what could to last 13 weeks. protocol aspect of each datalink – terminology, we do about the GES? The Rockwell-Collins group developing convention, metrics, data packages, interoperability solutions was based in The approach to logistics management learned transmission rates, track quality, error The GES proposed by the USN and Grumman Rodgau near Frankfurt and headed by Mr during the LPC evolved into a value-added correction schemes, “red / black” separation, was an actual “backend” of the E-2C – the three Dave Adams, a retired colonel from the robust process for MINDEF, which the encryption, change management and more. control workstations, a slightly antiquated US Marine Corps. Mr Dave Adams was a SAF described as the “LCM” of projects. All central computer and other associated graduate of the US Naval Postgraduate School subsequent projects adopted this methodology As Singapore is neither a member of the hardware. This was the standard solution in Monterey, and was well regarded in the and, in June 1990, it was formally accepted and North Atlantic Treaty Organization nor an proposed and implemented then. Imagine, a US military and industry for his expertise in documented as the MINDEF LCM Manual, ally of the US, the LOA included a provision full airborne mil-spec “backend” of the E-2C US and North Atlantic Treaty Organisation which clearly defined the Integrated Logistics for Grumman to develop a unique datalink sitting on the ground in an air-conditioned datalinks and C2 systems. Mr Dave Adams Support requirements for project systems. for Singapore called Link ∑. This would room and relaying data to and from our C2 had strong opinions on many things but he This was further codified into the Logistics cost at least US$26m but the operational system! This did not sit well with us. By delivered as promised. Management Information System (LMIS) and requirements had to be specified by the then, we had moved away from the use of implemented using the German software, RSAF. The requirement specifications were proprietary “mainframe” computers and had The E-2C GES was developed and delivered Systemanalyse und Programmentwicklung defined by the RSAF and DSO. An innovation already introduced commercially available by Mr Dave Adams and his team at a (SAP) R/3, which up till today is probably and specific requirement was a novel priority standard information technology (IT) fraction of the price of the Grumman GES. the best industrial Enterprise Resource scheme to ensure that the most important processors connected by local area networks Development of the E-2C GES took place Planning logistics software tool available messages get priority of bandwidth. However, and performing distributed processing. We from mid 1986 and it was commissioned commercially. The LCM methodology ensures a large amount of flight testing would be demurred and decided to study the matter in early 1989. Software staff from DSO, that all aspects of the system life cycle are required to qualify Link ∑ and there was in more detail. We discovered that several led by Mr William Lau, participated in the considered in arriving at relevant and cost- no guarantee it would work. In addition, companies could provide a “backend” using development of GES. effective solutions. It can be said with some for Link ∑ to be interoperable with our C2 degree of confidence that MINDEF and the system, the interface would have to be via SAF are now able to get the best value for a Ground Entry Station (GES), and the GES its money when acquiring weapon systems. would cost another US$26m. In 2012, the LCM Manual was replaced by the Defence Capability Management (DCM) This matter was of great concern as the SAF Manual to take into account the increased did not have the interoperability the USN sophistication of systems being acquired or assumed existed. We had not yet achieved developed, and the need for more Operations- interoperability within a service, let alone E-2C flying along the Fokker 50 Maritime Missile Corvette Logistics coordination and integration taking among the three services of the SAF. coastline of Long Island, USA Patrol Aircraft a capability perspective. Correspondingly, the Enterprise Systems for Logistics replaced the One may be surprised at what we did next. Systems enabled with C2 interoperability training

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This was a valuable learning experience for provisioning of spares for the various systems A line item in the LOA was for a “staging “draw-down” plaque, and the presentation our work on various types of datalinks in and subsystems of the E-2C, which the USN area” in New York to receive, store and of mementoes. later years. wanted “Beltway Bandits” to do. Instead, dispatch to Singapore the multitude of we asked the Aviation Supply Office (ASO) spares and materials purchased for the E-2C The implementation of the E-2C GES enabled in Philadelphia to generate the listing of squadron. As we would have to manage the and spawned the following capabilities: spares with their reliability data based on logistics of the E-2C ourselves eventually, we USN usage data. We then worked out the informed the USN that we wanted to handle • Enhanced effectiveness to our weapon provisioning list based on our experience this task by ourselves. Singapore Aerospace systems via improved target acquisition and flying profiles. (SAMCO) was approached and asked if provided by E-2C they would take up the challenge of doing • Modernisation to Link 11 communications Deciding on the quantity of spares was an this. SAMCO established the “SAMCO system intimidating challenge because of the high Warehouse” close to Bethpage at less than • Advanced standalone and embedded costs involved. Relying on the spares list half the cost estimated by the USN. simulators for C2 interoperability training given by the USN would have cost many between the E-2C, MPA and RSN ships tens of millions of dollars more. Everything Onto Singapore seemed inflated, probably due to the relatively In 1991, Mr Dave Adams and three of his smaller number of E-2Cs compared to other After the “roll-out” of our first two E-2Cs senior system developers left Rockwell- aircraft types. So, without the benefit of at Grumman, they were used for pilot and Collins and formed their own company operational experience on the E-2C, and “wizzo” (weapon systems operator) training. called Interoperability Systems International relying on the reliability data provided by Upon completion of the flying training, the Hellas, which eventually moved to Athens, ASO, we had to decide which spares to buy, aircraft were flown to San Diego from the Greece and is still in existence today. item by item. We could have played it safe Grumman plant in Bethpage, preserved for and purchased what the USN recommended. sea transportation across the Pacific Ocean Financial Control Instead, we took a calculated risk by using and shipped to the USN naval base at Subic a yet untested (by us) software programme Bay. The sea journey took about three weeks. The GOSPO, though small, had oversight on spares provisioning called Optimisation After off-loading at Subic Bay the E-2Cs over all matters relating to our programme of Units as Spares (OPUS); we asked relevant were stripped of their preservation, made and they scrutinised all expenditures questions of various knowledgeable USN operational again and then flown to Brunei. and verified them to be necessary before personnel, and then made our own judgments. RSAF pilots flew our E-2Cs from Brunei to a agreeing. OPUS is a software provisioning tool to memorable welcome at Paya Lebar Air Base determine the spares holding necessary to in March 1987. Arrival of our first two E-2Cs Understandably, the first and main achieve a desired operational availability. at Paya Lebar Airbase in March 1987 preoccupation of NAVAIR 231 was the USN This became a standard tool for calculating “Draw-Down” and Renewal fleet. NAVAIR 231, who also handled our and provisioning our spares in future projects. The E-2C was replaced by the Gulfstream project under the FMS arrangement, was We sometimes wondered if anyone would The E-2Cs were decommissioned after 25 G550 AEW system. always short-handed and, as a practical thank us for saving tens of millions of dollars years of sterling service to Singapore and approach, could spend our funds to employ if a plane was grounded for want of a spare! the SAF. We are now into the fourth decade of AEW subcontractors to work on various aspects of operations in Singapore, and as we take stock our programme. These subcontractors were Being at Grumman enabled the team and the The “draw-down” ceremony was held on 15th of what the E-2C has gained for Singapore, called “Beltway Bandits” and they made RSAF to learn a lot about the evolution and October 2010 at the Air Force Museum in Paya MINDEF and the SAF, it can be argued that their living by performing work outsourced development of the E-2C, and the forthcoming Lebar Air Base with Chief of Air Force (CAF), we have reaped more than enough benefits to from the USN. The offices of many such modifications and upgrades planned. In MG Ng Chee Meng, as the guest-of-honour. justify its costs, if such benefits can be priced. companies lined the “beltway” (a ring road) fact, we received the latest multi-function The ceremony was dignified and comprised Singapore's AEW squadron must continue to that surrounds the Pentagon; hence the display consoles ahead of the USN as we a formation flypast with CAF on board the aim for and be “The best AEW squadron in name “Beltway Bandits”. Where we could, signed up for the modification in time for it E-2C. There was also a symbolic handover the world”. we would not agree to the use of “Beltway to be incorporated into our aircraft during of the E-2C yoke to Commander Air Force Bandits” and, where possible, we did most production. This saved a lot of money as a Training Command, a photo taking session, of the work ourselves. An example was the retrofit would have been more costly. a video tribute and unveiling of the E-2C

26 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 27 Chapter 1 EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAND AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM-OF-SYSTEMS Chapter 1 EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAND AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM-OF-SYSTEMS

means. We have had a surplus budget every year The Island Air Defence's weapons, electronic warfare systems, unmanned since we gained our independence in 1965. Transformation into a System-of- platform technologies, and a new type of soldier Systems in the 2000s who is trained to exploit these capabilities.” We, however, do not save on defence. Each year we spend 6% of our Gross National Product on defence. The Third Generation SAF in the 2000s Minister for Defence Teo Chee Hean, March 2004 It is the responsibility of our Ministry of Defence to Announcement in Parliament of the Third Generation ensure we get the maximum defence capability for We have seen three key categories of IAD SAF this investment. systems that were progressively acquired and modernised from the 1960s to 1990s: Island Air Defence as a System-of- G550 AEW flying alongside E-2C as part The E-2C is a very large investment when compared Systems in the 2000s of the E-2C decommissioning event to the Gross National Product of Singapore. Money • Sensor systems, e.g. ITT-RS320 radar, Super spent on the E-2C will have to be taken from the Giraffe, E-2C airborne radar, etc The Third Generation Networked IAD was budget of other weapon systems. To get the most • Weapon systems, e.g. Bloodhound, I-HAWK, unveiled publicly in 2007. The Networked “bang for the buck”, we must cut down expenditures Rapier, RBS-70, fighter jets, etc Air Defence system enhances the existing that do not result in tangible returns. In short, we • C2 systems, e.g. GL-161, MOCC, newer multi-layered air defence with the must trim project overhead costs. in-flight C2 systems, etc application of networked concepts to tightly integrate existing and new sensors, C2 and Being a small and relatively young country, we Through a journey of some 30 years, our weapon systems for enhanced awareness, are fortunate to have a small bureaucracy. We can DTC pioneers and predecessors grew in responsiveness and precision. There are three therefore be very fast in decision making and we proficiency and mastery of these systems notable qualities in enhancing our IAD from can complete our actions rather quickly, provided through “learning by doing”. By the 1990s, we a collection of systems to an SoS. we get the facts and figures. had a suite of capable sensor, C2 and weapon systems that were able to detect, sense-make First, it is more robust and survivable. The As we have built up a credible defence capability and deal with a range of air defence threats. networking of the various sensor, C2 and Then-CAF MG Ng Chee Meng (centre) in a relatively short time, we have to work in a weapon systems together prevents a single with founding members of the “pressure cooker” environment. We have become Moving into the 2000s, DTC embarked point of failure, thereby enhancing the E-2C project team intolerant of waste, especially of valuable time. on a journey to develop IAD into an SoS. robustness and survivability of the overall Please bear with us should you find us to be more Defence capabilities being developed were air defence system. With networking, the COL Lui's Introductory Speech at the “pushy” than other more established FMS countries. increasing in scale and complexity compared degradation of any single sensor, C2 and/or First E-2C Project Meeting with USN We pay cash, and on time. to the individual systems for sensors, weapon system will have minimal impact on NAVAIR in December 1983 weapons and C2 that DTC had managed the entire system as there are several other As we have spent considerable time during the so far. The continual advancement of sensors, C2 and/or weapon systems that will Then COL Lui Pao Chuen, SPD, spoke on Logistics Planning Conference, being briefed and communications, computing and information continue to function. behalf of the Republic of Singapore. His talking to each other, let us not cover subjects that technologies in the new millennium was speech, which voiced his concerns in the have been covered there and adequately documented. offering new opportunities for systems to Second, it is more responsive and effective management of this programme, was as We should get down to issues that will affect the be networked together and to interoperate. in defeating aerial threats. The IAD SoS has follows: project. We are ready to respond to any matters that Concepts of Network-Centric Warfare (NCW) enhanced awareness and responsiveness to any participant in this conference would like to raise were being explored or pursued by countries see farther, respond faster and engage targets Mr Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, and we will work as long as necessary to give a such as the US. It was at this time that the with greater precision. The Networked Air response before we end this conference. I hope that SAF embarked on a journey to transform itself Defence system effectively reduces the sensor- As most of you will now have discovered, Singapore the issues we raised with PMA-231 will be similarly into a Third Generation capability. to-shooter cycle between the time a target is a very small country. We have no natural resources. dealt with so that we can both feel satisfied that the is detected and the time it is engaged. In Even the water we drink has to be imported from conference is worth the effort of attending. “The transformation of the SAF to exploit addition to responsiveness, networking also Malaysia. rapidly emerging technologies and concepts is a provides greater strike effectiveness. In the Thank you. strategic imperative for the 3G SAF. These will past, a weapon system or shooter relied on To survive and prosper as a nation we have to work lead to changes in organisation, less demand for its own sensor to detect and track targets. very hard and be as efficient as we can. We have conventional platforms, more demand for less visible Today, however, the shooters and sensors are learned the habit of thrift and spending within our technologies like information systems, precision connected. Tracking data from a particular

28 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 29 Chapter 1 EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAND AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM-OF-SYSTEMS Chapter Two

sensor, such as the FPS 117 or Giraffe Agile capabilities in the network. Underpinning CONCEPTS TO radars (one main S316L/S and one backup Multiple Beam Radar, can be relayed to these networked capabilities in our IAD is CAPABILITIES S319L), two Plessey HF 200 height finding the shooter most suitable to eliminate a an SoS architecture that has the flexibility radars and an advanced GL161 C2 system particular threat. The whole idea is to to allow subsequent insertions of the latest from the RAF located in Bukit Gombak under command these weapon systems centrally sensor systems and weapon systems to the command of the Bukit Gombak Radar on the network. It is now possible to select interoperate in a network-centric manner. Station. For weapons, we had the 35mm the best shooter, using the best tracking This is to ensure that our IAD capabilities A Historical View of Concept guns covering low-level air defence and the radars, to intercept any incoming targets more would maintain a cutting edge. As a result, Formulation for Island Air Defence Bloodhound SAM system covering the High efficiently and effectively. after 2007, new sensor and weapon systems, Altitude Air Defence. such as the G550 AEW Aircraft, Surface- We saw in Chapter 1 how careful analysis Third, it has the flexibility and ease for to-air PYthon and DERby (SPYDER) SAM of mission requirements and the use of Expanding a Multi-layered IAD in the growth. The IAD system integrates existing system and the Aster 30 SAM system, could Operations Research studies to support 1970 – 1980s and newly operationalised capabilities, while be successfully inserted into our networked urgent acquisition decisions for a single allowing for easy plug-and-play of future IAD. component system in IAD was carried out, A multi-layered IAD was beginning to take such as rationalising the rate of fire as a shape, and it became obvious that our IAD's critical parameter for our anti-aircraft guns initial inventory of systems would need to be and selecting the Oerlikon 35mm twin-barrel augmented. In the mid 1970s, the first mobile gun system over the Bofors 40mm single radar AN/TPS-43DX was acquired and put barrel gun. In this chapter, we will take a into operation, followed by the second mobile complementary perspective of how concepts radar ITT-RS320 and the Plessey Processing and capabilities for the overall IAD were and Display Cabin in the early 1980s. For shaped over time. We will also see some of the SAM systems, the Rapier and I-Hawk entered corresponding qualities within the DTC as service in the 1980s. For fighter aircraft, first an Enabling SoS that would allow it to to arrive was the pre-owned Hawker Hunter support the SAF in requirements definition in the early 1970s, followed by the pre-owned for complex systems, so as to evolve and A4 Skyhawk and soon after the supersonic realise large-scale complex defence systems, air defence fighter jet F-5E in 1979. such as the network-centric IAD SoS. Air Defence Master Plan 1978 Rapid Build-Up of Basic Systems for IAD in the 1960s – 1970s Even at a time when there was a critical need to meet very urgent operational needs Following Singapore's independence from in the early years, our defence technology Malaya in 1965, our defence build-up, pioneers demonstrated the ability to in particular air defence capability, was formulate requirements and acquire systems determined to a large extent by the abrupt with the resources available and yet keep announcement in 1968 that the British the big picture in mind. Amid operational Forces would be withdrawn by 1971. Over demands and acquisitions of additional air this early period of building up a credible air defence weapons, sensors and C2 systems, defence system, our pioneers from MINDEF MINDEF took a systems approach and Networked Island Air Defence unveiled in 2007 and the Defence Technology Group (DTG) embarked upon master-planning effort, rather worked against the odds and came up with than acquire new systems in a “piece-meal” an impressive record. manner and hope that they would somehow References: work as an integrated whole one day. By the early 1970s, we had set up a basic air Kuok, R., Yong, P. H., Othman, W., Puan, N. A., Nathan, S. R., Pillay, J. Y., … defence capability based on new purchases and In 1978, Dr Goh Keng Swee, then Minister Lim, T. K. (2015). Up close with Lee Kuan Yew: Insights from colleagues and friends. inherited systems from the RAF stationed in for Defence commissioned then LTC Lui Pao Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. Singapore. We had two Marconi Surveillance Chuen to develop the first air defence master

30 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 31 Chapter 2 CONCEPTS TO CAPABILITIES Chapter 2 CONCEPTS TO CAPABILITIES

plan. Prof Lui recalled “I felt that it had to be a of new systems. Into the 1980s and early from proficiency to mastery in operating the from fighter aircraft to stand-off munitions. joint effort [with the SAF] when Dr Goh Keng 1990s, the whole project management process systems in our inventory. We arrived at a Examples included long-range air-to-ground Swee tasked me to do the study”. As Prof Lui was continually rationalised and improved stage where we could exploit the systems' missiles that enabled adversarial aircraft to had already spent three years contemplating to ensure that only the most cost-effective capabilities to the fullest as well as overcome attack while staying out of harm's way. This this study, he had all the materials available. systems were acquired to meet Singapore's their limitations. Added emphasis was placed required an IAD that could respond faster, The team he put together had to put certain needs. Collectively, DTC and SAF users earned on optimising their performance as a larger since missiles would typically fly faster than scenarios to war-game, and the product was the reputation of being “smart buyers” and system, and their related areas of systems aircraft and would be harder for conventional the Air Defence 1978 Report. This was the “smart users” respectively in the eyes of many acquisition, integration, training, organisation radars to detect. The air defence's ability first time the SAF had a dedicated study for international defence systems contractors. and more. to defeat missile threats and robustness to the development of a major ORBAT in the Exemplary outcomes in this period included withstand some extent of missile hits would SAF based on inputs from our own people. the integration of the American I-Hawk An example was the Sensor Master Plan also be critical. A new suite of sensor and Before that, we always had to depend on SAM system with the Swedish Super Giraffe, that aimed to overcome shortcomings of the weapon systems synergistically integrated consultants. and likewise the RBS-70 and the 35mm existing sensors by introducing advanced with a responsive command, control and guns with the Basic Giraffe to improve their sensors, carefully integrated to form a communications (C3) system could optimally This was to set the stage for MINDEF and the capabilities. coherent whole, to provide overall system- handle stand-off munition threats. DTC's culture of master-planning. In the air level robustness. The suite of sensors provided defence domain, this discipline of conducting From SAM-centric to Fighter-centric Air overlap of coverage in various dimensions, Leveraging advancements in infocomm operational and engineering master-planning Defence in the 1980s such as space and frequency, as well as technologies and emerging network-centric continued in the late 1980s and early 1990s, radar functional modes. Each radar acquired concepts, the DTC and the RSAF developed led by planners from the RSAF and Systems A major paradigm shift in IAD occurred under the Sensor Master Plan was carefully a network-centric IAD, where the GBAD Engineers from the DTG. following the acquisition of the E-2C airborne defined, adapted or specially developed evolved from operating in firing units to early warning aircraft in the 1980s. Up to that to meet Singapore's unique requirements. operating networked “common pools” of “Ops-Tech” Integration point, in spite of our best efforts to tackle It was a product of comprehensive Ops- sensor and weapon systems that could be low-flying aircraft threats with capable radar Tech partnership with concerted efforts optimally paired by the C3 system against Other than rationalising the suite of systems and weapon systems such as the tactical Giraffe in engineering studies involving both specific threats. Moving away from the firing needed by our existing IAD, the 1978 Air low level air surveillance radar and the Rapier experienced RSAF air defence planners cum unit concept also meant better robustness. Defence Study led to the formation of and RBS-70 SAM systems, ultimately ground- operators and DSO Radar/Electronic Warfare This was because each firing unit typically the SADA formation in 1979 and the Air based air defence systems (GBAD) were still Systems Engineers. The outcome was a had a dedicated radar, and if the radar was Force Systems Command in 1983 – two subject to the “tyranny of line of sight (LOS)”. master plan that when realised would provide defeated by a missile, the firing unit could organisations that later merged to form Air With the E-2C now as an airborne radar, the a comprehensive recognised air situation be rendered ineffective. In a network-centric Defence Systems Division in 1995. This “tyranny of LOS” was broken and low-flying picture around Singapore to support various concept, another radar suitable for the mission represented a holistic approach to capability threat aircraft could be detected at much missions of the RSAF. The study also included could be selected from the “common pool” to development, where both new operational longer ranges. To complement the airborne the top-level systems integration approach bridge the gap. and technological concepts were formulated radar's extended reach, the natural choice of to be taken by MINDEF's engineering team. “hand-in-glove” so that the eventual new a complementary weapon system became the This Third Generation networked IAD was a capabilities were not just “new machines”, but air defence fighter. As a result, in terms of a Many more capability master plans were product of Ops-Tech partnership at the very new organisations which could exploit these multi-layered response to air intruders, the first developed as such a practice became the norm early stage of capability development. While new machines in a transformational manner. layer now became fighters, instead of SAM in MINDEF's capability planning process. The the RSAF was formulating the operational systems such as I-Hawk that was limited by master plan for Singapore's network-centric concept, the DTC complemented it with a This example of integrated “Ops-Tech” its 40km range and LOS. This “fighter-centric” IAD was conceptualised in the 2000s and it systems architecture approach (also known partnership early in the capability development air defence was further bolstered by the signified the new generation of networked as Systems Architecting or SA) to drive the life cycle sowed the seeds in developing a acquisition of the capable F-16 fighters in the air defence capability for the SAF. operating concept and architecture from rigorous and systematic approach to systems late 1980s. firing unit-based to network-centric. This was acquisition by MINDEF and the DTC. It From Fighter-Centric to Network-Centric crystallised in synergistic IAD master plans set the tone for future co-operation where Optimisation of the Larger System of IAD IAD in the 2000s from both the operational and engineering comprehensive project requirement studies perspectives to translate concepts into SoS and mutual consultation are embedded in the By the 1990s, with almost two decades In the 1990s and 2000s, the primary threat capabilities. evaluation, procurement and management of experience, the DTC and the SAF grew to air defences around the world shifted

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MINDEF's Long-Term Planning for the development of the SAF in response Formulation of Concepts and Master Plans innovation process between operational Process Today to advances in technology, the anticipated users and technical subject matter experts, threat landscape, constraints in resources and In the next stage, Operational Concept synergising future technology with future In realising the Third Generation SAF, MINDEF phasing out of old systems over a planning Formulation (OCF) looks at the medium-term operations, and enabled by a robust systems acquires and deploys cutting-edge weapon horizon of 10 years and beyond. This process planning horizon to develop concepts as the architecture design. systems and information technology so that involves agencies from both MINDEF and basis for the capability development master the SAF's operations are characterised by the DTC. plans, i.e. Operational Master Plan (OMP), and The DTC's SA journey began in late 2003 speed, precision, knowledge and integration. the Engineering Master Plan (EMP). OCF and with three senior staff as DSTA Systems The strength of the SAF is multiplied by Analysis during this strategic planning capability development master-planning is Architects with the charter to discover and our ability to network the various systems stage is at a highly aggregated level, looking iterative and collaborative. These master plans exploit new capabilities that could support and capabilities, so that the overall fighting at problems from the macro-system show the milestones for capability build-up, the SAF. As SA gained buy-in with MINDEF system is much more capable than the sum of perspective. These planning efforts aim the resource requirements (e.g. infrastructure, leadership and the demand for SA grew, the individual parts. Advanced C3 systems, to provide coherent strategic directions to equipment, manpower etc) and the training the DSTA Masterplanning and Systems enabled by information technology and guide the capability development of the SAF, requirements. Architecting (DMSA) Programme Centre networking, now allow rapid dissemination Research and Technology (R&T) thrusts, was subsequently set up in 2006. of information to give commanders and and development of defence industries. Systems Architecting their subordinate units better awareness, and Experiments may also be conducted to explore “Recognising that we need to view defence enable them to exercise better control and new operational and war-fighting concepts. With the Third Generation SAF being a task- capabilities as outputs of complex system-of- self-synchronisation in order to operate as a Ops-Tech Visioning can be done to derive organised networked force, it is vital to have systems, DSTA has established a masterplanning tightly integrated system. innovative system concepts to address the a systematic approach to design complex and systems architecting business area to ensure SAF's key operational challenges and to drive networked capabilities such as the Third coherence, fit, consistency and flexibility in In consideration of these, the first step is R&T requirements. Generation networked IAD. A systems developing new capabilities. The focus is to develop to formulate the “big picture” of defence architecture study enables the effective system architectures that will provide system level capabilities before new defence equipment The end product of the Strategic Planning formulation of the OCF, OMP and EMP coherence …” are acquired. Today, MINDEF and the DTC stage is a multi-year MINDEF/SAF Plan that for such complex networked capabilities. have a codified approach to long-term will define the key development milestones With Ops-Tech collaboration initiated Richard Lim, then Chief Executive of DSTA, planning to facilitate the formulation of for a pre-determined number of years ahead, upfront during the OCF stage via a systems announcing the formation of the DMSA Programme new concepts in defence into Defence SoS both in terms of force structure build-up architecture study, both the SAF and Defence Centre at the DSTA Suppliers Brief at Asian capabilities. This includes the stages of and “softer” areas such as human capital Science and Techonology Agency (DSTA) Aerospace 2006 on 22nd February Strategic Planning and Formulation of development, training and education. It counterparts would be in a good position Concepts and Master Plans. will be an integrated document synergising to jointly assess and mutually agree on the and articulating operational, technological need for an EMP. Once that need is firmed Strategic Planning and other defence and security related up, the work on the EMP can be expected to dimensions. proceed in parallel with the OMP. The Strategic Planning stage involves formulation of long-term strategic directions The systems architecture study analyses the capability from an SoS perspective, where different types of systems and technologies are considered in formulating innovative S P C P operational concepts for investigation. The Operational Master Plan SA methodology encompasses the art and Operational Concept science of designing effective operational (Multi-year plans Formulation at MINDEF level) capabilities – one where various types of The key roles of DMSA were to develop SoS Engineering Master Plan systems operate together in an integrated architectures for the SAF and to spearhead and coherent manner to deliver a quantum the build-up of SA as a strategic competency Systems architecting to support SoS capability development increase in warfighting capabilities, more than within DSTA. what the sum of the individual systems can MINDEF Long-Term Planning Process provide. It is a collaborative and often iterative Several years down the road, with a growing

34 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 35 Chapter 2 CONCEPTS TO CAPABILITIES Chapter 2 CONCEPTS TO CAPABILITIES

number of Defence SoS being developed and The OMP and EMP guide the implementation an expanding base of Systems Architects sensors. Hence, SCME is an integrated for IAD or Maritime Security. Insights of multiple projects in an integrated and being groomed, SA was codified in 2012 effort between the SAF and DTC where from these studies influence the choice of concurrent manner over multiple years. For in MINDEF's DCM systems manual as an technologists work alongside military systems for EMPs. Operations Analysis example, the IAD OMP and EMP formulated integral approach during MINDEF's Long- experimenters to transform Singapore's (OA), Modelling and Simulation (M&S) in the 2000s guided the requirements for new Term Planning Process. defence capabilities. tools are heavily used. systems such as radars and weapons, paving the way for projects to acquire systems such Enabling Tools SCME undertakes a multi-year strategy, as the SPYDER and Aster 30 SAM systems. which will systematically build up These new systems will be integrated via the The formulation of advanced operational a highly re-configurable C2 system. IAD architecture and enhance the IAD SoS. concepts and their complex systems during This also involves the integration of The Appendix provides more details on the the Long-Term Planning stage involves both an indigenously built modelling and DTC's SA and SoS approach. “art” and “science”. To facilitate such work simulation engine to create a rich with sufficient analytical rigour, MINDEF repository of re-usable models and In addition, each individual acquisition and the DTC had invested in laboratories exercise scenarios as new models are project is carefully scrutinised to ensure that equipped with the necessary hardware and created to meet specific experimentation the most cost-effective solution is acquired software tools, allowing both operational and requirements. A team of analysts from the to meet our operational needs. technical subject matter experts to develop DSTA Analytical Lab and evaluate alternative concepts. Two Systems Acquisition such labs are the SAF Centre for Military The DSTA Analytical Lab also enables Experimentation (SCME) and the DSTA a major paradigm shift in the approach Through the years, the DTC has adopted Analytical Lab. in designing systems, harnessing a pragmatic approach in our defence M&S to enable the DTC and the SAF acquisition, summarised as follows: to move beyond learning from legacy Experimentation of Future platforms (actual systems) to learning • Acquire off-the-shelf systems, wherever Operational Concepts from future platforms (simulated). This possible was epitomised in the example of the • Build – design and develop, only where The SCME is the one-stop centre RSN's Littoral Mission Vessel (LMV), necessary for all SAF experiments. Through where a mock-up of a first-of-its-kind • Collaborate with partners experimentation, the SAF can acquire Integrated Bridge-Combat Information new war-fighting knowledge, develop Centre-Machinery Control Room We only buy what we need, and what is innovative operational concepts and Battle Lab in SCME (IBCM) was simulated in the DSTA most suitable and cost-effective for us. doctrines to enhance mission planning. Analytical Lab. This allowed the RSN We buy very sophisticated and highly SCME was established in 2003 with to test the IBCM concept with its capable equipment, but only when it is three laboratories – the Command Post Analysis to Support the Engineering sailors on various simulated scenarios, needed. Often we do not need to buy of the Future Lab, Battlelab and the C4I of Complex Systems leading to a clear understanding of the latest piece of equipment, when upgrading Lab. These laboratories provide users the requirements for IBCM layout, or refurbishing can do the job. When we and engineers with an environment to To augment the DTC's foray into SA work flow and crew manning before replace older equipment with more modern explore, experiment and demonstrate to design coherent SoS for the Third implementing the IBCM. ones, we often do not need to replace them technology capabilities for the SAF’s Generation SAF, the DSTA Analytical on a one-for-one basis. future force. Lab was set up in 2008 to help engineers design, model and analyse the next Approaches to Systems Realisation For example, our A-4 Skyhawks first came The SAF and the DTC began planning generation defence systems. In terms of into operational service in refurbished for SCME in mid 2002 because it realised front-end studies, the DSTA Analytical After the Long-Term Planning Process, the condition in 1974. The Skyhawks that in future, physical boundaries of air, Lab has demonstrated its ability to help requirements definition and acquisition subsequently underwent an engine and land and sea would be made artificial identify suitable technical solutions of new defence equipment will take place. avionics upgrade in the late 1980s. When by the increasing reach of weapons and before implementing a Defence SoS, e.g. This will be realised through acquisition they retired from operational service, the projects. Skyhawks had served the RSAF for 30 years.

36 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 37 Chapter 2 CONCEPTS TO CAPABILITIES Chapter Three

We replaced them with smaller numbers of new operational concepts and processes SOFTWARE SYSTEMS Examples of military missions supported more modern fighters. readily, discovered in the course of the DESIGN AND by C2 systems include surveillance against SAF's operations, exercises and test-and- suspicious or hostile acts, wartime and The SM1 tanks which have been retired, evaluation, to evolve and enhance the C2 REALISATION peacetime communications, network-centric were bought as second-hand AMX-13 tanks capabilities continuously. warfare and disaster relief. from various countries in the late 1960s and refurbished. In the late 1980s, they were The preceding paragraphs on the development upgraded to the SM1 standard and were of the IAD through the decades are a case Overview phased out after over 40 years of service in in point that illustrates the need for tight the SAF. integration of the sensor, shooter and Software systems are vital in defence underlying C2 systems. The application of SoS. This chapter will cover two broad Beyond acquisitions and upgrades, we the networking concept synergises their categories of software systems that have been design and develop solutions only where individual capabilities through heightened designed and realised by the DTC through necessary, in order to meet our unique communication efficiency and awareness, and the years: operating requirements. In doing so, we reduces the sensor-to-shooter cycle between would carefully nurture the industry for the time a target is detected and the time • C2 systems that enable enhanced selected capabilities to be built up and it is engaged. There are many more such situational awareness and operational sustained. examples across the SAF's operating domains. effectiveness during military The numerous Defence Technology Prizes operations. We collaborate with partners, both locally awarded to project teams and individuals over • Enterprise IT systems that enable and internationally, where there are the years are testament to the significance enhanced operations across diverse convergence of interests and mutual and impact of this capability. domains such as the management of benefits. This can take place in multiple human resource (HR), supply chain, A typical C2 system forms. For instance, through strategic finance, procurement, learning, training outsourcing, we could tap industry's and knowledge. C2 Pillar Functions capacity and free up our internal resources. With research institutes, both locally Definition of C2 Systems There are four main functions – situational and abroad, we could rapidly harness awareness, planning, tasking and control, technologies from both military and dual- Today's military missions are simultaneously and collaboration – that form the basis of use domains for defence applications. more complex and more dynamic than in most C2 systems: Collaboration with foreign governments can the past. Achieving mission success demands also help to overcome our local constraints. the collective capabilities, resources and • Situational Awareness. For C2 to be carried collaborative efforts of many military out across entities executing a common Command and Control Systems entities. mission, it is important to have a common Development understanding of the environment, C2 can be defined as the exercise of authority status and deployment of friendly and Early in the DTC's journey, we recognised that and direction by a properly designated hostile forces. Thus, the entities need to it was important to build up an indigenous commander over assigned and attached share a common situation picture with capability to master the development of C2 forces in the accomplishment of the mission. additional information tailored to their systems, particularly in the software domain. C2 functions are performed through an specific needs. To construct the Common This is a strategic capability that will enable arrangement of personnel, equipment, Situation Picture (CSP), information the SAF's operational processes and doctrines communications, facilities and procedures of the battlefield has to be gathered to be optimally embedded into our C2 employed by a commander in planning, via reconnaissance capabilities. This systems. It involves very close collaboration directing, coordinating, and controlling forces information then needs to be processed, between operational users and defence and operations. C2 systems, by extension, evaluated, fused for dissemination and engineers in the design of C2 systems are systems that support the commander in finally displayed as the CSP. These steps that cannot be easily replicated. This these efforts. require the use of powerful, real-time will also provide flexibility to introduce computing capabilities.

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• Planning. A key function of a C2 system is in-country technical expertise that would In the naval domain, a Coastal the 1990s. Several C2 development projects to help users make decisions and carry out enable us to maximise the potential gains of a Surveillance C2 System for the Coastal were initiated. planning to achieve the desired outcome. combined SoS to meet all specific operational Command Centre and a shipboard Action Various decision support tools are needed requirements. Relying on stovepiped solutions Information System for the MCVs were Upgrading the Mission C2 System of E-2C to help users analyse the situation and to address all perceived threats would have also taking shape in Sweden through the come up with different options based on been expensive in terms of equipping and same approach. The E-2C's original mission suite consisted the resources available. The C2 system can logistics, demanded expansive manning, of a mission computer, a 10-inch diameter then facilitate evaluation of these options and yet be ineffective in dealing with multi- Upon completion of these immersive stints, monochrome display and a 4-inch alpha- for faster and better decision making. A layered threats. the engineers brought home profound numeric display. As our AEW missions wide range of planning capabilities is systems knowledge and were hands-on matured in the 1990s, there was an increase needed to address different needs such as The first-generation C2 system was thus to provide system support, troubleshoot in workload for the E-2C operator. The system to optimise the use of resources. Examples conceived as part of the build-up of our air faults and implement upgrades of the was found to be increasingly inadequate of capabilities addressing this need include defence artillery unit in the late 1970s. application software and firmware of the in coping with operational demands for platform optimisation, route optimisation operationalised systems. missions. The system was limited in control and more. 1980s functions and man-machine interface • Tasking and Control. Once planning is The strong commitment of MINDEF to features, with many functions requiring done, the C2 system is needed to help We began to recruit computer science and pursue C2 competency in-country had also frequent operator actions. This resulted commanders allocate tasks to the various engineering graduates to be groomed in contributed to the formation of Singapore in an undue burden on the already heavy sub-entities and ensure that the tasks are systems design and development as part of the Engineering Software Pte Ltd (SES) in operator workload and distraction from received in a timely and clear manner. The strategy to nurture in-country competency in 1986, jointly owned by ST Electronics and actual mission execution. The display, C2 system must help users monitor and C2 systems development. In the early 1980s, Ericsson Radio System AB, to provide with its limited monochrome features, control the execution of tasks. Should a these new defence engineers were deployed further support in the transfer of C2 know- did not facilitate the operator in the quick change of plan be needed, the C2 system for on-the-job training stints in overseas how. SES has since evolved to become ST assimilation of information and the must also assist users to react to the change acquisition projects with established defence Electronics (Info-Software Systems) Pte Ltd, building of situational awareness. and carry out an alternate plan. contractors. One such example was the Air a key command, control, communications, • Collaboration. Throughout the various Defence Ground C2 System. computers and intelligence solutions Hence, there was an operational need to stages of operation, the different entities provider in Singapore today. upgrade the aircraft with modern computer involved need to work as a team. The The defence engineers were trained in Sweden's and display systems in the most cost- collaboration functions of the C2 system Ericsson Radio System AB to construct a new During the same period, another key defence effective manner in order to enhance the enable the coalition of entities to plan ground C2 system from design to deployment, system – the United States Navy's E-2C E-2C operator's efficiency and effectiveness and execute the operation coherently. and were part of the software development Hawkeye – was being procured via Foreign amid an increasing workload, as well as to Effective collaboration tools make it easier team tasked to implement core components Military Sales from Grumman Corp (which overcome system obsolescence issues. for the various entities to work towards of the real-time C2 system. They also took would later become Northrop Grumman a common goal. on the role of systems engineers in hardware Corporation). In late 1985, a team of 12 In the 1990s, MINDEF approved the E-2C designing and test management. software engineers was attached to Grumman Mission Control System Upgrade to enhance C2 Competency Build-Up Journey Corp in USA for 14 months to learn about the the operational efficiency and effectiveness of E-2C software. We needed this competency the E-2C controllers and their role in Airborne 1970s so that we could be self-reliant to carry out Early Warning and Control missions. Prof E-2C software changes upon their return. Lui Pao Chuen, then Chief Defence Scientist In the 1970s, most of our military capabilities Besides the full life cycle of the E-2C software in MINDEF, commented that the level of – sensors, weapons and platforms – were development, the engineers also learnt good confidence in our ability to implement the procured overseas and largely stovepiped practices like upkeeping personnel's expertise in-country upgrade was high “because of the in nature. While production was left to the and system capabilities through staging conscious investments made over the years in defence industries, operational requirements regular system refreshes. building up our in-house capability on E-2C were conceived in-country, grounded firmly systems and software”. in perceived threats unique to Singapore. 1990s The E-2C upgrade project was also a complex There were strong imperatives to develop Engineering an integrated C2 capability We began local development of C2 systems in and challenging programme. It not only

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demanded extensive software development, Developing Air C2 Hub With COTS, system equipping and dissected the system requirements into but also hardware development and systems maintenance was significantly cheaper. More modular sub parts, and took to solving them integration. Beyond the complex real-time With the successful delivery of the Air Defence importantly, the adoption of COTS opened iteratively. Trials were conducted every six software, there was also the need to integrate and Air Traffic Control Systems, MINDEF's up avenues for quicker capability refreshes months to insert new functionalities and it with legacy aircraft systems like the radar, leadership rationalised and decided to embark and insertions. technologies, and to validate the robustness of IFF system and navigation systems, via non- on a new generation Air C2 Hub (AC2H) to the evolving systems architecture continually. standard protocols and in real-time with revolutionise the propriety Air Defence and The outcome of the programme was an With this continuous validation process to responses in milliseconds. There was also a Air Traffic C2 systems. This was to become indigenous and complex AC2H that was evolve the AC2H, stakeholders interacted challenge in developing hardware suitable for our first in-house, large-scale development extensively integrated, highly available and frequently and reinforced shared vision and an airborne environment, with various options programme. Another first was that we had adequately configurable to support stringent, passion. considered. The technology landscape in the capitalised on the advancement in COTS multi-role missions of the RSAF. 1990s was slowly gearing towards commercial products to modernise our C2 capabilities, For servers, we moved from proprietary off-the-shelf (COTS) computing and display which until then had been powered by In a separate track, the Coastal C2 system computers to UNIX computers; for network, technologies. Leveraging COTS hardware proprietary equipment. was also rejuvenated using COTS solutions we moved from Fiber Distributed Data allowed us to change our design with greater by another in-house development team. Interface to Gigabit Ethernet. We selected flexibility. Using field programmable gate COTS software components carefully as array in our interface cards allowed us to use A In-house Development – Confronting the building blocks for the middleware that was • First large indigenous software to define the hardware logic, which development Challenges to be the software foundation on which the could then be easily re-programmed when • Integrated with many AC2H was developed. hardware design needed changes. The concept sensors and systems To produce a C2 system in-country was of enclosing all the commercial cards into a C challenging – we had to deliver the required We assessed and tested several COTS rugged enclosure allowed us the flexibility A A C2 capabilities within the same timeline and products, eventually adopting one that was to redefine the system logic as the project budget as established foreign contractors had built for real-time and reliable distribution progressed. Additional computing power they been contracted for the project. of financial data for banks and brokerages was added, computers upgraded, interfaces world-wide. It had the required robustness A redesigned, as well as instrumentation and The team met daily to discuss software designs and fail-safe features already built in. We were data-logging implemented. All of these were and gathered weekly to review codes. The team the first to adopt it for a military application. achieved with minimal system modifications, also had to confront many technical challenges G A T which was an unprecedented feat for aircraft S S in meeting stringent, mission-critical and real- To effectively support the high-tempo and systems then. time requirements of the AC2H. precise operations of the AC2H, there was a need to have a coherent situation picture To mitigate development risks, the team and decision support systems to allow users (Civil ATC, Shipborne C2, fighters etc.) G UAV (Aircraft reporting) R A I S

AEW Tracks UAV

Track Identifi- Receiver Extractor Tracker Fusion cation

Recognised Air Picture C C

Raw video Plots (R,az) Tracks Correlated C C Tracks

Schematic views of AC2H Iterative Development Process

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to concentrate on their missions and to between systems and the approach for system the operation of organisational functions such dependent on a conscript force, many of these make quick and accurate decisions. Together integration at the onset of the project. As as HR, logistics, procurement, finance as well leaders have gone on to contribute in other with expertise from the sensor community timeliness of information is crucial for air as softer organisational functions that include ways in service of the nation. in the Defence Materiel Organisation, target engagement, the status and latency innovation, engagement and knowledge we specified the requirement for a multi- for the inter-system communications are management. 1970s sensors tracker and acquired it through continually measured and monitored so that a competitive tender so that we could get any deviation can be alerted for corrective Extending out of the organisation, Enterprise Structure and Industry the best-of-breed product in a cost-effective actions to be taken. The C2N was also designed IT supports the delivery of services to the manner. In addition, we also worked with to ease the integration of combat systems into organisation's customers – NSmen, full-time In July 1970, in addition to the Data Processing defence scientists from the DSO to develop the SoS and is scalable for the addition of national servicemen (NSFs), as well as the Department, the Systems and Research the algorithm and decision support systems new and future systems. To facilitate this, general public for MINDEF and the SAF. Branch (SRB) was set up under the leadership for identification of radar detections and the team adopted international standards to Enterprise IT systems also support the conduct of Mr Philip Yeo1. With the British making conflict alert. perform systems integration and defined new of business with other organisations through the decision in 1968 to withdraw its military local standards when such standards were supply chain integration, electronic commerce presence from Singapore, there was a need In 2002, we successfully delivered a robust unavailable. In doing so, the team avoided portals and links to financial institutions. to review Singapore's ministerial structures, AC2H fit for the RSAF. suppliers lock-in and gained the freedom to procedures and methodologies. The set-up of choose the best sensors and weapons to meet Being integral to the organisation, IT operations the SRB was a first step towards the endeavour 2000s and Beyond the RSAF's operational requirements. have become critical to ensure business to institutionalise “systems thinking”. To continuity. From a strategic perspective, the build up the expertise in “systems thinking”, Building upon the success and experience of In 2014, the team delivered the first spiral use of IT has been instrumental in achieving personnel certified medically unfit for developing the AC2H, the team embarked of the Island Air Defence with the SPYDER significant productivity gains, better decision physically demanding roles and with good on the design and development of the C2 weapon system successfully integrated as outcomes, organisation agility and the ability tertiary qualifications were identified and system for the Third Generation Air Defence part of the C2N. to support the transformation of business posted to SRB to fulfil their National Service System. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the models and services. duties. In 1973, the Finance Systems Branch Third Generation Air Defence is based on a Enterprise IT Systems (FSB) was also created and SRB was reframed networked concept that integrates new and Enterprise IT Portfolio as the Logistics Systems Branch (LSB) to existing sensors as well as C2 and weapons While C2 systems focus on aspects of planning, further harness IT. systems into an SoS. To network these directing, coordinating and controlling military A portfolio approach is taken to manage systems, the team designed and developed the forces and operations, Enterprise IT systems Enterprise IT to provide a framework to In 1979, these entities – Data Processing C2 Network (C2N), which provides a conduit focus on orchestrating business processes and prioritise and manage IT investment. The Department, FSB and LSB – were amalgamated for tactical information to be exchanged in the automation of business functions that portfolio comprises the following key into a single system and computer entity to real time among all combat systems in the encompass complex business rules and policies segments: form the Systems and Computer Organisation network. The C2N manages the sensors and that form the fundamental operations of an (SCO) under the leadership of Dr Tan Chin weapons centrally and is able to assign the enterprise's business. Enterprise IT involves • Logistics Enterprise Nam2. The push for the build-up of a pool best sensor and weapon pair to achieve a high a diverse range of IT capabilities that support • Personnel Admin and Finance of IT professionals went beyond defence so kill probability for successful engagement the organisation's functions both internally • Defence Infrastructure and Information that Singapore's IT industry might benefit. of incoming air threats. The processing for and externally. This led to the set-up of the National the sensor and weapon assignment takes These segments work in tandem to shape the Computer Board. place continuously and is able to reassign the Within the organisation, an individual IT landscape for MINDEF and the SAF. sensors or weapons dynamically in the event employee's IT needs would start with 1 Mr Philip Yeo Liat Kok joined MINDEF in 1970 to set up the that some of the assets become unavailable, productivity tools such as Email, Document Enterprise IT Competency Build-Up SRB. In 2007, he was appointed Chairman for Spring Singapore ensuring continued engagement. Editing Tools and Calendar that would Journey and was the first Chairman of the National Computer Board typically be pre-installed within the personal (now known as the Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore). To realise the networked capabilities, it is computing device. At the team level, this would People are the valuable resource that make critical that all systems within the C2N work include collaboration tools such as shared up the whole organisation. Generations of 2 Dr Tan Chin Nam was the first Director for SCO. He retired well not only as an individual system, but folders, messaging and meeting applications leadership in MINDEF and the DTC have led from the Administrative Service as the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts in collectively as an SoS. Emphasis was hence that support team communications and work. effectively in the use of IT. Beyond harnessing 2007. He also served as Chairman of the Board for the National placed in the design of the communication At the organisation level, the solutions support IT to realise productivity gains to help an SAF Computer Board from 1987 to 1994.

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Most importantly, the process had built up a talent pool of system engineers and computer- literate staff 3. The system engineers also worked with other ministries in national- level studies, such as the National Income Study, MRT study and simulation studies on traffic patterns.

1980s Proliferation of Personal Computers and the Start of Office Automation The first personal computers (PC) were implemented in the late 1980s. These A corporal from MINDEF, working on an IBM 3278 terminal in Tanglin Camp were IBM PCs and were initially costly replacements to typewriters. Proliferation in the 1980s.

soon picked up rapidly as the PCs offered significant productivity improvements while 1990s their cost reduced significantly with the flood Organisation Chart of SCO of IBM-compatible PCs in the market. These Networking on an Island-wide Scale PCs were largely standalone terminals then. meet MINDEF's increasing computerisation This was the start of office automation in The arrival of the local area network led to requirements was also purchased. This MINDEF and the SAF. the next wave of office automation capability. was the NOVA 3D (with a 25Mb memory) Unit level emails and file servers which developed by Data General. Computerisation Software Engineering Practice enhanced communication and collaboration covered manpower and payroll processing, were made available. as well as ammo, ordnance supply, general With the significant rise in demand for equipment and Air Force logistics bases systems development, there was a push for A more significant breakthrough occurred which drove greater efficiency and new methodologies such as Information when computers in all SAF camps could productivity. Systems Planning and the first computer- be connected over island-wide corporate aided software engineering tool. This was information highways (or Wide Area Soon, MINDEF found the NOVA inadequate, led by Mr Lim Swee Say 4 who headed the Network) securely. At the same time, a smart leading to the purchase of three HP3000s Information Engineering Centre. There was card infrastructure – the SAF Card – was in 1977 which proved more successful. The also an emerging need for technical standards developed to enable secure authentication and SCO staff during the 1980s online culture in MINDEF had taken root by to facilitate exchange of information between authorisation. For the first time, MINDEF and that time and MINDEF was largely regarded PCs (which used different office productivity SAF users could communicate seamlessly and Early Computerisation and the Emergence of as being ahead of the rest of the Public Service tools) and between systems. work much more efficiently at the enterprise an Online Culture in the area of computerisation. Not only were level. This also meant that collaboration systems online, but remote database access could take place across MINDEF and the In pushing for computerisation, it was was also possible. This was a significant SAF in a secure manner. It was a significant believed that computers must be made capability then when connections to the achievement that set the benchmark across available for the heart of operations, such bases were via phone lines. This led to a the public sector. The office automation 3 Raising computer literacy was very important in that period. as in logistics. Around the mid 1970s, build-up of Supply Management Systems, A System Education Centre was established to provide skilled network was the largest Intranet network computerised systems in the area of unit Finance Management Information Systems manpower and hone the corresponding competitive edge. Not in Singapore. only were computer staff trained, so were users. accounting, vehicle management and general and Procurement Information Management 4 Mr Lim Swee Say also served at Singapore's National Computer equipment management were available in Systems. Board as Chief Executive from 1986 to 1991, and as Chairman MINDEF. The first operational computer to from 1994 to 1998.

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2000s Common but Not So Common The core of the Enterprise IT is centred on Managing Complexity through an Enterprise Enterprise Systems (ES) for Logistics (which Architecting Approach The Electronic Commerce Frontier Interoperability and integration were covers finance, maintenance, supply and serious challenges in the design and inventory management), Enterprise HR An Enterprise Architecture (EA) approach The MINDEF Internet Procurement System implementation of IT systems. At the (eHR) (which covers the HR management is formalised and ingrained in the way is the first government Internet-based user computing device level, for example, of SAF combat personnel, Military Domain IT systems are implemented5. The EA procurement system. With this electronic PCs, variations in office productivity Experts, Defence Executive Officers, NSFs approach establishes a common language commerce portal, suppliers could view suite software led to issues in accessing and NSmen) and ES for Innovation, Learning and understanding of technology, solutions, business opportunities, bid for contracts and documents that were created in another PC. and Knowledge (eSILK). information and business that extend from invoice for payment. This made it easier and Also, it was not uncommon to hear about earlier technical architecting works. This faster to do business with MINDEF. incidents where one team had installed The ES journey began in 2005 when an abstraction allows the complexities of the a piece of software and tested it to be enterprise approach was taken to harmonise the Enterprise IT landscape to be managed During that time, all procurement functions working, only to realise the next day that logistics processes of the Army, the Republic of effectively in a systemic and holistic manner. were put online, ranging from lower value another team had installed another piece Singapore Navy (RSN), the RSAF, and Joint. decentralised purchases to acquisition of of software which consequently caused The assets managed within ES (Logistics) The EA approach focuses on being pragmatic, platforms and the purchase of spares to the entire system to malfunction due to ranged from platforms, such as aircraft, sustainable and to serve as a framework to support maintenance repair operations. With compatibility issues. naval vessels and tanks, to buildings and IT facilitate business integration, drive business this success, MINDEF was then asked to systems. This was a world's first, whereby efficiency and achieve systems implementation provide a one-stop electronic procurement With this need to realise interoperability and the Tri-Service ERP system was implemented in alignment with strategic goals. All EA portal for the whole of government. This integration, technical architecture standards and processes optimised to achieve better artefacts are captured in a single repository led to the birth of Government Electronic were drafted at an organisation level. These interoperability and operational efficiency for the whole organisation. Concurrently, Business (GeBIZ) in June 2000. included the Common Operating Environment across the SAF. the methods and tools have become effective (COE) which is still in practice today, in which means to manage the implementation of By the end of 2003, GeBIZ had evolved into a a standard client computing configuration The eHR system followed this journey in 2009 "process heavy" Enterprise IT applications full-fledged procurement portal built in-house (including all software and settings) is created when 52 custom-built legacy applications and their changes. Model-driven development based on business knowledge and technical for a PC, mobile device or server. The intent were migrated into one common core HR approaches (i.e. business processes and capability gained from prior implementations was to standardise the technical standard, system, covering a total population of about rules are modelled and the code generated of MINDEF procurement systems. GeBIZ product and version of product used. This 80,000 employees of various schemes in from these models is used to build business has since been enhanced continuously ensured that different products were properly MINDEF and the SAF. This achieved better applications) have been adopted for both ERP with new capabilities, including the use of tested against the COE prior to being installed administrative efficiencies and data quality and bespoke application implementations to analytics for governance and to assist buyers for users. Appropriate governance forums with “single source of truth” of Human achieve greater agility and flexibility through and suppliers. were also set up to ensure that this practice Capital (HC) data, and paved the way for a better understanding of impact to changes was followed. This is still observed today to more effective HC trending, analysis and and better designed systems. Since its inception, GeBIZ has grown to serve ensure quality and integration of solutions at policy formulation. 16,500 buyers across 143 government agencies the enterprise level. 2010s and 72,400 suppliers, providing greater control Additionally, eSILK was deployed across and visibility over government procurement Consolidation and Forming the Core networks of different security classifications IT as an Enabler for Business Transformation processes and policy implementations. to provide common repositories and platforms More importantly, the system supports The benefits of reaping productivity gains for document sharing, collaboration and The concept of IT as an enabler for business the compliance with procurement policies had led to a widespread proliferation of records keeping. In a larger context, eSILK also transformation emerged as a strategic and guidelines, which are underpinned applications in all functions. Silos started enabled effective knowledge management advantage in the emergence of new global by Government Procurement Principles to form, resulting in challenges in cross for MINDEF and the SAF. With these core enterprises and reinvention of traditional (Transparency, Fair and Open Competition, functional integration as well as in ensuring systems in place, new capabilities have and enterprises. The push for innovation in IT and Value for Money), International data consistency. Commercially, Enterprise will continue to be built to extend from Agreements (such as Free Trade Agreements Resource Planning (ERP) platforms started this base. facilitated by the World Trade Organisation) to mature and establish integration across 5 The articles entitled “The Organisation Compass – Enterprise Architecture” and “Driving Business Transformation through a and the Singapore legislation. organisation functions and supply chains. Process-centric Approach” published in DSTA Horizons in 2007 An enterprise approach to IT was eminent. and 2009 respectively document the practice of EA in IT.

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is not just in technology for automation or Challenges To C2/IT Systems concept of operations; our expertise in C2 better records keeping, but it is also in the and IT SA and design; and our track records application of IT to generate greater business Cyber attacks have grown into a business in software systems development and SoS value through new business models or doing where criminals would steal and sell personal capabilities delivery have well positioned the business differently. data from credit cards and corporate data DTC to evolve from realising SoS capabilities such as intellectual property as well as to contributing in Singapore's Whole-of- This was strategic in the push for develop and sell attack toolkits. Hackers could Government Smart Nation initiatives. MINDEF.com and electronic commerce. even be hired to conduct cyber attacks on In early 2000s, the MINDEF.com initiative organisations. It has been estimated that the A nation where people live meaningful and fulfilled was started by Mr Peter Ho Hak Ean, then total value of cyber crime has surpassed that lives, enabled seamlessly by technology, offering Permanent Secretary for Defence Development. of the world's drug trade. exciting opportunities for all. We should see it in The portal (currently named NS.sg) is a one- our daily living where networks of sensors and stop site for NSmen and NSFs. Beyond Predecessor organisations of DSTA have smart devices enable us to live sustainably and contributing to the electronic government been developing cybersecurity since the comfortably. We should see it in our communities landscape, the portal forges organisation 1980s. To give a concerted push in developing where technology will enable more people to connect functions together and serves as the basis to this critical capability, DSTA formed the to one another more easily and intensely. We should integrate business processes and information IT Security Division in 2002 by bringing see it in our future where we can create possibilities to deliver a unified service front. together about 30 cybersecurity staff from for ourselves beyond what we imagined possible. various parts of the organisation. Today, it Another more recent and noteworthy initiative has grown into the Cybersecurity Programme Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the Smart is LEARNet. Coined the initiative for the Centre of about 130 staff. Nation Launch on 24th November 2014 learning transformation of the SAF which started in 2011, LEARNet serves not only as The key success factors have been the the platform for learning6 for our soldiers, but management's vision and the commitment also as a vehicle of transformation in the way of passionate engineers. With a continuous the SAF conducts its training and learning. At stream of projects from MINDEF, it has its core is a change in learning pedagogy from allowed the cybersecurity team to grow the traditional classroom-based and instructor- exponentially. led method, to a self-directed and collaborative approach. This change is necessary to keep Moving Forward pace with the way Gen-Y soldiers learn and to tap opportunities to make learning more The IT industry faces rapid changes in efficient, effective and engaging. The network technology, competitive products and sets the stage to establish learner-to-content, offerings, and constant innovation. learner-to-instructor and learner-to-learners Sustaining our engineering leadership is connections. This change is also supported critical to ensure that we maintain our by structural changes in training institutes, ability to be responsive and agile while reviews of curriculum and content, instructor acting as a critical enabler to business training and the set-up of the SAF Centre of changes and transformations. Operational Learning. Thereby, the SAF is in a good position to take the lead in adult The DTC continues to sustain its engineering learning and organisation learning. expertise through in-house implementation of selected large-scale projects. This allows hands-on opportunities for engineers and ensures that technical skills are kept up-to- References: date. 6 LEARNet covers the set-up of a user-centric learning portal, smart classroom to support collaborative learning and equipping Builder, C. H., Bankes, S. C., & Nordin, R. (1999). Command concepts: A theory of mobile tablets and devices to support self-directed learning. Our ability to evolve operational and business derived from the practice of command and control. Santa Monica, California: RAND.

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OPERATIONS AND design can result in unreliability and inferior cost-effective continuity of support for the SUPPORT ENGINEERING supportability being discovered at the end less than two days from an overseas defence systems. New approaches may be of the development, with the consequent exercise with the Royal Malaysian necessary to maximise the value of defence remedial action causing additional expenses Navy when they were activated for systems throughout their life cycles. and delay. This must therefore be avoided. the search-and-locate operation on Good quality ILS has a major effect on the 9th March. However, they still responded The SAF maintains high readiness and Introduction availability of the defence systems. The most swiftly. serviceability of its defence systems due in cost-effective ILS is one that is developed and large part to the good and diligent work of the The SAF needs reliable and maintainable procured as part of the main defence contract. Sources: MINDEF Fact Sheet, 19th September engineers and logisticians of the DTC. The defence systems that are readily available However, the adequacy of the acquired ILS 2014: Singapore Armed Forces' Overseas DTC has placed great importance on RAM, and of high quality to satisfy its mission is made known only during the operations Operations ILS and obsolescence management. It has given requirements and operational tasks. Achieving and support (O&S) period. This practice is MINDEF News Release, 11th March 2014: due attention to their early and proper planning specified levels of reliability, availability commonly referred to by MINDEF as O&S SAF Continues to Assist in Search for and design, as well as the relevant approaches, and maintainability (RAM) for a defence engineering. Missing MH370 processes, methodologies and tools since the system is important as it can affect the system early days. This laid a strong foundation for downstream in terms of its readiness and new initiatives to better support the SAF into safety, the associated logistics support, and The SAF has demonstrated the high the future. the life cycle cost (LCC). Cost is computed readiness (through high serviceability using not only procurement costs, but also levels) of its defence systems in a This chapter shares the DTC's journey in the long-term costs incurred in maintenance, number of peace support operations defence systems O&S engineering through the driven by RAM, and other factors through and HADR missions at both regional following sections: RAM, ILS, obsolescence the system's life cycle. Success in military and international levels. In Operation management and engineering personnel. The campaigns and Humanitarian Assistance and Flying Eagle, the SAF deployed three sections are supplemented with additional Disaster Relief (HADR) operations cannot be Landing Ship Tanks, eight CH-47 reading materials in the Appendix which achieved without good quality, ready, safe, Chinooks, four Super Puma helicopters, elaborates on spare parts provisioning reliable and maintainable systems, along with six C-130 transport aircraft and two optimisation and performance-based support the associated logistics support. F-50 utility aircraft for the 2004 tsunami Operation Flying Eagle strategy. relief effort. During the New Zealand Logistics support is not merely about adequate earthquake in February 2011, 116 SAF Defence systems are designed to have good Reliability, Availability and and timely spare parts provisioning. It is personnel, a C-130 transport aircraft RAM for long product life and typically outlive Maintainability also about the support and test equipment, and a KC-135 tanker aircraft were most of their internal components, giving facilities, technical documentation, training, deployed to Christchurch to provide rise to parts obsolescence. Obsolescence is Introduction manpower plan, maintenance plan, disaster relief and to support the therefore inevitable and it affects all systems. packaging, handling, storage, transportation evacuation of civilians and emergency In the past decade, parts obsolescence was Reliability and Maintainability (R&M) are and contractor technical services required to workers. In the March 2014 Malaysian accelerated by the rapid wave of progress in vital operational characteristics of defence support the operation and maintenance of a Airline MH370 Search and Rescue electronics and material innovations especially systems and have a dominant impact on defence system – this is known as Integrated Operation, the SAF deployed at short driven by COTS information technologies, both operational effectiveness and LCC. Logistics Support (ILS). Good, reliable and notice C-130s; Fokker-50 Maritime systems and applications, and related R&D The provision of defence systems with maintainable systems will entail an agile, Patrol Aircraft; Formidable-class investments. Thus, it has become a great acceptable levels of R&M is essential to the robust and sustainable ILS. frigate RSS Steadfast with a Sikorsky challenge for military agencies to sustain their achievements of operational effectiveness, S-70B Naval Helicopter on board; defence systems. Obsolescence affects system economy of in-service maintenance support, It is important that good RAM and ILS submarine support and rescue vessel supportability, safety and mission readiness. and optimised LCC. must be deliberately and comprehensively MV Swift Rescue with divers on In order to overcome obsolescence, high planned for and designed into the defence board; as well as missile corvette RSS costs and significant efforts may be incurred. To ensure that the necessary levels of systems upfront and early on, as well as Vigour to search for the missing plane. Existing methods to mitigate obsolescence risk R&M are achieved, realistic systems meticulously and diligently followed through In fact, the crew of RSS Steadfast include minimising proprietary parts, options availability requirements must be set, in the implementation of a programme. had just returned to Singapore for to purchase additional spares throughout the together with a management strategy laid Treating RAM as being subsequent to life cycle and mid life upgrades to provide out. This strategy reflects a continuous and

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evolutionary approach to the achievement industry. Driven by the need to support system developments. RT supported many the outset of the design process. The design of R&M goals. The management of the cutting-edge in-house developmental projects, major developmental programmes such as the should also be robust to cater for expected R&M tasks should be an integral part QAD gradually built up its capabilities in Missile Corvette (MCV) Programme, Mine variations in production processes, quality, of the project activity from front-end reliability engineering, quality assurance, Countermeasure Vessel Programme, Patrol or materials and components. Mean-Time- planning to the acceptance of the system and electronic testing. Environmental Vessel Programme, A-4 Upgrade Programme Between-Critical-Failure or Mean-Time- into service. engineering, another branch of engineering and F-5 Upgrade Programme. Between-Failure (MTBF) are two measures related to R&M engineering also emerged. of reliability. It is essential at the outset of the operational Basic environmental testing facilities built Systems Effectiveness Assurance Division, needs definition that R&M requirements up in DSO included equipment to conduct Defence Science and Technology Agency. In b. Maintainability. The ease with which are carefully studied in the context of the temperature, humidity, sine vibration, shock the mid 1990s, RT was renamed Systems equipment can be returned to a usable total operational requirements, and that and drop testing of small items. A small tank Effectiveness Assurance Division (SEAD) condition after failure and the time taken early in-depth consideration is given to the and shelter were also improvised to conduct to better reflect its spectrum of work and its for preventive maintenance are important project objectives. Unrealistic and ambiguous rain and immersion tests. With a major RSAF expanded vision to be more operationally design criteria. Those items which need requirements can lead to unnecessary programme under development at the time, focused and system oriented so as to influence to be removed, adjusted or inspected most expenditure of money, time and effort, and temperature-altitude chambers and vibration hardware and logistics design upfront. With often, for whatever reason, should have the may result in the failure to meet systems shakers were acquired to conduct testing the formation of the DSTA in 2000, SEAD easiest accessibility. Maintainability design availability and operational requirements. on larger and heavier items to meet specific was renamed Systems Engineering (SE). Over is therefore significantly reliability-driven environmental conditions. These facilities also this period of time, SE engineers had built rather than reliability dependent. Mean- Environmental requirements should also provided the means to conduct temperature- up more robust capabilities in RAM and Time-To-Repair (MTTR) is a factor of be duly considered as the R&M of defence altitude testing and random vibration testing. environmental engineering with added focus measurement in maintainability. R&M systems are affected by their operating, Environmental measurement equipment such on front-end planning to define systems' are related activities which need to be transportation, and storage conditions. as sensors and data loggers were also acquired RAM requirements. This was done through a fully integrated into all other project to capture relevant data for comparison with comprehensive front-end availability analysis activities. This section gives an overview of the test profiles and database purposes. taking into consideration both operational R&M engineering evolution as well as its and logistics inputs. Some of the major c. Availability. Availability is a measure of design philosophy and approach in defence Reliability Technology, Defence Materials programmes supported by SE engineers the degree to which an item is in an capability management. Organisation. The capabilities built up over these later years included the Frigate operable state and can be committed at by QAD were later leveraged to provide Programme, Naval Helicopter Programme, the start of a mission, where the mission Evolution of the R&M Engineering support to other acquisition arms in LST Programme, MCV upgrade programme, is called for at an unknown point in time. Capability in MINDEF MINDEF towards the later part of 1980s. Littoral Mission Vessel Programme, Availability as measured by the user is QAD was subsequently renamed Reliability Submarine Programme, unmanned aerial a function of how often failures occur Quality Assurance Department, Defence Science Technology (RT) to better reflect its role and vehicle programmes, All Terrain Tracked and corrective maintenance is required; Organisation. R&M engineering practice became part of the DMO, which was formed Carrier Programme, FH88 Programme, how often preventive maintenance started out in the early 1980s with a small when the SPO and Materials Management FH2000 Programme, Self-Propelled Howitzer is performed; how quickly indicated group of engineers from the Quality Assurance Organisation (MMO) were merged in 1986. Programme, as well as tracked vehicle and failures can be isolated and repaired; how Department (QAD) in the DSO supporting RT had to concurrently support complex infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) programmes. quickly preventive maintenance tasks in-house development. Headed by Mr Koh acquisition and developmental projects under can be performed; and how long logistics Wee Liam1, QAD had a role in ensuring good DMO as well as developmental projects in Codification of the RAM Approach support delays contribute to downtime. mechanical design and packaging, quality DSO. RT was to ensure that acquired weapon as well as reliability of DSO developmental systems had high mission availability with R&M Design Philosophy d. Design for Support. The need for defence systems and production contracts with the reduced manpower support requirements at systems to meet requirements of high low LCC. Staff from RT were also attached a. Reliability. Reliable systems have a high availability, effective troubleshooting to overseas Resident Programme Offices. probability of performing their required and fast turnaround of failed systems,

1 Koh Wee Liam started his career as a design engineer in The opportunities to work closely with functions for a stated period of time lean manning and lower support costs DSO handling prototype fabrication and environmental the original equipment manufacturer's when subjected to specified operational requires implementation of smart testing capability. For his contributions in advancing logistics (OEM) R&M departments provided conditions of use and environment. maintainability design and technologies engineering practices within the Ministry of Defence and Life Cycle Management, he was awarded the Defence Technology invaluable experiences and knowledge in The operational use and environment, early in the programme phases. Apart Prize (Individual) in 1995. incorporating R&M designs during early therefore, need to be taken into account at from maintainability requirements on

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equipment design like size and weight Action System; as well as conducting RAM/Quality Assurance Environmental active involvement in these programmes has constraints, accessibility and testability R&M verifications. Handbook also enabled the practices and methodologies requirements, other new maintainability in RAM and environmental engineering initiatives have also been explored. Some Environmental Engineering The RAM and environmental approaches are to be tested, fine-tuned and benchmarked examples of maintainability initiatives codified into the RAM/Quality Assurance with best defence acquisition practices along implemented in programmes based on The effect of the operating environment (QA)/Environmental Handbook which the way. cost effectiveness considerations include on military equipment is an important forms part of the MINDEF LCM, and later enhancing equipment diagnostics consideration to achieve system designs DCM guides and manuals. The LCM and Reliability Growth Testing capability, implementing health and with high availability. There is a need to DCM policies call for acquisition of reliable, condition monitoring of systems, developing look beyond our local environment with the maintainable, environmentally robust and Modern and state-of-the-art military systems predictive maintenance capabilities, SAF's increased role in operations other than high performance defence systems that are becoming increasingly complex and employing interactive electronic war. Military operations present challenging can effectively improve combat readiness, reliability problems may invariably exist due technical manuals for maintenance, and environments to systems and equipment, reduce logistics manpower requirements to design deficiencies. Increasingly, MINDEF providing network enabled maintenance such as during extended deployment in harsh and minimise LCC. The RAM/QA/ also needs to develop its own defence systems management capabilities. climates and explosion of ordnance in close Environmental Handbook was structured to to meet its unique operating requirements. An proximity. Thus, there is a need to design guide project engineers to perform RAM/QA/ effective solution is to apply reliability growth R&M Approach in Defence and qualify systems to ensure reliable system Environmental engineering and assurance tasks testing (RGT) early in the development phase Capability Management operation in the envisaged environment over in the various phases of the LCM and DCM in an attempt to identify and eliminate design their service life. Environmental qualification processes. It is an accumulation of all in-house deficiencies early on in the system's life R&M Engineering can be done by testing, analysis or other experiences and technical knowledge from cycle. The key advantage of conducting RGT acceptable means. To this end, both military the RAM/QA/Environmental practitioners in early is that design modifications are most In line with the R&M design philosophy, it and commercial standards for environmental the DTC. cost-effective if made early in the system's is important to note that the RAM drives design and qualification have been embraced life cycle. A successful reliability growth the logistics support aspects and hence has a to deliver cost-effective systems. Applications programme depends on a good reliability test significant effect on the LCC of the system. programme at the front-end planning stage, The R&M of defence systems is also affected The environmental engineering, RAM and environmental engineering as well as realistic and valid assessment of the by their operating, transportation, and storage management, test and verification approach have been diligently applied to the SAF's system's reliability during testing. Planning conditions. Therefore, the RAM approach is to was adopted mainly from established programmes. An example is the application and assessment of reliability growth requires ensure that the RAM requirements, including International Standards and practices, of RAM engineering, management and the use of mathematical models. the environmental aspects, are well taken care viz. US and European defence standards, verification in naval system designs to not only of during system acquisition as well as the industry standards as well as commercial meet RAM requirements, but also to allow The Bionix Infantry Fighting Vehicle O&S period. standards. To facilitate environmental naval systems to withstand and operate under (IFV) was conceived in 1989 when none of engineering and management in acquisition, stringent environmental conditions such as the commercially available IFVs could meet The R&M engineering, management, test DSTA developed the Environmental high shock levels attributed to underwater our needs. Almost eight years later, MINDEF and verification approach was mainly based Requirements Management Guide. This mines and explosions. This is one area translated this vision for an indigenous IFV on established International Standards and document addresses the environmental where much knowledge and competency into reality. It was one of the early platforms practices, viz., US and European defence requirements management and assurance have been built up in shock requirements to undergo RGT. The developmental testing standards, industry standards as well as process, and provides a basic comparison of definition, measurement, analysis and testing carried out for the Bionix IFV could be commercial standards. Capability was various environmental standards and the to complement the project management generally broken into three distinct phases, built up to undertake fundamental R&M relevant templates for use. More importantly, team. Over time, RAM and environmental namely: engineering and management tasks for some typical environmental data are made engineering expertise have grown broader as • Experimental Phase – Testing of two electronic systems developed in-house. These available to benchmark environmental staff supported more RSAF, Army and RSN experimental vehicles (XV1 and XV2) tasks included performing R&M modelling, requirements in acquisition documents for programmes. While the participation of SE from 1990 – 1992 R&M predictions, Failure Modes, Effects and the RSAF, the Army and the RSN systems engineers in major developmental programmes • Testbeds Phase – Testing of three Testbeds Criticality Analysis; identifying and managing whether acquired standalone or installed in has ensured that all the platform and combat (T1, T2 and T3) from 1993 – 1995 R&M critical items, Testability Analysis; different platform types. systems delivered to the SAF are highly • Final Prototypes Phase – Testing of three establishing a Parts Control Programme, reliable, maintainable, available and able to final prototypes (1, 2, and 3) and one Failure Reporting, Analysis and Corrective operate in harsh military environments, their pre-production model, from 1995 – 1997

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The actual reliability performance during Rapid Introduction of Off-The-Shelf (OTS) and intended operational readiness throughout RGT was tracked using the US Army Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Equipment the life cycle of the aircraft. This sound ILS Material Systems Analysis Activity growth groundwork laid more than 30 years ago model as described in MIL-HDBK-189. The Given the rapid advancement of commercial has been codified by the DTC into the LCM performance was compared with the planned technology in recent years as well as the manual. The rigorous and comprehensive ILS growth curves regularly to determine increased R&D investment by commercial planning and implementation continues to be if the reliability growth was progressing companies, there has been a shift in the practised to this day to ensure the readiness satisfactorily. An engineering analysis on defence acquisition landscape towards of the SAF. the impact of fixes (those introduced late the adoption of more COTS products and in the test phase or those introduced after components. As a result, there has been more ILS Planning the end of the test phase) was carried out widespread use of OTS and COTS equipment during the Testbeds test phase. The outcome as solutions to meet user requirements. The quality of the ILS has a major effect on the of the RGT was a Bionix IFV that met the operational availability of the weapon system. reliability requirements of the Army before To reap the associated benefits of an OTS The USN initiates each E-2C foreign military being introduced into service. or COTS solution, new RAM and sales project with a massive LPC. During the environmental engineering approach and LPC, each and every main and subsystem A widely used mathematical model in methodologies have been identified or (hardware and software) – and sometimes reliability growth planning is the power refined for use so as to enable the cost- individual components of the aircraft system – law model known as the Duane model. effective acquisition of these products. are examined from the perspective of mission Deterministic in nature, the Duane model The use of OTS and COTS equipment has needs. The operational, logistical and other is suitable for reliability growth planning. also necessitated a review of the acceptability of local support needed to fulfil the mission are A new mathematical model currently being commercial test standards and corresponding Arrival of our first two E-2Cs derived and documented thoroughly in an used in the industry and the US Department data to substantiate compliance to RAM and at Paya Lebar Airbase in March 1987 implementation plan called the Technical and of Defense for the analysis of reliability environmental requirements. Logistics Development Plan. growth is the Non-Homogeneous-Poisson- When MINDEF acquired the E-2C AEW Process model known as the Crow Extended Integrated Logistics Support aircraft in the 1980s, it set a target to be The Singapore team assigned for the LPC spent Reliability Growth Model. Traditional self-reliant enough to operate and maintain considerable time first learning how the USN growth models address reliability growth Introduction the system within two years of the delivery did things, then aligning expectations and based on fixes incorporated during the test of the first aircraft, while other countries finally examining and outlining alternative or at the end of the test. These approaches ILS is a composite of all the support resources sometimes chose to rely on foreign help, even cost-effective approaches to meet local and are known as test-fix-test and test-find- necessary to ensure effective and economical after many years of operation. The project relevant industrial support needs. The support test respectively. However, in today's support of a system's operations throughout team set out to learn from the USN the required for the E-2C – spares, ground support environment – with a compressed test its life cycle. It is an integral part of weapon systematic processes and methods required equipment, a software development facility schedule and limited available resources for system acquisition and O&S, and represents to carry out a comprehensive and robust ILS and training – were specified and decisions testing – a more common test strategy is the a major portion of the system LCC. The ILS planning and implementation. taken whether to buy them through the test-fix-find-test (Crow, 2004). concept integrates the operational system USN or directly from their manufacturers. with the support system. The operational When the first E-2C aircraft arrived in This saved us an enormous amount of DSTA has successfully applied the RGT system consists of a set of resources (such as Singapore in 1987, the project team had money. In all, teams from the RSAF, DSO, methodology using the Duane model and hardware, software and trained personnel) already put in place the required logistics, ST Aerospace, other local companies and Crow Extended Reliability Growth Model and functions required for the system to operational and support infrastructure to SPO spent five weeks cooped up at a local to both the Self Propelled Howitzer and perform its intended missions. The support enable the RSAF Squadron to begin flying hotel working with 40 USN, Grumman and Tracked Vehicle programmes, and reliability system includes the resources (such as support immediately. Not only were the hardware and subcontractor personnel during the LPC. goals were adequately met after necessary and test equipment, maintenance personnel, logistics purchased and installed in time, the The USN had estimated the LPC to last 13 design improvements. as well as spares and documentation) and equally important tasks of training adequate weeks but it was completed in five weeks. functions required for the effective and numbers of operators, engineers, technical The learning has enabled us to codify and economical support of the operational system officers and technicians on a continual basis develop our own maintenance plan through through its intended life cycle. had been planned for and implemented. an analytical process known as the This enabled the RSAF to maintain its Logistics Support Analysis (LSA).

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Systems Documentation. Documentation Facilities. During the 25 years of operation, includes operator manuals, technical the E-2C squadron called Tengah Airport manuals, software documentation and all its home. In the air base, there were other information that are required for the hangars, a maintenance workshop and operation and maintenance of the system. supply house to ensure that the aircraft These documents were provided with the fleet was well maintained and supported delivery of the E-2C, which enabled the to meet its flying demands. As an ILS RSAF to operate and maintain the aircraft. element, facilities can be categorised into permanent or mobile. This depends on their Training. Different types of training are intended use. Permanent facilities include tailored for different target groups. Operator maintenance facilities, (e.g. hangars), training provides the end users and supply facilities (e.g. warehouses) and Field deployment of system where “O” level maintenance tasks would be done systems administrators with knowledge training facilities (e.g. training simulators) on systems usage and configuration required to support the system. Mobile Logistics Support Analysis management. Maintenance training allows facilities such as maintenance vehicles ILS Elements the technicians to perform corrective and and portable generators are not fixed to LSA provides the scientific process component preventive maintenance. In the SAF, the a location. of the ILS. It is the analytic process used Initial Supply Support. This includes all train-the-trainer concept is widely adopted. to identify, define, analyse and quantify consumables (e.g. expendable items like Instructors from military institutes develop Initial Contractor Technical Services. This is the integrated configuration list as well as batteries for day-to-day operations), internal training programmes based on the to provide an initial trouble free set-up the ILS requirements and resources needed repair materials and spares parts that original equipment manufacturer's training of the weapon system. This is performed for cost-effective logistics support of the are required to replace production syllabus. For complex systems, SE training during the system introductory stage to system. It consists of two parallel sets of parts that are in need of repair. For may also be conducted for military officers solve initial technical problems, provide activities, maintenance support analysis and each system, the set of spares that and DTC engineers. In the case of the E-2C, supervision, guidance and assistance for support analysis, to ensure the systematic is required is determined through after the “roll-out” of our first two E-2Cs operation and support tasks. development, implementation and execution computer simulation using inputs such at Grumman, they were used for pilot of ILS in order to provide maximum as the operation and training profile, and “wizzo” (weapon systems operator) Contractors' Maintenance Services. Depending readiness. component characteristics (e.g. MTBF training. Upon completion of the flight on each system's maintenance support and MTTR) and repair capabilities (e.g. training, the two planes were flown to concept and plan, contractors are Maintenance Plan turnaround time). The E-2C project was San Diego from the Grumman plant in engaged in performing or supplementing a unique valuable opportunity for the Bethpage, preserved for sea transportation preventive and corrective maintenance at Maintenance planning is a process to Singapore project team to practise and across the Pacific Ocean, and shipped to different levels of maintenance support. develop all the anticipated maintenance gain proficiency in the provisioning of the USN naval base at Subic Bay. The At the depot level, contractors typically requirements for the system. It also spares for a complex system, where sea journey took about three weeks and undertake repairs using shop replaceable proposes who will carry out the required we did most of the ILS activities after off-loading at Subic Bay the E-2Cs units. maintenance tasks and at which maintenance ourselves instead of relying on USN's were stripped of their preservation, made level (i.e. Operator “O” level on site; subcontractors. In the provisioning operational again and flown to Brunei. Logistics Support Management Plan. The Intermediate “I” level in workshop or hangar; of spares for the various systems and RSAF pilots flew our E-2Cs from Brunei Logistics Support Management Plan or Depot “D” level at contractor premises), subsystems of the E-2C, we asked the to a memorable welcome at Paya Lebar (LSMP) ensures that the ILS activities as well as the estimated duration of Aviation Supply Office in Philadelphia Airbase in March 1987. carried out during the project phase and each task. The maintenance plan forms to generate the listing of spares with transition to O&S phase are comprehensive the basis for other recommendations of their reliability data based on USN Support and Test Equipment. Support and and within the budget allocated before ILS elements. usage data. We then worked out the test equipment are items that support the the defence system is handed over to provisioning list based on our support operation and maintenance of the system. the end user. LSMP helps to optimise concept and flying profiles. They include physical tools as well as test, logistics resource utilisation across handling and calibration equipment. projects and avoid duplication of logistics

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this methodology and in June 1990, it was R A O arrangement for related projects. LSMP formally accepted and documented as the S covers the ILS package implementation MINDEF LCM Manual, which clearly defined requirements. In instances where the the ILS requirements for project systems. O&S implementation details extend This was further codified into the Logistics P P beyond the ILS package (such as end user Management Information System (LMIS) and organisational structures, manpower implemented using the German software, P P build-up, logistics sustenance build up SAP R/3. The LCM methodology ensures development of internal maintenance that all aspects of the system life cycle are processes and procedures, and other considered in arriving at relevant and cost- anticipated sustenance considerations), effective solutions. It can be said with some all the stakeholders in the end user degree of confidence that MINDEF and the logistics departments and O&S agencies SAF are now able to get the best value for will be jointly responsible for the its money when acquiring weapon systems. development of the LSMP. In 2012, the LCM Manual was replaced by the DCM Manual to take into account the The RSAF operated the E-2C for 25 increased sophistication of systems being years before it was replaced by the G550 acquired or developed, and the need for AEW aircraft. During its service, the more Ops-Logs coordination and integration E-2C also participated in many overseas taking a capability perspective. exercises such as Exercise Pitch Black where its availability was put to the test. Obsolescence Management Measures to manage obsolescence Because of the initial comprehensive ILS planning and implementation Introduction Key Principle and Measures Proactive Measures taken by DSTA and the RSAF, along with good follow-on support, the Obsolescence is inevitable and affects The key principle of obsolescence management Proactive measures should not only be adopted RSAF was able to exploit the aircraft all systems, especially military systems is to manage obsolescence throughout the during the contracting phase but also while to the fullest capability. An early head which are designed for a long product life. project or system's life cycle – from front- transiting to the O&S phase. The project team start with good ILS planning set the Military systems typically outlive most of end planning, acquisition to the O&S phase should engage the contractors constantly to foundation for effective maintenance their internal components, giving rise to – in order to execute the most cost-effective monitor any obsolescence issues. Establishing support downstream. Similarly, if parts obsolescence. In the past 10 years, strategy. Depending on the project phase, depot level maintenance capabilities (i.e. local the ILS planning had not been done parts obsolescence has been accelerated pre-emptive or proactive measures can be repair capabilities) would help to alleviate the properly upfront, then it would have by the wave of progress in electronics and adopted. impact of obsolescence. Such measures would been an uphill task subsequently to material innovations. Thus, it has become help to establish through-life support for the ensure the desired aircraft availability a greater challenge for military agencies to Pre-emptive Measures acquired system and achieve the maximum was met. sustain their systems. Obsolescence affects benefit for end users. system supportability, safety, and mission Pre-emptive measures should be adopted in Source: DSTA Horizons – Estimation Model readiness. In order to overcome obsolescence, the early phase of project implementation. Obsolescence Management Framework for Integrated Logistics Support Cost and high costs and significant efforts may be Any risk of obsolescence should be identified Annual Recurrent Expenditure in C3 Projects incurred. Existing methods of obsolescence early to avoid problems downstream. One A framework has been derived based on management are inadequate to ensure cost- option is to explore adopting open architecture the collective experience of project teams LCM Manual effective continuity of support for the system. systems which can be modified more easily if in DSTA. It is a 2-by-2 matrix consisting A new approach was thus established to the need arises. Due consideration has to be of two variable factors: size of user The approach to logistics management maximise the value of the military system given to the selection of the system and the base and the technologies used within learned during the LPC evolved into a throughout its life cycle. contractor. Conducting market surveys and the system. value-added robust process for MINDEF risk assessments are suitable methods to aid and the SAF, described as the “LCM” of the selection process. Size of user base can be large or small projects. All subsequent projects adopted depending on the number of international

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S U Large User Base – COTS Technology changing needs and to match the private (Quadrant D) sector in attracting and retaining our fair share of engineers from the market, we also A D Military systems in this category are had to augment this with the need to utilise • Join technical advisory • Plan for renewal or

Large programmes organised by refresh programmes characterised by short product life cycles our scarce engineering resources wisely. A suppliers (PLC) and lower acquisition costs. Similar long-term initiative called the Engineering to consumer electronic products, the approach Resource Deployment (ERD) was launched B C is to plan for fleet renewal at every PLC. in the 1990s to position MINDEF and the Some examples of this category include SAF to meet an anticipated challenge in the • Conduct obsolescence • Maintain local capabilities prediction programmes to redesign or refresh the computers, communication sets and optics future of a declining resource of engineers. • Build strategic relationships technologies equipment. Other systems that fall in this with suppliers category are commercially produced aircraft Engineering Resource Deployment used for training purposes. Fleet renewal

Small T of such systems has to be planned carefully The logic for ERD was based on the following Proprietary COTS as it can involve substantial budget and considerations. First, other than improving effort. the efficiency in the use of scarce engineering Obsolescence management framework resources, it also fosters better retention of The project team then uses the framework engineering expertise by providing more operators. Technologies used in the management issues. Due to the small to review and evaluate the relevance of the varied and challenging work. Second, it components and hardware of the system user base, the suppliers may not invest in adopted measures and options in the various provides better opportunities to streamline can be proprietary or COTS products. resources to track or manage obsolescence. phases of the system's life cycle. and optimise processes through adoption Although COTS is used to lower costs of best practices. Third, ERD would also Using this framework, the project team in many instances, the suppliers will enable us to respond to the rapidly changing can identify the quadrant applicable to the have built-in proprietary firmware. Thus, Size of User Base technology by shortening the feedback loop system and employ the relevant measures for it is necessary to have specially tailored from the O&S to future acquisitions. Technologies obsolescence management. Measures include obsolescence management programmes obtaining user group membership for the such as using obsolescence prediction technical advisory programmes, developing programmes for planning and mitigation, local capabilities and using obsolescence as well as establishing appropriate contracts prediction programmes. and building strategic relationships with the Requirements suppliers. Large User Base – Proprietary Technology Contracting (Quadrant A) Small User Base – COTS Technology Acquisition Life cycle (Quadrant C) Operations & Support Military systems in this category have a large user base and are likely to have a This category is populated by customised funded, sustainable, and formal process and specially developed products or systems. Using the framework in various phases by the suppliers to deal with obsolescence For example, the command and control of the life cycle issues. By joining the technical advisory system software is developed in-house while programmes, project teams can gain access to hardware systems are mainly bought off the Engineering Personnel direct operational assistance and consultation shelf. Although the software is proprietary, with the suppliers. developing it in-house reduces the risk Introduction involved during migration to a newer COTS Small User Base – Proprietary Technology hardware. Thus, maintaining local capabilities In the 1990s, MINDEF and the SAF had already (Quadrant B) to redesign or refresh the technologies is the expected to face increasing competition from key requirement for this category. the private sector for good quality engineers. Military systems in this category are likely While we would pro-actively introduce to face the most challenging obsolescence appropriate measures to respond to the Engineering personnel in the SAF

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Challenges computers and intelligence; radar; electro- surfaced to the ERD Implementation • Building of Deep Engineering Expertise. optics; guided weapons; armament; training Committee for resolution. The complexity of modern platforms However, as the proposal called for the systems; and ground support equipment. • Personnel Management. Several changes were and weapon systems has necessitated transfer of most O&S engineering functions The O&S manpower of selected areas was made in the management of technical staff the build-up of deep domain expertise from the Service Logistics Departments transferred from the SLDs to DMO and the under ERD. The objective was to ensure to exploit the limits of the networked (SLD) to the DTG, the three Services had Command, Control, Communications and equitable distribution of engineering sensors and shooters of the Third a number of concerns. Their first concern Computer Systems Organisation (CSO). talent in the HQs, maintenance bases Generation SAF. The need to organise for was whether ERD could provide a tight The DTG assumed the role of system and the DTG. Changes in the job rotation system effectiveness and mission success operations-engineering interface, especially manager for the systems and equipment system were also made. places tension on the need to organise with platforms. There was also the perception involved and undertook both acquisition • Sustenance of Quality Support. The Services for resource efficiency under ERD. This that ERD would result in the loss of its own and O&S engineering work. Operational had stressed the need to sustain quality healthy tension paves the way to look at engineering capabilities by relying on another logistics functions remained in the SLDs, system support in the long term, especially ways to further strengthen the integration organisation outside its existing chain of and Services retained responsibility for the with the phasing in of new staff not of systems knowledge and expertise command for the O&S support of their O&S engineering of all platform systems. familiar with requirements and working across DSTA and the Services to enhance weapon systems. The purpose of the pilot was to demonstrate relationships with the Services. As such, operational flexibility, responsiveness the advantages and practicalities associated the job rotation system had to ensure that and system effectiveness for the SAF to Pilot Programme with ERD. Work flows, linkages and personnel have sufficient exposure and deliver sustainable mission success. responsibilities of the ERD organisations experience with ground appointments • Transforming the Entities. DSTA and the Given these concerns, an ERD pilot programme vis-à-vis the SLDs, operators and bases were and a good “feel” for the requirements Services have continued to progress and was implemented in October 1995. The scope worked out before the pilot programme were of operations. have built up a range of engineering covered O&S engineering for non-platform refined. The progress of the ERD pilot was • Strong and Robust Communication. and logistics functions aligned to the systems and excluded operational logistics closely monitored at the ERD Implementation Improvements to strengthen the evolving needs of MINDEF and the SAF. functions. Operational logistics functions Committee and the ERD Quarterly Meeting communication in the day-to-day The constant pressures to transform and (such as maintenance, materials support, chaired by Deputy Secretary (Technology) working relationship between the ERD right-size within each organisation have training and certification as well as quality (DS(T)) and Permanent Secretary (Defence organisations, SLD HQ, bases and users resulted in each organisation re-examining control) are day-to-day ground level O&S Development) respectively. In addition, direct were implemented. These included its fundamental value prepositions. The activities which will continue to be planned, feedback was obtained from the latter's visits structured and informal interactions, continued optimisation efforts undertaken managed and executed in the units, squadrons to units and maintenance agencies affected clearer points of contact and provision of by the organisations have resulted in each or bases. This ensures that O&S activities by the ERD pilot programme. interim updates for long lead time jobs. having a very lean manpower set-up, with are performed professionally and in a timely virtually no overlaps in roles between manner so as to meet the system readiness The pilot programme surfaced a number of Implementation DSTA and the Services. requirement. Under the ERD, MINDEF and challenges, many of which were transitional, the SAF defined O&S engineering as those and some structural and cultural. With the Following the successful pilot programme, Ops-Tech Integration engineering activities carried out during the collective commitment and endeavour to ERD was implemented in 1997 and framed system O&S period of LCM or longer time/ make ERD succeed, many teething problems along two broad trajectories whereby the Over the years, the ERD initiative has term horizon (such as system performance and and transitional issues were resolved. The Services would continue to be responsible for facilitated cross-deployment to take place, cost effectiveness analysis, fault investigation, pilot was also a valuable learning experience the system management of platforms and sub- enabled tighter ops-tech integration, and logistics/maintenance engineering, design for all parties involved. Some of these systems which are tightly integrated to these increased the level of interconnectedness of system enhancements/modifications/ challenges were: platforms, where subsequently DSTA would and interdependency between the SAF and upgrades, system retirement, and technical centrally manage non-platform systems, DSTA. Today, SAF Military Domain Expert advice to operators). O&S engineering • Demarcation of Responsibilities. Some selected platform-based sub-systems and Scheme (MDES) officers and DSTA engineers activities are generally also termed as System ambiguous areas surfaced during the systems that served the common interests attend the same DSTA Academy Intermediate Management. pilot implementation, but they were of all three Services. Systems Engineering and Management as resolved via a case-study approach. well as Advanced Systems Engineering and Under the ERD pilot, the initial non-platform Examples were planning for overseas Since its implementation, changes have been Management courses. For the SAF MDES systems selected were standalone and tri- deployment and issuing authority for seen in the following areas: officers, attending these courses forms part Service (i.e. common across the Services) in common engineering instructions. of their route-of-advancement requirements. nature – command, control, communications, Some of the more difficult issues were The immersion allows the SAF military

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engineers and DSTA engineers to learn SYSTEMS ENGINEERING The Weapons Systems Steering Committee had and interact using the same acquisition and METHODOLOGIES approved a big sum to purchase a complex system systems management “language”, thereby through competitive bidding. A few months after achieving smoother end-to-end capability AND TOOLS the contract was signed, the project team put up development. another paper asking the Committee to approve another big sum to purchase a computer simulation The opportunity of learning together goes training system as the trainer requirement had been beyond military engineers to combat/ Introduction left out in the earlier approved paper. Although the operation officers from the Army, the Committee felt that the price quoted by the system RSN, the RSAF and Joint Service. Today, The previous chapters related how the pioneers manufacturer was on the high side, they did not DSTA Academy's wealth of knowledge and in the DTC developed and delivered defence have much choice but to approve it because they experience in capability development – from systems, which included the formulation faced a monopolistic situation. front-end masterplanning and architecting, of concepts for defence systems and SoS, acquisition and development management, design, development and deployment of A few months later, another shock came. to the operationalisation of military software systems, and O&S engineering The project team asked for approval to build a capability are curated and shared via that enables systems to be sustained through new infrastructure to house the trainer. New workshops held yearly for the benefit of their operational life cycle. The chapters requirements like these kept on creeping in as the SAF capability development planners and revealed an underlying life cycle approach project progressed. operational managers. to systems engineering that MINDEF and the DTC adopted. Three years after the main contract signature, the system was delivered together with the trainer. This chapter will explain the systems life However the new building which was built to house cycle approach, the LCM framework that the trainer was not ready because the approval for underpins the process of conceptualisation to the building works started too late. operations and support, up to the retirement of the systems. It will uncover the key systems Things got worse a few months after system delivery. engineering methods and tools used in The operators started complaining about the poor the DTC to generate and analyse options, reliability of the system. Spares were used up faster integrate systems and address system safety. than expected. Despite all the pressure the Project Team applied on the manufacturer, engineering Life Cycle Management solutions were just not coming fast enough because the contract did not provide any motivation to the The Need for a Total System Approach manufacturer. Although the operators were getting the repairs free of charge, the repair turnaround time took In defence systems, we often talk about a such a long time that the spares soon depleted. The system from a life cycle perspective – beginning Authority was forced to approve another big sum to from its conceptualisation, evaluation, buy extra emergency spares. Because the spares were design and production, introduction into bought after the production stage, the price went up by service and sustenance during service; and 30%. The explanation for the higher costs from the finally into retirement and disposal. We manufacturer was that there was no economies of scale measure the success of a defence system by its and they had to restart the production line just for this capability, operational availability and support urgent order. resources needed over its life span, and not References: simply its ability to meet the contracted cost, Due to the poor reliability of the operational system schedule and performance specifications. If and the long and uncertain repair turn-around time, Crow, Larry H. (2004). An extended reliability growth model for managing a holistic approach was not taken upfront, the operators decided that they had to have more in- and assessing corrective actions. IEEE Proceedings of the Annual RAM Symposium various pitfalls in the following fictional country maintenance capability. When the quotation (pp. 73-80). doi: 10.1109/RAMS.2004.1285426 story could surface. eventually came from the original equipment

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manufacturer, it was another big investment and with the “prime” equipment where possible. the deal was totally biased to their advantage. This would ensure maximum leverage and E price competitiveness in the competitive Determination Systems Project of Operational Requirements Management Years later, the local maintenance capability was bidding process, and achieve maximum Needs Formulation Planning established, and the repair turn-around time was value for money. System performance greatly improved. While celebrating the achievement and reliability requirements must also be of Full Operational Capability, it was also noted that addressed during the tendering and project A M that there was excessive dead stock in the inventory. management phases and not left to chance Most of the dead stock were high-cost spares bought after the equipment is fielded. Furthermore, System Tender, Preliminary Detailed DT&E Serial Definition Evaluation & Design Design Production during the earlier crisis, but were now made redundant engineering support from the OEM must be Contracting as a result of the setting up of the local maintenance defined and provisioned for in the contract, capability. especially for complex systems. This would include negotiating for engineering data T OS O S The many costly pitfalls in the above scenario release and engineers' training on the design can be avoided if a total system approach perspective of the system. ICIT System Run-in OT&E Upgrade or Retirement and long-term perspective in planning and decision making was taken. External consultants were engaged to Summary of the phases in LCM for a system complement the committee. One of them Development of MINDEF's Life Cycle was Professor Melvin Kline, a specialist MINDEF/SAF's longer-term plans. These of the new “prime” equipment (i.e. the Management Framework and practitioner in LCM systems from the needs are transformed into specific and fighter), but also how the equipment is to US Naval Postgraduate School. Another realisable operational capability requirements. be utilised and supported in peacetime and In 1986, Mr Lim Siong Guan, then Permanent consultant was engaged to help establish and In the acquisition phase, the solution that wartime throughout its entire operational Secretary (Defence), saw the need for a implement the ILS methodology, drawing is able to meet the required operational life. Considerations here will include an holistic approach to acquire and manage from his experience in large-scale projects. capability and has the best operational benefit evaluation of the growth potential of the SAF equipment. A high-level committee Supporting the committee in developing for the dollar spent is selected from a range of system for upgrades during its operational was formed in 1987 to develop the MINDEF the methodology and writing the LCM alternatives. Clear roles and responsibilities life, the involvement of in-country defence LCM framework. The committee comprised document was a team of systems engineers for all stakeholders are defined at every stage industry, and development and sustainability members from MINDEF, DMO and the SAF, from DMO and the logistics departments of of the LCM process from acquisition to project of in-country capabilities. and headed by COL Wesley D'aranjo, then the three SAF Services. Mr Koh Wee Liam, implementation, system delivery, operations Director (DMO). The LCM would holistically who was the Assistant Director in DMO, and support and finally to retirement of the The LCM approach provides balanced consider the acquisition of defence systems played a key role in developing the LCM system. The life cycle ends with the physical focus among Reliability, Maintainability, and induction of new capabilities for the SAF, framework and was subsequently awarded disposal of the weapon system at the end Supportability (RMS) and technical sustenance and upgrade of the system for the Defence Technology Prize (Individual) in of its useful life. During the operations and performance throughout the acquisition optimum operational readiness and retirement 1995 for his contributions. The LCM manual, support phase, the operational service life activities. RMS are cost drivers and key of the system at the end of its useful life. which codified the LCM framework, was of the system may be extended to meet parameters to system availability, mission This was essentially a “system life cycle” promulgated in 1990. changing operational scenarios through mid- success and sustainability. Highly reliable (SLC) approach. life upgrades and technology insertions. and maintainable systems will mean that MINDEF's LCM – The Process the systems can be utilised for more mission The LCM framework put together the wealth MINDEF's LCM – a Total System sorties and there is less demand for technicians of knowledge, experience and the lessons learnt In terms of an SLC process, the LCM Approach to Capability and Cost and other logistics burden, which in turn also by DTC engineers over years of acquiring and framework can be expressed in a simplified helps to enhance mobility and survivability supporting defence systems. For example, form in these phases: Front-End Planning, Key tenets to the LCM framework include of the combat forces. when acquiring new defence equipment Acquisition Management, Transition to the use of a total system approach and the (e.g. aircraft, ships, armoured vehicles etc), Operations and Support, Operations and LCC of a system. The LCM approach also demands a high the associated equipment such as training Support, and System Retirement. degree of concurrent activities. Conflicting simulators, in-country engineering capability, In planning and acquiring a defence system requirements from operations, logistics and spares and support equipment must be The process begins with the formulation of such as a new fighter aircraft, the project engineering are traded off early, taking a defined upfront and tendered at the same stage projected operational high-level needs from team considers not only the performance long-term view using LCC. Requirements

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from operations, training, logistics and Over the years, solutions to the SAF's Overall, the MINDEF LCM framework infrastructure development are systematically I operational requirements moved from off- ensured and provided a measure of value- integrated into the contracts. While more Planning the-shelf weapon system purchases to projects for-money in all major acquisition of time may be required during the system Acquisition involving significant amount of customisation defence systems in MINDEF and the SAF.

definition and tender evaluation stages Mainte- and projects that were highly developmental “Value” in the SAF's perspective is defined Operation because of wider coverage, we can catch nance Technical Data in nature. This led to a new project risk by operational capability, availability of up in the implementation and deployment Training management methodology. Contractual the system and growth potential. “Money” Retirement & Disposal stages and shorten the time taken for the H requirements were enhanced to cover is defined by the SLC cost. overall cycle. O systems which are developmental in nature, where the risks are managed, where delivery Defence Capability Management A system's LCC comprises the initial Total cost visibility requires oversight schedules and performance parameters have acquisition cost that covers the “prime” of the “hidden” costs some degree of flexibility and where critical Strengthening the Management of equipment, spares and support equipment, as milestones are catered for the SAF and DSTA Defence Capabilities well as the cost of operations and maintenance For an aircraft, the O&S phase would include to review the project and exit if it is clear support throughout the system's life cycle heavy maintenance (typically known in the that the desired system performance and The adoption of the LCM framework from (which can be 30 years or even longer). This industry as maintenance, repair and overhaul operational capability will not be met. 1990 strengthened MINDEF, the SAF and DTC is estimated based on projected operational or MRO), modifications and upgrades to meet as smarter buyers, users and implementers usage, reliability data obtained from the changing scenarios, engineering support Another key initiative is the implementation for single systems. Nevertheless, several OEM and field data from other major users. from the OEM, spare parts management and of system safety processes to enhance the developments through the same period gave Finally, acquisition of a weapon system consumption, obsolescence management, safety of systems in the SAF. Safety is a core MINDEF the impetus to review and evolve may require specific obligations from the reliability engineering to improve availability, value of the SAF. The first Weapon Systems the framework of LCM. purchasing country to the government of the and training. The O&S cost of an aircraft Safety Advisory Board was set up in MINDEF exporting country with regard to the future during its entire SLC can amount to around and the SAF in 1991 to provide impartial First, MINDEF had gone through several disposal, transfer or resale of the system 60% of the system's LCC. It is thus a and independent advice to the SAF on the organisational reviews since the original upon retirement. major chunk of the LCC and an important safety of its weapon systems. In the late LCM framework was formulated. These consideration of the project team when 1990s, the SAF, together with the DMO, included the formation of new entities in Knowledge of the total cost for every evaluating competing solutions. embarked on a journey to introduce the the DTC1, with substantial organisational re- major acquisition will facilitate proactive concept of system safety to further enhance structuring and consequently process engineering efforts or contract initiatives Subsequent Improvements to MINDEF's its safety framework and this was formalised changes. While each entity brought a to manage the cost drivers. For example, LCM Framework in 2005. With the experience gained from strategic perspective and sharper focus on all high-cost items, including those that are the implementation of the system safety its respective areas of responsibility, the required for future maintenance and supply After its introduction, MINDEF's LCM process for the safety assessment of ordnance, general trend towards decentralisation and support, could be exposed to competitive framework continued to evolve and was munitions and explosives (OME), in 2006 specialisation had also given rise to new bidding to enhance value-for-money in our strengthened with new methodologies. MINDEF, the SAF and DSTA expanded the domain areas and some functional overlaps. acquisition. In some cases, an increased system safety concept to the safety assessment A top-down review of the LCM framework expenditure upfront could help reduce Since 1993, the Analytic Hierarchy Process of weapon systems such as aircraft, ships would serve to clarify the related systems and the LCC. (AHP) has been in use for the evaluation and and land fighting vehicles. Subsequently, the processes for capability planning, delivery selection of all major systems to improve system safety methodology for MINDEF, and sustenance in MINDEF and the SAF. The use of LCC ensures that there will be objectivity in evaluation. The use of the SAF and DSTA was formalised in 2010. less hidden or unknown costs and thus operations analysis and M&S tools for tactical Since then, all weapon systems and OMEs Second, there was an increasing pace avoid the potential hazard of “ice-berg” cost and campaign analyses have subsequently have been subjected to a rigorous process of technological change. With greater consequences. For a well-managed defence been incorporated as an enhancement to of system safety assessment prior to the competition and innovation, the life cycles system with a useful life of more than 15 the AHP process. The approach of LCC systems being operationalised. The system of technologies were getting shorter, years, the future O&S cost can amount to also evolved into Total Cost of Ownership safety assessments are also reviewed when rendering systems obsolete faster than before. around 60% of the system's LCC. (TCO), to better reflect the total cost of there are major upgrades or changes to owning a new capability that would the operational profile of the weapon 1 These included the corporatisation of DSO National include indirect costs. systems. Laboratories in 1997, formation of DSTA in 2000, Future Systems Directorate in 2003, and DRTech in 2006 respectively.

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Networked and integrated capabilities had boundaries of technology. The review outputs such as their operational requirements resources to the various military operations also become the norm because of the way concluded that the existing LCM framework and the broad implementation approaches. and to the activities within each operation in technologies and warfare were evolving. These was fundamentally sound and functioning an effective manner. Scientists in the United developments brought about complexities, well, but could be enhanced to provide a The Capability Delivery phase involves the Kingdom and the United States looked for which required the LCM to evolve in order more holistic capability-based framework. execution of the implementation approaches ways to make better decisions by applying a to manage. For example, more networked New paradigms and processes were needed to deliver the required defence capabilities to scientific approach to solve problems in areas capabilities and shorter life cycles would to plan for and implement defence systems the SAF. In the Acquisition Management such as logistics, operations planning and mean that the different phases of technology from the perspective of a larger capability stage, the approved operational requirements training schedules. management had to be more integrated, and and not just a single system, especially for are translated into engineering specifications, capability development planning had to be complex and large-scale systems. followed by the selection of the most cost- Some of the diverse problems studied by the more holistic. effective solution to meet these specifications. OR groups during WWII included search Defence Capability Management Following the implementation of the selected patterns to be employed against submarines, Third, the SAF had transitioned from a Framework solution, the Transition to O&S stage marks protection of merchant ships, strategic “platform-centric” force to a network- the start of the transition of the implemented bombings effectiveness and survivability, and centric force via its Third Generation SAF The LCM framework was thus expanded solutions into operational capabilities as evasive actions to be taken by a ship under transformation journey. This increased into the DCM framework to provide a the SAF begins to operate the new defence kamikaze attack. The efforts of the OR groups complexities with more interconnected more holistic framework framed in three systems and equipment. contributed to the winning of the Air Battle systems and hub-like structures that the DTC phases: Capability Development Planning, of Britain and the Battle of the North Atlantic. needed to adapt to work with seamlessly. Capability Delivery and Capability The Capability Sustenance phase involves More high-end capabilities, often involving Sustenance. This would be enabled by a the sustenance of the delivered capabilities Story 1: What is the Real Objective, the Right indigenous development, were also sought systematic and coordinated management to ensure a high state of readiness and Measure-of-Effectiveness? in the Third Generation SAF. The acquisition process, with a clear demarcation of performance. Systems may be upgraded and use of military technologies from responsibilities by relevant parties and well- periodically, when necessary, to maintain Early in WWII, a great number of British merchant foreign sources also became more complex defined decision points. their relevance. Finally, systems that are vessels were sunk or seriously damaged by Axis with tighter control measures in place to obsolete are disposed of expeditiously so as aircraft attacks in the Mediterranean. The answer prevent the access to such technologies by The Capability Development Planning to free up resources to manage replacement was to equip these ships with anti-aircraft guns unauthorised parties. Against this backdrop, phase involves the conceptualisation of the or new capabilities. and gun crews. issues of technology access, security and broad defence capabilities required to fulfil transition became increasingly important the SAF's missions and the strategies to The DCM manual, which codifies the DCM This was done at great expense of men and and thus required more focus in the LCM. develop such capabilities over a certain time framework, officially replaced the LCM equipment, badly needed elsewhere. Questions horizon. In the Long-Term Planning stage, the manual in 2012. It comprises two parts. The concerning the soundness of this allocation In 2010, a strategic review of the LCM focus is at the capability level, with outputs DCM System specifies the “what”, “why” and of scarce resources were raised when reports framework was initiated to position it to such as force-level operational concepts and “who”. The DCM Guide provides the “how” showed that the gun crews were shooting down meet future challenges of managing the corresponding SoS architectures and in the form of detailed guidance, techniques only 4% of all attacking aircraft. This was increasingly complex and networked capability development master-plans. In and methodologies. poor showing! weapon systems in the SAF, maximising the Front-End Planning stage, the details of coherence across the defence ecosystem individual systems that compose a defence Operations Research Question: Were the anti-aircraft guns and crews and enhancing our ability to push the capability of interest are examined, with worth the cost of installation? Background On careful consideration, it was realised that the guns were not there primarily to shoot down Broad The modern field of operations research (OR) Capability Development 2 DCM Capability Delivery or operations analysis arose during World German or Italian aircraft. Their objective was Planning Capability Sustenance Phases War II (WWII). Because of the war effort, to protect the merchant vessels. And in fact, as

DCM Long Term Front End Acquisition Transition Operation System there was an urgent need to allocate scarce figures accumulated, it became apparent that the Stages Planning Planning Management to O&S & Support Retirement anti-aircraft guns and crews were doing the job rather well! Of the ships attacked, 25% of those 2 Operations Research, also known as Operations Analysis, is a discipline that entails the application of scientific techniques without protection sank, while only 10% of the Broad Phases and Stages of Defence Capability Management and quantitative methods to improve decision-making. ships with protection were lost.

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Story 2: Where to apply armour? This new science is known as “operational to NPS for. “Tyranny of the Urgent” made all of us research” in the United Kingdom and as project managers on our return. The dilemma was “operations research” in most other English- that we needed good analysts and we also needed speaking countries, though OR is a common project managers with the same stock of high quality abbreviation everywhere. It is the discipline staff. As project management was more important of applying advanced analytical methods OR had to be sacrificed. It was very difficult to do to help make better decisions3. Within the OR in the 1970s. There was no time, no data and UK military and UK Ministry of Defence, no manpower. There was no user to work with, and the term “operational analysis” is used decision makers had no patience for OR. Qualitative instead as OR stands for “Operational arguments were the norm. Minister did OR in his Requirement”. The practitioner is commonly head and wondered why the analysts were so slow called an operations analyst. With expanded to understand.” techniques and growing awareness, OR is Illustration of analysing damage to bomber no longer limited to only operations, and Dr Goh Keng Swee, Singapore's first Minister aircraft due to Anti-Aircraft guns the proliferation of computer data collection for Defence, was pointing out the lack of has relieved operations analysts of much rigour and discipline in applying OR or During WWII, the Royal Air Force lost many planes of the more mundane research. But the systems thinking in problem solving. In 1975, to German anti-aircraft fire, so they decided to armor operations analyst must still know how he created a new designation – SPD – and them up. But where should the armour be put? The a system operates, and learn to perform then LTC Lui Pao Chuen was appointed to obvious answer was to look at planes that returned even more sophisticated research than ever the role. His job was “to Dream, to Deliberate from missions, count all the bullet holes in various before. In every sense the name OR still and to Do” if Dr Goh decided to implement places, and then put extra armor in the areas that applies, more than a half century later. the project. The areas of focus were Air The A-4 — an example of a fighter capable of attracted the most fire. Obvious but wrong. If a Defence, Command and Control, and Air providing air support for ground missions plane makes it back safely even though it has, say, Operations Research in MINDEF – 1970s Force Infrastructure. Examples of applications a bunch of bullet holes in its wings, it means that of OR by the SPD were in: bullet holes in the wings aren't very dangerous. What Prof Lui Pao Chuen said in his acceptance you really want to do is armor up the areas that, on speech when he was conferred “Honorary • OA Study on detection of ground targets average, don't have any bullet holes. Why? Because Fellowship of the OR Society of Singapore” by pilots and probability of destroying planes with bullet holes in those places never made on 12th November 2000: targets with fighters, which led to it back. That's why you don't see any bullet holes replacement of the operational solution there on the ones that do return. “Our first OR analyst, Captain Henry Cheong of “Close Air Support” by “Battlefield Air was sent to learn about OR in UK in 1968. Interdiction” for increased effectiveness Some of the primary tools used by operations He learnt by doing apprenticeship at the Defence of air support for ground operations analysts are statistics, optimisation, Operational Analysis Establishment (DOAE). We • OA Study on probability of survival stochastics, queuing theory, game theory, were all ready to apply OR to force planning and of ground targets with dispersion, graph theory, decision analysis, and simulation. equipment selection decisions on his return. In 1971, camouflage, deception and hardening Because of the computational nature of these Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in the US was which led to the conclusion that fields, OR also has ties to computer science, identified to be the best school for military OR training. passive defence was the most cost-effective and operations analysts regularly use custom- I was the first to be sent to NPS. In 1972, two more staff solution to enemy air attacks to minimise written or off-the-shelf software. A large (Lee Kheng Nam and Lim Lay Geok) were sent to investment in SAM amount of computation is usually required NPS to read OR. Major Henry Cheong also went to • OA Study on reliability of Bloodhound to solve the problems considered by OR. As NPS in 1973. By 1975 we had four NPS graduates SAMs which demolished the argument such, the rapid advancements in computer in OR. But we were not yet ready for OR! We never for replacing the Bloodhound technology in the last few decades have given got to set up the OA Department that we were sent a tremendous boost to OR. Problems, which would have required the use of a mainframe The Bloodhound SAM

three decades ago, can now be solved on a 3 From INFORMS based on “Operations Research: The Science personal computer. of Better”

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Operations Research in MINDEF – 1980s formed in DMO to apply OA during the acquisition and support of systems. There Systems/Subsystems Campaign Tactical Analysis OA grew in the 1980s. In 1983, then COL was also the Joint OA Branch (decentralised Performance Analysis Lui Pao Chuen (and later, Chief Defence to JOPD in 1995), MINDEF OA Branch, and Scientist) established the Operational Combat Modelling Branch. The OA outfits Aircraft Analysis Department (OAD) within the SAF's were later consolidated into today's three Weapon Air-to-ground Model Joint Operations and Planning Directorate OR groups in DTC consisting of SAF OR Sensor (JOPD), after pioneering initial OA work for Office in Joint Plans and Transformation Datalink the SAF. Department to apply OA in force structuring Campaign Sensor Fusion and capability planning, DSO ORL to apply Air-to-air Model Defensive Aids An Operations Analysis Branch (OAB) was OA to guide R&D and Centre for OR in Model also set up in the DSO (which was later DSTA to apply OA in SA and acquisition. etc. renamed DSO National Laboratories) to The OR community has grown from four specialise in M&S of weapon systems in an analysts to about 80 analysts today. Tactical Measure Campaign Measure operational environment. One of the first of Effectiveness of Outcome projects of OAB was the development of a The demand for OA studies grew, and simulation model to compare the performance in order to achieve better results, OA of different weapon systems under a variety M&S took on increasing sophistication Illustration of a framework to apply OR to evaluate competing fighter aircraft candidates of scenarios to support the RSN's missile with higher resolution and speed. The during the tender evaluation process corvette acquisition programme. OAB grew models of weapons systems and combat in DSO to become Operations Research platforms increased their depth of Operations Research in MINDEF – 2000s mission roles and game plans in current Laboratory (ORL) in 1988. performance details, requiring more detailed and projected combat environments. These engineering studies of the relevant weapons The use of OR grew to encompass the tactical fight outcomes were aggregated and In 1986, COL Lui Pao Chuen became and combat platforms. One example is the evaluation of major SAF platforms and used in a campaign level simulation model MINDEF's first Chief Defence Scientist study of anti-armour weapons equipped with systems. The first use of OR at the turn of to determine and compare the relative (CDS). JOPD's OAD and a small OR section shaped charge warheads, deployed against the millennium was on the attack helicopter contribution of each NFRP candidate to the from DSO were amalgamated into CDS' armoured vehicles. evaluation. The application of OR with M&S overall RSAF mission. Office (CDSO) to become CDS' OA arm. to model each potential candidate in mission The simulation of the combat interplay enabled the project team to assess each one Critical infrastructure vulnerability As military OA M&S was not a widely between weapons and targets became more based on operational effectiveness. assessment (CIVA) also has its roots in applied field in Singapore, operations analysts complex with the incorporation of tactics the military OA capability in DSO. OA were sent for formal training in military and counter-actions undertaken by each The Next Fighter Replacement Programme analysts applied these Modelling Simulation OA theory and applications at, for example, side. As a result, the more sophisticated (NFRP) is an example of how OR studies and Analysis methodologies and tools to the Royal Military College of Science, UK. M&S started to converge with other supported acquisition programmes. Under model the interdependencies in our critical Military OA specialists from overseas were simulation applications. The simulated the NFRP, the RSAF intended to acquire a national infrastructures, so as to study issues also enlisted to build up the expertise of the combat interaction among forces at different new multi-role fighter jet to replace the ageing of national security centred around critical analysts rapidly. levels also took on increased breadth. For A-4SU Super SkyHawks. infrastructure protection. CIVA activities example, for campaign level scenarios, have been applied in pandemic modelling, Operations Research in MINDEF – 1990s different land, naval and air units under Operations Analysts from DSTA, DSO and maritime trade-lane study, electrical facility various force structures were made to the RSAF collaborated and worked with study, internet infrastructure study, power In 1990, it was decided that OR would be undertake different missions, employing technical Subject Matter Experts (SMEs), grid studies, and oil/gas supply chains more effective, when the OR capability different weaponry and platforms. operational planners and RSAF fighter pilots modelling. It contributed to the build-up resided with the SAF users. Thus, OAD Operations analysts used such simulation in the modelling and analysis to assess the of a trusted, in-country expertise that can was decentralised into the Army OA Branch techniques to analyse the results of various candidate aircraft, which eventually led to rigorously assess risks to Singapore's national with G5, the Air Force OA Branch with Air combat strategies and tactics. the selection of F-15SG. Air-to-air combat and infrastructure in all sectors. Operations Department, and the Naval OA air-to-surface models enabled the detailed Branch reporting to Chief of Staff, Naval study of combat capabilities of each NFRP Application of OR has grown to be used in Staff. At the same time, an OA outfit was candidate's different aircraft configurations, any phase of the DCM Framework.

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Image Generator (IG) technologies, which The first wave can be characterised by the D developed in tandem with the advancement deployment of simulators, which were D S in computer and display technologies. generally standalone and single-purpose. Most were focused on honing the psycho-motor The maturity of two-dimensional (2D) skills of individual operators such as gunners graphics enabled the development of the and pilots prior to “live” training. shore-based Tactical Training Centre for the RSN. Tactical scenarios were simulated The Second Wave: The Fledgling Years Long Term Plans Tender Evaluation System Management and presented in monochrome 2D graphical (Mid 1990s – 2000) symbology to train ship commanders in various tactical decision-making situations. The M&S industry matured considerably Operational/engineering master plans Soon after, 3D IGs began to emerge. For the in the 1990s – the second wave. Spurred Engineering Development first time, the real world could be replicated by the advent of broadband networking, Management graphically in a synthetic 3D environment to “Distributed Networked Simulation” was Pre-AOR a degree of realism acceptable for training. the rallying call, and the focus shifted rapidly from standalone training to team training and This quickly led to the development and joint or integrated warfare training. E delivery of various types of flight simulators for the RSAF to train pilots for its fleet of The global simulation industry responded Possible areas to apply OR in DCM phases A-4S and F-5Es, as well as the AS332 and with great enthusiasm. New technologies AS550 helicopters. and concepts soon emerged, enabling Modelling and Simulation not only increasingly viable as a key strategy geographically separated simulators to be for the SAF; it has also become strategically For the Army, the Artillery Fire Control networked for joint training in common Background advantageous, enabling the SAF to turn Training System (AFCTS) was the first training synthetic environments, as if they were a constraints into strengths. system. Delivered in 1983, the AFCTS was single simulator. It was this era that gave The impetus for using M&S systems in many used to train forward observers in call-for-fire birth to distributed simulation protocols. armies has traditionally been driven by the Besides simply increasing the opportunities and artillery ranging procedures. The system In addition, Computer-Generated Force need to overcome various constraints, such for training and enhancing its quality comprised a projection system made up of 11 technology progressed, facilitating intelligent as the lack of training areas, rising costs and realism, the SAF has also harnessed slide projectors to simulate and display the automated behaviour of simulated entities in conducting actual training and the fact the power of M&S for purposes beyond delivery and impact of artillery fire. that reduced the need for large teams of that equipment for training is sometimes training. Specifically, the technology has been exercise support personnel to “move the unavailable. For the SAF, the situation is no capitalised on for operations such as mission The principal technology driver of this first pieces”. different. planning and rehearsals, decision support, wave of M&S systems was the emergence and for test and evaluation purposes. of Graphics and IG technologies. Recognising the immense potential of In fact, the SAF faces even more acute M&S, the SAF formulated and launched constraints in resource-scarce Singapore. Arising from the need to transform the SAF a major programme called the Vision for After all, the “little red dot” measures just to meet new challenges in the battlefield of SAF Simulation 2000 (VSS2000) in 1995 approximately 700 square kilometres, the future, M&S has also become an essential to capitalise on the rapid M&S technology faces falling birth rates and has had to driver and indispensable technology for advancement. VSS2000 envisaged the strategic grapple with challenges such as the Asian military experimentation in the support of use of SAF simulators in three dimensions financial crisis, the “dot-com” bust and the force transformation. − Joint Training, Operations, and Test and SARS epidemic. Evaluation (T&E). The main emphasis was on The First Wave: The Embryonic Years joint training through integration at both the What better way to overcome these (1980s to early 1990s) systems level, i.e. simulation-simulation and constraints than to employ M&S technologies simulation-operational systems integration, to conduct training in virtual space? With The SAF's first foray into M&S began in the and the Services level. M&S technologies advancing by leaps and early 1980s. This era of standalone simulations Typical 3D image generated by IG bounds over the last decade, such a solution is was fuelled by the emergence of graphics and

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New concepts and technologies can be M&S in the SAF has matured to be a key T E appropriately “modelled” and represented enabling technology for the Third Generation in simulation for experiments configured and SAF and its transformation efforts. Comprehensive Operations Evaluations & conducted in a “Synthetic Theatre of War”. Development Such capability also permits inexpensive Evaluation Methodology evaluation of innovative concepts and T technologies to determine their operational Evolution of Evaluation Methodology to Team Training at utility and payoffs prior to development, Support System Acquisition Joint, Inter- and Intra- SS fielding and implementation. Service Levels This timeline depicts the evolution of our evaluation methodology.

O JEWEL Framework Equipment and systems we acquire became • Enhanced Operations Planning more and more complex, as the SAF's capability • Mission Rehearsal An initiative to promote the reuse of M&S advanced over the years. We adopted more models and components is the JEWEL and more sophisticated methods of evaluation. VSS2000 Thrusts (Joint M&S Environment for Wargaming and These progressed from qualitative evaluation Experimentation Labs) framework, which is and lowest cost methods to quantitative The second wave saw the transition from a means to attain composable simulations selection methodology (QSM) and AHP to standalone simulation to distributed, for the SAF. OA M&S. networked simulation in common synthetic environments, aided by advances in Coming of Age Before QSM – Buying Products networking technologies. During this period, the SAF also implemented many M&S in the SAF has advanced tremendously In the early days, equipment evaluation flagship simulation systems, and pioneered over a short span of time. From pioneering was based on the traditional government new M&S concepts such as “plug-and- VSS21 Thrusts implementation by pushing the edge through procurement guidelines to acquire based on play”, “simulation-C2 interoperability”, and two decades of innovation, the SAF entered the lowest price. We bought what we could “embedded simulation”. another evolution in the new millennium. afford. Then, most equipment (rifles, clothing,

The Third Wave: Soaring to Greater Heights OMLEITY In the new millennium, the SAF was on the AND SALE OA/ Experimentation threshold of another wave of M&S evolution. System-of-systems in Front End The SAF and DSTA unveiled VSS21, a new M&S masterplan in January 2001. VSS21 OA/ M&S in AHP continues to be anchored on the three System thrusts established in VSS2000. However, AHP and OA/M&S the key objective of VSS21 is to exploit M&S Experimentation using M&S for the purpose of force development and QSM modernisation through experimentation under Underlining the importance of M&S-based the Test and Evaluation (T&E) dimension. experimentation, the SAF set up the SCME Quantitative Equipment in November 2003. Dubbed the “key to the Benefits Evaluation M&S-based experimentation serves as SAF of the future” by Minister for Defence an objective platform to provide the Teo Chee Hean, the SCME would leverage 1988 1999 2004 2006 TIME digital probing ground for testing and M&S technologies and tools to conduct experimentation of new warfighting concepts experiments on new warfighting concepts Evolution of evaluation methodology to support system acquisition to meet the requirements of the 21st century. and innovative technological capabilities. and the increase in complexity over time

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etc.) requirements were very straightforward. OA/M&S as the sole means to assess the Synergistic effects of a networked sensor, less visible technologies such as information It was easy to determine if they were met. capability of candidates. weapon and platform capabilities of a systems, precision weapons, unmanned candidate system stood out strongly. Similarly, platform technologies. SoS capabilities (e.g., QSM and AHP to evaluate systems Applying OA to complement AHP has standalone weapon systems and platforms the networked IAD SoS) would be the result. resulted in an enhanced AHP framework. that offered limited or no integration with the Front-end design and evaluation of the SoS In 1988, MINDEF approved the QSM In this enhanced framework, the capability SAF networked SoS resulted in less military architecture is part of the process. Compared for the acquisition of weapon systems in branch under the first level criteria of the utility in an operational context. It also offered to a fighter, the networked IAD SoS is much MINDEF so as to minimise the subjectivity AHP tree is evaluated using OA techniques. insights into potential weak links in systems more complicated. of selection. It formalised the concept of The traditional factors such as payload, design, rules of engagement and supportability value-for-money in the evaluation of systems. maneuverability and survivability have issues. For example, leveraging a platform Large Scale Systems Integration QSM used the AHP for benefits assessment. been replaced with tactical and mission with high endurance may result in more After a few years of implementation, a analysis. Tactical analysis can help to assess onboard systems failure and unexpectedly Background and Motivation review was conducted. It was recognised the military worth of a candidate system lead to poorer mission effectiveness. that the AHP methodology provided a and its capability in an engagement level, One of DTC's strategies in capability structured framework for making acquisition while mission level analysis helps to assess Going Front-end to Evaluate SoS development for the SAF is to exploit the decisions, a significant improvement over a the force level contribution. The key benefit international defence materiel market and previously ad hoc environment. Since 1993, of this approach is its ability to consider The transformation of the SAF to exploit acquire what we require off-the-shelf. As it has become a tradition to apply the AHP both engineering and operational factors in rapidly emerging technologies and concepts the SAF progresses in response to changing method to high-value acquisition projects a dynamic scenario to produce the MOEs that has been a strategic imperative for the Third demands, its operations have become more that involves competition. serve as indicators of military worth for the Generation SAF. This led to changes in integrated and complex. Available solutions various alternatives. organisation of forces, with more emphasis on and systems from leading defence systems Enhanced with OA/M&S DSTA has been using the enhanced AHP In the late 1990s, we began to use OA Methodology to evaluate weapon systems and M&S to complement AHP, as part of and platforms such as the F-15SG Eagle, QSM. The key benefit of OA/M&S lies in Apache Longbow Helicopter and the its ability to represent and integrate both Formidable-class Stealth Frigate. The engineering and operational factors together, enhanced AHP framework brings better play out their interactions and dynamics, clarity and appreciation among all and produce measures of effectiveness stakeholders and decision makers on each (MOE) which are operational performance candidate system's contribution, should it indicators for the military worth of each be selected, to the SAF's success in specific system's candidate. As we became more and operational missions. more confident, we moved a step further to use

Goal

1st level criteria

2nd level criteria

Alternatives

The Enhanced AHP Modelling Framework The RSAF’s Networked IAD SoS unveiled in 2013

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houses thus may not meet its unique The MCV building programme was the With the experience gained from the MCV Having successfully led the SI effort of the requirements. It is known that weapon RSN's second strike craft after the Missile programme, DMO took over the main PV programme, the team from DTG led systems from these systems houses are Gun Boats. The new warships were to be role of the top-level systems integration by DMO embarked on another RSN ship developed and funded (partially or fully) equipped with modern and sophisticated design for the Mine Countermeasure Vessel building programme, this time a much by their own armed forces, so their design combat systems sourced from various (MCMV) programme. The Swedish company bigger ship – the LST. Adopting a similar optimisation and operating environment suppliers performing dedicated functions. Karlskronavarvet (KKrV) was subsequently approach, the Defence Technology Group would not be the same as what the Third They included the Surveillance Radar engaged to manage the MCMV programme (the DTG later formed the main constituents Generation SAF needs. System from Sweden, Fire Control Radar as a turn-key project. The decision to go of the MINDEF statutory board – DSTA) from Israel, Anti-Ship Missile System from for a turn-key programme was a deliberate undertook the design of the platform and The DTC has thus developed the much the USA and Towed Array Sonar from one. The DTC with its young cohort of integration of combat systems with the needed competency to manage and perform France. In order to ensure that they could engineers was unable to cope with multiple local defence industries and assumed total large-scale systems integration programmes as perform as an integrated combat suite large-scale programmes initiated by the SAF. programme responsibility. These vessels well as secret-edge defence R&D capabilities. with flexibility and optimum performance, To continue the build-up of SI capability, were developed and built entirely locally, This is a key competitive advantage of MINDEF needed a technical team with the a group of engineers from DMO was sent signaling DTG's achievement and maturity MINDEF. DSTA is able to procure the best- specific expertise and technical management to KKrV, working closely together with the in building up the systems integration of-breed systems, leverage experience and experience to lead the systems integration. professionals in the integration and testing capability over the decade from the MCV competencies from the larger DTC and A leading American systems house was of the systems. and MCMV programmes. integrate these acquired systems to meet appointed as the Systems Integrator (SI) the SAF's unique operational requirements. which was supported by technical staff Maturing Local Systems Integration Dr Tony Tan, then Deputy Prime Minister The insights into broader SAF mission from Singapore Electronic & Engineering (1990s – 2000s) and Minister for Defence summed up the needs and know-how to perform systems Limited (SEEL, which subsequently became achievement at the Commissioning Ceremony integration also enables DSTA to optimise ST Electronics). The experience of working together with of RSN Patrol Vessels in September 1996 and the performance of the integrated combat the experts as well as its involvement in the then in March 2000, for the Landing Ship Tank systems at a higher level. Being a MINDEF Due to the sensitive nature of some combat MCV and MCMV programmes provided (LST), RSN's largest class of naval vessels. statutory board, DSTA has developed a systems such as the Fire Control System, DMO with valuable expertise and confidence good reputation in safeguarding sensitive Point Defence Missile System and Electronic to take up the SI role in subsequent naval “The Patrol Vessel Programme uses innovative technical information shared by collaborators Warfare System, the release of sensitive programmes. The acquisition of 12 new new technology to ensure combat effectiveness with and system suppliers. Defence contractors technical information to a non-Singaporean Patrol Vessels (PV) was the next programme manpower efficiency. The success of this programme are more willing to share technologies with SI was not possible and technical data that came along. In 1991, it was decided is a strong testimony of the maturing of our Defence DSTA and provide support in integrating sharing was heavily regulated. This was that the SI role for the PV programme was Industries and the Defence Technology Group.... their systems indigenously since DSTA is one lesson learned – that such restrictions to be taken up by DMO. From the local These ships are also the first to have their combat not in direct competition with them. would severely limit the ability of the SI industries, ST Electronics also participated systems fully integrated, checked out and tested to perform and optimise the overall in the work by contributing technical by the Defence Technology Group and Singapore Building Up Phase (1980s – 1990s) systems integration. The involvement and personnel to perform the Installation, Technologies..... Finally these ships are the first to participation by ST Electronics and DTC's Checkout, Integration and Testing (ICIT) have locally developed command and control and The DTC journey for the competency PMT members in the systems integration activities. Using the PV programme as the integrated communication systems and are the first build-up for large-scale systems integration work was essential for the transfer of systems capability development platform, DMO warships in the region to be equipped with waterjet started with a naval platform programme integration knowhow (methodology and worked out the SI design activities and propulsion. All these achievements highlight the in 1985 – the MCV. Due to the lack of process) to ST Electronics. The DTC was only built up an archive consisting of the SI ability of our local defence technology capability to critical experience in leading and managing marginally able to exploit this opportunity Handbook. The SI Handbook captures the design, build, integrate and deliver sophisticated advanced systems integration, MINDEF for learning, principally due to the nascent essential planning, design, management warships and weapon systems to the SAF.” engaged established foreign consultants to stage in its build-up – MINDEF just did not and testing activities, systems engineering support operational planners in the front- have enough engineers for the myriad of process and procedures, as well as when “....I wish to take this opportunity to commend end requirement studies and programme technology projects in the midst of an urgent and how such work should be carried out. and congratulate the team from the RSN, Defence definition. The RSN and DTC members capability build-up of the SAF. Despite the Different software tools were also acquired Technology Group and Singapore Technologies for participated in these studies to learn about limitation, this marked the beginning of a to aid in the design work. In the current era, the successful management and implementation the operations and technical trade-offs. systematic build-up of local capability in the many of these tools have been replaced by of this LST project. The LSTs, equipped with combat systems integration domain. more sophisticated and capable alternatives. modern combat systems fully integrated and

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tested by Singapore Technologies and Defence Team (IPMT) with engineers from different approach to develop interface specifications message sequencing which was not possible Technology Group, are testimony to the ability of technical domains working very closely under and test protocols to validate the integrated in the PIT. After the pairwise integrations our local defence industry to deliver sophisticated a single team structure to deliver the desired system performance, providing repeatability were checked, the next stage was Scenario warships and combat systems to the Singapore operational capabilities. Instead of a system- and quality assurance. These would prove Integration Testing. The objective of this Armed Forces.....” centric approach, engineers from sensor, critical as platforms mature and require test was to verify the functional integration network, C2, and guided weapon domains specific system upgrades. The captured at the individual warfare scenario level (e.g. Strategic Value Add – Large-Scale collaborated to work together according to information would allow a partial change of Anti-Air Warfare) and multi-scenario level. Systems Integration (2000s and beyond) operation-centric requirements such as Anti- a component of the integrated suite without For each scenario, the complete sequence of Aircraft, Anti-Ship Missile defence. the need to overhaul it entirely. actions was tested from detection of targets, MINDEF launched the RSN Frigate tracking, command and control, designation Programme at the turn of the century in early Scenario Requirement Analysis Progressive Testing Regime to weapon station, to final engagement of 2000 to replace the aging Missile Gun Boats. target. One other key point is with the It was the most complex naval development Having an IPMT facilitated the analysis of the It was very important for integration design extensive use of simulation tools. This had and systems integration programme requirement and the system implementation problems to surface and be corrected early greatly facilitated the testing of complicated undertaken by DSTA. More than 15 major from an end-to-end perspective. In the Frigate in the programme before they snowballed tactical scenarios that are difficult to perform contracts were awarded to local and foreign Programme, DSTA introduced the process of and became unmanageable. In the Frigate out at sea, such as validating maximum target suppliers for the design, development, Scenario Requirement Analysis where the Programme, DSTA adopted a progressive handling capacity, complicated flight profiles, integration and testing of the various platforms IPMT and the user worked closely together testing regime by increasing the depth of network loading and endurance tests. and combat systems. DSTA took the full to describe how all systems in a particular integration at each stage. The first integration responsibility to ensure proper integration scenario (e.g. Anti-Air Warfare) should work test was the Preliminary Integration Test of the combat systems to the platform to together. Every stage of each warfare scenario, (PIT) which aimed to verify the integrity meet the RSN's operation requirements. from detection, tracking, weapon designation and correctness of the interface specifications The challenges involved incorporating right up to engagement, was examined and and to weed out problems that might have state-of-the-art stealth technologies to the technical requirements for each system been caused by misinterpretation of syntax manage radar, infra-red, visual, acoustic to fulfil the scenario were documented. and semantics. and magnetic signatures. In addition, there The output was a Scenario Requirements were also demands to venture into unknown Document (SRD) for each scenario. The SRD The next major integration test was the Shore territories that were “uniquely Singapore”. was used to derive the system specifications Based Integration Test (SBIT) which was With manpower constraints, lean manning of a system as well as interface specifications conducted in the Shore Based Integration and the use of highly integrated automation between systems. It was also used in the Centre (SBIC) housed in Changi Naval systems were also key requirements. The RSN later stage of the programme to work out Base. The SBIC is a dedicated set-up using desired to have a crew of about 71 to operate the test cases to validate the various warfare actual combat systems constructed to Engineers at work at SBIC the frigate. Many navies typically used scenarios. perform combat systems integration tests. about double the number for the same class To minimise cost, the programme did not With the SBIT completed, the focus was of vessel. Integration Management acquire additional sets of combat systems placed on the ICIT on board the ship. Sets of for the integration tests. Instead, the first set tests similar to those during SBIT were done Integrated Project Management Team One of the success factors learnt from the of combat systems was used and kept at the to ensure the performance of the systems in previous programme was to have good test centre and eventually transferred for use the actual configuration on board the ship, The acquisition of the frigates came at the integration management. Integration on the last frigate. followed by the Sea Acceptance Test. At sea, time where the different defence acquisition Management involves the management the integration of combat systems at the organisations such as DMO, CSO and Lands of all project tasks related to the systems The SBIT was done in two stages. The first respective warfare scenario levels was tested, and Estates Organisation (LEO) were being integration. This includes scheduling, stage was the pairwise integration testing. It verifying the scenario requirements defined re-organised. In 1995, they were consolidated rescheduling of activities, resource planning complemented the PIT that was performed at the beginning of the programme. Live-firing at the Defence Technology Towers and and performing critical path analysis. Over earlier. While simulators or prototypes is involved at this stage and is the climax of subsequently DSTA was formed in 2000. The the years, DSTA has also established efficient were used in PIT, this test validated the the integrated test programme – with a re-organisation and the impending technical work processes and technical templates to interface between the actual hardware. successful live-firing being the ultimate and challenge of the programme sparked the document and iterate its integration design The complete systems also allowed the tangible proof of performance in the real formation of Integrated Project Management painstakingly. It also involves a systematic verification of response time, update rate and operational environment.

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The systems integration experience gained The modern history of system safety can or “optimum mishap risk management” level of residual risk. At this stage, the team from the various naval platform programmes be traced to a technical paper presented to within constraints (such as operational is obliged to inform management of any has benefited subsequent programmes such the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences in effectiveness, cost, time, etc). residual risks and make recommendations as the MCV upgrade, littoral mission vessel 1947, entitled “Engineering for Safety”. It on the acceptability of such risks. It is then and the submarine programmes. advocated, “Safety must be designed and It can be inferred from the generally the management's responsibility to decide built into airplanes just as are performance, accepted descriptions of system safety, and whether or not the remaining risk is acceptable, System Safety stability, and structural integrity. A safety its MIL-STD-882 definition, that a viable taking into consideration expendability of group must be just as important a part of System Safety Programme requires existing resources against the implication of Introduction a manufacturer’s organisation as a stress, the existence of a structured system of any potential mishap consequences. aerodynamics, or weight group.” identifying, categorising and analysing The idea of safety is not new. Since hazards followed by the consequential System Safety Methodology prehistoric days, man has had an intuitive It is noteworthy that prior to this paper, elimination, mitigation or amelioration understanding of safety risks associated with safety was generally achieved through a of the identified risks. After an accident with the 155mm Gun dangers posed by predators and the natural Fly-Fix-Fly approach. This was unacceptable Howitzer in March 1997, it was recognised elements, resulting in the need to evaluate for obvious reasons, especially in the Space Risk Acceptance and acknowledged that there was a need for the dangers and to react appropriately with and nuclear domain. Still, it was not until a deliberate and structured management of the objective of self-preservation. Over time, the early 1960s that the concept was The objective of any System Safety Programme safety, and the impetus for implementation of and with increasing complexities of modern applied formally by contract, in response is to provide visibility of mitigated safety system safety was initiated, starting with the inventions and innovation, the concept of to general dissatisfaction with the existing risks for management's acceptance. In this Armament Systems. It has since progressed, safety gradually shifted from addressing approach to aircraft design. This led to the aspect, two principles are useful as aids in through a 2002 SAF System Safety Joint natural threats to human-created hazards. publication of the first MIL-STD-882A in risk acceptance, namely Hazard Control Directive, from addressing just Armament 1977, which emphasised system safety as Precedence and Mishap Consequences. Systems to a more encompassing requirement In the context of the acquisition of modern a management science. to cover all weapon systems throughout its weapon systems, the concept of safety has Hazard Control Precedence: In identifying entire life cycle. DSTA embarked on the further evolved into that of system safety, System Safety Concept hazards and developing controls, the generally system safety methodology which entails with the objective of identifying, to the best of accepted precedence is as follows: hazard identification and risk analysis. DSTA ability, all real and perceived hazard potential What exactly is system safety? Simply put, saw the need to provide a more structured associated with the system. In turn, solutions system safety is the effort to make things • Design for minimum risk approach in safety assurance for the acquisition are then introduced to eliminate or mitigate as safe as practical by systematically using • Incorporate safety devices of weapon systems for the SAF. By 2003, the mishap risks even before the system goes engineering and management tools to • Provide warning devices implementation strategy was developed and into operation. Where mishap risks cannot identify, analyse and control hazards. • Develop procedures and train personnel the system safety assurance methodology be further mitigated, at least the existing was adopted in DSTA and the SAF. mishap potential is known, accepted and “As safe as practical” may be expressed as Mishap Consequences: In the context of a can be monitored. the “best degree of safety”, “optimum safety”, military organisation, the impact may affect The acquisition of the Gulfstream 550 and any of the following: the development and construction of the Underground Ammunition Facility were Existing Superseded by Published date Remarks • Health and Safety of Personnel identified as pilot programmes incorporating • Functional Capability of a unit system safety. The Residual Mishap Risk Focus on risk acceptance as criterion MIL-STD-882 MIL-STD-882A June 1977 Inclusion of Hazard Probabilities. • Public Image and Reputation Management Framework for the RSAF was • External Environment endorsed by the Chief of Air Force. The Major reorganisation of MIL-STD-882A. MIL-STD-882A MIL-STD-882B March 1984 Detailed guidance in requirements. • Budgetary Write-offs RSN and the Army followed and approved Addressed software tasks. their Residual Mishap Risk Management Realistically, all risk elimination or mitigation Frameworks. MINDEF agencies were added Integration of hardware and software MIL-STD-882B MIL-STD-882C January 1993 safety efforts. solutions will incur an investment, either in to the framework subsequently and the time, effort or cost. In the final analysis, given entire MINDEF Mishap Risk Management Allocation of responsibility for system MIL-STD-882C MIL-STD-882D January 2000 that a system safety team has expended all Framework was finally endorsed by a details to designer. reasonable effort at risk mishap mitigation, MINDEF's Weapon System Safety Advisory Evolution of MIL-STD-882 series it is still conceivable that there may be some Board. The MINDEF LCM Committee

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endorsed the System Safety Guidebook for occur within the SoS. These SoS hazards, Hazard Element (HE) – HE is derived from the level. A diagram illustrating the various use within MINDEF and DSTA. Topics on as illustrated in Figure, can be categorised Constituent System Hazard Analysis. Emergent Hazard Identification elements is system safety awareness were developed into two main groups; constituent system shown here. and incorporated into various DSTA hazards and emergent hazards. A constituent Initiating Mechanism (IM) – The Message Based Milestone Courses. system hazard is a hazard that is attributable Hazard Analysis addresses the interoperability SoS Safety Analysis Techniques to a single system operating in a standalone and interactions between Constituent Since 2000, there has been significant mode, while an emergent hazard is defined as Systems, providing insights into potential The two most widely used System Safety progress made in applying system safety during a hazard that results from the newly formed IMs at the SoS level. This complements the Standards (MIL-STD-8825 and Defence the process of acquiring guided weapon and relationships and is not attributable to a identification of IMs from the constituent Standard 00-56 Part 1 & 26 ) do not armament systems and equipment for the SAF. constituent system. system hazard analysis which may also have provide guidance on how to identify and It is a value-added service that DSTA provides implications at the SoS level. assess these emergent hazards. The NPS to make our systems and equipment safer. thesis by Redmond10 which provides a DSTA has helped to enhance the knowledge Target or Outcome – Based on the Constituent recommendation for an SoS Interface Hazard and application of system safety principles System-of-Systems Hazards System Hazard Analysis, we can analyse Analysis Technique also does not provide and techniques in the engineering community outcomes that may be due to the emergent any insights into where or how to develop and to a wider audience. The System Safety behaviour of the networked SoS, appreciating the actual hazard list. A possible approach Society (Singapore Chapter) is an organisation Constituent Emergent the fact that there are no new mishaps to uncover potential emergent hazards set up for this purpose. Frameworks have System Hazards Hazards outcomes. The Top Level Mishap Scenario and assess the risk associated with each also been put in place to encourage engineers Analysis will also complement the alignment emergent hazard is presented here. to practise system safety as a professional SoS Hazards of mishaps to the IM and/or HE at the SoS discipline and specialisation. The directives, life cycle manuals and dedicated system safety Hazard Theory guidelines of MINDEF have been aligned with Constituent the guiding principles of system safety. A hazard can be defined through the use of System IMs Hazardous Element Constituent the Hazard Triangle, where it is described System HE to comprise three components; namely Message Based (Source) the Hazard Element (HE), the Initiating Hazard Analysis Mechanism (IM) and the Target. Emergent (Mechanism)Hazard Initiating Mechanism Top Level Hazardous Element Constituent Target Mishap System Mishaps (Outcome) Scenarios

(Source)

The Emergent Hazard Analysis Approach

An example of artillery gun firing (Mechanism)

by the PRIMUS Initiating Mechanism

Target (Outcome) From System Safety to System-of- Systems Safety Assessment Hazard Triangle featuring the three hazard components Potential Emergent Hazard List Safety Critical Messages System-of-Systems Hazards Potential safety-critical concerns

Each of the techniques above, when used Due to the emergent behaviours brought in isolation, would not be able to provide about by the SoS, the hazards associated the desired comprehensive emergent hazard with the SoS are no longer limited to the treatment. However, by combining the three Emergent Hazard Identification summation of all the hazards found within techniques, we are able to relate the developed 5 US Department of Defense Standard Practice for System Safety each constituent system's hazard space. SoS emergent hazard to the Hazard Triangle 6 UK Ministry of Defence Safety Management Requirements for hazards are described as those that may concept. Defence Systems

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The emergent hazard analysis is conducted ORGANISATION AND defence R&D in Singapore, which was to develop the emergent hazard list from PEOPLE DEVELOPMENT the aspiration of Dr Goh Keng Swee, the combined perspectives of Top Level Singapore's first Minister for Defence. Dr Mishap Scenario, Constituent System Hazard While previous chapters have outlined the Goh firmly believed that only through Analysis, Message Based Hazard Analysis DTC's systems engineering methodologies, technology would Singapore, a tiny city and Scenario Based Hazard Analysis. The this chapter will present how the DTC has state, be able to defend itself. The Science process requires the analysis of top level evolved over the years from its humble and Management Group established in 1970 mishap scenario, the potential emergent beginnings in 1966 until today, including a was tasked with the strategic planning hazards identified from the Constituent glimpse of the larger Defence Technology and implementation of capability projects System Hazard Analysis, the safety critical Ecosystem (DTE) beyond the DTC. These for the SAF. The Systems Integration and messages from the Message Based Hazard organisational developments took into Management Team (SIMT) was formed in Analysis and the safety critical concerns from account factors such as MINDEF leadership's 1972 to oversee the evaluation, selection and the Scenario Based Hazard Analysis. The response to the SAF's evolving requirements integration of weapon systems, and most list of potential emergent hazards derived and capability transformation as well as the importantly the management of the first from Top Level Mishap Scenario, Constituent need to optimise the use of finite engineering missile gunboat programme. The Electronics System Hazard Analysis and Scenario Based manpower resources. This chapter also Test Centre (ETC) – the genesis of present Hazard Analysis serves as the basis for the covers aspects such as manpower build-up, day DSO National Laboratories – was emergent hazard. For each safety critical organisational learning and competency established to build up secret-edge defence message derived from the Message Based development in the DTC. R&D capabilities. Hazard Analysis, an assessment is made to determine if it is associated with the list of Brief History on the Evolution of The SIMT and ETC subsequently combined the potential emergent hazard. Should a safety DTC Organisations to form DSO in 1977. This organisation was critical message be found not to be associated endowed with the best engineering graduates with any emergent hazard based on the earlier 1966 – 1970s and returning Public Service Commission analysis, a new emergent hazard could be scholars. the outcome. The DTC started modestly with the Test, Evaluation and Acceptance Section of the SCO was established by Mr Philip Yeo in Logistics Division in 1966 as the engineering 1979 by amalgamating the Data Processing and technical outfit within the Ministry Department, Finance Systems Branch, and of Interior and Defence. As reflected in its Logistics Systems Branch, to undertake name, the section was to conduct the testing large-scale and systematic automation of and evaluation of all stores and equipment MINDEF and the SAF's finance, personnel that would be purchased by the Logistics and logistic functions via computerisation. Division. This marked the first instance where The Public Service then was lagging behind technical work was performed by a dedicated the private sector, in particular the banking unit beyond the basic procurement-related industry, in exploiting computers by a good functions. In 1968, the Technical Department 10 years. The leaders of this community of was established in the Logistics Division pioneer IT professionals later moved on to to be responsible for all engineering and the newly established National Computer maintenance matters. Board to spearhead computerisation efforts for the whole Public Service. The early 1970s saw the formation of four new defence technology units in MINDEF 1980s References: to manage the acquisitions of weapon systems and build up engineering and The Second Generation SAF saw the Redmond, P. J., Michael, J. B., & Shebalin, P.V. (2008). Interface hazard analysis scientific capability urgently from scratch upgrading and modernising of the three for system of systems, IEEE International Conference on System of Systems Engineering to support the growing needs of the SAF. Services from the early 1980s to late 1990s. (pp. 1-8). doi: 10.1109/SYSOSE.2008.4724202 It also marked the start of the journey of As Singapore's economy grew stronger, more

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resources were allocated to the SAF to speed build up and develop the engineering talent There was also a significant increase in the late 1990s to 2000. up its capabilities build-up. pool urgently and more systematically to quantity and diversity of Engineering and support the modernisation push of the SAF. Scientific Personnel (ESP) in the DTG in In 1997, DSO was corporatised to allow it To support the SAF's urgent operational A Resource Planning Office was later set up MINDEF during the 1980s to 1990s. This more flexibility to manage its people, subject needs to build up a credible fighting in 1987 to support DS(T) in strategic planning phenomenon can be traced back to a key R&D effort to the discipline of the market force equipped with advanced defence and resource allocation. decision made to raise the number of ESPs place for greater efficiency and responsiveness, technological systems, MINDEF set up from around 250 in 1983 to 1,200 over the and create a more conducive environment for SPO. SPO was to manage the acquisition The spirit behind the formation of the DTG long term, as elaborated in the story on the innovation, creativity and risk-taking. It was of weapon systems and large-scale is elaborated in the following extract of a “1,000 Engineers Vision” (pages 102-103). also renamed DSO National Laboratories. capability development programmes such keynote address by Mr Lim Siong Guan, then as the acquisition of the E-2C Hawkeye Permanent Secretary (Defence), at the DTG 1990s With the corporatisation of DSO, MINDEF AEW, MCV programme, C2 systems and Seminar on 25th February 1986. needed an independent entity to manage airbase development programmes. The The 1990s saw efforts in converting the R&D budget and programmes. The acquisition and engineering elements in the “DTG is not just organisations, but organisations, MINDEF entities into Executive Agencies. Directorate of Research and Development Logistic Division which had been focusing people and scientific and technical expertise The motivation behind the Executive (DRD) was established in 1997 as a member on the Singapore Army's needs were re- united in a common mission – to provide the best Agency model is essentially about changing of the DTG to fulfil this role. The R&D budget grouped and MMO was established. possible technological support to help make the best the behaviours of organisations and the was divided into two portfolios – S70 and D30, possible SAF … individuals within. The Executive Agency where 70% of the budget was allocated to the Similarly, the Lands and Estates Department system allowed organisational performance Services to manage and the remaining 30% to was transferred out of the Logistic Division My appeal to all this morning is to see the wider to be measured directly, and the increased DRD to manage. The intent was to give the and established as LEO. Three years later picture and recognise our wider interests. We will visibility enhanced accountability for actions Services ownership of the more downstream in 1986, MMO and SPO combined to form all be able to get the same broad picture if we are and responsiveness to customer needs. R&D that will impact them in the short term, the Defence Materials Organisation (DMO; all in the same helicopter … while providing DRD the mandate to invest subsequently renamed as Defence Materiel DSO and LEO became the first Executive in more upstream and longer term R&D that, Organisation in 1996) to ensure efficient use of DTG is to be the central repository of all scientific Agencies in 1991, with DMO and DPD if successful, would yield huge operational technical manpower and greater consistency and technical expertise in MINDEF, including the following suit in 1996. CSO was also payoffs to the SAF. DRD helped MINDEF in systems acquisition. The procurement SAF. This is not only to be in terms of knowledge, established as an Executive Agency in 1995 nurture a group of strong R&T managers who functions in MMO and SPO were transferred experience, ability and application, but also in from elements of SCO, DSO, and DMO had in-depth understanding of the various out to form the Defence Procurement Division terms of development and allocation of the people, that were involved in Command, Control, operational challenges faced by the SAF as (DPD) – this was part of the strategic move to know-how and management systems … We do Communications and Intelligence-related well as strong technological and systems enhance checks and balances in MINDEF's not have enough manpower, and even less time, systems. The generally positive experience know-how to prospect and evaluate R&T acquisition functions. for such expertise to be duplicated between DTG with the Executive Agency model gave opportunities. and the Services … MINDEF the confidence to corporatise DSO The DTC's evolution in the 1980s marked subsequently. To facilitate the contracting of projects with the inception of the concept of a defence [People in DTG are] all scientific, engineering and DSO and other partners, DRD established technology community with the official technical people who deliver DTG expertise. They In 1997, MINDEF also implemented the ERD Master Contracts with DSO, ST and the formation of the DTG in 1986. Headed by are not only from DMO, LEO, DSO and SCO. framework, which was elaborated in Chapter Universities. the DS(T), the DTG consolidated the various They are in G4 MINDEF, in ALD, in NLD … 4. Through ERD, the DTG took over the O&S groups of defence engineers and scientists They are spread about to avoid duplication and engineering of various systems that served the DRD was also given the task to enlarge involved in the acquisition of defence to get us the important close working relationships common interests of all three Services. This the R&D service provider to beyond DSO equipment, systems and R&D. MINDEF between operations staff and technical staff, between served to foster efficiency via consolidation of and Singapore. A DTG Development Office hoped that this would bring about integration the Services and DTG … resources and better retention of engineering or DDO was set up within DRD to grow and synergy among these entities and that personnel by providing more varied and international collaboration. they would be able to better support the SAF. If we all can be clear on the principle that DTG is challenging work. The force multiplier potential of technology first expertise, then people, then organisations, we In 1999, a further restructuring of the DTG led in the advancement of the SAF's fighting would have taken a significant step in setting clear To meet the challenges of defence science to the creation of the Defence Technology and capability was recognised and decision future directions for DTG …” and technology in the 21st century, a series Resource Office (DTRO) as the MINDEF staff makers in MINDEF were determined to of restructuring in the DTC occurred in the agency for core technology functions of policy

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formulation, strategic planning, resource flexibility, everything we do remains integrated at -T F-E T OS S allocation and performance monitoring. all levels to ensure that the SAF is able to remain M OS M R “First and Foremost” into the 21st Century.” FSTD In 2000, DSTA was established as a RT statutory board to separate policy and 2000s and Beyond implementation functions; offer more DISO flexibility for promoting innovation, efficiency, In 2002, the Future Systems Directorate (FSD) SPO T- and nurturing talent; and yet remain closely was formed as a MINDEF entity to develop aligned with MINDEF's strategic objectives. advanced operating concepts alternate to DSTA OS DSTA was formed by combining the six those in the mainstream. This came at a DSO R organisations in DTG and two organisations time when the SAF embarked on its Third from the Defence Administration Group Generation transformation journey in 2004. – namely SCO and the Defence Medical Overview of DTC organisations and exemplar focus areas in the context of DCM Research Institute (DMRI). In 2006, the Defence Research and Technology Office (DRTech) was formed from the spin-off Defence Technology Ecosystem a smart buyer. This approach includes The thinking behind these restructuring of the technology plans group within DTRO acquiring best-of-breed systems and efforts can be gleaned from the following while the remaining two groups (Technology Expanding beyond the DTC, there is a larger integrating them into a large-scale system excerpts of a speech by Mr Peter Ho, Policy and Systems) were reorganised into the DTE that includes local industry (e.g. ST or an SoS. Permanent Secretary (Defence Development) Defence Industry and Systems Office (DISO). Engineering companies such as ST Aerospace, • Build (design and develop) only when at the MINDEF Workplan Seminar in 1999. DRTech was further restructured in 2009 to ST Kinetics, ST Marine, ST Electronics), local necessary. This could include cases of bring together disparate R&T planning and research institutes (e.g. Temasek Labs, Agency technology being unavailable for purchase “The DSTA builds on a central organisational management elements under a single entity. for Science, Technology and Research), and in the market, unique requirements that paradigm in MINDEF. This paradigm is rooted DRD was subsumed within DRTech. foreign partners (foreign governments, the market cannot support and needing to in the principle that MINDEF is best placed to international research institutes, international nurture local industry to build up selected determine what should be done, while the service As both their roles matured, in 2012, FSD defence companies). The DTE supports capabilities. provider is best placed to determine how to do it. and DRTech were merged into the Future MINDEF's approach to defence technology • Collaborate with partners. This includes Systems and Technology Directorate (FSTD) and engineering in the following ways: strategic outsourcing to harness the With the formation of DSTA, MINDEF will be able to entrench the ops-tech synergies of advanced capacity of industry and collaboration to focus on policy, planning and resource allocation concept development and technology • Acquire off-the-shelf systems whenever possible. with research institutes and foreign – its core functions. Implementation issues of defence masterplanning structurally. This aims to exploit market efficiencies as governments. technology will not distract it … As of 2016, MINDEF's current engineering Decentralisation can take place within integration. resource mainly resides in two organisations We want tight integration at the strategic policy, – DSTA and DSO. There are now around planning and resource allocation level – where the 2,200 engineers in DSTA and 1,400 scientists payoff through integration is the greatest. At the same and engineers in DSO. In addition, there are time, decentralisation of the implementation functions also about 1,100 military engineers serving in STRATEGIC PLANNING OFFICE will enhance speedy execution, responsiveness and the SAF as Military Domain Experts Scheme efficiency … (MDES) officers. The DTC currently comprises Local Local five organisations – Strategic Planning Office, Research Defence … all the major changes in the Joint Staff, the FSTD, DISO, DSTA and DSO National Institutes Companies

Executive Agencies, DSO National Laboratories, Laboratories. The figure overleaf gives a broad International International and now DSTA – are all linked in an ongoing overview of their respective areas of focus Research Defence Institutes Companies effort to promote Integrated Defence Development. within the framework of MINDEF's DCM.

We should not see the separation of the DTG from Foreign Governments MINDEF to form DSTA as a weakening of the organisation, but rather as a win-win organisational response to ensure that while we give autonomy and The Defence Technology Ecosystem

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Organisational Learning and MINDEF and the DTC. and where knowledge could be germinated, various approaches to formal training and Knowledge Sharing created and shared. education have been institutionalised within DMSC's structured approach in transferring the DTC. “While some things must be kept secret, you must knowledge and experience gained from Effective organisational learning requires also allow information to flow so that knowledge numerous defence projects to succeeding not just institutional mechanisms and For example, DSTA Academy currently can be accumulated… Knowledge, if not shared, generations has also been propagated at the infrastructure for knowledge sharing, but conducts a series of route-of-advancement is lost… organisational level. For example, the DSTA also a culture of knowledge sharing. In a courses to meet the needs of engineers in College was formed in 2004 (and subsequently knowledge-intensive organisation, staff need DSTA, MINDEF and the SAF and train them in If you don’t know what you don’t know, then you evolved into DSTA Academy in 2012) to to be empowered with the right information systems engineering skillsets. These courses are making decisions based on only a subset of adopt a similar approach in developing and and mandate to be effective knowledge comprise the Basic Systems Engineering available knowledge… That’s a very serious loss. strengthening DSTA's core competencies workers. Often, the right information resides and Management (BSEM), Intermediate So I’m an advocate of openness and shared data.” in the management of large-scale complex with different people from various parts of Systems Engineering and Management projects, via route-of-advancement courses in the organisation. (ISEM), and Advanced Systems Engineering Prof Lui Pao Chuen systems engineering and project management. and Management (ASEM) courses that are Extracted from the book “Singapore's Scientific Another example is the DSO Leadership Staff can be resistant to sharing information primarily targeted at DSTA engineers, while Pioneers”, page 65 Development Programme. due to reasons such as entrenched mindsets. the Intermediate Domain Systems Course Examples are the “need-to-know” and and Advanced Domain Systems Course are As the DTC progressively expanded and Apart from courses, DSTA's adoption of SA “knowledge-is-power” mindsets. As a result, targeted at the SAF's MDES engineers. DSTA evolved in organisational structure and in 2004 also fostered organisational learning. information resources may not be well Academy is also entrusted with the running grew its pool of ESP, intentional efforts were This involved an interdisciplinary approach organised and shared, and in turn staff need of and continued improvement to the DMSC. made to share and harness the knowledge to uncover and harness the rich and diverse to spend a significant amount of time and Since its inception, 39 batches of BSEM, 40 gained and lessons learnt and impart them knowledge across entities within DSTA – effort looking for information. batches of ISEM and 11 batches of ASEM to succeeding batches and generations. This itself an amalgamation of eight organisations have graduated as of April 2016. went beyond an individual's on-the-job in 2000, so as to derive new insights in To cite an example, such challenges were training within a discipline or department, developing SoS architectures and complex reviewed in DSTA in its journey as a learning For in-depth training in technical disciplines, and extended towards an organisational-wide systems to realise networked capabilities organisation, and the notion of “right-to-ask” a key avenue to nurture DSO scientists has approach, where new value can be derived for the Third Generation SAF. Subsequently was proposed and formalised to complement been PhD studies. Prof Su Guaning attributed from the intersection of disciplines. Examples in 2006, a dedicated Programme Centre for the “need-to-know” principle. This refers to MINDEF's investment in DSO via PhD of initiatives to facilitate such organisational masterplanning and SA was established. an inherent right to ask for information if scholarships as a key enabler for DSO to learning can be seen at both the DTC and Other initiatives included the annual DSTA staff are unable to locate it. While the notion build up its deep technical expertise in areas organisational levels. Learning Festival between 2003 to 2008 to of “knowledge-is-power” would still be valid, such as electronic warfare. The pool of R&D heighten the awareness of all staff on the the paradigm “knowledge-sharing-is-power” scientist and engineers with PhD qualification At the DTC level, then CDS Prof Lui Pao importance of collaboration and continuous would be more powerful. By not sharing provided DSO the confidence to push the Chuen developed the first run of MINDEF's learning, as well as the establishment of knowledge, a staff would miss the chance frontiers in R&D and independently develop Defence Management and Systems Course the Directorate of Organisation Capability to impart knowledge and be recognised. This solutions where there was no precedent to (DMSC) in 1996, a pinnacle leadership Development (OCD) and eight Competency new paradigm has since gone a long way take reference from, instead of its earlier mode programme to prepare future leaders in the Communities (CC1) in 2006. The CCs served towards enhancing knowledge sharing and of relying on tried and tested approaches and DTC. The course was developed based on as “knowledge communities” comprising information resource management in DSTA. staying within the safety of grounds covered Harvard Business School's Case Method of people of like-minded professional interests, by others (Juliana Chan, 2015, pp 80-81). instruction and captured rich lessons learnt Competency Development from the DTC's experiences. DMSC's content For DSTA, in-house courses on technical has since been enhanced with the continued In addition to organisational learning, the disciplines helmed by senior management contributions of many senior members in 1 The eight CCs were: (1) Platform; (2) Sensing and DTC's qualitative growth hinges on its and specialists within the respective DSTA Connectivity; (3) Guided Weapons and Armaments; (4) MINDEF who personally reviewed the Command & Control and Information Technology; (5) Building ability to nurture strong engineering and business units are directly responsible for curricula and facilitated participants' learning. and Infrastructure; (6) Systems Engineering; (7) Corporate scientific expertise. The DTC has a broad competency development of staff, with DMSC has also served as an excellent avenue and (8) Procurement. The OCD and CC construct had since range of competencies, ranging from DSTA Academy maintaining oversight of evolved into new structures, where all Programme Centres for building strong linkages and relationships (PCs) in DSTA, i.e. business units, are directly responsible for systems engineering skillsets to technical the technical courses. between different organisations within competency development of their staff. disciplines. Other than on-the-job training,

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“1,000 Engineers Vision” – only around 200 graduate engineers. A The rise was due to the increase in the the Economic Development Board and Engineering Manpower Build-up very difficult task laid ahead – to persuade number of engineering graduates from the the National Science and Technology and Transformation decision makers to agree to grow the National University of Singapore (NUS) Board, several incentive schemes were engineer population by nearly 500%, from and Nanyang Technological University implemented to encourage students around 200 to 1,200. (NTU) since 1987, as well as the aggressive to take up courses that could support The size of the defence budget is one recruitment campaigns mounted by the manpower needs of these new measure of the resources that a country is In a 1983 MINDEF HQ meeting chaired MINDEF. The quality of engineering growth areas. This posed a challenge to willing to invest in its defence capability. by then Minister for Defence, Mr Goh graduates recruited also improved due MINDEF's continual effort to recruit The second measure would be the total Chok Tong, it was agreed that MINDEF to the concerted promotion of numerous good engineering graduates. number of personnel in the defence should double its population of engineers undergraduate training awards and the community. The third would be the size to 500, and a vision of 1,000 engineers increase in the number of awards given In response to the increased demand of skilled technical manpower directly would be for the long term. Thereafter, out to in-service engineering staff. for engineers to meet the needs of employed in defence. MINDEF and the SAF was allowed to the booming local wafer fabrication increase 100 engineers a year to ramp up On the other hand, the three most industry, NTU and NUS increased Using Sweden's and Israel's number of the population of engineers rapidly to 500. frequently mentioned reasons for engineers their capacities for both full-time and engineers per one million US dollars of leaving MINDEF were: ‘for better prospects part-time engineering courses starting defence budget as a benchmark, MINDEF Amid annual recruitment and natural and greater challenges in the private from 1996. estimated that for the defence budget attrition, the DTC's engineering manpower sector’, ‘dislike scope and nature of work’ projected in 1983, the number of engineers grew at a steady rate from 1983 to 1995 and ‘dissatisfied with rate of promotion Thus, it was fortunate that MINDEF needed would be around 1,200. There was and it achieved its long-term goal of 1,200 and advancement’. These feedback had a leadership supported the aggressive a great mismatch between supply and engineers within 12 years. significant influence in MINDEF's strategic build-up of engineering staff in 1983. demand, given that in 1982, MINDEF had decision on the corporatisation of DSO Otherwise, it would have been even more and the setting up of DSTA as a MINDEF challenging to support the SAF's fast pace

Estab Population Recruitment Attrition statutory board. of modernisation and assimilation of 1400 newly acquired and technologically Competition from the Private Sector advanced systems due to the shortage 1200 in 1995 of engineers by the mid 1990s.

1000 In 1995, the demand for engineering Source: DSTA Academy 800 expertise became very competitive at the national level. With the government's 600 emphasis and support for R&D 400 programmes in the private sector industries and the plan to expand the semiconductor 200 industry, the demand for researchers and 0 engineers in the private sector rose very FY83 FY84 FY85 FY86 FY87 FY88 FY88 FY90 FY91 FY92 FY93 FY94 Dec-95 significantly.

Singapore then had four wafer fabrication plants in operation, with two more under construction and another six planned in the pipeline. Each wafer fabrication plant would require between 1,000 and 1,500 workers of which 50% would be technical staff (engineering diploma holders and Manpower build-up in the DTC from 1983 to 1995 professional engineers). Supported by

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A Learning DSTA learning and growth that is tightly linked to our The DSTA “T-shaped” competency and technology. A T-shaped engineer strategic objectives. DSTA College was formed in model has sufficient breadth of knowledge 2004 to institutionalise the process of transmitting and the ability to converse in the valuable organisation knowledge and experience. The idea of a “T-shaped” competency “language” of specialists in different This framework will be further strengthened as profile of DSTA engineers was introduced domains and application contexts. This we continue on our organisational excellence in 2006. A person's competency profile allows the engineer to apply his/her journey as embodied in the Enhancing Business may be represented by the letter “T”, own deep knowledge across different Model, or EBM, initiative. illustrated in the figure below. The Basic situations, and to facilitate joint efforts and Business Competencies form the between two or more specialists in In the current phase, we will seek to provide horizontal part of the “T”, while the specific domains to harness their a better balance between long-term and short- Technical Competencies (comprising strengths to tackle complex problem. term priorities. The consolidation of 60 divisions diverse engineering, architecture and • With strong basic and business (operating units) into 13 larger operating units will information technology disciplines) competencies, T-shaped engineers foster better integration, sharpen accountability form the vertical part of the “T”. have the soft skills that are effective for project delivery in the short and medium term in teamwork, and build trust both The following extracts from "A Learning and provide greater flexibility in the deployment A DSTA engineer should have breadth within DSTA and with partners. They DSTA" produced in 2006 by DSTA, of our people. Each DSTA member will belong of knowledge in Basic and Business are more likely to be able to manage a highlight its aspiration to be a learning to one of eight professional communities grouped Competencies, and depth of knowledge multi-disciplinary team with diverse organisation. by competency areas. He or she will belong to in one or more Technical Competencies. expertise and personalities. one of these professional communities. Our This is the desired competency profile “Learning takes central place in our organisation respective professional community will facilitate the given the increasingly complex and multi- and in society today. Knowledge continues to grow development of competencies, best practices and disciplinary projects that DSTA is taking at an exponential rate. What we know or have standards of professional practice that will guide on. An example is the RSN's Frigate mastered from yesterday may soon become out- us in our work and develop us in our professional programme, where DSTA is in charge of of-date. As individuals and as an organisation, area. The professional communities will also system integration and managing 17 sub- we run the risk of becoming irrelevant if we do promote knowledge sharing and innovation … contractors from five countries. not learn to refresh our knowledge base and embrace new ideas quickly enough. The organisation is a reflection of collective The T-shaped paradigm would enable behaviour. All of our organisational development successful engineering and management DSTA operates at the intersection of several efforts can perhaps be viewed through this of complex systems in DSTA: domains – technology, military operations, perspective. We want our organisation structures defence technology community and innovation. to enhance rather than hamper the productivity • Being T-shaped means the ability to We possess multi-disciplinary competencies and of our knowledge workers. We want to have keep the “big picture” in mind while operate within several industries – IT, defence systems and processes that encourage and collaborating with diverse expertise on and construction. This diversity accords us a stimulate knowledge and information flow. We the details. When tackling a difficult Illustration of the T-shaped melting pot of opportunities for innovation. To desire a family culture where mutual trust and problem, rather than being limited by competency model strengthen Singapore's defence and security, we confidence abound. We envisage DSTA to be a their functional domains or comfort need professionals who possess deep technical place where everyone plays a part to build the zones, T-shaped engineers are able competencies in at least one technology area, as community based on shared vision and values, to think out-of-the-box, harnessing well as sufficient breadth to understand, apply and contributes to its character. This is the essence knowledge across the organisation and and integrate across a spectrum of technologies. of a Learning Organisation …” exploring ideas and solutions across We term this a T-shaped competency model … DSTA or even DTC to gain insights. Richard Lim • Being T-shaped facilitates innovation, As an organisation, we seek to encourage Chief Executive which occurs at the intersection learning, knowledge sharing and innovation. September 2006 of disciplines, be it with diverse We have in place the organisation framework for technologies or between operations

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BEYOND DEFENCE into Singapore through the Straits of Johor. This is both a security and economic issue Basic Competencies for Singapore, which entails a mammoth task for PCG as the terrain in the Straits of • Communications Extending DTC's Enabling System- Johor favours smugglers. The long but narrow • Customer Orientation of-Systems for the Greater Benefit stretch of coast provides ample points for the • Problem Solving of Singapore smugglers to make a lateral dash to Singapore's • Teamwork and Alliance Building northern coastline. To patrol and intercept • Leading The systems thinking approach and such transgressions effectively, tremendous • Staff Management engineering competencies built up over amounts of resources would be needed, the years in delivering capabilities to the especially in low-light conditions at night. SAF have also found applications beyond Such asymmetrical operations thus required Business Competencies defence. More recently, in line with the whole- PCG to leverage technology. of-government approach to tackle numerous • Master Planning and Systems complex issues that cut across agencies, In the early 1990s, the Singapore Police Force Architecting the DTC has worked actively with other (SPF) decided to upgrade the capability of • Systems Design and Systems government agencies by providing technical PCG. One of the projects was to develop an Integration support, often in collaboration with the defence integrated surveillance and C2 system. As • Project Management industry. This chapter shares how DTC has SPF and the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) • System Management been functioning as an Enabling SoS at the had no resident expertise, they engaged a • Safety Management and Defence national level beyond military defence. foreign consultant to study the operational Contracting requirements for the PCG C2 systems. In and more... Command, Control, Communications 1991, the consultant delivered the Specific and Computers Network Projects for Operational Requirements and among other National Security new systems, it recommended the acquisition Technical Competencies of five high-end military radars to be sited The Home Team, which comprises 10 along the northern coast of the island. The • Aeronautical Systems agencies1, requires C2 capability for effective requirements were approved by MHA, and • Land Systems execution of its mission to keep Singapore the SPF project team was directed to seek • Naval Systems safe and secure. With diverse threats facing MINDEF's input as its DTG had experience • Guided Weapons and Armament the Home Team, a modern and well-designed in implementing a coastal surveillance system • Sensor Systems C2 system that remains alert to anomalies for the RSN. • Communications Systems is key for commanders and operators to • Networks respond swiftly. This would mean having The SPF project team initially sought • C2IT to coordinate, command and control their MINDEF's support to receive sensor and more... ground resources. For example, the Police information from the RSN's coastal radar Coast Guard (PCG)2 has a critical need for C2 systems. This was because the use of the capability to enhance coastal surveillance and consultants' proposed systems, together its operations to stamp out illegal smuggling with the Port of Singapore Authority's (PSA) radars, did not provide sufficient coverage for the southern coast. Chief Defence Scientist Prof Lui Pao Chuen and DS(T) BG Wesley 1 The Home Team comprises the Ministry of Home Affairs, D'aranjo of MINDEF both learned about the the Singapore Police Force, the Singapore Civil Defence Force, the Singapore Prison Service, the Central Narcotics Bureau, consultant's proposed solution and assessed References: the Home Team Academy, the Immigration and Checkpoints that a much more capable and economical Authority, the Internal Security Department, the Casino solution could be derived from exploiting the Regulatory Authority and the Singapore Corporation of Chan, J., Chua, G., Sim, S., & Tan, R. (2015). Singapore’s scientific pioneers. Rehabilitative Enterprises. sensor (Radar and Electro-Optics), systems Singapore: Asian Scientist Publishing Pte Ltd. 2 The PCG is a unit under the Singapore Police Force. integration and C2 development experiences

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and expertise in DTG. As there was also a small vessels (e.g. speedboats) that were fast programme, MINDEF and MHA formed a of know-how in both C2 competency and requirement to develop new towers along the and highly maneuverable. In the waters joint management committee, which marked project management. northern coast, LEO's capability would be around Singapore's northern coastline, it the start of the DTG's involvement in several tapped to provide the much needed technical was essential to minimise the time needed programmes to enhance the Home Team's Today, the SPF and the SCDF's C2 systems and programme support. MINDEF hence to detect and track such small vessels so as operational effectiveness. In one of the integrate people, technology and processes, offered to help MHA in implementing the to allow PCG's response forces sufficient programmes, CSO (as part of DTG) developed allowing real-time communication of voices, programme. time to intercept them. In the waters and delivered a vehicle tracking system to track data, images and videos from incident around Singapore's southern coastline, the the locations of prison vehicles transporting locations to the Command Centre. These Understandably, the SPF team had reservations high density of large vessels (e.g. container inmates to hospitals and courts. This was systems are complemented by mobile data for it had been thinking of awarding this new ships) presented other challenges to detect done by integrating CSO's in-house products terminals that track resource locations, capability project via a turnkey programme to and track the vessels of interest moving in and commercial off-the-shelf technology. For perform mobile screening, and allow exchange a reputable engineering agency which could the vicinity. Nonetheless, the DTG team the first time, the Singapore Prison Service had of situational awareness between frontline develop such systems. Up until then, the had extensive experience from past projects the ability to track the locations of its vehicles officers and Incident Commanders. The DTG had never been involved in any MHA that implemented systems in such difficult accurately. Back then, this was quite a feat as systems include other advanced features that projects and the DTG had not shared its sensor operating conditions. This would require GPS, GIS and mobile computing technologies automate dispatch of resources to incident and C2 system development capabilities extensive engineering effort to adapt the were still relatively new. locations as well as dash-board functions to with any agencies beyond MINDEF and tracking system for site-specific conditions. track incident load and incident response time, the SAF. After technical and operational The project steering committee concurred Working with PCG raised the profile of CSO and to flag sensitive incidents automatically discussions, the DTG led by Command, that the radar tracking system, which was as the go-to agency for command, control, for supervisory intervention. In 2007, DSTA Control, Communications and Intelligence the “brain” for the C2 surveillance, had to be communications and computers (C4) network provided technical consultancy to SPF and Systems Organisation (CSO, renamed in 1997 designed and developed in-house given the capability development. Soon, several MHA the SCDF to renew their C2 capabilities. as Command, Control, Communications very challenging operating environment and agencies such as SPF and the Singapore Civil Since then, both the SPF and the SCDF and Computer Systems Organisation), was demands. A small group of CSO engineers, Defence Force enquired about CSO's support. have acquired their next-generation 999 given overall responsibility for systems with expertise in tracking systems, embarked To meet this demand, CSO decided to create and 995 C2 systems, providing them with engineering and project management of the to develop a robust multi-radar tracking a new division dedicated to these national the operational capabilities to meet their PCG C2 capability development in November system, called the Radar Data Processing security agencies. This led to the formation of evolving needs. 1993. MINDEF and MHA principals wanted Subsystem (RDPS). The RDPS would provide the Dual-Use System Division in 1996, which to ensure that the new capability would PCG a coherent maritime situation picture by comprised mainly C2 experts from CSO and Risk Assessment and Horizon synergise with the SAF's existing coastal integrating the data from different types of sensor experts from DSO. The idea was to Scanning surveillance capability and be implemented coastal radars (from PCG, RSN and MPA) and have CSO's C2 experts lead the support to within a tight time line and cost-effectively. utilising unique tracking algorithms to track national security agencies, with the assistance In a globalised and interdependent world, the highly-maneuverable small vessels and to of experts in communications, network threats to national security can develop A joint project steering committee, co-chaired manage the detection phenomena expected. and other technological domains from the quickly and cause interconnected failures, by DS(T), MINDEF and Chief of Staff (SPF), rest of CSO and DSO. A Memorandum with an example being the threat of terrorism MHA, was established to oversee the project, In 1999, the surveillance and C2 capability of Understanding (MOU) was signed to post-9/11. While scenario planning has been set policy guidelines and resolve conflicts. was delivered successfully to the SPF. There formalise this collaboration where CSO in the toolkit of policy-makers to plan for Permanent Secretary (Defence Development), were significant savings reaped as the systems could provide project management support the future, it is not effective at spotting weak MINDEF and Permanent Secretary (Home engineers in DMO and CSO assumed the to MHA in the area of C4. The intent was to signals of events that could have a serious Affairs) met every six months to review responsibility of systems integration instead help MHA build up not only its C4 capability impact on national security. progress and provide strategic directions. The of relying on a prime contractor. Besides, but also its in-house competency, so that leadership provided by higher management the DTG team was able to develop the MHA could eventually manage its own C4 Following strategic surprises such as the 9/11 facilitated collaboration among staff from C2 architecture and implement the whole capability development while CSO simply attacks, Jemaah Islamiyah's plots to carry out MHA and MINDEF to a large extent. programme by leveraging commercially provides technical consultancy. A case in a bomb attack on Singapore and the Severe available navigation radars and state-of-the- point was the development of the replacement Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) crisis, In implementing the project, a key challenge art electro-optics sensors to provide optimal system for the 999 and 995 call system. With the Singapore Government felt an urgent need was to design a system that would enable surveillance coverage. CSO at the helm to manage the project, SPF to build a more comprehensive set of tools PCG to keep track – i.e. constantly knowing and SCDF staff were also incorporated into to better anticipate future threats. Hence, the precise location, of all vessels, especially With the success of this capability development the project management team for transfer the Risk Assessment and Horizon Scanning

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(RAHS) Programme was started in 2005 as operations which are constantly changing. C B part of the National Security Coordination Secretariat in the Prime Minister's Office to The idea of RAHS came from Mr Peter I M develop new tools for strategic anticipation Ho, then Permanent Secretary of Defence. Enables building of and national security. It originated from what was known as models to make sense of incoming data Large-Scale Integrated Search and Analysis Enables sharing The RAHS system and processes stemmed (LISA). Peter Ho had linked up with John of analysts’ from three key ideas: Petersen, founder of non-profit research viewpoints on data organisation Arlington Institute, which I M • Sense-making in a Complex Environment: led to the LISA project funded by DRD Events in the world today exist in a and FSD and a collaboration between the III T complex space, where simple cause and- institute and DSO where each provided some effect cannot fully explain observed intellectual property. The development, with phenomena. Competitive advantage COTS being used, was done at Arlington I M II belongs to those who can make sense of Institute where DSO had attached staff. non-linear, emergent phenomena and those LISA supported analysts in the systematic I I who know the right strategies to apply. collection, organisation and analysis of Enables multiple Enables less search agencies to and more analysis • Thinking Systematically about the Future: unstructured texts. Peter Ho had spoken time for analyst team collaborate Multi-agency Technological advances in data analytics broadly about the needs of the whole-of- analyst team could be tapped to develop, track, and government and about weak signal detection. monitor possible future trajectories using He also synthesised the ideas of Founder foresight methods and system tools. of Cognitive Edge Dave Snowden, John RAHS Capability Blocks • Connecting the Dots: Each dot in the space Petersen, IBM Fellow Jeff Jonas and Director of data has to be linked and connected to of the DARPA Information Awareness Office The Horizon Scanning Centre (HSC) was set assist the human to detect the proverbial John Poindexter, and drew upon Shell's Civil up, followed closely by the establishment of ‘needle in the haystack’. Service Scenario Planning Methodology. the RAHS Experimentation Centre (REC). N The RAHS idea was hence born, with LISA The REC, staffed and managed by DSTA, was Developing a system to support RAHS providing the software platform for it. set up to research on and experiment with new involved complex and challenging engineering technological capabilities to support foresight problems. First, RAHS analysts would Using the RAHS System, analysts can methods. Together, HSC and the REC have require a system that can support the mental systematically model future scenarios and developed products, methods and technologies RAHS Analysts are process of discovery rather than deduction, track the likelihood of these scenarios for use by government agencies. The REC never alone because threats identified through RAHS emerging. More importantly, the analysts can delivered RAHS version 1.6 in 2007 with are evolving rapidly. Supporting a discovery work in a collaborative environment to share capabilities to support research and analysis Agency 1 Agency 5 mental process would also help analysts to insights and analyses. using extraction, modelling and survey tools. Agency 4 identify patterns from seemingly disparate The system was upgraded to version 2.0 in Agency 2 Agency 3 data, which mechanical systems are weak To connect the dots, entity resolution works3 2012 to enable theme extraction and added at. Second, there were no existing RAHS on networks of structured data where each applications to support sentiment analysis. systems to refer to and a new cognitive-based node represents data while links represent The next-generation tool code-named RAHS RAHS System is a Network system was needed to exploit new concepts in relationships between data. Such networks 4.0 is being conceptualised as an integrated RAHS. Third, the RAHS System would have provide more information and context to system architecture to strengthen the bridging to be updated constantly because its concept analysts instead of individual segments of of foresight and policy work. was still evolving. RAHS also uses a wide data analysed in silo. range of technology such as text analytics and modelling which are developing rapidly. Therefore, a robust process was needed to 3 Entity Resolution takes structured data and fuses data manage changes to the system and continually belonging to the same real world entity together. This is a key validate the system against the analysts' step in deriving an organised knowledge base.

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Rapid Response during SARS enable very high probability of detecting 9/11 attack in 2001 to analyse chemical and Review of Lab-acquired SARS a target in the surveillance space, while biological agent contaminated samples. At Infection The outbreak of the SARS virus took the world keeping the false alarm rate under control. the height of the SARS crisis, DSO joined by surprise. Amid concerted global efforts to It uses a military thermal imaging sensor the Singapore Clinical SARS Consortium, Following the review of the lab-acquired contain the disease, speedy tracing of contacts operating in 3-5 micron waveband (as this and was tasked to work with the Genome SARS infection case at the Environmental with SARS patients was identified as a critical was readily available from the SAF's inventory Institute of Singapore (GIS) to develop and Health Institute (EHI), an Implementation measure. Hence, at the onset of SARS, the then) as a sensor, to capture the infrared (IR) validate a diagnostic kit to detect the virus. Committee was set up within ENV 4 to Ministry of Health (MOH) set up a centre for radiation from the neck, facial and temple GIS was provided with initial part sequences oversee the implementation of the Review contact tracing, where manpower resources areas of the subject under test (as the subject of the Coronavirus from DSO's preliminary Panel's recommendation. The Implementation were deployed to track and trace probable walks past the set-up). This IR radiation is investigations. Despite risks involved, the Committee was assisted by a Technical SARS cases manually. Of particular priority then compared against a calibrated thermal professionalism and dedication of DSO's Advisory Group (TAG) chaired by CEO of was the tracing of contacts in hospitals, where reference source placed in the field of view scientists spurred them on in providing DSO Mr Quek Tong Boon. Tasked to look most SARS infections in Singapore occurred. of the IR camera. The threshold setting was diagnostic support for clinical samples, so into two main areas, the TAG proposed an Being manual and reliant on fragmented data, carefully derived based on extensive data as to lighten the load of the hospitals. More action plan to fumigate the laboratories for the the tracing process was, however, laborious (skin IR radiation of febrile and non-febrile than 1,600 clinical samples for the SARS destruction of BSL 3 viruses, and reviewed the and potentially prone to errors. individuals) gathered from trials carried out virus were screened during this period. DSO's biosafety procedures and training programme. at the Accident and Emergency Departments scientists also provided further assistance DSTA responded to MOH's request, joining of Singapore General Hospital and Alexandra to national hospitals, such as the National Fumigation of the BSL 3 laboratory was carried forces with ST Electronics to develop a more Hospital, Changi Airport and Army Camps. University Hospital, to test the protective out jointly by staff from EHI and DSO in efficient means of contact tracing. With a keen When the IR camera picks up someone with hoods used by the medical community in accordance with TAG's action plan. Preparation sense of mission, the team rapidly developed a suspected elevated body temperature (due high risk situations. for the fumigation and safety checks included a Contact Track and Trace (C-T&T) system to a higher skin temperature as detected by verifying uni-directional air flow, sealing of and Hospital Movement Tracking System, the IR camera), he or she is subjected to a air vents, setting up of quick release of the Thermal based on radio frequency identification (RFID) ‘confirmation process’ whereby a conventional Imager air vent seals for subsequent purging of the technology. With this system, movement thermometer is used to take his or her core Display fumigant, installing of fumigation equipment Monitors in a certain area of the hospital is recorded body temperature. The IFss solution, being Infrared with controls switch that were outside the BSL automatically. When needed, the people a non-intrusive and easy to operate, was Radiation 3 laboratory, and placing biological indicators patient has come in contact with can be traced deployed quickly across Singapore and at Thermal at various locations in the laboratory. All SARS reference quickly using the search and query capability airports across Asia as the first line of defence source coronavirus cultures were also deactivated at of the system. The system is set up to store against cross-border spreading of SARS. This this stage. Central information on visitors for 21 days, well above was a classic case of military technology being Processing the incubation period of the SARS virus of adapted for civilian application. Unit After completing the fumigation, 10 days. neutralisation and purging of the laboratory, The project subsequently won many awards An overview of how the IFss works. the EHI BSL 3 laboratory was deemed to Another urgent need at the height of SARS for its outstanding engineering achievement, be fumigated successfully, validated by the was for a fast, safe, user-and-public-friendly as well as the Tech Museum Innovation complete deactivation of biological indicators means of screening masses of people for fever. Award 2004. placed in various locations of the laboratory. This was especially crucial at immigration The laboratory was declared safe to enter after checkpoints to control the import of new SARS At the onset of the SARS outbreak, DSO the National Environment Agency confirmed cases. Responding to MOH's call to provide responded to MOH's request to support that the residual levels of the chemicals used screening devices that could be deployed to SGH's Pathology Laboratory in identifying were within guidelines. identify potential SARS cases, DSTA explored the etiological agent of SARS. DSO housed the use of thermal imaging sensor technologies one of the few facilities in Singapore that was In addition to managing the laboratory and developed the Infrared Fever Screening capable of handling dangerous agents such fumigation processes, the TAG also proposed System (IFss) with ST Electronics. as the SARS virus. This high containment The team received the US Tech Museum facility, also known as the Biosafety Level Award in November 2004 at a gala dinner 4 ENV was known as the Ministry of Environment in 2003. that was attended by leaders from Silicon The IFss is an innovative system solution 3 (BSL3) laboratory, had been designated as It is now known as Ministry of the Environment and Water that applies advanced radar concepts to the National Single Portal of Entry after the Valley and delegates from the United Nations. Resources – MEWR

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changes to the laboratory's processes, standard of other places. Close collaboration for the new Singapore Sports Hub. Believed operating procedures and training programme. to be the world's largest performing stage, The findings and recommendations from the the floating platform was designed to be a review were presented to the Implementation multi-purpose facility on the Marina Bay Committee, which concluded responsibilities for mass spectator events, sporting activities of the TAG. and cultural performances. It generates a usable space of 120m by 83m on water Chem-bio Defence Capabilities and was designed to carry a heavy load to Enhance Singapore's National comprising at least 9,000 people, 200 tonnes Security of stage props and three 30-tonne vehicles. A 27,000 seating capacity gallery was built The stage centrepiece for NDP 2011 With the increased threat of chemical weapons along the shoreline, facing the floating transformed itself throughout the event with used in modern conflicts, DSO has expanded At DSO's Biosafety Level 3 facility, platform. This gallery allows spectators to exciting visual and lighting effects. The DSTA its R&D work to include a range of chem-bio scientists supported the Ministry of Health in view various events on the platform and on team also powered the floating platform defence capabilities. One such solution that diagnostic testing of clinical samples for water against the backdrop of the Singapore with 10km of cables and 26 generators for a DSO developed against chemical agents is the presence of SARS virus during the city skyline. spectacular light and sound extravaganza. the Scentmate – a novel, fast and effective outbreak in March 2003 screening kit for individuals suspected of The floating platform is one of the most exposure to nerve agents. This technology was maintained with the Criminal technically challenging floating structures can assist in rapid on-site screening during a Investigation Department in collecting of its size, in view of the many unique chemical attack. evidence to trace the culprits responsible considerations. As the platform's chief for the perpetration of anthrax scares or planner and developer, DSTA had to keep DSO has also developed decontamination hoaxes. in mind not just the size of the platform technologies including the Demul-X. The and the load it could bear, but also make main draw of Demul-X is its ability to Underpinning these developments were the sure that the structure can be relocated and decontaminate a wide range of chemical and capabilities and infrastructures built up over reconfigured to meet the requirements of biological agents effectively, ranging from the years. In 2003, DSO achieved its first different events. As a result, the platform is For NDP 2012, the DSTA team procured in nerve to blister agents. It is also formulated Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical made of smaller platforms of pontoons, each a new manner by establishing more multi- with relatively non-toxic and environment- Weapons (OPCW) status, joining a select comprising hundreds of parts. Two hundred year contracts, thereby facilitating more friendly ingredients. These properties were group of 14 other laboratories in the world to pontoons were envisioned initially, but a efficient and effective processing of many lacking in decontamination formulations be designated. It was also the only laboratory unique system of connectors allowed this recurrent purchases before the mid 2000s. in South East Asia to achieve the designation, number to be reduced to 15. Designed to be and to possess the ability to receive samples light but robust, the connectors interlocked After the September 11 World Trade Centre from OPCW to test for suspected chemical the pontoons like a jigsaw puzzle. Assembling attacks, letters suspected to be contaminated agents. This achievement took seven years, the pontoons and connectors took one month. with anthrax spores began to pop up in the 10 tests and the unwavering effort of many Six pylons were fixed onto the seabed to act US and many other countries, including staff and it is a testimony to their “can-do” as the floating platform's foundation. Heavy- Singapore. Though it was initially meant only attitude and the management's strong belief duty rubber rollers were used to gently guide for research, the BSL 3 laboratory was quickly in the scientists' competency. the stage vertically to keep it from being identified as the only operating facility in rocked by tides and currents. Three link ways, Singapore that could handle the suspicious Floating Platform and National Day which connected the floating platform to the letters and anthrax spores. A procedure for Parade Support land, had special integrated joints to keep collecting, receiving and processing the them steady. suspected anthrax samples was worked out. The idea of a floating platform was conceived With a larger stage closer to the seating The samples sent in for analysis and by the organising committee of the National gallery at NDP 2013, the DSTA team prowled verification included letters with white Day Parade (NDP) in 2007, as a new venue the ground to measure sound levels and fine-tune the system to deliver powder, as well as powder collected from was required for NDP while the National 5 Most NDPs were held at the National Stadium before the 5 indoor environments, mailboxes and a variety Stadium would be demolished to make way floating platform was developed. optimal sound coverage.

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The platform design had to contend with for their citizens residing in Japan, as well as defence capabilities in DSO back in 2009. environmental conditions. The shallow appropriate contamination monitoring and Although another disaster is not welcomed, water at the site limited the platform depth, control for goods and people travelling out DSO stands ready to support MINDEF and while the changing tides put constraints of Japan into their country. the SAF and other national agencies if similar on both the positioning of the platform needs should arise in the future. with respect to the shore, as well the gradient In anticipation of potential plans to extend of the access bridges that linked the platform HADR efforts to Japan, MINDEF and the SAF Critical Infrastructure to the land. Furthermore, the floating approached DSO for assistance to provide platform was relatively flexible and exhibited The two-tier stage of NDP 2014 was the better clarity on the rapidly developing nuclear After Singapore gained independence in 1965, elastic behaviour, so hydro-elastic analyses largest ever to be constructed in disaster and assess the potential impact to it was necessary to build up local protective of the stage under the action of waves NDP's history, with a capacity of 1,800 HADR forces that could be sent to Japan. design capabilities quickly for the development were needed. performers and their props, 18 towers Relying on her nascent capability in radiological of key installations, defence infrastructure and 10 elevating platforms. dispersion modelling developed in response and facilities. Early protective design Safety was a primary consideration – to radiological dirty bomb threats, and an methodologies were based on protection specifically personnel safety and safety understanding of what will be released by the against well-prescribed threats. However, against structural damage. Hazards associated nuclear reactor in case of a severe accident, advances in technology have resulted in with the platform's accidental contact with DSO was able to provide probable and possible globalisation and increased connectivity that cruise boats and sports craft were analysed. worst case impact scenarios to MINDEF and have also changed the threat space. For example, The effect of translational accelerations of the SAF within 48 hours of activation – in spite warhead technology has advanced with the floating platform on the performers was of the absence of detailed technical information more powerful explosives as well as different investigated as a large number of personnel on the weather conditions and accident kill mechanisms such as shaped charges, were expected to remain on stage for progression at the incident site. Based on these runway denial rounds, fragmentation rounds prolonged durations. impact assessment studies, DSO reassured and thermobaric charges. Fuse technology MINDEF and the SAF that radiological has also progressed to facilitate the development Extensive full-scale load tests were conducted DSTA also provided consultancy contamination would not impact Narita of penetrating warheads. These weapons on the platform at the site to evaluate the on safety for Singapore's largest ever Airport, which was the planned landing point of enhanced capabilities can be developed design and ensure the stage could withstand fireworks display at NDP 2015. for the SAF's HADR forces. In addition, DSO rapidly, making it harder for protective the large load. The success of the floating also shared with other national agencies that infrastructure to keep up with commensurate platform opened up new possibilities Humanitarian Assistance in the radiological hazard zones would be confined protection levels without overwhelming in space creation, complementing other Fukushima Incident within Japanese geographical boundaries costs and disruptions to operations. initiatives such as land reclamation and even in the worst case scenarios. These building underground caverns. While the In early March 2011, a magnitude-9 findings corroborated the initial impact Beyond spurring military weapons technology floating platform was initially conceived earthquake off the Pacific coast of Tohoku, findings reported by other countries, which developments, worldwide connectivity has as an interim venue to host five NDPs, Japan triggered powerful tsunami waves helped to maintain a measured and calm increasingly emboldened terrorist activities, it has since hosted seven NDPs. that disabled all electrical and cooling response from our national agencies. DSO's spinning off emergent threats. Terrorism has systems at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear radiochemistry team was also activated evolved over the years, from one where there Beyond contributing towards a new venue to Power Plant. This incident resulted in the to support the Agri-Food and Veterinary was little connectivity and where knowledge host NDP in 2007, DSTA has also contributed release of significant amounts of radioactive Authority of Singapore in the analysis of in bomb making was confined to a few, to its expertise to support NDP over the years materials from three reactor units into the radioactive cesium in food supplies from Japan, a highly connected environment where in numerous areas – including building the environment. Owing to the unanticipated which was conducted continuously for the decentralised, non-hierarchical leaderships stage, implementing a robust power supply, incident for which no prior risk assessment following 12 months. collaborate, tap on and share knowledge online installing high-fidelity sound systems, was done, its dynamic nature and the easily. Furthermore, such decentralised but ensuring fireworks safety and procuring disruption of communication means within DSO's radiological dispersion and impact connected terrorist networks have become parade essentials like props and fun packs. the tsunami devastated zone, there was assessment capability has been put to good harder to detect. global consternation on the true extent of the use in support of MINDEF and the SAF and disaster. This generated immense pressure other national agencies. This came about To avoid being under-designed in protection on various governments to dispense prompt because of the foresight from MINDEF to against potential threats, DSTA developed advice on the appropriate protective measures fund the build-up of radiological and nuclear radically different approaches to critical

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infrastructure protection. Infrastructures infrastructures through different stages of that allow build-up of expertise in critical organisations with CIIs within six months. should not only be able to withstand a crisis will be essential. Building hardened infrastructure vulnerability. Dealing with such a diverse group of regulators, attacks, but also recover after an attack and shelters in public underground train stations sub-regulators and organisations, each with resume function. As such, it is necessary to may provide protection to masses of travelling CIVA also has its roots in the military its own uniqueness and characteristics, the build resiliency into critical infrastructures. commuters in times of crisis. However, people Operations Research capability in DSO. team learnt how best to elicit the required Resiliency allows infrastructure systems in high-rise residential buildings may not be Our OR analysts applied their military information from specific sectors and not to to sustain limited extent of damage, with able to get to the public shelter in time. For Modelling Simulation and Analysis (MSA) generalise. Workshop facilitation and soft recovery systems put in place to ensure return them, individual household shelters meet methodologies and tools to issues of national skills were essential to build trust with the to normalcy within a short time. A balance their protection needs better because they can security, centred around critical infrastructure ground-level individuals whom the team needs to be struck between providing full get to the shelters quickly and can carry on protection. CIVA MSA activities have covered interacted with. physical hardening and designing to allow with other activities in between alerts. This pandemic modelling, maritime trade-lane partial damage with swift system recovery. allows a greater level of normalcy even in study, electrical facility vulnerability, internet Design for resiliency can be achieved through times of tension, benefiting the population as infrastructure study, power grid study, a right combination of protective engineering it is better able to weather prolonged periods and oil/gas supply chains modelling. This design, system redundancy, design robustness of tension in crises. contributed to the build-up of a trusted, in- and contingency planning to counter country expertise that can rigorously assess asymmetrical threats or disruptions. The probability of threat occurrence and risks to Singapore's national infrastructures severity of its consequences can fluctuate over in all sectors. In this extended paradigm, it is possible the time-space domain. Beyond the focus to design facilities for protection without on modelling weapon effects on buildings, As Singapore is a "wired-up" modern city- defining a precise threat. This is done by modelling and simulation can be extended state, its Critical Infocomm Infrastructures expanding the area of coverage beyond the to workflow analysis, and can enable design (CIIs) are essential in our daily lives. As Seven critical infrastructure sectors immediate facility, considering systems optimisation for survivability and resiliency. part of the Singapore Infocomm Security vulnerabilities and designing to incorporate For facilities where mass congregation of Masterplan, the Infocomm Development Simultaneously, the methodological approach mitigation systems. Beyond the design people or vehicles is expected during operation, Authority (IDA) carried out the 2007 to 2009 was developed from scratch, covering precise of buildings, the concept of developing modelling to simulate human and traffic Critical Infocomm Infrastructure – Surety definitions of CII; derivation of national- protection options without a precise flows will provide critical inputs to planners, Assessment (CII-SA). This was a first-ever level criteria, scales, thresholds; disruption threat can also be applied to infrastructure designers and stakeholders on the adequacy attempt to survey and assess our nation's CIIs impact estimates; ratings of physical and networks, including networks for power of infrastructure system for mission support. comprehensively and systematically. cyber security readiness postures; and and fuel. Vulnerabilities can include a Ground exercises are needed to validate reviews for basis, consistency and soundness. single-point-of-failure, common mode planning and design assumptions. From this IDA had intended CII-SA as two phases: The approach was a fusion of metrology, failure and areas where even rudimentary understanding, an estimate of how much and high-level sweep and detailed assessment. mathematical modelling, and multi-criteria forms of protection do not exist. These where protection and resiliency can best be DSO was appointed the technical manager decision analysis. vulnerabilities may be overcome by various injected into a building system can be made. for both phases. While defining the project strategies, for example to overcome single- scope, DSO proposed that IDA also include The team eventually identified various point-of-failure in the system, one can DSTA developed a systematic and iterative information interdependency analysis as critical CIIs in Singapore's key sectors, and incorporate alternate distribution paths to approach to identify credible threats systems interdependency was important ranked them by their relative criticality. critical nodes, or provide physical separation and address the comparative risks and in connected networks, since “the net is The CIIs' static dependencies were also of critical distribution nodes. vulnerabilities. DSTA has conducted a the computer”. The DSO team was hence mapped. Quantitative impact assessments large body of research work on explosion tasked to analyse the CII interlinked – or informed estimations of some more Improving resiliency through system effects, structural response and progressive dependencies and relative criticalities, obscure CIIs – were done for all the CIIs design in space alone may not suffice. collapse in collaboration with local research and investigate the vulnerabilities of identified. Overall, much insight was Operational characteristics such as time institutes and overseas collaborators. DSTA selected CIIs. gained, and the quantitative assessments and usage patterns need to be considered, has also built up computational know-how provided a tangible basis for deciding how as how people respond to a threat plays an to model explosion effects. Explosive tests Phase 1 involved systematic data gathering. to enhance the CIIs, akin to the old adage important role in achieving mission success. were conducted to ensure the validity of The IDA-DSO core team liaised with more “what you can’t measure, you can’t manage”. Hence, understanding people's response to the research outcomes and models against than 10 Critical Infrastructure sector/ crises over time and the various usage of realistic threats. These are examples of works sub-sector regulators and more than 100

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Separately, another Phase 2 sub-team The CII MSA model was used to trace recognised by IES, derived from DSTA conceptualised and developed a CII the cascading impact of CII disruptions. College milestone courses in 2008. Giving interdependency model which can trace The findings of interest, especially on key full support to the initiative, DSTA engineers cascading disruptions due to infocomm installations, were shared with MHA and contributed to case studies, conducted dependencies. DSO analysts came up with SPF. These findings guided the CII owners training and sat on the certification board. the hierarchical, infocomm-based, service- to plug the vulnerabilities uncovered at the oriented concept, supported by assets and data centre and telecom sites. In 2013, this certification scheme evolved into telecommunications. This allows for impact the Chartered Engineer Programme which forecast given a service disruption, which The analysis of CII interdependencies came provides professional recognition to qualified could be due to one or multiple asset failures, in useful too, when local financial institutions engineers across all sectors. First rolled out CII Ranks and Dependencies or breakdowns in telecommunications. experienced IT system outages in mid 2010 to the Aerospace, Chemical, Environmental, and 2011. DSO was able to assess quickly Marine and Systems fields of engineering, The Phase 1 findings were accepted by the that the outages were unlikely to spread, and the programme was supported by industry National Infocomm Security Committee that the adverse consequences were limited leaders who signed an MOU at the opening in early 2008 and go-ahead for Phase 2 Information due to recovery processes that kicked in as ceremony of the inaugural World Engineers Organisation Service given. Phase 2 covered detailed all-threats planned. Building on the CII-SA work, DSO Summit held in Singapore in 2013. The MOU vulnerability assessments (VA) of a data embarked on the surety assessment of other was witnessed by Deputy Prime Minister Teo centre and selected telecom sites. DSO CIIs in Singapore in 2012. Chee Hean, who is also Coordinating Minister applied its consequence-based methodology CII A CII B CII C CII for National Security and Minister for Home to the data centre and telecom sites. Our Spreading the Practice of Systems Affairs. DSTA was one of the 12 leading local physical security, cyber, Supervisory Control Engineering engineering employers. Aimed at engineers and Data Acquisition, electromagnetic Sub-CII who are in fields that do not require them and weapon effect subject matter experts Systems engineering is a critical competency to be registered as Professional Engineers, Locations: where the assets are interviewed the CII operators, walked the 1) An organisation has CII(s), which it uses for all DSTA engineers. Project managers the Chartered Engineer title is an external grounds, probed corners, measured this and 1. An organistion has CII(s), whichto it provide uses to service(s)provide to its customers. and their team members have to apply validation of their experience, expertise and service(s) to its customers. 2. To2) function, To function, a CII adepends CII depends on its assets, simulated that – to uncover non-obvious gaps on its assets, perhaps other CII(s)perhaps and service(s). other CII(s) and service(s). systems engineering in every phase of the practising competence. This accreditation and vulnerabilities that can lead to the CIIs project life cycle in order to be able to deliver enables employers and government to access being taken out, with the resulting Hierarchical, Infocomm-Based, an operationally effective and supportable assured levels of professional competence undesired consequences. Service-Oriented Concept system to the end user. Systems engineering and increase their business competitiveness brings with it a way of thinking, analysing in the global markets. It also serves to raise and problem solving that considers not the standing of engineers in the society and just technical but also non-technical encourage the younger generation to take up factors. To promote systems engineering engineering as a career. and ensure standards for good practices, DSTA collaborated with the Institution of Engineers Singapore (IES) in 2008 to launch Singapore's first certification programme for Systems Engineering professionals – the Certified Systems Engineering Professional or CSEP Certification Programme. IES also set up a technical committee to work out the certification process.

DSTA provided leadership by heading the committee and reviewing the body of systems engineering knowledge, largely distilled from the MINDEF LCM Manual. DSTA also Infocomm Inter-Dependency Analysis – Cascading Effects established the Systems Engineering Course

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ADVANCING THE challenges, allowing us to design and Key Success Factors in the DTC of MINDEF and the build-up of the SAF. In DTC'S SYSTEMS develop even more complex and tightly fact, when Dr Goh returned to MINDEF in integrated systems using potentially high- Key qualities displayed by successive 1970 as its third Minister for Defence after APPROACH THROUGH risk technologies such that we can operate generations of DTC members have included: serving three years as Minister for Finance, THE GENERATIONS at a higher level of performance yet avoiding he demanded everyone in MINDEF to be catastrophic system failures. • Adopting an SoS perspective using long- more conscious of the importance of learning term thinking, and integrated approaches, and applying modern management control The second question is whether the DTC while applying systems thinking. techniques. The circumstances then were Is the DTC Future Ready? as an SoS can ensure its continued vitality • Maintaining an adequate level of that MINDEF was growing rapidly in size and relevance in the face of rapid continuous investments in new technologies and and complexity after National Service was Today, our DTC is an Enabling SoS which change. The methods and methodologies competencies, balanced by instilling the institutionalised in 1967, and given the comprises a strong network of organisations described in this volume have allowed the values of prudence and excellence at the urgent mission of building up the defence of and a critical mass of engineering and scientific DTC to succeed, but is the system fleet-footed organisational level. Singapore arising from the withdrawal of the personnel who practise well-established enough to make the necessary changes to • Cultivating an organisational habit of British forces. systems engineering methodologies. maintain its vitality and relevance? What pragmatism and mission-focus, yet with has not been sufficiently described in this the mindfulness and flexibility to be He would demand for data and rigour in staff At its 50th anniversary milestone, the DTC is volume are the soft factors relating to resilient to disruptive trends and shocks work before making any decision. He had in a position of strength. Amid a time of well- people, organisations and culture that have and to ensure that established mental the intellect and capacity to traverse easily deserved celebration, looking ahead, it may brought about the DTC's present success. models remain relevant. from laying out the strategic geopolitical also be appropriate to ask two interrelated Can the DTC continue to lead and enable • Embracing a “dare to dream” and “can perspectives of issues to drilling into specific questions. the innovation necessary to ensure future do” entrepreneurial spirit to break new details when the problem demanded it. success in an increasingly complex operating ground, and maintaining the appropriate The first question is whether the DTC as environment ? risk appetite to continually test and extend He developed and trusted his staff, often an SoS can continue to enable the SAF and the boundaries of possibilities. empowering them with great authority even Singapore to maintain their competitive These are important questions that we may • Taking responsibility to understand and when they were at a young age. Dr Goh never advantage by overcoming the challenges not have the answers to right now. We can, master the systems to be implemented, believed in relying on “turn-key” contracts for arising from an interconnected, complex and however, begin by reflecting upon some of epitomised by a “learn by doing” ethos. defence equipment in building up Singapore's rapidly changing global environment. The the key qualities of our people over a 50-year • Ensuring analytical rigour in evaluating defence capability. He strongly felt that the Normal Accident Theory (Charles Perrow, journey that has brought the DTC to where options for decision-making. process of doing the project – taking “systems 1984 ) offers a pessimistic view that in a it is today. • Seeking and nurturing talents for responsibility” ourselves – presented great world that is tightly coupled and interactively leadership succession at all levels of the opportunities for our defence engineers and complex, system-induced accidents or failures organisation. scientists to learn. are waiting to happen. Others have argued using the concepts of resilience engineering Systems engineering leaders who exemplified He was a man of action and because of that we can successfully overcome these the aforementioned qualities had been the circumstances and extremely hostile instrumental in infusing a similar systems environment immediately after Singapore's approach “DNA” to others around them. If separation from Malaysia, Dr Goh instilled we were to trace the lineage of such systems a great sense of urgency, the organisational DEENCE TECHNOOGY ENAING SYSTEMOSYSTEMS engineering leaders in the DTC, our search habit of strategic and systems thinking, DTC Organisations and People would lead us to one of Singapore's pioneering thoroughness and prudence in MINDEF and leaders, Dr Goh Keng Swee. the SAF's leadership team. Systems Engineering Methodologies

Long-Term Front-End Acquisition Transition to Operations & System As Singapore's first Minister for Defence, Dr Planning Planning Management O&S Support Retirement Goh was known to be a hard taskmaster and a great systems thinker with a highly inquisitive mind. He applied a systems approach and Illustration of the DTC as an enabling SoS introduced modern management science and rational economic thinking in the management

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Dr Goh Keng Swee – The first today recall him with affection and respect.” somewhere and keep quiet.” Lim Siong Guan, who Extending DTC's Legacy through Systems Engineering Leader and also worked for Dr Goh [and served as Director of Future Generations Teacher in MINDEF “Said Eddie Teo, [who was Director of Security and Logistics Division as well as Permanent Secretary Intelligence Division before serving as Permanent for Defence], recalled that he was a minister who “Over the past decade, there have been instances Secretary for Defence from 1994 to 2000] chairman gave even junior officers a lot of leeway, so that when other agencies lamented their loss of such of the Public Service Commission, on Dr Goh, “His young officers cut their teeth on exciting projects.” professional expertise. During those moments, secret was his ability to reach down to very young MINDEF and the SAF can count ourselves fortunate officers and deal with them one to one because once (Extracted from “Pioneers Once More – that our leaders had recognised the critical need to he does that, then he develops in you total loyalty… The Singapore Public Service 1959 - 2009”, pages develop our indigenous technology and engineering So he had this ability to reach out to the people that 72-74). capabilities for our defence needs, and have thus he wanted views from. He doesn’t care about rank retained this essential community. Many of you and hierarchy and all that. And in return, I think Dr Goh shared his knowledge freely with his here recognise the often used phrase – the secret these young officers then felt motivated to work, staff. He would explain his decisions and in edge weapon. The weapon that gives us an edge in stay in the Civil Service, whereas if you observed the process coach and develop his staff into protecting us. Let me say that today that the DTC hierarchy and just talked to the director and ignored confident leaders. Those who had worked is our secret edge weapon.” all the other people, you don’t develop that kind of directly with Dr Goh became good systems personal loyalty.” thinkers and teachers as they led the build-up Dr Ng Eng Hen of MINDEF and the SAF. Extracted from keynote address at the DTC Pioneers' Minister for Defence, Dr Goh Keng Swee “Apart from the spirit of austerity, Dr Goh is Dinner on 5th May 2015 (left) being welcomed by said to have imparted two other key values to the “It's people and organisations that live and MAJ Michael Teo during Dr Goh’s visit Civil Service. One is a habit of rational economic grow and appreciate over time, while equipment As we reflect on the development and growth to Tengah Air Base in 1976 thinking… Dr Goh's other major influence on the depreciates. It's people that make the difference, of the DTC, one cannot help but recognise Civil Service lay in his own personality. He was a not the hardware.” the impact of the first generation of leaders “The first generation of political leaders – like Dr temperamental, passionate man given to exploring who led MINDEF and the SAF. It started Goh Keng Swee… were men of principles and wild ideas, who started off with the premise “why Prof Lui Pao Chuen with Dr Goh Keng Swee, the first Minister conviction. The values they brought would be not” when confronted with a new scheme. He Extracted from the book “Singapore's Scientific for Defence, who seeded and cultivated transmitted to the young civil servants who worked expected officers working for him to act likewise. Pioneers”, page 65 the organisation culture that enabled many directly for them. This pioneering generation of The result: a high-energy, risk-taking culture was generations of systems engineering leaders civil servants in turn would rise to become heads embedded in the ministries Dr Goh headed. And A lineage of systems engineering leaders in the DTC to dream, do and share lessons of ministries, passing on time-tested values to their because he was so powerful and charismatic a emerged out of Dr Goh's influence, be it learned to build defence capabilities for a younger counterparts. In this inter-personal way, leader, his staff knew they had his backing even directly or indirectly, and made an impact strong SAF. before induction or training was systematised, values if they did not quite play by the rules. Philip Yeo in shaping the DTC to where it is today. were transmitted and methods of doing things spread [one of the longest continuous serving administrative Among them, many were honoured for Today, the DTC possesses a cutting edge through a process of osmosis.” officers in MINDEF] is candid that without Dr their contributions during the DTC Pioneers' because of its people who have continually Goh, he would never have cut it as a civil servant. Dinner on 6th May 2015 – Dr Tony Tan, Mr grown with time and experience. They are the “Among the first generation of ministers, it is Dr Goh Mr Yeo… was the resident maverick in the public Lim Siong Guan, Mr Philip Yeo, Mr Teo Ming backbone and lifeblood of the DTC Enabling Keng Swee who is most often cited by senior civil sector, saying Dr Goh shielded him from other Kian, Mr Peter Ho, Prof Lui Pao Chuen, BG SoS, and their ingenuity, passion, and shared servants today as a key influence in their personal higher-ranking officers' wrath.” (Ret) Wesley D'aranjo and Prof Su Guaning. vision are crucial ingredients in facing and lives, and in the Civil Service as a whole. Dr Goh dealing with the unknowns of tomorrow. So, was a visionary and implementor extraordinaire, “Herman Hochstadt, who was Permanent Secretary There are also many other unsung heroes as the DTC navigates into its next 50 years of whose capabilities and interests ranged far and in several ministries through the 1970s and 1980s, who had left a mark in shaping the DTC as unchartered waters in an increasingly complex wide. An economist by training, he was instrumental described Dr Goh as someone who fostered an an Enabling SoS comprising a diverse range world, it is our hope that new generations of in the whole gamut of Singapore's early nation- entrepreneurial, risk-taking culture by the way he of capabilities, infrastructures, encoded best Singaporeans will arise to take on the mantle building efforts: industrialisation, defence, finance, dealt with mistakes. “What he tried to put forward practices as well as confident and competent of defence engineers and scientists to extend education… His wide range of interests meant he is that you can make a mistake but if it's a genuine engineering and scientific professionals. the legacy of our systems engineering leaders, worked with a cross-section of civil servants from mistake, you make it, but don't make it again. and secure the happiness, peace, prosperity different generations. Some civil servants in their Don't make the same mistake again. Then if I tell and progress of Singapore. 50s or early 60s and still active in Public Service you to do something, get it done. Don't just run off

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Key Leaders in Systems The contributions of As Permanent Secretary Mr Philip Yeo Liat Kok Engineering Mr Teo Chee Hean (Defence), Mr Lim was instrumental in to the DTC started Siong Guan developed building up Singapore's As Deputy Prime when he was with the strategic ideas and defence industry and Minister and Minister SAF. As a Naval officer, programmes that strengthening the for Defence from 1st he worked closely bolstered MINDEF's indigenous engineering August 1995 to 31st with DSO on the use ability to plan for the capability in providing July 2003 and Deputy of technology to advance the RSN’s future, yet had the capability to respond the secret edge in defence. He was Prime Minister and capabilities. As Head of Naval Plans and to different challenges and unexpected concurrently also the founding Chairman Coordinating Minister subsequently as Chief of Navy, his far developments. Under his leadership, of the National Computer Board from for Security and Defence from 1st August sightedness and strategic perspectives the SAF embarked on the upgrade and 1981 to 1987. Under his leadership, 2003 to 31st August 2005, Dr Tony Tan were instrumental in the visioning, modernisation of its services to become MINDEF systems engineers spearheaded Keng Yam was instrumental in the conceptualisation and development of a Second Generation fighting force. He the national computerisation effort of development of the DTC. Under Dr Tan’s the Navy to what it is today. The long- expanded and strengthened defence Singapore. Because of his determination leadership, Singapore built up its defence term plans that he put in place led to the relations with key countries. There was and persistence, MINDEF was the first industry infrastructure in areas that were build-up of many significant capabilities increased collaboration between MINDEF ministry to computerise in a significant strategic to MINDEF and the SAF. He in the DTC through the different projects and the local defence industry. Mr Lim way, paving the way for the rest of the oversaw the corporatisation of the Defence that it undertook for the Navy over the last launched the MINDEF Productivity public sector to adopt computerisation. Science Organisation as DSO National few decades, including the development Movement to encourage innovations and As the Chairman of the DSO Executive Laboratories in 1997. This move allowed of the Changi Naval Base, the frigates initiative in MINDEF and SAF operations Committee, Mr Yeo led DSO to refocus and the organisation to develop collaborative and the submarines. As Director of Joint including defence technology, and become steadily more capable in several links with research establishments. Under Operations and Planning Directorate, introduced scenario planning to deal with core areas, including electronic warfare, his guidance, the first Temasek Laboratories Mr Teo was one of the early advocates different possible futures. He established guided systems and cryptography. He – a collaboration between DSTA and the for better integration between the the Joint Operations Committee that drove efforts to build the competency of National University of Singapore – was technology and operations communities brought about better integration within defence scientists and engineers by creating established in 2000. The transformation to build trust and confidence between the SAF as well as with the logistics postgraduate and training opportunities, of the DTC through the consolidation of the two communities – well before the and manpower divisions in MINDEF, which raised Singapore's engineering defence technology organisations under term “ops-tech integration” was coined. As which later developed into the Joint capability to develop breakthrough a single statutory board, DSTA, would Second Minister for Defence in the 1990s Operations and Planning Directorate. work and defence innovations. Under his not have been possible without Dr Tan’s and later on as Minister for Defence till Mr Lim introduced the concept of Total leadership, MINDEF adopted a higher foresight, leadership and guidance. The 2011, he was instrumental in rationalising Defence to enhance and encourage the profile to recruit engineers and scientists formation of DSTA coalesced MINDEF’s and restructuring the C3 communities holistic commitment of all Singaporeans from local universities, which augmented efforts in defence technology acquisition within the DTC. The directions and in defending the nation. MINDEF's manpower resources to staff and management. The steady investment guidance that he provided as Minister defence technology projects and begin new of resources towards the development had strategic impact on the transformation project teams. of an indigenous defence technology of the SAF into the Third Generation capability under Dr Tan’s leadership gave fighting force. The SAF’s Third Generation the SAF a strategic technological edge. journey has led to the build-up of strong indigenous capabilities in critical areas for our defence in DSO, DSTA and in our local defence industry.

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Mr Teo Ming Kian Mr Peter Ho Hak Professor Lui Pao Er. BG (Ret) Wesley led the DTG formed in Ean played a pivotal Chuen was one of D'aranjo was pivotal in 1986, to bring about role in driving the the first scientists who transforming DMO into a new synergy and transformation of joined MINDEF. Since a highly professional integration to the the SAF into a Third taking charge of the and respected systems logistics, technology Generation military. Test, Evaluation and acquisition authority. He and research arms of He initiated the Acceptance Section in institutionalised a total MINDEF and the defence industry. He modernisation of Singapore's defence 1966, he had built Singapore's engineering system approach in project management sharpened DTG's mission to “Engineering capability to enable the SAF to exploit capabilities to manage large-scale and led the design of MINDEF LCM. the Nation's Defence” by leveraging new concepts and technologies to better defence programmes. He led the As DS(T), he had executive authority technology as a force multiplier for the deal with new threats. His foresight development of the SAF's first command over all organisations of the DTG. He SAF. To achieve the mission, Mr Teo and leadership strengthened Singapore's and control systems, and contributed was instrumental in building Singapore's built an engineering and technological defence and security. Mr Ho pushed for significantly to master planning and capabilities in defence R&D, large- capability to acquire, customise, upgrade the corporatisation of DSO in 1997. He project implementation efforts that turned scale systems integration, development and indigenously develop and produce oversaw the formation of DSTA in Tengah Air Base and Paya Lebar Airport and acquisition, and procurement and systems and equipment to meet the 2000. He played a key role in creating into modern operational airbases. As contract administration. He oversaw C4I specific needs of the SAF. Under his the necessary “white space” for defence Singapore's first Chief Defence Scientist, development, building and infrastructure leadership, MINDEF moved from being research and technology efforts. Professor Lui guided the development of development and corporate planning for a “smart buyer” to being able to selectively His leadership was instrumental in various technology agencies to explore DTG, as well as strategic resources and develop in-country defence capabilities strengthening defence technology new technologies and innovative concepts. defence industrial capability. He played as well as ensuring life-cycle operational collaboration with other countries. He spearheaded the development of a pivotal role in advancing the command readiness. He was instrumental in pushing Mr Ho charted the way forward for defence Singapore's first Underground Ammunition and control capability that became the for the design and development of systems engineers and scientists to contribute Facility. He played a vital role in planning core of the C3 Systems Organisation such as the FH88 Howitzer, the Bionix beyond defence. The Risk Assessment and developing the network of radar, and later the IT group in the DSTA. Infantry Fighting Vehicle, the Endurance and Horizon Scanning Experimentation weapon systems and civil defence shelters He provided professional direction to class LST and the Super Skyhawk. He Centre was his brainchild. The centre now for Singapore's integrated air defence. In the Logistics Departments of the SAF. also strongly supported the build-up of serves as a shared platform for analysts the 1980s, Professor Lui advocated the Er. BG (Ret) D'aranjo placed much emphasis several secret-edge capabilities in the from different agencies to collaborate creation of a 1,000-strong community of on nurturing scientific and engineering DSO. The success of these programmes, on perspective sharing, modelling and engineers and scientists. His emphasis on expertise, and contributed significantly to which demanded quantum leap in local research. Mr Ho played an instrumental people development has grown the DTC the build-up of technological capabilities production capabilities and risk appetite, role in rallying crucial support across into a world-class defence technology in MINDEF and the SAF. Through his provided the confidence for subsequent ministries and agencies, and enabled the outfit. He steadily built up operations efforts, MINDEF built closer ties and development of other new defence DTC to make impactful contributions analysis and systems engineering expertise embarked on R&D initiatives with several systems. in the fight against the SARS outbreak in MINDEF. He steered efforts to tap international research institutes, military in 2003. the capabilities of local universities and establishments and the local academic and research institutes, which paved the scientific community. way for the establishment of Temasek Laboratories in the various universities.

128 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 129 Chapter 8 ADVANCING THE DTC’S SYSTEMS APPROACH THROUGH THE GENERATIONS Chapter Nine

BEYOND DTC50 published in 2002, as then Chief Executive Professor Su Guaning By Quek Tong Boon, Co-chief Editor of Officer of DSO National Laboratories, I was one of Singapore's DTC50 Book Series wrote in the concluding chapter entitled first defence research “Back to our Future” that advances in sensors, engineers and led communications, information processing, the initial build-up networks and unmanned systems “would of electronic warfare Ten years ago, nobody had heard of the have profound impact on the future of capability in Singapore. iPhone, iPad or ISIS. Yet today we live in warfare. Analogous to what is happening Under his stewardship, DSO grew in a world with our lifestyles shaped by the in the commercial business world; the capability and size to become the largest likes of the iPhone and iPad, and with ISIS1 transformation in the military is towards research institute in Singapore with world claiming responsibility for many of the operations that are more integrated and class competencies in defence technology. terrorist attacks worldwide over the last two knowledge-based”. The commentary also He led the corporatisation of DSO to years. The Economist, in its 2nd January 2016 observed that expertise built up for defence ensure clarity of mission, autonomy and article on “Election Forecasting – Prediction could be adapted to address the more responsiveness to the SAF's needs, serving 2016”, concluded that “at the time of writing, complex national security challenges that briefly as Chief Executive Officer in 1997. PredictIt2 reckons that the fight for the have emerged in the 21st century, especially Professor Su was instrumental in pushing Republican nomination is between Ted Cruz in the wake of the September 11 World Trade for the establishment of DSTA and and Marco Rubio, and that Hillary Clinton Centre attacks in the US in 2001. became its first Chief Executive in 2000. has a 54% chance of becoming the next He established DSTA as an innovative and president.” No mention of Donald Trump at Since 2002, the world has become even more effective organisation in providing defence all! Speculating about the future is a perilous connected. Social media has not only taken technology support to MINDEF and undertaking3! off but also become integral to many people’s the SAF. He established DSTA as a lifestyles. Advances in computer processors, knowledge-based organisation, with Given mankind’s egregious record of software, sensors and nanotechnology have sound defence technological competencies predictions, to predict what the DTC would surpassed expectations at the turn of the – in acquisition management, operations be like or which technologies would prevail century. Only the most optimistic would and support, technology management for our defence in the coming decades would have predicted then that by 2016, we would and information technology. Under his be to repeat a perennial folly. We will instead have computers and algorithms that can listen leadership, DSTA made great strides in highlight some of the driving forces that and speak to us, write prose, beat human meeting the evolving needs of the SAF and could shape the evolution of our defence champions at the ancient oriental game of delivering cutting-edge solutions to the technology landscape over the next decade Go (considered cognitively more complex SAF. DSTA also extended its collaborative or so. than chess) and diagnose diseases! The iPad2, network to include renowned institutions launched in 2011, was benchmarked in a 2012 and agencies, including the US Defense In the DSO 30th Anniversary Commemorative study by researchers at the University of Advanced Research Projects Agency Book “Creating the Technology Edge” Tennessee to be as fast as the Cray-2 vector (DARPA). supercomputer, the world’s fastest computer in the 1980s. 1 Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, also known as Daesh or ISIL References: (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ). It became prominent in The continued advancement and proliferation early 2014 when it drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in western Iraq. of the above technologies, in tandem with Perrow, C. (1984). Normal accidents: Living with high-risk technologies. Princeton, 2 PredictIt is a New Zealand-based prediction market that emerging technologies such as additive New Jersey: Princeton University Press. offers prediction exchanges on political and financial events. manufacturing, robotics, cloud computing, It is owned and operated by Victoria University of Wellington. machine learning, natural language 3 Chua, M. H. & Kwek, K. (2010). Pioneers once more: The Singapore Public Service, One of the rare exceptions is the observation made by processing, augmented reality, precision Dr Gordon Moore in 1965 for semiconductor development, 1959 – 2009. Singapore: Straits Times Press. encapsulated in what has since been called Moore’s law. Its medicine and neurotechnology, promise to prediction on the exponential increase in number of transistors disrupt the way we live, work, play and that could be packed into a chip has been largely on track for Chan, J., Chua, G., Sim, S., & Tan, R. (2015). Singapore’s scientific pioneers. Singapore: the last 50 years but there are some recent indications that it interact in the coming decades. Take play, Asian Scientist Publishing Pte Ltd. could finally be running out of steam. for example. Augmented reality was the

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wind in the sails of the Pokémon GO4 In the defence domain, our systems have perhaps even blockchain6, could allow us June 2015. Spurred by the 2011 Fukushima mania that swept through Singapore within become more networked and knowledge- to reap benefits at the cross-organisational nuclear disaster, its theme was on robotics hours after its launch on 6th August 2016, based, enabling greater integration and and system-of-systems levels. Employed to aid in disaster recovery. There was intense mirroring its worldwide phenomenal precision in SAF operations over the last judiciously, such technology will drive global interest by the industry in the proceedings success. In the manufacturing sector, decade. This is exemplified by several of the optimisation and integration of our resources and outcome of the challenge. Weeks before relentless digitisation has led to new stories that we have shared in this DTC50 and assets to an extent not possible before. the challenge itself, news leaked out that operating paradigms that usher in the age book series, in particular this book on Uber was hiring 40 researchers from National of Industry 4.05, a term first used in 2011 at systems-of-systems. At the third level, technological enablers Robotics Engineering Center (NREC) of the the Hannover Fair. This purported "fourth combined with changes in mindsets, Carnegie Mellon University to kick-start epoch" of the Industrial Revolution promises Our defence systems will be transformed processes, systems and structures could its own autonomous car capability. As the increased flexibility in manufacturing, by the next wave of technological advances. transform how we lead, educate, organise, loss accounted for about a third of NREC’s mass customisation, increased speed, How so will depend, in part, on the answers train, and operate. Increasingly competent robotics talent pool, the exodus dealt a blow better quality and improved productivity. to the following questions: What would and smart machines, working in unison to the centre’s capabilities. Other everyday Additive manufacturing will also enable rapid be the parallel in defence to Industry 4.0 with our soldiers, commanders and planners technologies which have benefitted from prototyping, decentralised production and or our digital economy? How far can we (themselves possibly augmented by advances past defence investments include the Apple on-demand logistics – disrupting traditional leverage the innovations spawned by the in the cognitive and biomedical domains), Inc’s Siri7 software assistant and iRobot’s supply chain models. digital revolution to significantly mitigate our could enable us to overcome challenges that Roomba vacuum cleaning robot: the room- security and demographic challenges? Can are even more complex and intractable than cleaning algorithm used in Roomba is similar In 2014 professors Erik Brynjolfsson and concerns related to security, safety, ethics and what we have been able to do so far. to the mine-hunting algorithm that iRobot Andrew McAfee of the Massachusetts complexity of autonomous capabilities be developed for the US military. Institute of Technology published their adequately addressed and managed to avoid At the same time, we should be mindful of seminal book “The Second Machine Age.” the dystopian nightmares of sci-fi movies? the opportunities created by the availability Fortunately, this flow of ideas is bidirectional. Since then, countless articles have echoed With information becoming an increasingly of COTS technologies for military use. Many The defence sector is increasingly benefiting their vision of the rise of smarter machines important dimension of warfare, how will it technologies that we take for granted today from technologies that originate from that could work tirelessly on routine jobs, shape the evolution of warfare and threats? such as the computers, internet, and global the private sector too. Large technology and increasingly, on jobs that require higher More generally, will non-kinetic means of navigation can trace their origins to the R&D corporations such as Google, Microsoft, IBM, cognitive skills too. warfare finally come of age to complement investments by the US defence community. Amazon and Space X are now investing in the use of kinetic means in future warfare? However, it is exploitations by the commercial moonshot projects ranging from quantum Unfortunately, the abuse and nefarious use of At the hardware level, the premise that sector that have made possible their economies computing to reusable space launchers which technology has also become more pervasive, computer chips would do more and more, yet of scale, accessibility and affordability, to the in the past would have been driven more by more intense and more sophisticated. cost less and less, in accordance with Moore’s extent that even the US military is heavily government R&D agencies. Criminals cloaked by encryption and the law, has driven many of the innovations over reliant on the commercial sector to provide dark web can now operate more stealthily. the 50 years. When this law hits its limits, dual-use technologies today. Greater reliance on the more nimble Social networks have made it easier for what will be the impact on the pace and commercial sector for defence technologies terrorists to globalise their messages of hate nature of technological innovation? Will the commercial sector continue to will change technology refresh rates and and violence; extremist propaganda and adopt technologies seeded by defence R&D? developmental cycles. In some areas such as radicalising appeals jostle alongside inane Digitisation provides opportunities for the Looking at the examples of autonomous software and algorithms, there is a blurring videos and news bites on social media. defence community at three levels. First, vehicles and more generally robotics, the of lines between research, development, internally within our organisations and in answer is probably still yes. Over the last engineering, production, and even operations. the products, systems and solutions that we few years, driverless vehicles have come to develop, enablers such as machine learning, the forefront of public awareness. It was 6 robotics and additive manufacturing have however the series of three grand challenges The technology that enables secure bitcoin transactions to 4 A location-based augmented reality video game initially take place. released in selected countries by Nintendo on 6th July 2016. the potential to significantly increase their organised by the DARPA from 2004 to 2007 7 The Siri intelligent software assistant which is now part 5 Industry 1.0: Water/steam power to mechanise production; leverage and multiplier effects. that sparked interest in the development of of Apple Inc’s iOS is an offshoot of the DARPA-funded Industry 2.0: Electric Power for mass production; Industry 3.0: autonomous vehicles. Since then, DARPA has CALO project. CALO ("Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Electronics and ICT to automate production; Industry 4.0: At a second level, harnessing the potential focused its grand challenges in the areas of Organizes") was an artificial intelligence project that attempted Digital revolution characterised by fusion of technologies that to integrate numerous AI technologies into a cognitive assistant is blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and of analytics, cloud computing, cyberspace, robotics and cybersecurity. The finals of the for military applications. In fact, the name CALO was inspired biological spheres. networks, the internet of things and fourth DARPA grand challenge took place in by the Latin word "calonis," which means "soldier’s servant".

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These trends could change the nature and Singapore’s size and resource limitations inspire those who are taking over the batons dynamics of the relationships between should not limit our ability to be bold in from us to have the same guts and gumption the users, developers, industry, and service our dreams, holistic in our approach and to engineer our future defence with ingenuity. providers in the coming years. They could daring in our executions. In fact, many of As Peter Medawar, the British scientist said also accelerate the pace of defence capability the stories shared in this DTC50 book series in his 1959 book, The Future of Man, developments in future. In order to tap on were sparked by the desire to overcome or the high tempo and highly creative energy mitigate our constraints and limitations. “The bells which toll for mankind are — most of of companies operating at the cutting edge of We owe much of what the DTC is capable them, anyway — like the bells of Alpine cattle; technology, the US Department of Defense of today, as typified by the system in the they are attached to our own necks, and it must has recently set up an office known as DIUx opening page of each of the 4 books in the be our fault if they do not make a cheerful and (Defense Innovation Unit Experimental) series, to the scientists and engineers who laid harmonious sound.” with outposts in Silicon Valley and Boston the foundations for such capabilities. Who to accelerate the flow of innovations from are the people whose decisions and actions non-traditional sources to US warfighters. will weave the DTC75 or DTC100 narrative? What technologies and capabilities that they Within Singapore, the success of Block 71 at develop will come to the fore? Only time Ayer Rajah is a hopeful sign that our initiatives will tell. Our future generations of defence to promote entrepreneurship and encourage scientists and technologists are still studying start-ups in Singapore could finally be bearing in our universities and schools today. Their fruits. Echoing trends across the Pacific, the dreams, decisions, projects and actions in the DTC has contributed to the genesis of some DTC will shape our future stories. successful high-technology start-ups in Singapore. Some, such as D'Crypt Pte Ltd What will remain evergreen is this: the (dealing with the design and development of DTC’s ability to continue to attract scientific, cryptographic technology and devices) and technological and engineering talents from Lighthaus Pte Ltd (dealing with the design each cohort will undergird its ability to and development of optronics technology) sharpen the cutting edge for Singapore’s were founded by ex-DSO8 staff. Others, defence and national security. Our future such as Hope Technik, Microfine Materials generations must respond to problems that Pte Ltd and Denselight Semiconductors Pte are likely to be less well-defined, with Ltd cut their teeth by working on defence- technologies and solutions that are less related projects during their formative years. well-trodden, less proven, more adaptive and In the coming years, I expect the relationship less structured. Curiosity, risk-tolerance and between the defence industry and our start- experimentation must be even more integral References: up scene to become yet more entwined, to the DTC DNA in the future. contributing to a more vibrant innovation Chew, M., & Tan, B. (2002). Creating the technology edge. Singapore: DSO National ecosystem in Singapore. It has been an exciting five decades for the Laboratories. various generations of defence scientists, How we in Singapore organise ourselves and engineers and technologists. Our inexperience Dongarra, J., & Luszczek, P. (2012). Anatomy of a globally recursive embedded what systems and policies we put in place in did not deter us from having bold dreams; LINPACK benchmark. IEEE Conference on High Performance Extreme Computing future to develop our technologies, manage our resource limitations did not diminish (pp. 1-6). doi: 10.1109/HPEC.2012.6408679 our acquisitions and undertake our logistics our tenacity to execute them; our failures did could be fundamentally impacted by these not discourage us from picking up, learning Kagermann, H., Lukas, W. D. & Wahlster, W. (2011, April 1). Industrie 4.0: trends. from them and getting our jobs done. That in Mit dem Internet der Dinge auf dem Weg zur 4. Industriellen Revolution. VDI essence is how we have been able to engineer Nachrichten, pp. 2. the defence technological capabilities of 8 D’Crypt was co-founded by Antony Ng and Chew Hwee Boon in 2000 and Lighthaus by Phua Poh Boon in 2011. All Singapore to what they are today. We hope Brynjolfsson, E. & McAfee, A. (2014). The second machine age: Work, progress, and were ex-DSO researchers. that the stories that we have shared will prosperity in a time of brilliant technologies. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

134 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 135 Appendix to Chapter 2 Appendix to Chapter 2

Systems Architecting as an Approach makers and stakeholders, and by leveraging The scope for traditional SE encompasses known as “ilities”. Some examples of “ilities” to Develop System-of-Systems the holistic experiences of leading domain the specific user requirements, system design are flexibility, scalability and adaptability of experts and thinkers, senior commanders, as and development, project management, an SoS architecture. well as other established large-scale systems maintenance support and retirement, while engineering practitioners. SA is concerned with operational and systems Last but not least, trade-offs are made at SA is considered both an art and a science concept formulation, force structuring and the enterprise level for SA instead of at the to realise SoS capabilities. On the other hand, SA is a science because capability development. The traditional SE system levels for traditional SE. In it uses architecture as a tool for addressing approach is applied when the space constraints summary, SA deals with a much greater SA is an art because an SoS solution is often global integration, consistency and integrity are well defined to develop a system while SA level of complexity and scale due to multiple derived from discussions and negotiations in SoS design. It can also involve an analytical is applied when the solution space is much interacting systems. with multiple stakeholders of individual exercise to determine the optimal combination larger and operational concepts are generally systems. This involves managing and of resources (people, organisation, equipment evolving. For example, the acquisition DTC's Journey in Systems Architecting balancing divergent stakeholder interests in and weapon), systems (hardware, software of a system may typically be undertaken order to achieve a “global optimum” for the and network) and their interactions to achieve within the constraints or assumptions such For SA to be successful, it was and still is truly SoS solution. Often, it is not possible to arrive the desired outcome. For example, a more as available power supply, physical space, an approach that involves stakeholders in at the SoS solution purely through engineering capable air surveillance network may reduce rules and regulation. Taking an SA approach MINDEF, the SAF and the DTC collaborating analysis due to the interests of individual the need for more fighters on alert, thereby can facilitate the re-examination of such and converging towards desired Defence SoS stakeholders. The SA team may have to bring lessening the stress on ground resources. constraints or assumptions to open up new solutions. A holistic set of considerations certain stakeholders on board to communicate Operations research as well as modelling and possibilities and solutions for the desired for SA is summarised in the SA Framework SoS concepts with the goal of arriving at a simulation may be carried out to analyse such capability. for the DTC. consensus (or at least a compromise) on the interdependent relationships and determine SoS solution. For example, the considerations the optimal combination. In SA, the needs of multiple and SA Framework in determining if an air defence SoS should interdependent stakeholders have to be have more airborne or ground-based systems Comparing SA and Traditional Systems addressed. In traditional SE, each system The purpose of the SA framework is to guide may go beyond analysing their respective Engineering usually has a major stakeholder, i.e. the our work in developing a robust, coherent system performances, and also include non- customer who funds the system acquisition and enduring SoS architecture. Building measurable factors such as managing the Taking another angle to appreciate how and development. Hence, SA emphasises an effective SA involves innovation and is continuity of various air defence squadrons SA would be a new competency within collaboration among stakeholders towards a iterative in nature. and personnel skill sets. This is especially so the DTC, we could compare and contrast it common goal. Similarly, SA needs to address should there be significant changes proposed with the traditional Systems Engineering (SE) multiple, interconnected and evolutionary • Inputs from the strategic, operations and to the existing air defence force structure. approach that had been largely practised system life cycles to maintain a robust and technical perspectives are important Indeed, the SoS solution is often derived within the DTC up to the 1990s. coherent SoS architecture. ingredients. The strategic perspective through consultation with key decision considers the political, environmental, As mentioned earlier, an SoS is simply social, and technological factors, as well too complex to be treated by quantitative as the strategic intent put forth by key Traditional Systems Engineering Systems Architecting engineering analysis, technical feasibility stakeholders. The operational perspective User Requirements, System Design and Operational and Systems Concept study or design alone. SA is hence employed to looks into the mission objectives, potential Scope Development, Project Management, Formulation/Force Structure help the designer to visualise, conceptualise, threat assessment, existing capabilities, Maintenance and Retirement and Capability Development plan, create and build such an SoS. It aims resources and operational constraints. The Stakeholder Usually one major customer Multiple, Interdependent Relationships to bring together various systems with the technical perspective takes into account purpose of achieving operational capabilities the existing technological capabilities, Deals with immeasurable, collaboration, Deals with measureable, greater than the sum of what each individual legacy systems, emerging technology Emphasis heuristics, added ilities such as flexibilty, Technical Feasibility and Design adaptability and scalability system can provide. and the physical environment. Where necessary, architectural studies using Timeframe System Life cycle Multiple, interacting system life cycles SA deals significantly with non-measurables operational analysis, modelling and using non-quantitative tools and guidelines simulation techniques, as well as Trade Off System level Enterprise level based on practical lessons learnt. In addition, experiments, may be conducted to Comparison between traditional SE and SA SA seeks to address non-functional attributes evaluate alternative architectures.

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• While the strategic, operations and the organisational boundaries and systems to ascertain if the intent and desired This allows a rich and unified picture to technology domains are important interface. More importantly, these views capabilities of the SoS have been realised. be formed in order to address the issue. ingredients for SA, it is the creativity can highlight integration issues among the This step will facilitate the involvement of the integrated SA team in exploiting component systems and become part of a The SA Process of necessary stakeholders so that the right new technologies, organisational and framework to facilitate SoS governance. issues are addressed. This will require an systems boundaries to devise new and Governance will play a critical role in In addition to the above framework, a six- examination of strategic, operational and realistic concepts of operations that will effective synchronisation, interoperability step SA process has been developed to guide technical perspectives to gain a deeper determine the effectiveness of the SA. and management of multiple programmes Systems Architects in their work. understanding of the matter in hand. SA involves the active collaboration and to realise the SoS capabilities. To date, co-creation of the SoS architecture by an Enterprise Architectural Framework • Step 2 – Develop SoS Alternatives

all domain experts. Quality facilitation for developing C2 systems has been SS This step is undertaken to generate a broad and effective change management during established with a governance process range of alternative SoS architectures to the SA process is emphasised to expand to facilitate the alignment of technical F address capability gaps. The emphasis is systems and organisational boundaries implementation with operational needs. R SS 5 I on the exploration of the solution space as well as to generate dialogue among • The endorsed SoS architecture will guide and to consider solutions involving any stakeholders. the formulation of various master plans. combination of doctrine, organisation, • The SoS architecture can be described These views serve as the blueprint for F SS SS personnel, training, systems facilities, in operational and technical views. development of various OMP and EMP. emerging technologies, rules and In general, design artefacts can aid in Approval of these OMPs and EMPs will E SS regulation. The architecting team can effective communication, knowledge lead to individual system acquisitions and consider factors such as an alternative retention and managing complexity. sustenance plans. The SoS integration SoS concept of operations, network The SoS architectural views can serve and implementation of component The SA Process connectivity between specific systems, as a common language for multiple systems will be led by the various IPMT. upgrading of existing systems, and/or new stakeholders to communicate in a Verification, validation and certification This process adopts a life cycle perspective systems acquisition and development. consistent manner. The focus is usually on efforts of the SoS will serve as feedback and is developed with simplicity and flexibility in mind. It is also iterative in nature, which • Step 3 – Evaluate SoS Alternatives is expected as the realisation of SoS spans This step involves the evaluation of many years. Hence, changes in external the set of SoS alternatives in terms of environment, for example, may warrant a performance, robustness, “ilities” and need to re-examine the SoS architecture. The cost. Software models would need to dotted arrows represent the need to refer back be developed to represent each SoS to the earlier steps to verify and evaluate the architecture. These models may have SoS when necessary. This process is generic in already been developed during the nature and can also be extended to different development of SoS alternatives and levels of SoS complexity from capability to may be used for evaluation purposes. In individual component system. parallel, test and evaluation parameters must be defined so that those important • Step 1 – Frame the Issue test criteria are built into the models. SA is driven primarily by the user's During the evaluation process, new purpose and needs. A successful system insights from the analysis may result in is one where the user's intent is served at the need to reframe the issue and/or to an affordable cost within an acceptable refine the SoS design. The architecting period of time. Hence, the first step in team is expected to iterate steps 1, 2 and 3 the architecting process is to frame the of the SA process. Eventually, the outcome issue. It aims to discover the higher of the evaluation is a recommendation intent of user-articulated needs and of an SoS architecture that has been objectives, and to discover the underlying assessed for its desired attributes for SA Framework assumptions, constraints and limitations. management's decision.

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• Step 4 – Finalise SoS Architecture • Step 6 – Certify SoS Effective Transition between understanding of the SoS capability. The output of SA is an endorsed SoS Verification, validation and certification Architecting to Implementation The desired concept of operations, architecture. This SoS architecture of the SoS are essential activities during of SoS corresponding value propositions and is described in terms of architectural this process. Verification and Validation critical requirements are documented views in accordance with the EA (V&V) is the process conducted to check In the above 6-step process, one of the using various types of illustration framework and governance guidelines. that the SoS meets specifications and critical transition points is from Step 4 to (Operational Views 1, 2 etc. based on the The documentation will facilitate fulfils its intended purpose as defined Step 5. While Step 4 is about the SA team US Department of Defense Architecture promulgation, communication, in Step 1 - Frame the Issue. In general, concretising a “blueprint” for the SoS (i.e. Framework) and written text. Inserting masterplanning and realisation of the verification is a quality process to ensure SoS architecture), Step 5 often involves the a new technology to meet the SoS SoS architecture. The finalised SoS that a system complies with specification implementation of this blueprint by various capability objectives may create potential architecture will facilitate the formulation and is conducted throughout the systems project teams for the SoS. A certain level of operational opportunities in other SoS. of the various capability development development phase. Validation is the clarity and details is needed to guide SoS The assessment of these opportunities plans. These master plans will chart process to establish a certain degree of implementors in seeing through the SoS should be recorded in the architecture and the milestones for capability build-up, confidence that a system accomplishes blueprint to fruition. Based on SA studies, reviewed as part of another SoS construct. resource and training requirements. its intended mission and addresses the figure below highlights important Hence, the assessment helps to ascertain stakeholder needs. Both aspects are information on the SoS architecture that if system provisions should be made for • Step 5 – Realise SoS essential as verification ensures that “we should be documented to facilitate the interoperability and realisation of the The realisation of the SoS architecture built it right” while validation ensures subsequent phase of implementing the SoS, potential opportunities. will usually be led by a Programme that “we built the right thing”. Therefore, making the SoS architecture “actionable”. Director or a Senior Programme Manager at this stage, the SoS will be evaluated • SoS Design supported by the IPMT. There will be and validated for its capability and • SoS Operations and Capability Overview The design forms the core of the different programme teams responsible performance with respect to the master The overview reveals the high-level architecture. It covers various aspects for the acquisition and development plan. When the SoS is successfully verified operational context of the SoS so that to explain how constituent systems are of various component systems in the and validated, the SA team can proceed the operations manager and systems identified and designed to fit into and be SoS architecture. Where necessary, a to certify the SoS with customers and architect can have a broad and common coherent with the SoS layout. Thus, the Technical Working Group or SoS Steering stakeholders. Committee may be formed to provide management guidance to the IPMT. Since It is notable that an SoS may not have a O SS O R each component system will likely have completion date. Unlike a single system O different developmental milestones, the which will be developed, fielded and need to work closely among IPMTs to eventually retired, an SoS will need address interoperability and integration to be enduring to deliver the intended issues cannot be over-emphasised. capabilities until it is no longer relevant. SS Appropriate SoS Integration Labs may Hence, an SoS can evolve through many be set up to address integration issues master plans and renewal of component SS S as early as possible using emulators of systems. The process of V&V may lead RT the component systems. During the to new insights or discovery of undesired S S course of SoS realisation, any deviation emergent behaviour. Lessons learnt will of the SoS architecture will need to be be produced as feedback for the next raised at appropriate governance forums cycle of the SA process. It is important SS I for endorsement. Since the realisation to continue regular monitoring of SoS R of SoS may take many years, external operations to look out for any emergent environments such as disruptive behaviour. In addition, the operations - SS technologies may invalidate the of SoS must be reviewed in the context SS T assumptions made during the architecting of changes in external environments for process. This may result in the need to deficiency as it may trigger the need for T SS initiate the SA process again. a new cycle of SA. Key aspects of an actionable SoS architecture

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design helps to rationalise the impact of an Programme Steering Committee comprising that would be required. On the other hand, impending change in the SoS. Information senior leadership from MINDEF, the SAF computer-aided simulation offers an efficient and considerations on the design, such and the DTC would be critical to provide means to test many possible scenarios for as design principles, system interactions, strategic guidance and cross-organisational the SoS, albeit in a less realistic manner than system performances and configurations, support to the PMT. It will also support the tests with actual equipment (for example, the are documented to support the analysis necessary governance in the complex business whole suite of actual radars, missile and C2 as well as the test and evaluation of of realising an SoS. systems for IAD, together with simulated the architecture. This ensures that the threats flying live.) SoS is verified and validated for its The SoS would often be implemented via intended capability, and that it has been multiple projects that could be running A possible approach would be to rely on implemented correctly as well. in a parallel or staggered manner with a combination of tests involving either centralised oversight, instead of one single simulated systems, actual systems or both. • SoS Demand for Infrastructure “super project”. This factors in considerations The testing could comprise tests at up to four Resources such as keeping project execution agile and levels – from single-system tests (e.g. for a Requirements such as communication selecting the best systems from competing new radar system), to pair-wise tests (e.g. a infrastructure need to be surfaced early defence contractors. new radar system connected to a C2 system to the relevant governing bodies to strike or weapon system), to testing a “slice” of SoS a balance among competing demands. As each project progresses, a better (e.g. a selection of new/existing radar, C2 Otherwise, the identified systems which understanding of each system's eventual and weapon systems that could interoperate require these resources may not be capability will be formed. This may warrant within the SoS) and, where possible, to a full- usable, thus affecting the SoS' capability adjustments to the requirements of individual scale test of the SoS. Besides testing the SoS performance significantly. systems in order to preserve the performance performance, other important aspects include of the SoS. the management of the safety and emergent • SoS Time Frame, Challenges and behaviour of the SoS. Limitations For example, more stringent performances This aspect provides the SoS programme may be required of a particular future system manager with an overview of the transition B in order to mitigate unexpected shortfalls requirements, challenges and limitations encountered in implementing an earlier of evolving constituent systems. Thus, project A. In the event that this cannot be an implementation timeline can be done, it may be necessary to review and established for the newly evolved SoS adjust the SoS architecture. The necessary architecture. The intent is to communicate options and decisions would be deliberated this information to various constituent through the IPMT and Programme Steering system owners to ensure that stakeholders Committee. are fully apprised of the challenges and new limitations. This aspect should Such governance would likewise apply in also document the lessons learnt so that managing the configuration of the SoS as important insights are passed on for future the individual systems undergo updates in evolution. the details of their hardware, software or processes over their life cycles. Realising SoS References: SoS Verification and Validation It would be necessary to have an IPMT Maier, M. W., & Rechtin, E. (2000). The art of systems architecting (2nd ed.). Boca with the right members to implement the SoS V&V poses another challenge due to the Raton, Florida: CRC Press. SoS, led by a Programme Director or a scale of the systems involved. It may not be Senior Programme Manager that possesses practical or possible to test the entire SoS Valerdi, R., Axelband, E., Baehren, T., Boehm, B., Dorenbos, D., Jackson, S., … very strong leadership qualities and with through a full-scale live test, although this Settles, S. (2007). A research agenda for systems of systems architecting. INCOSE a proven track record in project delivery. A could be the most realistic, due to the resources International Symposium, 17, 1892–1908. doi:10.1002/j.2334-5837.2007.tb02992.x

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Leveraging the Enterprise The integration of operational concepts with The framework comprises four main across the organisation to support Architecture Framework for system development has been key to the components: military operations and facilitates Business Alignment and Agility SAF's development of IKC2. On one hand, decision-making. EIA includes data substantive competencies have been built models, information exchange matrix up in the SAF's C4 community, DSTA, DSO BO and knowledge management plans. It and other local industries. The operations Model into documents the party responsible for the Developing Joint Systems community, on the other hand, has been • OV diagrams data as well as where and how it was actively defining the operational concepts, • SV diagrams created, read, updated or deleted. EIA

In 2004, the SAF embarked on a journey of doctrines, information flow and process loops. O O examines the information flow across force transformation into the Third Generation This has given the technical agencies the S SS business processes and reveals the SAF, a joint military that synergises its clarity and direction to provide appropriate architecture requirements for information various capabilities across the air, sea and systems and solutions to meet the demands exchanges within the enterprise. land dimensions to achieve optimum effects. of the Third Generation SAF. Enterprise Data Model • Enterprise Solutions Architecture (ESA). • Interoperability An ESA is a model of the applications and One of the key operational goals then was to As military systems become increasingly • Integration infrastructure components that satisfies a deliver increased speed of command. The aim interconnected under the IKC2 paradigm, a set of operational requirements. It serves was to do so not just more quickly but also coherent and holistic strategy is needed to as an input for operational users and much more effectively, which called for new manage interoperability across C2 systems. T developers in their planning and creation structures and processes for faster decision- At the same time, systems need to be of the project portfolio, so that they can Standards definition making and better battle management to sufficiently agile to respond to changes in • Technology satisfy enterprise business and information deal with the changing nature of security requirements and support a full spectrum of • Product architecture requirements. ESA captures threats. Faster Observe-Orient-Decide-Act operations ranging from peace-time to war- • Configurations the software design components on current (or ‘OODA’) cycle stems from faster sense- time operations. inventory of applications, components making, which in turn hinges on our ability and existing reference architectures to assimilate information, understand the In 2006, MINDEF and the SAF adopted Enterprise Approach complete with system interfaces. ESA situation, communicate, problem solve and EA to facilitate self-alignment within their • Reference Architecture examines design trade-off decisions (e.g. decide. organisations. The EA framework achieves • Plug & Operate usability vs security) to fulfil EBA and this by providing structures, processes and EIA requirements (commonly known as A key part of this transformation was the guidelines to integrate developments from functional requirements), as well as to Integrated Knowledge-based Command and multiple agencies within MINDEF and the EA Framework meet non-functional requirements (e.g. Control (IKC2) paradigm that enabled a more SAF and guide them towards top-driven interoperability, maintainability). integrated and networked SAF. enterprise vision and objectives. • Enterprise Business/Operational Architecture • Enterprise Technical Architecture (ETA). (EBA). EBA is the expression of the ETA is a logically consistent set of enterprise's key operational strategies and principles, standards and guidelines that their impact on operational functions and serves as a guide in the design, acquisition, Understand Decide Better processes. The primary intent of EBA implementation and management of C2 Faster and Better and Faster is to provide a common language for systems. Using ETA to govern technology articulating operational requirements, choices helps maintain coherence to Cognitive Domain policies, business processes and supporting facilitate interoperability across systems, technologies needed to achieve a high level integration with legacy systems and of information and system operability. It technology obsolescence management. also enhances visibility of the operations Info Domain to facilitate quick response to change. The EA Framework is used to guide the design Physical Domain • Enterprise Information Architecture (EIA). and development of IKC2 systems to ensure See First, Act The information that an organisation connectivity and interoperability. For example, See More Decisively needs to fulfil its raison d'être is architectural views of the EA Framework analogous to blood in the human body are used to capture the business models, Illustration of IKC2 Operational Concept – precious and life sustaining. It flows functions, processes, system solutions, and

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technical perspective of the desired System Service Oriented Architecture – traditional approach, changes to the C2 scenarios easier and faster to implement. of Interest such as: Foundations For Operational Agility systems are often difficult and costly, • Reuse. In the traditional approach, and SOA is positioned to change that. only codes and algorithms could be • C2 Information Systems that allow The EA Framework also puts in place a • Seamless Integration.Optimising reused. With SOA, the reuse of actual greater integration across the Services at Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) strategy collaboration between various operational applications is now possible. Composite the planning level. A central software to develop software as part of Solution departments or divisions would be an applications are made up of reusable library of reusable software modules that Architecture. Such a software development advantage. In particular, if systems have components that can be used to form are systematically consolidated to achieve approach will achieve the following benefits: to be integrated due to business process other composite applications. This allows efficiency in development time and cost. optimisation, the SOA concept can new applications to be built with less time • Digitised Command Post Systems that • Operational Agility. The Third Generation be used to enable collaboration across and resources. SOA also allows legacy use sensor information from different SAF is a joint military that synergises its clearly defined interfaces. In this way, systems to be modified for reuse rather Services to better execute missions. For various capabilities across the air, sea and the strengths of the individual areas can than rebuilding everything from scratch to example, a Division Command Post on land dimensions to achieve optimum be maintained, while simultaneously replace them. the ground could receive information from effects. To achieve this, fighting forces leveraging the potential synergies. unmanned aerial vehicles and transmit and supporting systems capability need • Cross-agency Collaboration. Moving ahead, From the EA Framework formulation, this to its tactical forces. to be organised and reorganised rapidly military operations cannot work in SOA would enable IKC2 systems to better • Enterprise Systems that leverage COTS to meet evolving operational needs and isolation and it is essential for the SAF react to the SAF's evolving needs. The such as SAP to manage operational operate in a highly networked manner to to collaborate with other agencies. SOA SOA architecture allows more efficient transactions. Such systems allow the Third maintain an information edge. The SAF allows products and software services to communication and collaboration among Generation SAF to manage resources and must constantly change its strategies and be provided within the company or by different operational units. Its centralised coordinate daily operations. An example business processes to stay ahead. Thus, external vendors. repository ensures information is accurate is the Logistics Enterprise System. it has become a requirement for modern • Support for outsourcing and out-tasking. and up-to-date, which is vital to the SAF's C2 systems to be able to adapt quickly The trend of outsourcing process steps operations. The reuse of components means and efficiently to reflect those changes. to an external provider that treats these faster development with reduced risk, thus SOA is a concept that advocates such steps as a core competency is growing the new and reliable IKC2 applications can adaptive C2 systems (i.e. service-oriented all the time. Using de-coupled services be developed in a much shorter time. rather than technology-oriented). In the to map processes makes these distributed

C • Plan Missions • Manage Missions • Allocate Resources • Support Decision-making

E C • Daily 24x7hrs Ops • Daily 24x7hrs Ops • Coordinate Response and • Integrate sensors and shooters Resources to Incidents • Specialised time-critical apps

O ET

Systems of Interest SOA for C2 Information Systems

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I O O O O

I S Y T S S S S S S

M R S An illustration of IKC2 operations, with the numerical sequence broadly showing I I I I how a network of sensors (1 and 2) and shooters (3, 5 and 6) collaboratively locate and defeat targets of interest, with a command post (4) providing oversight.

Logical view of the Common Repository, showing how software is organised in three In order to evolve technical systems align themselves by referencing suitable complementary layers, namely the Presentation Layer, Business Logic Layer and Data Base while maintaining interoperability Reference Architectures. While the Reference Layer. The Presentation Layer captures the user interface software tailored for different user and agility amid changing operational Architectures take care of alignment and roles. The Business Logic Layer captures the functionalities required by different users. The Data environments, the framework maintains integration within a cluster of IKC2 systems, Base Layer defines the data associated to various business functions and workflows. three levels of architecture types – Target the Overarching Architecture is an important Architecture, Reference Architecture and element in enabling horizontal and vertical Common Repository Reference Architecture Framework Overarching Architecture. Individual project integration to achieve the capability of the – Divide and Conquer in Realising implementations (Target Architectures) can Third Generation Networked Force. The common repository keeps the system SoS business applications and technical component services that developers can draw upon to The Third Generation Networked Force pushes Joint and Services’ Command Posts rapidly assemble and deploy IKC2 systems. the envelope of C2 systems development Planning and As the repository applications and services are beyond IKC2. Complex functionality of Intelligence issuance of orders thoroughly tested for operational deployment, systems, diverse computing environments Efforts that focus on improving the assembled IKC2 systems can achieve a and the rapid pace of technological evolution interoperability across the whole Mission SAF – among the Services and rehearsal high degree of assured quality for operational add to the challenge. At the same time, functional domains MS trial and deployment. The common repository systems need to continue to deliver capability is an enterprise asset that must be properly while operational concepts are being explored Horizontal integration across Air Force, Navy, Army maintained, continually expanded in the or evolving. number of reuseable components and evolved through a rigorous quality management The Reference Architecture Framework is Efforts that focus on improving process. If new applications and services need designed to address and manage the complex interoperability within the Services and functional domains to be developed to meet new operational solutions landscape. Reference Architecture Air Ops Centre Naval Ops Army Ops requirements, they will be developed in is a set of cohesive, well-tested, and proven Centre Centre addition to the IKC2 baseline systems. template solutions for a class of systems with Vertical integration within Services similar requirements, and it can be scaled to include future requirements. It consists Networked sensors, weapons, platforms and of design considerations, architecture and integrated logistics solution patterns, technology standards and reference implementations. Overarching Architecture – System-of-Systems Integration

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The Reference Architecture Framework is essential for the continuing development basic functionality of an Enterprise Service translated and linked electronically to vendor- provides the following benefits: of operational capability of the enterprise. Bus, except that in this case, it is used to specific tools for execution. Some examples of The segregation of the enterprise into connect multiple Service Oriented Reference the tools are Business Process Management • Reuse. The Reference Architecture ensures sub-enterprises enables the technologies Architectures – hence the name Federated System (BPMS), SAP Solution Manager, Rapid that software modules developed in employed within each sub-enterprise to Enterprise Service Bus. The Federated Application Development Tool and Case one project can be reused in another be evolved. It takes into consideration Enterprise Service Bus enables information Management Tool. project whenever there is a common impact within the domain, yet remains exchange across COTS systems, Open requirement. Such reuse is not limited fairly independent of the other domains. Source systems, Legacy Systems and Real- For example, the C2 community uses BPMS to client applications – depending on the This enables the ETA to evolve at a faster Time systems. It is the foundation of SoS in combination with SOA to capture reference architectures, system modules, pace. Integration. operational requirements and changes. BPMS server applications will also be available enables new operational capabilities which for reuse through reference architecture Building Foundation and Model-Driven Architecture – involve the flow of tasks among different alignments. Competency Generating Software Codes operational units to be developed and deployed • Faster System Delivery Time. The availability faster as compared to traditional development of tested and proven solution patterns To meet the demands of the Third Besides enabling SoS integration, flexibility done through coding. BPMS gives users a from the Reference Architecture helps Generation Network Force, our engineers to make new changes and “speed to delivery” much needed operational agility as they expedite the development and delivery need to continuously enhance the Federated are key considerations in the design of our operate in a more dynamic environment. of systems. Reuse of well-tested and Enterprise Bus to evolve the Overarching C2 systems. proven solutions ensures the quality of Architecture. The Overarching Architecture Another example would be the use of the SAP the delivered systems. needs to maintain a coherent interpretation Following the advancement of Software MDA solution by the logistics community • Inter-operability by Design. The Reference of Service Orientation across the diverse Engineering, architecture models that that allows process implementations, Architecture ensures that systems technical implementations for all Reference are used to capture business/operational system configurations as well as test referencing the same reference architecture Architectures. processes, functionalities and information scenarios to be generated automatically will be interoperable through employing flow can be integrated to COTS products through business models stored in a central standard technologies, solutions and well- The implementation solutions need to to generate software codes. This software repository. Through early prototyping and defined services and interfaces. match and mediate the service definitions design approach is commonly known as the better communication across users, issues • Independent Evolution of Architectures. IT between the clients and service providers. Model-Driven Architecture (MDA). and conflicting requirements are reduced technologies evolve at phenomenal rates. They need to provide the bridging during implementation. Overall, system The need to control the diversity and solutions between different technology Architecture Modelling is the key to MDA in development effort and time is significantly standardise the technologies within an standards, propagating the necessary service a software development process. The MDA reduced as compared to conventional systems enterprise has led to the development of management information across the whole approach uses models to define business development methods, thereby enhancing ETA. However, technology development enterprise solution landscape. These are the processes, functionalities of a system and the pace and agility of how systems are information flow. These models are then designed, built and tested.

Federated Enterprise Service Bus to enable SoS Integration MDA

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Spare Parts Provisioning greatly reduced the enormous task in spares Optimisation computation, the fundamental requirement in ensuring accurate input data still remains a job for logisticians.

Introduction The commonly used method in determining the spares quantity is the Poisson Distribution, Deciding on the quantity of spares was an employing the "Confidence Level" (also intimidating challenge because of the high commonly called Confidence Factor, Safety costs involved. Relying on the E-2C spares list Factor and Probability of No Stockout). given by the USN would have cost many tens of millions of dollars. The costs were higher, The equation is: probably due to the relatively smaller number of E-2Cs compared to other aircraft types. So, without the benefit of operational experience on the E-2C, and relying on the reliability data provided by the ASO in Philadelphia, where, we had to decide on the spares to buy, item by item. We could have played it safe and P = Probability of meeting all spares demand purchased what the USN recommended. within the turnaround time Instead, we took a calculated risk by using a s = Number of spares yet untested (by us) software programme on n = Quantity of items in the system SAP MDA Capability spares provisioning called OPUS; we asked λ = Failure rate of the item relevant questions of various knowledgeable t = Average turnaround time USN personnel, and then made our own judgement. OPUS is a software provisioning To calculate the spares quantity, the equation tool to determine the spares holding necessary is solved iteratively by increasing the number to achieve a desired operational availability. of spares (parameters) until P becomes equal This became a standard tool for calculating or greater than the desired confidence level. and provisioning our spares in other future This method of spares provisioning is clearly projects. We sometimes wondered if anyone deficient. Notice that the cost of the item is would thank us for saving tens of millions not considered. Also, the spares quantities are of dollars if a plane was grounded for want determined one at a time with no interaction of a spare! among the items in the system. Thus, the system as a whole is not really considered. OPUS – for Single System Scenarios OPUS is a spares provisioning software One of the most prominent and critical developed by Systecon, a Swedish Consultant elements in the LCC of a system is the cost Company. It also uses the Poisson Distribution of spares needed to support it during the O&S but the deficiencies faced by the Poisson phase. The availability of a much needed Distribution have been taken care of in the spare part could make the difference between program. In early 1988, two engineers from victory and defeat. The methods used in the Reliability Technology-Defence Materials predicting the cost of spares vary substantially Organisation validated the OPUS software in in complexity and accuracy, ranging from the the military environment. The RSAF F-5 was overly simplistic and generally less reliable, to used as it has long in-service application and the highly advanced, rendering more precise well recorded performance data. The results results. Although the use of computers has showed that OPUS optimises the number of

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spares required with respect to the cost and code for customisation and integration with and technicians to service the repair jobs). The turnaround time of the items, with a savings other models or Management Information maintenance resources follow a user-defined of about 15% over the Poisson Model. Systems. It is also designed to be scalable operations schedule (i.e. the operating hours whereby models and new functionalities of workshops). The quantity of maintenance opus8 Simple Possion Model are created via the addition of “building resources is allowed to change over time. The blocks”. It analyses multiple combat units, transport time and milk-run frequency among 1. Is a cost optimising model 1. Does not optimise quantifies the effect of sharing spares and the various repair agencies can be defined to

2. Considers the system 2. Treats each items men, handles war scenarios (time varying take special values and to override the default effectiveness as a whole separately, does not utilisation rate, combat damage and attrition, parameters. This may be used to represent with interation between consider the system subsystems, LRUs, effectiveness (ie considers operating hours of workshops) and explicitly certain Line Replacement Units transported SRUs etc (ie considers item's PNS) Validation of PIPER model from two system's Probability of models repair manpower required, heavy by special mechanisms such as helicopter lift, No Stockout [PNS]) transporter vehicles and periodic re-supplies. pseudo stores or repair echelons. The milk-run Army case studies 3. Models the support 3. Does not model the support A combinatorial technique of analytical frequency may be variable over the timeline organisation organisation marginal analysis and heuristics is employed and a frequency of zero milk-run can be used Performance Based Logistics 4. Accounts for repairs done 4. Treats items like non- reparables for optimising spares and maintenance to represent a temporary stoppage of supply

5. Considers the cost of 5. Does not consider cost resources in PIPER. (i.e. enemy action or truck getting “lost”). The Introduction each item at all model is synthesised from building blocks 6. Takes a reasonable 6. Takes very low risk. Tends present in the PIPER libraries. The military environment is complex and amount of risk to to stock sufficiently high recommend low level of for all items and hence dynamic. In the past, a defence force only high cost items requires higher total cost investment needed to protect the nation's sovereign

7. Calculates a selected 7. Calculates only one territory. Today, defence forces are called number of points, i.e. assortment of spares for a upon for relief and coalition operations in need not fix investment or fixed PNS measure of effectiveness continents far away from home. Furthermore, such as Operational Availability their capabilities have become more

8. Takes criticality of 8. Takes all items to be of integrated and lethal, with the seamless individual items into equal importance integration of new and legacy systems into consideration one robust network. Yet, beneath such Comparison between OPUS and military prowess is the unseen but essential Poisson Model support structure that keeps each weapon system up and running. The complexity PIPER – For Large-Scale Fleet Scenarios of these support tasks creates frequent unintended deviations from plans. The Not one to sit on its laurels, the DTC problem is compounded by ageing systems, embarked in the year 2000 to develop a spares which are often deployed beyond their provisioning software to manage spare parts planned useful life. Hence, beyond the for large-scale fleet scenarios. It is well known Example of modelling maintenance of Illustration of model details in PIPER traditional method of preventive and that such study is a complex one. In particular, tracked vehicles using PIPER corrective maintenance and support, the one needs to optimally allocate spare parts Validation against other commercial tools SAF enters into partnership with defence across multi-echelons (i.e. organisation unit The PIPER model is built using Extend such as SPAR (a tool developed by Clockwork companies for an outcome-based logistics and sub-unit levels) of maintenance agencies. (developed by Imagine That Inc.), a Solutions) shows good agreement between support arrangement for an agreed-upon simulation tool widely used by academics the two models. The following figure shows level of system readiness. PIPER (or ‘Pipeline Simulator’) is a Monte and the simulation industry. The PIPER model the result of validation from two Army case Carlo simulation model developed by the consists of four echelons of repair agencies. studies. It should be highlighted that the Performance Based Logistics (PBL) refers to DTC to manage spare parts for the Army. The Systems can be deployed at any of the four validation focused on the simulation aspect “the purchase of support as an integrated, model solves problems such as the evaluation repair echelons. System repair is carried of the model and the validation on the affordable, performance package designed of maintenance support concept, the impact out at the second, third and fourth repair optimisation algorithm was not addressed to optimize system readiness and meet of combat damage and workshop loading. echelons. All four echelons hold a suite of in this portion. performance goals for a weapon system This model provides full access to the source maintenance resources (i.e. test equipment through long-term support arrangements with

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clear lines of authority and responsibility” aligning the business goals of the contractor PBL Implementation can be used for motivating the achievement (Defense Acquisition University, 2005). with the performance goals of the SAF. This of other higher priority performance targets. is achieved by paying the contractor based on PBL is used in many defence forces (including Equipment serviced by its OEM can be Under the traditional acquisition approach, how well it fulfils performance metrics (e.g. that of the United States, United Kingdom, supported by the OEM's existing logistics the SAF buys a system and its related parts systems availability, spares shortage) that Canada and Australia) under different names, system. The OEM's support cost could be and services, and invests the necessary capital contribute directly to the system's operational to different extents and with slightly different more competitive than the military's in- and manpower to support its complex logistics readiness. guidelines. In the SAF, some instances where house support costs due to the large total and maintenance activities. When the system PBL has been implemented are as follows: volume it services and its expertise in supply malfunctions, the faulty items are sent to The following figure contrasts the traditional chain activities. By leveraging contractors' the contractor, whose profitability increases acquisition approach with PBL where the • PBL for the RSAF's fleet of F-5 aircraft was investments in expensive maintenance as more malfunctions occur. The contractor SAF pays the contractor according to the implemented in 2009 with ST Aerospace. infrastructure and capability, the savings in earns more when the system performs below system's ability to achieve its specifications. Under the PBL arrangement, ST Aerospace capital, space and manpower can be better its reliability specifications. Moreover, most The contractor's profitability function is provides the full logistics and maintenance deployed to other critical areas. of a system's LCC occurs at the O&S phase. now inversely proportional to the number of support for the F-5 fleet. The scope of The intention of PBL is to leverage contractors' equipment malfunctions and he is incentivised work includes the support of flight line, Improved and Consistent Mission Readiness expertise and resources, and incentivise them to become aligned with the SAF's goal of intermediate and depot level servicing, When payment is based on systems to come up with innovative ways to reduce keeping malfunctions to a minimum. engineering support and material support. performance, there is motivation for O&S costs while achieving the desired level • In 2009, the RSN implemented Availability contractors to ensure that the performance of operational readiness. Traditional PBL Based Contracting (AvC) for its small craft consistently meets the required levels. With a together with ST Marine. Two years later, well-defined structure and transparent grading PBL – An Aligning and Optimising Strategy System Malfunctions # System Malfunctions $ the implementation of AvC for the patrol system, the contractor can be motivated to vessels was carried out with ST Marine deliver the optimal level of performance, Contractor Revenue # Contractor Revenue # PBL seeks to address the undesirable status and ST Electronics. Besides the small instead of under or over performing. quo of traditional support structures by Alignment of goals using PBL craft AvC scope of work which included maintenance and supply services, the Reliability Improvement Traditional Support vs PBL Strategy contract for the patrol vessels included “pit- Being concerned with supplying the required Traditional Support PBL Strategy stop” services like berthing and fuelling mission readiness, the contractor will strive to alleviate the ship crew's workload. to improve systems' reliability as it is a Objectives Better Alignment of Objectives The SAF buys spares and related services. The SAF buys a certain level of performance. key contributor to overall performance. Contractor is paid more as more items fail. Contractor is paid when performance is met, Issues PBL Aims To Address Contractors will then be motivated to may be paid more for better performance. keep malfunctions to a minimum and to Mission Readiness Enhanced Mission Readiness An ageing fleet will suffer from a decreasing incorporate reliability improvements at the Contractor does not have direct penalties if Mission Contractor has to maintain the agreed level of Readiness is not met. performance to secure bonus payment. number of available systems and frequent design stage or during upgrades. malfunctions. The increasing complexity Reliability Improvements Reliability Improvements Contractor has no incentive to improve reliability With improved reliability, contractor reduces of each malfunction also contributes to Reduced Maintenance Footprint related indicators to maximise payment. the frequency of maintenance, which increases higher costs for the same level of operational PBL encourages the consolidation and his profit. readiness. PBL attempts to address this cost development of strengths – the vertical Cost Lower Cost increase by better allocating resources and equivalent of mergers and acquisitions. Fewer economies of scale possible as the SAF has Contractor enjoys savings from economies of widely differing systems and contracts are not scale, better planning and design, optimisation of optimising performance per unit cost. Resources will be used to their fullest potential, aggregated. manpower, maintenance and storage of spares. minimising wastage from duplication or sub- Resource Allocation Better allocation of Resources Optimising Allocation of Resources optimal use. The SAF resources have to be deployed to support Some resources may be provided by contractor, In essence, PBL encourages the concept of all areas. This method disperses the focus and may freeing up SAF resources to be deployed in other not be the most effective. critical areas. “each does what it does best”. Resources are directed to where they are best utilised, References: Maintenance Footprint Reduced Maintenance Footprint With more and more types of systems, maintenance The SAF can use the contractor's existing driving the development of each party's unique footprint will only increase. infrastructure and resources instead of ability. Each contributor is allocated only the Defense Acquisition University. (2005). duplicating them. expenditure that will push it to the level of Performance based logistics: A program manager’s Differences between traditional support and PBL performance required from it. Resources saved product support guide. Fort Belvoir, VA: Author

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Modelling and Simulation Tools for Automata (MANA) for modelling of agent platform for stakeholders to communicate Systems Architecting behaviors; ExtendSim, a dynamic process their needs in a given SoS context, while modelling tool; and OPNET, which is allowing for the flexibility of modifying designed for communications network scenario conditions and inserting new modelling and analysis. technology models. The heuristic nature of the Background • Time-stepped Simulation. For the framing the SoS constraints and constructing representation of physical systems and the architecture can now be dissected into a The concept of Model-based Systems effects such as motion, which is continuous less abstract form through M&S visualisation Engineering (MBSE), pioneered by Wymore in nature, it is easier and more efficient to for stakeholders with different viewpoints (1993), has become one of the tracks in use time-stepped simulation with regular and perceptions to generate a consensual set the International Council on Systems updates at the individual model level. of capabilities and operational requirements Engineering Vision 2020 (INCOSE 2007). Using discrete events would incur larger JEWEL Framework for the SoS architecture. The objective is to replace documents with overhead costs from the numerous events models as the primary products or artifacts being sent and received among the various M&S for SoS Concept Visualisation In the case of our military SoS example, the of Systems Engineering processes. MBSE entities across the same time period. Time- SoS concept of operations was articulated is the formalised application of modelling stepped simulation can also accommodate M&S can represent and visually play out the using the Operational View 1 (OV-1) of the to support system requirements, design, man-in-the-loop, which is especially concept of operations (CONOPS) through US Department of Defense Architecture analysis, verification and validation, useful for evaluation and validation of SoS dynamic movement and actions enacted Framework. However, OV-1 was limited in beginning in the conceptual design phase with decision making in real time. Some by high-level units. Threats and their high- the sense that only a static view of the concept and continuing throughout the development of the M&S tools based on time-stepped level strategies can be modelled in the form is shown. We leveraged the time-stepped and later life cycle phases. M&S tools are the simulation are Joint Conflict and Tactical of computer-generated adversarial forces. M&S tools to enrich this view by simulating means for applying MBSE in SA1. Simulation (JCATS), for individual and Similarly, operational environments such the dynamic flow of operational concepts in tactical combat environments, Extended as urban landscapes can be simulated with action, providing a greater level of clarity in There are generally two categories of M&S Air Defense Simulation (EADSIM), for terrain, buildings and weather models. The representing the concepts to stakeholders. tools: Discrete Event Simulation and Real- air defense domain experimentation and result will be a synthetic visual and animation Time Simulation: Joint Force Analysis Simulation (JFAS), to support joint force operational studies. • Discrete Event Simulation. This is the Another time-stepped simulation tool concept of using event sequences to that we developed in-house is the Joint model communication, processes and M&S Environment for Wargaming and changes in entity states. These models Experimentation Labs (JEWEL). JEWEL can be executed faster than real time, consists of a repository of models, providing a shorter turnaround for databases, components and interfaces, simulated outcomes. They are suitable supported by a common simulation for exploring the complex web of SoS engine architecture, with key emphasis interactions among a host of systems on reusability and interoperability with working interdependently. Discrete event external simulation and military systems. simulation could be applied to determine the optimal connectivity or effect of M&S for Systems Architecting relationships in the SoS architecture, since a large range of configurations Areas where M&S are used for SA are the can be explored with the fast, repetitive visualisation of SoS concepts and issues; simulation runs of event-based models. the evaluation of SoS performance and Examples of discrete event simulation robustness; and the validation of systems tools include Map Aware Non-uniform functionality and interoperability in the context of the SoS.

1 See Chapter 2 for more information on Systems Architecting. M&S as a Visualisation Platform for SA

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M&S for Architecture Evaluation Evaluation Methodology (JTEM), to reduce be tied to the model outputs. If these criteria other SoS studies. This can greatly reduce the the evaluation and test space for complex are too abstract or broad to be quantified in evaluation period. Data obtained from various Quantitative measures of evaluating adaptive SoS in a joint mission environment. the time-stepped M&S environment, they sources during the evaluation are also stored in SoS alternatives are needed to provide a Data farming requires M&S tools based on would be broken down into measurable a knowledge management repository, instead comprehensive level of assessment, especially discrete event agent-based models for fast constituents. For example, shared situational of having to procure them again from the for identifying capability gaps in the SA computation. Under the Model-Experiment- awareness can be represented as timeliness relevant parties, which might lead to longer process. Time-stepped M&S can be one of Model approach, simplified agent behaviour of update, precision of information received delays for future evaluation. the means, through providing a synthetic models with an initial set of parameters and and accuracy of detections with ground truth. environment with individual systems, threats inter-relationships are experimented with M&S for SoS validation and interactions modelled to play out the large numbers of data farming runs to uncover In evaluating our military SoS, we made capabilities of each SoS architecture alternative the significant parameters of concern. These use of different modelling tools for various The final step in the SA process requires in the context of multi-scenarios. Data parameters will in turn be incorporated into aspects of the SoS and employed the “Model- an environment to test the interoperability corresponding to the Measures of Effectiveness higher fidelity time-stepped system models Experiment-Model” approach with the among systems within the SoS and verify the (MOE) or Measures of Performance (MOP) for SoS evaluation. evaluation environment, instead of using SoS architectural capabilities offered by these drawn from the SoS capabilities are logged data farming. Models simulating the military systems. To replicate the SoS architecture and compared to determine the final SoS On evaluating SoS performance, the higher domain would generate a set of outputs such and test conditions with actual systems in a architecture to be selected. fidelity models can simulate the physical effects as timing and information flows, which are “live” environment incurs extensive resources of real time interactions between systems, then fed into warfare models simulating and manpower costs, and some scenarios are The models required for SoS evaluation units and the environment, achieving a more combat behaviour and their effects in meeting impractical for testing as they might lead to have to be at a sufficient fidelity level for realistic assessment of the SoS capability in SoS objectives. Their resultant actions and collateral damage. Customisable time-stepped individual platforms, weapons, sensors or meeting operational needs. Human operators attrition are then re-inserted back into the M&S tools such as JEWEL offers another military IT systems. However, there could are employed in the environment as red team military models to be re-evaluated with a alternative by emulating the individual systems be many parameters that can be modelled players to detect vulnerabilities within the new set of initial conditions. The process in terms of interfaces, consoles and processing for each system. Given the range and number SoS or discover counter-strategies that may is repeated for a number of cycles to obtain logic. This allows SoS interoperability to be of systems and threats in a SoS evaluation work against the SoS. The results are used as a reasonable list of evaluated outcomes for tested even before the systems are acquired scenario, it would be too time-consuming a measure of robustness in the architecture. assessment, based on the range of conditions or developed. The technique has been and inefficient to model and tune these Vulnerability can be assessed by selectively to be explored, as determined by design of applied for C2 systems development, but parameters for evaluation. Data farming, the injecting system failures into the synthetic experiment techniques. we are expanding the concept to include concept of exploring a large parameter space SoS representation, and checking if alternative weapons, sensors, communications and across numerous fast simulation runs, can paths exist in the network to ensure the SoS Capitalising on the value of the models that other SoS systems elements. The emulated help to identify which are the inter-related can still function effectively under these have been developed for each instance of systems will be integrated with the same parameters that have a significant impact circumstances. SoS architecture evaluation, the models are M&S environment used in the evaluation on the MOE/MOPs. This idea has been designed and built based on a common set stage via customised software gateways. explored by the US Joint Test and Evaluation To accurately model and evaluate the SoS of architectural specifications, such as the This allows the same set of evaluation Programme, under the Joint Test and architectures, the required MOE/MOPs must JEWEL framework, to support future reuse in conditions and scenarios to be tested with the

Model-Experiment-Model Approach Using M&S emulation and the M&S evaluation environment as a SoS test-bed

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emulated system interfaces. With the aid of A System-of-Systems Integration Lab (SoSIL) faster SoS architecture turnarounds with less To Each Its Best – OA, Simulation and the emulated consoles, human operators can was set up for this purpose. This is similar design considerations and getting quality Field Trial be involved too, ensuring a more robust SoS to the SoSIL employed by Boeing for the data from subject matter subjects for SoS test environment with real-time operational Future Combat Systems (FCS) programme validation. With combatant, combat systems and inputs. Any interoperability issues discovered to integrate and test system elements within operational environments entirely either can be rectified by modifying the modules in the FCS SoS architecture before deployment. Harnessing Synergy Of OA, modelled or simulated, OA requires relatively emulated systems, as opposed to the more Simulation, and Operational Test less cost, manpower and time compared to expensive task of modifying actual systems. The completion of the SoS validation process and Evaluation war games, simulators and field trials to It can also serve as a virtual environment for does not mean the end of the M&S facility examine concepts and combat systems from experimenting with man-machine interface set-up. As the SoS exists over a long period Introduction the campaign to engagement level. These designs in manned system consoles (e.g. the of time, any evolving changes in technology strengths give OA the ability to perform effects of information overload on operator's or operational environments and their impact OA, Simulation and Operational Test & many iterations in a relatively short time performance) and algorithm designs in on the SoS can be reviewed using the same Evaluation2 (OTE) in the form of field trials for evaluation of alternative concepts and decision support systems (e.g. data fusion synthetic environment. The SoSIL can also are important M&S tools used by the SAF. technologies and sensitivity analysis to rules), before they are developed. double up as a virtual training facility in OA is a versatile tool to support decision in identify the critical or sensitive parameters. the future for new system operators, with planning and operations whereas simulation, Its strengths are also its limitations. The lower Other than tackling SoS interoperability, customisable scenarios, simulated threats which in this context refers to wargame and model fidelity of combatant, combat system the test-bed can be used to validate the and red force player stations. simulator, is a tool that is expanding its role and environment, especially in C2, places performance of the SoS, using the same from supporting training to supporting force constraint on the ability of OA to study their set of operational scenarios and threat Conclusion planning and operations as well. On the other tactical interactions in details. environments. Any limitations posed by the hand, OTE can be seen as a useful tool to emulated systems on the SoS performance M&S tools for discrete event and time- collect data, and provide feedback and support can be resolved by modifying the workflow stepped simulation can serve as a visualisation to OA and simulation. It is important to fuse process, re-designing the emulated systems platform for stakeholders to communicate the complementary functions they play in logic or restructuring the architecture. When and determine SoS needs. Alternative SoS planning, acquisition, operations and training the entire SoS has been tested, the emulators architectures can be evaluated using a to ensure that the SAF maintain the critical can be replaced by actual systems as they time-stepped simulation environment with operational edge in the complex battlefield come online, to verify the conformance of configurable threat scenarios, environmental of the future. acquired or developed systems with the SoS conditions and red team players. The design. This replacement is facilitated by evaluation metrics can be determined Impetus for Synergy designing the emulator software gateways through data farming by discrete event to comply with the same specifications as models and planted in a higher fidelity time- The impetus for synergistic employment of in the real systems. The outcome is a more stepped M&S environment for automatic OA, Simulation and OTE trials is due to their comprehensive SoS validation with a shorter logging during the simulation to facilitate inherent strengths and limitations as a result timeline and lower costs. analysis for architecture selection. To resolve of the way they mimic the combat systems, Example of an OA or constructive SoS Interoperability issues during SoS combatants and the environment. simulation tool The military SoS that we designed made development, system emulators built using use of the above M&S techniques in the customisable M&S tools can be linked to The strength of war games is its ability to SoS interoperability testing phase. The SoS the same M&S evaluation environment for configure the simulation according to the performance validation was carried out testing even before the systems are acquired C2 structure and allow battle planning staff concurrently with emulated systems testing or developed. These emulators can be replaced to interact with one another in a real-time to root out any issues posed by various by actual systems during factory conformance command post environment. However, scenarios on the users' application workflows or acceptance testing. This would greatly 2 OTE programmes are designed to determine and, wherever the rather substantial manpower and time possible, enhance the overall operational effectiveness of and other SoS elements. In this way, some of reduce design and modification risks before a system by evaluating the operational effectiveness and required to support a single simulation run the emulated interface tests can be avoided, as the SoS is deployed. Some of the challenges suitability of a system under realistic operational conditions. does not permit it to run sufficient runs and new changes in the workflow to handle SoS faced include convincing stakeholders to Throughout the rigorous Operational Tests, the OTE Planning compare various alternative concepts and Team will determine if operational effectiveness and suitability performance issues may require modifications leverage M&S capabilities in SA, trade-offs requirements have been satisfied and will develop the initial technologies to obtain conclusive results. As to the initial system communication interfaces. between more realistic M&S solutions or procedures for employment of the system. for simulators, its strength is that it has higher

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fidelity than war games and OA in that it • Confidence and Quality of Assessment. provide more accurate models and results. A(FE)-VC-A(P) Process allows a small team of operators to interact OA, Simulation and OTE provide • Greater sharing of models for training, with one another and with part of the real successively higher levels of fidelity that experimentation and OA, ops support to • Analysis (Front-end). For a thorough combat system physically. can be capitalised to support, check or optimise M&S resources assessment of a new concept or system of substantiate the overall experimentation • Co-evolution of experiment, tactics systems, the effects of different variables, The highly realistic interactions make results. OA is valuable for first-level and doctrine, training to achieve better conditions and scenarios should be virtual simulation suitable for examining assessments, Simulation for higher-fidelity integration of force transformation and examined through many computations. combatant interactions in detail. However, results incorporating human-in-the-loop force employment. The lower fidelity OA tool is well suited as the high cost of simulators only permits it at critical decision nodes, and OTE for the quantitative tool for such a front-end to examine concepts and combat systems up determination of actual “in-environment” Synergy for Decision-making assessment to evaluate the new concept to mission-level. Also, the need for operators performance. Used in concert, they or SoS because of its lower cost, and to man it and the relatively long duration for engender greater confidence in the validity The synergistic employment of OA, better and faster computation capability. each trial make simulators less ideal when and quality of the results. Simulation and OTE will support the It can also identify those critical issues many iterations are needed or many different • More Thorough and Comprehensive effective force planning and effective force and parameters to maximise the return scenarios and parameters are to be examined. Analysis. All three domains are employment. Force planning will include of simulation and live trial. Though complementary as they can support long-term strategic study, experimentation, the front-end analysis provided by OA The possession of highest realism as a result of analysis at different stages of the concept formulation and SON/SOR. Force tools can provide some good assessment, having live combatants and combat systems capability development process. Together employment will cover OTE, training, tactics its findings are inconclusive because it forces operating in live environment with they provide a comprehensive range of and doctrine development, and operations cannot adequately address the human instrumented system is the main strength test environment and experimentation and mission planning and control. There dimension of planning and execution. of OTE. It allows a measurement of combat options for more thorough analysis. are two broad processes for synergistic • Validity Check. In the next stage, synthetic system performance as close as possible to • Focus and Cost Effectiveness. Each tool employment of OA, Simulation and OTE, validity check on data used in and findings actual combat. The need for a considerable can be used to identify key issues and namely Analysis (Front-end)-Validity Check- of the front-end analysis can be conducted amount of resources and space to support a parameters for more focused investigation Analysis (Post) [A(FE)-VC-A(P) Process] and using the higher fidelity simulation either field trial means that it should be judiciously at the next level of experimentation. This Model-Test-Model [M-T-M Process]. in the form of war games or simulators employed. ensures a more productive and more cost- to examine the human dimension of effective process. This is particularly true planning and execution of the promising for OTE which entails significant real (and expensive) resources and where test windows are hard to come by. • Higher quality models. Lastly, OTE data collected from realistic operational exercises and trials can be used for calibration of unit/force performance models and weapon/sensor models used in all M&S applications (training, operational decision support and experimentation). SAF soldiers conducting a live firing exercise at the Murai Urban Live Firing Facility. Areas of Synergy

What's In It For The Synergy? The synergistic employment of OA, Simulation and OTE can lead to the following four areas Individually, OA, Simulation or OTE each of synergy: has its limitation and may not be able to address the wide range of issues involved. • Providing a more comprehensive, credible By fusing their strengths through synergistic and cost-effective M&S support for employment, the following benefits can be decision-making. achieved: • Greater sharing of data and knowledge to

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concept or system identified in front- Conclusion This policy was incorporated into the MOF's mathematical principles, to derive the end analysis. When necessary, the live revised Instruction Manual on Procurement weightages of criteria from the pairwise trial that has the highest fidelity should While OA tools play an important role in issued in June 2009. comparison matrix at a particular level of the be conducted to collect realistic data for quantitative measurement of operational, AHP model. The allocated weightages from operational validity check. In certain mission and system effectiveness, they Development of AHP Evaluation Model pairwise comparison reflect the importance circumstances, a combination of war lack a comprehensive representation of the of criteria that would influence the evaluation games, simulator and field trials is used complex combatant's cognitive ability that AHP is a decision-making support tool outcome. to support the validity check. can deal with the full range of future combat developed in the 1970s by Thomas Saaty, • Analysis (Post). The findings of the validity situations. Such inadequacy of OA can be a mathematics lecturer from the University Proposal Evaluation check will be used to calibrate the OA complemented by Simulation and OTE that of Pittsburgh, USA. The process requires the inputs and models employed in the allows human participation to examine establishment of a hierarchy of criteria and In the evaluation of programme proposals, front-end assessment. The calibrated decision-making process, interactions sub-criteria which is important to reach a pairwise comparison is again applied to all OA tool can then be employed to refine between combatant, and interactions decision objectively and systematically. This of the proposals under each of the last level the assessment. Similarly, the live trial between combatant and combat system. is especially true when there are multiple criterion in the AHP tree. A scale is used for findings can also be used to calibrate the Synergistic employment allows us to exploit stakeholders with different criteria and needs. the pairwise comparison with the level of simulation inputs and models so that the their combined strengths to better examine These criteria and sub-criteria are weighted importance changed to level of preference. simulation findings can be refined. the full spectrum of issues involved. to determine their relative importance in The end result will be a ratio of scores for each reaching the decision, eventually forming proposal with respect to the weight of the M-T-M Process Analytic Hierarchy Process for the AHP model. As part of the evaluation criterion. The summation of all the derived Tender Evaluation framework, the AHP model – or what is benefit scores for each criterion would give This process is primarily for OTE and live commonly called the AHP tree – will need the overall benefit score of each proposal. experimentation. The conduct of OTE and Introduction to be finalised and approved prior to the live experimentation involves substantial close of the tender to ensure that the model Price proposals will only be released after the resources and effort. To maximise the test In 1988, MINDEF approved the use of is objective and does not favour any particular completion and approval of the programme resources, a synergistic process known as the quantitative selection methodology as a submitted proposal. proposal evaluation report, where the Model (Pre-Test)-Test-Model (Post-Test), can method of supplier selection for weapon programme benefit scores for each proposal

be employed. acquisitions. The AHP was chosen and Programme Benefit (100%) is fixed. The evaluation team would then • Model. OA and simulator are used to applied in several projects before it was proceed to conduct a benefit-cost evaluation

support test planning to examine the formally mandated in 1993 for use in all Capability Growth Availability Risk to determine the most cost-effective proposal criticality of data and test scenarios to complex and high-value weapon acquisitions. 0 with the greatest benefit per dollar for focus the collection effort. contract award. For cost proposal assessment, Platform Payload Ground Reliability Supportability • Test. Once the data to be collected is Following the successful implementation of Station 5 5 the evaluation team does not consider only identified, the normal OTE planning the AHP for weapons and platforms, its use the front-end acquisition cost of the system. and execution will be carried out to was extended to design-and-build construction Example of an AHP hierarchy of criteria It takes into account the system's LCC or collect them. Statistical analysis will be projects, software developmental projects and sub-criteria with weightages TCO, which include the cost of operating, conducted on the data collected. and more recently, outsourcing tenders for maintaining and supporting the system • Model. The OTE data will be used to MINDEF and the SAF. The success of DSTA Contrary to some decision-making throughout its planned life cycle with the calibrate the battleforce models in OA in acquiring cost-effective solutions has also methodologies where the weightages of SAF. The rationale for using LCC or TCO and simulation and the validated data garnered the interest of the Public Service as criteria are estimated, AHP has a scientific is to ensure that the acquired system is not and models will form part of the M&S a whole and in 2005, the Singapore Tourism and systematic approach to help decision only cost-effective in the initial acquisition repositories. The calibrated OA can also Board engaged DSTA as a consultant on the makers sieve out the relative importance of phase, but also for the rest of its operating be employed to refine the assessment, if selection of proposals for its integrated resorts. criteria and sub-criteria as well as allocate service life. This key application of AHP necessary, on tactics and doctrine, and This led to other ministries and government the weightages accordingly. This scientific helps DSTA, MINDEF and the SAF ensure operations and mission plans. agencies seeking to apply AHP for their approach to determine weightages is done that the acquired system is cost-effective projects. In 2009, the Ministry of Finance via pair comparison, otherwise known as yet sustainable. (MOF) found it opportune to make AHP a pairwise comparison. Saaty (1980) provided mandatory evaluation tool for all complex and a scale for the pairwise comparison, high value government acquisition projects. together with eigenvectors and eigenvalues

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Certify SoS F O Realise SoS 5 M

M Finalise SoS Architecture D S Evaluate SoS Alternatives R

Applying OA to evaluate SoS

Model-Experiment-Model Approach systems supported by a C2 network. The integrated air defence network is dynamic in Proposal evaluation using pairwise comparison for Proposals A, B, C and D Simulation is one of the many techniques nature where its component systems interact under each last level criterion used in OA. With the advancement in and reinforce with each other for mutual computing technologies, M&S has evolved benefits. Conclusion intertwined as components of SoS. DSTA into a mature discipline with wide ranging has leveraged OA discipline to analyse the applications. Over the years, the SAF has With Model-Experiment-Model approach, The ability to apply AHP effectively for tender effectiveness of SoS and evaluate SoS options forged ahead, harnessing M&S for areas an analytical model can be developed to evaluation has enabled DSTA, MINDEF and as part of the SA process. beyond training, including operational optimise the multi-layer integrated air the SAF to acquire optimised and cost-effective mission planning and rehearsal, decision defence network. For example, this analytical systems and capabilities. Besides the standard The DSTA SA process consists of six iterative support, as well as test and evaluation. In model aims to optimise the weapon target academic methodology, deep understanding steps. During the problem formulation recent times, M&S has also become an allocation with an objective function to of the relevant technology domain, key phase, OA analysts support DSTA Systems essential technology and tool for military maximise survivability of key installations application considerations and the ability to Architects in framing of issues and to experimentation. subject to a set of constraints such as relate to the operational needs of users are also formulate the problem statement. After the weapon availability, cost and manpower. imperative in identifying the most suitable problem statement has been defined, OA JEWEL consists of a repository of models, This model would optimise a proposed solution. Many of the experiences in AHP analysts would work on the appropriate databases, components and interfaces, integrated air defence systems architecture. application are institutionalised in DSTA's approach to analyse the problem, while supported by a common simulation This optimised architecture is included as courses, workshops and guides conducted DSTA Systems Architects continue with engine architecture, with key emphasis on an input to the simulation environment by experienced practitioners to ensure that the development of alternative systems reusability and interoperability with external for the conduct of experimentation. In the robust evaluation practices are employed by architecture. These alternative systems simulation and military IT systems. JEWEL simulation environment, multiple scenarios future evaluation teams. architecture serves as input for the serves as the simulation environment for are considered to analyse the robustness of OA model. SAF military experiments, and is also used the proposed architecture. The simulation Operations Analysis to Evaluate SoS extensively in SA using a Model-Experiment- results serve as a feedback to fine-tune the Throughout the SA process, operations Model approach. analytical model, leading to the need to Introduction analysts work closely with SA team to verify consider additional constraints like priority and valid the model(s), and to analyse the The Model-Experiment-Model approach list of key installation, for example. The SAF embarked on a transformation various SoS alternatives using the model(s). leverages different OA techniques, journey to become a Third Generation Results and insights generated from the namely, mathematical programming and Using this approach, the overall SoS dynamics, armed forces several years ago. The Third- analysis are then presented to the appropriate simulation, as an iterative process to study performance and effectiveness of various Gen SAF comprises a sophisticated network decision-making forum. The outcome may the effectiveness and behaviour of SoS. An alternative systems architectures in multiple of sensors, communication systems, high- warrant further analysis as new issues are example of a complex SoS is the integrated scenarios may be analysed and evaluated. end fighters, stealth frigates and main battle illuminated from the study. air defence network that comprises early tanks. The systems for a Third-Gen SAF warning aircraft, fighter jets, ground will be increasingly complex, versatile and surveillance radars, and surface-to-air missile

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Networked System Availability Networked system availability is defined as the availability of the interconnected Introduction systems at an end-to-end level. It quantifies the availability of having a link from one The next-generation SAF is seeing point to the other while having to route O revolutionary changes in operation tempo, through the various component systems. S RSR M M S mission definition and combat service support. Each of the component systems has its M S Systems are becoming more interconnected individual system level availability (Ao) MTF MTTR T and interdependent to leverage the network defined by system level dependency on R T and information as force multipliers. For system, operational and logistics factors. M R instance, a typical defence capability will Many often argue that such networked Ao M consist of not one but several systems, can be obtained by simply multiplying them namely weapons systems connected to together using analytical formulae. This will Factors influencing the sensor availability communication and sensor systems, with derive a quick answer to the simple series- each possibly taking the form of a complex parallel type of networked system. However, network. Planning done at the system such a method is very restrictive. First, typical (platform) level is no longer adequate to networked systems are often meshed to meet ensure mission success for such network- the network redundancy requirements and C C centric operations. As such, the availability it is difficult to formulate the analytical of a single system is no longer sufficient, and equation. Second, it is not possible to capture the networked system availability is a much the interoperability and interdependency that better representation. occurs simultaneously across the multiple Ao (Networked System) =

system types. The largest drawback lies [1-(1-AoSensor 1)* (1-AoSensor 2)* (1-AoSensor 3)]*AoComms*AoCommandPost*[1-(1-AoShooter 1)* Today, the in-house developed Optimised in the analytical formulae multiplying the (1-AoShooter 2)] Decisions in Networks (ODIN) tool equips average of each component system Ao and DSTA, MINDEF and the SAF with the ability hence losing the interdependency effect Where Ao (Networked System): Availability of interconnected system end-to-end;

to quantify networked system architecture across systems that is the critical basis to AoSensor 1 : Availability of sensor system i; and to identify critical links or bottlenecks that the availability of a networked system. In AoComms : Availability of comms system; Ao : Availability of Command Post system; enhance design decision of the architecture. the next section, the limitation of applying CommandPost AoShooter j : Availability of Shooter system j It provides the means to examine network system level availability to an increasingly robustness and survivability under complex networked system environment is further Analytical computation for simple networked system availability threat environments. ODIN seeks to perform illustrated. resource (spares, technicians) optimisation Analysing Networked System Availability mission success of acquiring and destroying at the network or SoS level to ensure they the adversary is dependent on the integrated are considered holistically to meet stringent Using an integrated system live-firing exercise, working of all systems types inclusive of demands. sensors in the form of an unmanned aerial communication networks. Should any of the vehicle or Artillery Hunting Radar (ARTHUR) systems be down, the mission will fail. are used to conduct battlefield surveillance and ODIN analyses interdependent factors across networked detect potential targets. Images of the ground Typically, Ao, spares and resources are systems to ensure mission readiness surveillance are sent back to the command evaluated and allocated for each individual Key Capabilities: post via a communication network that allows system – for example, Ao of 80% for OIN -- the commander to decide on the appropriate each of the sensor and shooter systems. strike platforms to take out the adversaries. Such measurement is unable to reflect the OIN From the command post, the target positions interdependency of the various systems and information are sent via a communication across the communication network for the OIN network to the strike platform, which mission. It may also potentially lead to under will engage and ensure the destruction of or over provision of resources and impact the Overview of key capabilities in ODIN the acquired targets. It is evident that the logistical readiness of the systems.

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Mission Ao/Probability of Mission Success bottlenecks at a quick glance. For example, system-to-system availability of system 24 to Mission Ao will see tighter integration system 58 is low at 22.8% while system-to- between the operational and logistical context. system availability from system 51 to system This MOE requires the operational context 58 is at 73.2%. to define how the operators had intended to interoperate the systems to ensure mission Implementation and Case Studies success. This mission Ao is highly dynamic and dependent on mission definition. The MOEs discussed earlier were implemented within ODIN tool and further illustrated The mission Ao is defined as the “acquire and using two case studies. destroy” mission. It measures the probability of having sensors acquire the targets and Case Study 1: Networked System transmitting the information to the Architecture Evaluation appropriate shooters for them to take out the adversaries simultaneously. Mission Ao can As part of the architectural evaluation of the also take the form of division to brigade Ao robustness of the Networked Air Defence which measures the end-to-end availability design in meeting its mission objectives, from division to brigade by factoring the end-to-end network availability from means for commanders to communicate to sensor to C2 to shooters was performed. ensure mission success. Several key considerations such as sensor network were factored in since there were An example of an integrated systems live-firing exercise Matrix of System-to-System Ao no dedicated sensor-to-shooter pairs. In addition, shooters were dispersed across large A simplified “acquire and destroy” mission another. Measurement of the performance of In some scenarios such as a large communication geographical locations and linked back to calculation is shown in the following figure, the networked system “acquire and destroy” network, single networked system Ao does the central C2 system. Moreover, there was where ARTHUR is used as the sensor, PRIMUS mission needs to be performed within the not adequately represent and evaluate the the need to handle the IT infrastructure and as the weapon system, command post as model itself. performance of such a large networked system. communication equipment to provide the the C2 centre, and a fixed communication Instead, a paradigm shift towards the use of connectivity among sensor, shooter and C2. network as the means of information and data upper triangular matrix of system-to-system Adding to the complication was the different transmission. By adopting a standalone system Ao proves to be a better MOE when there are network configurations across different ARTHUR Comms Command PRIMUS Post as the criteria for resource or maintenance Ao-80% Ao-80% Ao-80% multiple source-sink pairs and bi-directional mission phases. All these were modelled support planning, the planner would ensure Ao-80% traffic profiles. This matrix MOE allows one through the ODIN multiple network layers an Ao of about 80% for each of the individual to evaluate each pair of system-to-system Ao that were interconnected and inter-linked to system. However, from the “acquire and Ao (Mission) = maximum 40%? and aids in identifying the weak links and provide end-to-end mission readiness. destroy” mission definition, it would require all the systems to be functioning together. If the Simple illustration of integrated mission planner's resource planning for each system Ao computation is at 80% Ao, the entire networked system would have a maximum logistical readiness of Extending Network Ao Computation only 40% by simple multiplication. Therefore, resource planning should be carried out at With such a complex network structure, the networked system level. Planners can no system level Ao measurement can no longer longer perform their resource and maintenance suffice as a good MOE as it becomes more support planning by treating each system as a dynamic and largely dependent on the standalone system. With the interdependency context. Two MOEs will first be defined and among the systems, the Ao of each system how these MOEs are used will be illustrated. may no longer be treated independent of one Illustration of the upper triangular matrix tabulation of system-to-system Ao

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Optimising end-to-end Ao requires trade- across various factors including increased off across multiple factors. For network client redundancy, improved response time in architecture, it involves deciding between spares support, review of system configuration the number of radio links and the number design to achieve spares optimisation across of radio redundancies available for each systems, as well as operations and logistics system node. There is also trade-off among at the network level. It involves the levelling the various system configurations as well as of resources across the different component the logistics input of spares deployment and system nodes such as providing identified support to determine the response to system bottlenecks with higher resources. and network downtime. System Safety In Guided Weapons With ODIN, the modelling approach takes and Armament a step back to look at the fundamental functional level. Instead of the physical series- In the field of guided weapons and armament, parallel reliability block diagram modelling, System Safety is particularly important due functional routing within and across the to the potentially destructive consequences systems are modelled so that the system of malfunction or system failures e.g. severe configuration design and differentiation or irreparable equipment damage, serious between the voice (V) and data (D) routes can injuries, permanent disabilities and even Illustration of the RSAF's Networked Air Defence be captured accurately. The following figure fatalities. Basic safety considerations within shows the different possible routing paths to a defined system may not be adequate for In terms of methodology, interactions of enabled the optimisation of the Networked Air reach end-to-end between the voice-to-voice the increasing system-to-system integration. the systems were viewed as a network with Defence Ao through improved connectivity and data-to-data system nodes. Further thinking at an SoS level is required multiple nodes and links. Performance was configuration and incorporation of system to provide safety analyses outside the set measured in terms of the ability to pass redundancy. of stand-alone system boundaries. When through from the source to the sink node applied at the development or acquisition without encountering any interruptions from Case Study 2: Networked System phase, System Safety is most effective and any broken links or nodes. Such breakage Resource Optimisation has a high potential of influencing design – could be a result of individual system failures, this aids in the incorporation of the necessary threat scenarios or each system's unique A C4 system consists of many component safety features. logistical factors. systems connected together in a functional relationship. Typically, Ao is measured System Configuration There are many areas that require System

Due to the different capabilities of the and resources are catered for at a system Safety measures and these include sensors and shooters in terms of range and or node level. However, it does not provide human-machine interface and software threat types, no single mission Ao could be a commander with a sense of the state of implementation. Thus, a multi-disciplinary defined. Instead, a matrix of MOEs based on mission readiness. Hence, this study aimed D approach is required. A System Safety Working the threat and campaign type was used. For to evaluate end-to-end network Ao from Group is also needed to assist the project D example, against threat X, availability was division to brigade level by piecing together management team to brainstorm all possible measured from Sensor A or B to Shooter I or the radios, phones, Command Control hazards. Taking reference from the governing II. ODIN enabled the mission readiness of Information System to trunk communication standards and guidelines, safety measures Networked Air Defence to be evaluated in equipment. ODIN provided the means to are implemented to eliminate or mitigate the totality despite the independent management quantify the network Ao down to data versus hazards. In considering complex systems such of individual systems. This ensured robustness voice. Such an approach ensured that the Illustration of physical series-parallel as air platforms or guided weapon systems, in networked system architecture design spares deployment from different equipment reliability block diagram modelling versus the number of hazards can sometimes be with respect to connectivity between the was well balanced with respect to end-to- functional network routes modelling in the range of hundreds. Thus, rigorous component systems. This was achieved end availability. consideration and mitigation of all possible through the quantification and identification Through such detailed modelling, overall end- hazards are required to make the system of weak links and/or vulnerabilities which to-end network Ao can be optimised globally as safe as possible. Through these thinking

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processes, the potential for all hazards is shield from grenade fragments that could be C D CD Within seconds, 2LT Kok pulled the recruit mitigated to “as low as reasonably practicable”. projected towards the thrower. If a grenade 4 down and shielded the recruit from the were to land behind or in the bay, both the 2 1 impending blast. The grenade exploded in Residual risks refer to risks which cannot be thrower and the safety officer have to take four and a half seconds. When the fragments

reduced further as they are often inherent in cover on the other side of the wall. They 5 finally settled, both the recruit and 2LT Kok the activity itself. As part of risk management, have to run and climb over the wall in a emerged from this harrowing experience these residual risks and mitigation measures short time frame of four and a half seconds. safely. For 2LT Kok's bravery, he was need to be communicated clearly to the end However, this reaction time is possible only awarded the SAF Medal for Distinguished users for their acceptance. The case of a car if the thrower is an experienced soldier. 3 Act or Pingat Jasa Perwira (Tentera). This travelling above the speed limit can be taken incident proved the effectiveness of the as an example. The driver is aware that he is For most recruits, having only completed two T grenade throwing bay which was designed exceeding the speed limit and acknowledges months of Basic Military Training, this would R and conceptualised through the use of the the consequences of being caught by a traffic remain a challenge despite the numerous drills - System Safety methodology. camera or getting into an accident. He decides they had with dummy grenades. Should a live S that speeding is necessary to reach the grenade drop accidentally in the throwing System Safety in SoS Integration – destination on time and accepts the risks of bay or behind it, the recruits may not react Frigate Air Defence Suite speeding. As a risk mitigation measure, he fast enough to escape from danger. Therefore, An engineering drawing of the bay design may install tyres with enhanced road-holding the design had to be focused on incorporating showing the design features implemented The integration of the Aster Anti-Missile capabilities and check his car's braking safety features that offered greater physical after the identification of possible Missile (AMM) system with the RSN effectiveness regularly. The concept of risk protection. A System Safety approach was hazards. The features protect the personnel Formidable-class frigates is an early example quantification and communication of residual adopted at the stage of conceptualising the if the IA drills are executed correctly of DSTA's application of System Safety at risks to the end user for acceptance as part design. the SoS level. The traditional approach of of the System Safety process emphasises the applying the methodology with focus on importance of enforcing mitigation measures From the brainstorming session during the the weapon system was no longer sufficient on the ground. workshop, a new design was developed. With because the Aster AMM system functions as this design, if a grenade lands in the bay, both part of the larger Anti-Air Warfare defence System Safety in Development – Hand the thrower and safety officer would jump suite (or AAW suite). The behaviour of the Grenade Throwing Bay into a ditch. If the grenade lands in the ditch, other systems in the suite, such as the Multi- both of them should stay in the grenade bay, function Radar, Combat Management System The redesigning of the Hand Grenade using the raised platform as a shield from the and Navigation Distribution System have Throwing Bay is a good illustration. The blast. There is no longer a need to run or climb downstream effects on the operation of the project was an early test bed for DSTA's to safety, reducing the physical demands on Aster AMM system. As a result of complex System Safety framework. Safety measures inexperienced recruits. interactions among systems, most cases of for the throwing bay were deliberated at a Scenario where the grenade drops emergent behaviour are not immediately safety review workshop as the members The effectiveness of the redesigned Hand in the bay obvious and have to be identified and were familiar with the facility and could Grenade Throwing Bay was unexpectedly managed for safe operations. contribute to the hazard analysis during the demonstrated on the morning of 8 March workshop. The end product is very similar 2008. Second-Lieutenant (2LT) Kok Khew to the Grenade Range in Pulau Tekong today, Fai was the safety officer at one of the four which is used by SAF recruits during the hand grenade throwing bays at Pulau Tekong Hand grenade throwing exercise as a rite of passage Grenade Range. Upon command, a recruit in National Service. armed the grenade, pulled out the safety pin and held on to the arming lever. He then There were existing design guidelines for released the arming lever and swung back grenade throwing bays but they did not his right arm to lob the grenade overhead. meet the training requirements of the SAF. However, the grenade slipped from his hand The earlier version of the throwing bay was and landed four metres behind them. Scenario where the grenade drops behind Combat systems on the RSN Formidable- built as a short U-shaped wall to serve as a the throwing bay class Frigate

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To address the safety concerns and potential DSTA PMT leveraged the system safety tune their free falling technique in a controlled International (SVI) which builds, operates, hazards, a System Safety approach at the process in the Ministry of Defence Life and safe environment to complement live and maintains 32 VWTs around the world. suite level was applied from the design stage Cycle Management, to influence the safety jumps. The mishap severity associated with This franchise licence meant that the scope by a team comprising subject matter experts assurance for a proprietary commercial “flying” in the VWT is reduced significantly of the system safety analysis was not easy of various systems in the suite. In addition facility which has been tapped for military as compared to an actual skydive. to define. The proprietary and closed nature to the comprehensive safety assessment training. In addition, the article presents of the system's design restricted the release performed on the Aster AMM system, a various challenges faced by the PMT and the Utilising a VWT also reduces substantial of detailed information about the system. top-level safety analysis on the functional relevant strategies adopted in response. The cost and time for the SAF. An actual jump flow of the suite was performed during the Goal Structuring Notation was an effective would incur the high cost of using an aircraft. The PMT brainstormed and developed various development phase. Several hazards were tool used to present the safety argument. Furthermore, there is only a short window ways of overcoming the problem of limited identified and all associated software and of opportunity for each jump due to the available information. One of the possible hardware functions, or modes leading to Vertical Wind Tunnel need for the aircraft to take off, transit to solutions was to examine existing reports these hazards, were analysed. the drop zone and then land. In the case of and compliances which could be used as The Vertical Wind Tunnel (VWT) combines the VWT, the free faller could make use of a basis to justify the belief that the use of Following the analysis, several safety related a series of fans, ducts and vanes to produce a extended time blocks in the VWT to perfect the VWT was inherently safe for the SAF. gaps in the functional flow were discovered. vertical laminar stream of air by recirculating his techniques without the need to get on Employing this idea, the PMT rationalised Design changes were implemented to wind energy. This recirculating laminar board an aircraft repeatedly for each free fall. that the proof of compliance to local legislative eliminate these gaps. In addition, safety- airflow provides stable lift to the personnel This allows the SAF to manage training slots licensing requirement and the contractor's critical functions at the suite level were within the flight chamber, simulating a free effectively and efficiently, shortening the commissioning certificates could form a basis identified systematically using the Hazard fall. While “flying” in the flight chamber, the learning curve for novices and maintaining for safety assurance. This primary approach and Fault Tree Analysis methodology. flyer can execute various flight manoeuvring currency of their skills. was documented (see section on Innovative These functions were code-checked, peer- techniques. Application of System Safety Activities). reviewed, closely tracked and verified The VWT was designed originally for public in greater depth to prevent uncontrolled use. Members of the public using the VWT The contractor responsible for the operation Turn Fan Fan Turn changes. As part of the verification, safety Vanes Vanes would only need to put on a jumpsuit and and maintenance of the VWT was Sky testing was conducted at the software unit, Turn Turn helmet. Military personnel, however, are Venture Singapore (SVS) which is a franchisee system and suite levels. Risks that could Vanes Vanes required to carry additional equipment and of SVI. With SVI's extensive experience in not be entirely mitigated by design were accessories, which may affect their safety and international operations and its excellent

highlighted as residual risks for acceptance, Diffuser the performance of the VWT. track record in safety, one could be reasonably Return Return and appropriate recommendations were Air Flight Air confident that the VWT was safe and met all Tower Chamber Tower provided to the users to further reduce the As the VWT is a proprietary licensed commercially required levels of safety. The

risk to as low as reasonably possible. The C commercial facility, the DSTA PMT had proven facility design, well-written safety RSN has successfully conducted two Aster limited influence on its design aspects. manuals, as well as the safety operational live-firings which validated the AAW suite. Furthermore, information about the design procedures and checklists were part of a

Inlet Contractor was limited due to intellectual property programme to ensure that daily operations An Innovative Application of Turn Turn protection. Thus, innovative approaches were would be safe. Vanes Vanes System Safety Methodology Turn Turn used to secure the required safety assurances Vanes Vanes for our military free fallers while ensuring Nevertheless, the need for military equipment Introduction Layout of a typical VWT that members of the public could continue and free fall techniques in the VWT enjoying the facility as before. warranted additional safeguards to enhance System safety uses a risk management Training in the controlled environment of VWT safety. System safety was used to value add strategy based on the identification and facility brings along numerous benefits, such Challenges to the existing safety systems, through the analysis of hazards, as well as the application as minimised risks of mishaps as compared methodical discovery of atypical hazards of mitigation controls through a systems- to going for live jumps at high altitudes. Live The VWT was the first of its kind to be which are faced by military free fallers but based approach. For the military, system jumps are inherently hazardous with incidents built in Singapore, and the PMT had no prior not the general public. These hazards were safety practice is guided by the MIL-STD- including parachute malfunction and sudden experience in the acquisition management documented in the Preliminary Hazard List 882D US Department of Defense Standard inclement weather. With risks minimised, of such systems. In addition, the contractor (PHL) which is discussed in the following Practice: System Safety. personnel can develop confidence and fine- operates a franchise licence from Sky Venture section.

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Innovative Application of System Safety by the Singapore Civil Defence Force and hazards, the PMT needed a certain level of information so that the PMT could sieve out Activities the Building Construction Authority, the background information and engineering credible hazards from the PHL. Certificate of Statutory Completion and details which could not be revealed due to One of the key challenges to the programme Fire Safety Certificate were issued. SVI's intellectual property rights. Third, the PMT visited VWTs overseas to get was to determine how to provide primary • Applicable Certification: Original Equipment a first-hand account of the safety features and safety assurance to the military users without Manufacturer Commissioning Certificate. The PMT adopted a three-pronged approach issues relating to the use of such a system. compromising proprietary information, given During the final stages of constructing to develop this PHL: While some hazards were universal, the PHL that the system was unique and proprietary the VWT, SVI provided technical support helped to identify hazards that were associated to SVI. to test and commission the VWT. This First, dialogue sessions were conducted with with the unique military applications of the ensured the correct installation and SVS and SVI to extract potential hazards VWT. The table below shows some of these Before the VWT could be open for public safety of the VWT. Upon completion, based on their experience in operating other hazards and the relevant mitigation measures. entertainment, it had to comply with SVI issued a commissioning certificate to VWTs. By analysing the safety features of the legislative requirements whereby the service SVS, validating the functional and safety VWT, the PMT was able to retrospectively The ability to identify hazards unique to provider had to provide evidence to show that aspects of the VWT. visualise the hazards that the safety features military applications led to the incorporation the VWT was safe for public use. Leveraging • Applicable Certification: SVS Instructors might be trying to protect against. Once the of mitigation measures to reduce the mishap this need for compliance to legislative Certification. SVS instructors are trained PMT had an idea of the possible hazards, it risk. For instance, a procedure was enforced requirements, the PMT obtained the same personnel who ensure the safety of flyers deliberated if such hazards could develop into to ensure that trainees do not exit the VWT information from SVI to assess the VWT for in the wind tunnel. In the event of an other forms of hazards based on the unique from a flying position. With information on military free falls. The legislative approvals emergency situation, the instructor's utilisation of the VWT by the SAF. these hazards, the SAF Commanders are able and certifications are summarised as follows: ability to prevent injuries to the flyer to make a better informed decision to manage is crucial. SVS consistently keeps its Second, dialogue sessions were held with their training requirements effectively and • Legislative Requirement: Public Entertainment instructors current by following a members of the SAF who are experienced safely. The identification of the atypical Licence and Conformity Assessment Body stringent set of requirements laid out by skydivers or instructors to gather potential hazards highlighted that system safety Certification. Under Singapore's Public the International Bodyflight Association operational and training hazards. These complements the existing safety management Entertainments and Meetings Act, (IBA). IBA certifications issued to SVS dialogue sessions provided valuable systems of SVS. entertainment that is provided at any instructors and tunnel operators are place accessible by the public requires submitted to the SAF for periodic reviews. a Public Entertainment Licence from the Singapore Police Force. To obtain With these proof and certifications of S/N Hazard Description Casual Factors Mitigation Measures this licence, the attraction has to be compliance with legislative requirements, certified by a competent body, which the PMT could use them as evidence for the 1. Military equipment falls Failure of equipment Introduce a locking mechanism (capable off flyer securing mechanism of withstanding gravitational forces) to is the Conformity Assessment Body, as system safety assessment within MINDEF. allow the flyer to strap and hook military having met relevant technical and safety This approach is unique and different from the equipment close to his body standards. SVS thus had to obtain the acquisition of weapons-related systems and Public Entertainment Licence prior to platforms, where system safety techniques 2. Flyer carrying military Unstable lying • Introduce a soft cushioning at the commencement of operations. such as Fault-Tree Analysis and Functional loads attempts to exit position due to exit-cum-entrance of the flight chamber • Legislative Requirement: Certificate of Statutory Hazard Analysis are typically used as the VWT from a flying added equipment • Enforce the rule that military flyers position, impacting bulk with equipment shall exit only from Completion and Fire Safety Certificate. SVS means of providing safety assurance. the exit a standing position hired Registered Inspectors who specialise in the architectural, mechanical and The PMT, SVS and the SAF worked 3. Kinetic energy of Presence of loose • Use existing features such as the electrical aspects of safety to certify the collaboratively to apply the System recirculating objects objects (shoes, plenum, turn vanes and cable floors to building and fire safety works. SVS also Safety methodology and techniques for gloves, goggles, impede flying objects from recirculating appointed personnel as Qualified Persons, the VWT to enhance the existing safety etc.) in the VWT who had to submit all documents related documentation. One area of collaboration • Conduct more frequent checks at points where loose objects are to fire safety works to the Registered was the development of a PHL, which was collected, to eliminate potential Inspector to perform the safety assessment. the first step in the System Safety process to recirculation of such objects When the details of the assessment were identify potential hazards associated with submitted and found to be satisfactory the use of this system. To identify these PHL

180 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 181 Appendix to Chapter 5 Appendix to Chapter 5

Goal Structuring Notation (GSN) is a graphical The defined top goal for the GSN of the project Safety Analysis is based on a defined argumentation notation used to explicitly was: “The VWT is at an acceptable level of operation profile as described in the document the elements of any argument. safety for use throughout its intended usage Project Safety Management Plan

It originated from the University of York life”. The GSN has two contextual entries T The VWT is at an An acceptable level of safety is in the early 1990s, but it was only formally displayed on its right, which are important acceptable level of safety to based on Technical Endorsement and be used throughout its Residual Risk Acceptance by the recognised in November 2011 as a tool to to capture the context for interpreting the intended usage life appropriate authorities as defined in improve the structure, rigour and clarity of top goal. MINDEF System Safety Directive safety arguments during the presentation of Argue that the VWT Facility Argue that contractor has a safety cases. The top goal is further expanded into three Argue that VWT hazards are meets applicable legislation proactive Safety Management being systematically identified and requirements and has technical System and operates a proven separate strategy blocks namely S1, S2 and mitigated to acceptable levels For this VWT programme, GSN was used S3. Each strategy block is a reasoning step certifications that substantiate safety system that is inherently safe initially to define the challenges at hand which interfaces between the top goal and and to list the possible solutions to these the sub-goals. The descriptions in S1, S2, and Show that the Show that MINDEF users 5 Show that SVS Show that all identified PMT identifies alist of are made aware of the residual challenges. Subsequently, it was also used S3 support the top goal. This GSN continues identifies both System hazards are reported and hazards and highlights risks which require through life and Operational the respective mitigation as a representation tool to present a top level to be developed until sufficient evidence unique hazards to SVS management and that they are (training) hazards measures are verified view of how the VWT was at an acceptable is found to substantiate the top goal. The for management agreeable to such risks level of safety for use. These functions of the evidence collected is represented by solution

GSN facilitated easier understanding of the blocks. For instance, solution 9 “OSAT (or Show that contractor reports identified hazards and Show that safety issues. Thus, the PMT used the tool ‘On-Site Acceptance Test’) Verification mitigations for approval and verification activities are for an effective presentation of safety cases Report” is the evidence that G14 “Show that acceptance before closure performed to members of the safety boards. Verification activities are performed” has been achieved. When the elements of GSN are connected together, a goal structure is formed. Goal When reading the GSN tree, the reader is Hazard Log Contractor’s OSAT of all Safety Verification structures document the chain of reasoning in guided through the assurance argument in identified Assessment Report hazards Report the argument with the relevant substantiating a structured manner. This provides a bird's evidence. The principal purpose of a goal eye view of the safety argument, which can structure is to show how goals are broken enable someone without any prior system A portion of the GSN diagram used for the VWT programme down successively into sub-goals, until a knowledge to review the argument. stage where claims can be supported by direct Conclusion Second, system safety helped to ensure a safe, reference to available evidence. realistic, reliable and cost-effective training System safety is typically applied for the environment for the SAF. Third, the PMT acquisition of weapons-related systems and was exposed to new tools and methodologies platform-type defence capabilities, taking through its collaboration with a commercial A goal, rendered as a rectangle, presents a claim forming part of GOAL reference from the Military Standard: MIL- service provider, gaining knowledge that the argument. STD-882D (2000). Hence, applying the can be applied to similar programmes in the

A strategy, rendered as a parallelogram, describes the nature of the system safety requirements from MIL-STD- future. Finally, SVS enhanced its competency STRATEGY inference that exists between one or more goals and another goal. 882D to a commercial programme posed in applying a risk-based process and it could several challenges which called for innovative adapt similar techniques to meet local A context, rendered as a rectangle with rounded corners, presents approaches. legislative requirements of the Workplace CONTEXT a contextual artefact. This can be a reference to contextual Safety and Health Act. information or a statement. Applying system safety to this unique programme benefitted all parties. First, MINDEF and the SAF acceptance authorities SOLUTION A solution, rendered as a circle, presents a reference to evidence. were equipped with information on the unique hazards of using VWT in a military context – thus they were able to decide on Basic symbols of GSN how to use it appropriately in SAF's training.

182 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 183 Appendix to Chapter 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

References: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS of Combat Management Systems (CMS) for the SAF. He has successfully led teams to Wymore, A. W. (1993). Model-based systems engineering. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Engineering Systems-of-Systems would not have deliver CMS capability to the RSN, including Press. been possible without the hard work, support the Frigate CMS and the upgraded MCV and encouragement of many people. General CMS. Thio, S. J., Kong, S. T., Tan, S. F., & Yeo, L. C. (2006). JEWEL: M&S environment thanks are also due to the teams at DSO National for the SAF. Proceedings of the Inter-service/Industry Training, Simulation, and Education Laboratories, MINDEF Communications Mr Frank Teo Yong Khiang Conference. Arlington, Virginia: National Training and Simulation Association. Organisation, MINDEF Centre for Heritage joined DSO in 1982 and served Services, Air Force Information Centre, Defence in DMO for six years before Beach, T. & Dryer, D. (2007). Application of design of experiments and data Industry and Systems Office, Defence Science returning to DSO National farming techniques for planning tests in a joint mission environment. Proceedings and Technology Agency, and many others – Laboratories. In the 1990s, of the International Data Farming Workshop 15. too numerous to name – who have assisted he led the establishment and certification us in one way or another, in the production of both organisations’ ISO 9001 Quality Ericson, C. W. (2005). Hazard analysis techniques for system safety. Hoboken, New of this book. Management System. In the 2000s, he Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. doi: 10.1002/0471739421. headed the Systems Engineering Centre in Authors DSO National Laboratories to strengthen the Kelly, T. P. (1998). Arguing safety: A systematic approach to managing safety cases. Retrieved mechanical design, electronics prototyping, from the University of York, Department of Computer Science website: https:// Ms Chang Chai Fung joined the quality, reliability, maintainability, logistics www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/tpk/tpkthesis.pdf DTC in 1985 as an engineer in and system safety capabilities. During this DSO. She was the Programme period, he also served as Senior Assessor for Kelly, T. P., & Weaver, R. (2004). The goal structuring notation: A safety argument notation. Manager for the AC2H project, the national Business Excellence Scheme. Retrieved from the University of York, Department of Computer Science website: which received the Defence Since 2010, he has been the Assistant Director https://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/tpk/dsn2004.pdf Technology Prize in 2002. Since 2006, she overseeing the training of programme has worked on various areas related to managers and systems engineers in DSO Enterprise Architecting and Governance, National Laboratories. Masterplanning and Systems Architecting in DSTA, and is currently Head Business Mr Leow Aik Siang graduated Process Management, MINDEF. from NUS with a First Class Honours Degree in Computer Mr Chia Ban Seng joined the Science. He also holds a Masters DTC in 1999 as an operations in Management of Technology analyst in DMO. Since 2000, he from Georgia Institute of Technology. He has has worked on various projects in also held appointments as Head Engineering the areas of operations research, in Enterprise IT, Head Capability Development system-of-systems, systems architectures, for Knowledge Management and Deputy masterplanning, training and simulation, and CIO in the DSTA CIO Office. He is the design innovation in DSTA. He is currently current Director (Enterprise IT) in DSTA and Head (OR – Methodology) in DSTA. is leading the acquisition, implementation and sustenance of Corporate IT capabilities Mr Chung Wai Kong received for MINDEF and the SAF spanning across his Bachelor of Engineering logistics, human resource, NS administration (Honours) degree from Nanyang and knowledge management. He is also Technological University in involved in driving new capabilities in the 1997. He further obtained a areas of mobility, analytics, and internet-of- Master of Science in Computer Science from things. NPS in 2005. He is the Head of Capability Development (CMS Development) in DSTA, where he oversees the capability development

184 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 185 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Professor Lui Pao Chuen the academia, such as iTrust at the Singapore Mr Teo Chee Wah joined the have spanned the capability domains of air graduated from Singapore University of Technology and Design, and DTC in 1988. He graduated (such as fighter aircraft), land (the Advanced University in 1965 with a Temasek Laboratories and the Singapore in France in 1986 under the Combat Man System), sea (the Formidable- degree in Physics. In 1966 Institute for Neurotechnology at NUS. Singapore Public Service class Frigate) and Joint (in intelligence, he enlisted in the SAF on a Commission Scholarship surveillance and reconnaissance). He is a Short Service Commission and served as In over three decades of service in with an Honours in Electrical Engineering. Chartered Engineer (Systems Engineering) Officer-In-Charge in the Test, Evaluation MINDEF, RADM (Ret) Richard Subsequently, he was awarded the DSTA in the Institution of Engineers. He is also and Acceptance Section, Logistics Division, Lim has had roles in all phases Postgraduate Scholarship in 1993 and a member of the International Council Ministry of Interior and Defence. He retired of the systems development graduated with a Master of Science in on Systems Engineering, the Institute of from the SAF in 1986 and continued to life cycle of large-scale defence Telecommunication and Signal Processing Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and UK serve MINDEF as Chief Defence Scientist. systems. He has held the positions of Deputy from the Imperial College of Science, Operations Research Society. He has written, He retired from MINDEF in 2008 and is Secretary (Technology), Chief Executive Technology and Medicine, University of presented and published numerous papers in currently advisor to the National Research DSTA, Chief of Navy, and Director Joint London. In his tour of duties in the DTC, systems engineering and operations research. Foundation, Prime Minister’s Office, six Operations and Planning. He continues his Chee Wah has assumed several significant He is currently Assistant Director (Advanced Ministries and Government Agencies, and professional interest in systems engineering, appointments. Notably, in DSTA, he led Programmes) in DSTA. to President of NUS and President of NTU. and serves in advisory and board positions the Sensors Systems Division, served as the He also serves on the board of 12 research in both the private and public sectors. He is Deputy Director of DMSA, as well as the Er. BG (Ret) Wesley D’aranjo institutes and corporations and is a member of Chairman of ST Logistics, a board member of Faculty Head in DSTA Academy. In MINDEF, obtained his degree in Electrical the Board of Trustees of Singapore University ST Marine and the National University Health he served as the Head of Defence Technology and Electronics Engineering of Technology and Design and the Scout System, and Deputy Chairman of Land Office (Europe) in Paris, France, and Deputy (First Class Honours) from Council of Singapore. Transport Authority. He is also Chairman Director (Industry), DISO. He is currently the University of Manchester of the governing board of St. John’s Island the Deputy Director (Sensors) in DSTA. Mr Institute of Science and Technology in 1975. Professor Quek Tong Boon Marine Laboratory and Chairman of the Teo was awarded the Public Administration From 1975 to 1979, he served as an Air is currently Advisor to DSO National Maritime Safety at Sea Council. Medal (Bronze) in 2009. Engineering Officer at the ADRU, SADC. National Laboratories and From 1979 to 1984 he was appointed Head Chief Executive of the National Mr Tan Yang How, a Radar Mr Teo Koon Kiat began his Engineering Group of Project Management Robotics Programme. He was Systems Engineer and DSTA career as a reliability engineer Team 2 and then Assistant Director 2 in the the Chief Defence Scientist in MINDEF from Systems Architect, has served in in DSO in 1986. Thereafter, he SPO. From 1984 to 1986, he served as Deputy 2008 until 30th June 2016. He graduated from numerous positions in MINDEF was posted to DMO to work on Head Air Logistics (Electronics and Weapons) the University of Cambridge in 1977 with a and DSTA. He was Director acquisition programmes in the in the RSAF and concurrently Deputy Director Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in Engineering and (Naval Systems) and Director (DMSA) areas of reliability and maintainability, quality (Radar and C2), SPO. From 1985 to 1987 Master of Arts in Engineering in 1981. In 1985, before being appointed Founding President assurance and logistics support analysis. From Er. BG (Ret) D'aranjo was appointed Deputy he obtained his Master of Science in Electrical of DSTA Academy in April 2012 to steer 2013 to 2016, he was seconded to DISO to Director (Lands and Armaments) in SPO. Engineering from NUS. After completing the organisation’s Systems Engineering and oversee the build-up and sustainment of He was appointed Director of DMO from his full-time NS in 1980, he joined DSO. Programme Management Training. During strategic capabilities in the local defence 1987 to 1991, and concurrently from 1987 From June 1994 to December 1997 he was the 2003 SARS crisis, he led the invention and industry. He is currently a Senior Principal to 1988, the Deputy Director (Weapons and the Director of DMO before becoming CEO wide-scale operationalisation of the Infrared Engineer at DSTA. Systems) at DSO, before being appointed of DSO National Laboratories from January Fever Screening System in Singapore. The Deputy Secretary (Technology) from 1991 1998 to January 2004. He has contributed innovative work gained much recognition, Mr Teo Siow Hiang joined the to 1997. For his many contributions to the to the build-up of various capabilities in the earning several accolades and awards DTC in 1983 as an engineer DTC over the years, he was awarded the defence technology ecosystem over the years, including the USA Tech Museum Award. in DSO. He was then sent on Defence Technology Medal (Outstanding including those related to guided weapons, He was the 1997 Defence Technology Prize overseas attachment to work Service) in 2015. unmanned systems, microsatellites, chemical- Individual Award Recipient for his work in on a defence project before biological defence and systems engineering. the radar domain, and was conferred Public returning to join DMO, and then to DSTA He was the leader of the DSO project that Administration Medals in 2000 (Bronze) and when it was formed in year 2000. Since won the inaugural Defence Technology 2003 (Silver). joining DTC, he has worked in various areas Prize (Team) in 1989. He also established in systems engineering, operations research, various research laboratories and centres in and systems architectures. These areas

186 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 187 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Contributors

Mr Alagesan Kulanthaivelu Dr How Khee Yin Prof Lai Kim Fatt Dr Loke Weng Keong Mr Quek Gim Pew Mr Seah Peng Leong Dr Tan Boon Huan Ms Tan Chong Shan Mr Tay Yeow Koon Mr Teo Tiat Leng Mr Teo Yew Kheng Mr William Lau Yue Khei

Editor

RADM (Ret) Richard Lim Cherng Yih

Editorial Support Team Sitting (left to right) Mr Chia Ban Seng Mr Teo Tiat Leng, Prof Lai Kim Fatt, Ms Chang Chai Fung, RADM (Ret) Richard Lim Cherng Yih, Mr Chiam Dasen Mr William Lau Yue Khei, Dr Loke Weng Keong, Mr Quek Gim Pew, Dr Tan Boon Huan Ms Chua Seow Kie Standing (left to right) Ms Pearly Chua Siew Ting Er. BG (Ret) Wesley D’aranjo, Dr How Khee Yin, Mr Tan Huang Hong Mr Alagesan Kulanthaivelu, Mr Tan Yang How, Prof Lui Pao Chuen, Mr Teo Koon Kiat, Mr Tan Yang How Mr Teo Yew Kheng, Mr Chia Ban Seng Not in picture Mr Chung Wai Kong, Mr Frank Teo Yong Khiang, Mr Leow Aik Siang, Prof Quek Tong Boon, Mr Seah Peng Leong, Ms Tan Chong Shan, Mr Tay Yeow Koon, Mr Teo Chee Wah, Mr Teo Siow Hiang

188 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 189 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GLOSSARY

Photo/Chart/Diagram Credit: GLOSSARY

1. Defence Science and Technology Agency: Cover picture, pages 34-35, 37, 40*, 42*, 43, 63, Acronym Description 64, 65 (left), 72, 79-85, 89, 92 (right top and bottom), 93, 99, 102, 104, 105, 111, 113 (top), A(FE)-VC-A(P) Analysis (Front End)-Validity Check-Analysis (Post) 115-116, 136, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146*, 147-148, 149 (bottom)*, 150-152, 154-156, 159-161, AA Anti-aircraft 163, 165, 167-173, 175, 177 (left top, middle and bottom), 178, 181-183 AAW Anti-air warfare 2. DSO National Laboratories: pages 111 (bottom), 114, 119, 120 ADRU Air Defence Radar Uit 3. Er. BG (Ret) Wesley D’aranjo: pages 4 (bottom), 5, 6, 12, 13 (bottom), 15 (top left and AEW Airborne Early Warning right), 18, 22 (top), 25 (left), 27, 28, 59 AHP Analytic Hierarchy Process 4. Ministry of Defence: pages 2 (top), 4 (top), 25 (middle), 30, 34, 36, 39, 46, 47, 65 (right top), AMM Anti-missile missile 71, 74, 77 (top), 85, 92 (left), 99, 102, 124, 144, 149 (top), 164, 165, 172 (top), 174, 177 (right) ARTHUR Artillery Hunting Radar 5. Mr Cameron Moll: page 76 ASEM Advanced Systems Engineering and Management 6. Mr Richard Lim Cherng Yih: preface, page 122 ASO Aviation Supply Office 7. Mr Tan Yang How: page 113 (bottom) ATE Automatic Test Equipment 8. National Security Coordination Secretariat: page 111 AvC Availability Based Contracting 9. Professor Lui Pao Chuen: pages 3, 9, 10, 13 (bottom), 22 (middle and bottom), 23 BPMS Business Process Management System 10. Republic of Singapore Air Force: page 2 (middle and bottom), 7, 13 (top), 15 (bottom), 16, BSEM Basic Systems Engineering and Management 53, 65 (right bottom), 77 (bottom) BSL Biosafety Level 11. Republic of Singapore Navy: page 25 (right) C2 Command and control 12. Singapore Army: page 60 C2N Command and control network C4 Command, control, communications and computers C4I Command, control, communications, computers and intelligence C4ISR Command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance CAF Chief of Air Force CC Competency Community CDS Chief Defence Scientist CDSO Chief Defence Scientist's Office CII-SA Critical Infocomm Infrastructure - Surety Assessment CIP Critical infrastructure protection CIVA Critical infrastructure vulnerability assessment COE Common Operating Environment CONOPS Concept of Operations COTS Commercial off-the-shelf CSEP Certified Systems Engineering Professional CSO Command, Control, Communications and Computer Systems Organisation CSP Common Situation Picture C-T&T Contact Track and Trace DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DCM Defence Capability Management DMO Defene Materials Organisation DMRI Defence Medical Research Institute DMSA DSTA Masterplanning and Systems Architecting DMSC Defence Management and Systems Course DPD Defence Procurement Division DRD Directorate of Research and Development DRTech Defence Research and Technology Office * Schematic diagrams that include source photographs from MINDEF and the SAF. DS(T) Deputy Secretary (Technology)

190 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 191 GLOSSARY GLOSSARY

DSO Defence Science Organisation ILS Integrated Logistics Support DSTA Defence Science and Technology Agency IM Initiating Mechanism DTC Defence Technology Community INCOSE International Council on Systems Engineering DTE Defence Technology Ecosystem IPMT Integrated Project Management Team DTG Defence Technology Group IRS Interface Requirements Specifications EA Enterprise Architecting ISEM Intermediate Systems Engineering and Management EADSIM Extended Air Defense Simulation IT Information Technology EBA Enterprise Business/Operational Architecture JATCC Joint Air Traffic Control Centre EBM Enhancing Business Model JCATS Joint Conflict and Tactical Simulation EHI Environmental Health Institute JEWEL Joint Modelling and Simulation Environment for Wargaming and EIA Enterprise Information Architecture Experimentation Labs EMP Engineering Master Plan JFAS Joint Force Analysis Simulation ERD Engineering Resource Deployment JTEM Joint Test and Evaluation Methodology ERP Enterprise Resource Planning LCC Life Cycle Cost ES Enterprise System LCM Life Cycle Management ESA Enterprise Solutions Architecture LEO Lands and Estates Organisation ESP Engineering and Scientific Personnel LISA Large-Scale Integrated Search and Analysis ETA Enterprise Technical Architecture LMIS Logistics Management Information System ETC Electronics Test Centre LOA Letter of Offer and Acceptance FCS Future Combat Systems LPC Logistics Planning Conference FMS Foreign Military Sales LSA Logistics Support Analysis FSB Finance Systems Branch LSB Logistics Systems Branch FSD Future Systems Directorate LSMP Logistics Support Management Plan FSTD Future Systems and Technology Directorate LST Landing Ship Tank GBAD Ground-based air defence M&S Modelling and simulation GeBIZ Government Electronic Business MANA Map Aware Non-uniform Automata GES Ground Entry Station MBSE Model-based Systems Engineering GIS Genome Institute of Singapore MCMV Mine Countermeasure Vessel GOSPO Government of Singapore Programme Office MCV Missile Corvette GSN Goal Structuring Notation MDA Model-Driven Architecture HADR Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief MDES Military Domain Expert Scheme HC Human Capital MHA Ministry of Home Affairs HE Hazard Element MIAFU Modified Improved Assault Fire Unit HR Human Resources MICOM US Army Missile Command HSC Horizon Scanning Centre MINDEF Ministry of Defence IAD Island Air Defence MMO Materials Management Organisation IADS Integrated Air Defence System MOCC Mobile operations control centre IAFU Improved Assault Fire Unit MOE Measure of Effectiveness IBCM Integrated Bridge-Combat Information Centre-Machinery Control Room MOH Ministry of Health IBM International Business Machines Corporation MOP Measure of Performance ICIT Installation, Checkout, Integration and Testing MOU Memorandum of Understanding IDA Infocomm Development Authority MPA Maritime Port Authority IES Institution of Engineers Singapore MRO Maintenance, repair, and overhaul IFF Identification Friend or Foe MRT Mass Rapid Transit IFss Infrared Fever Screening System MSA Modelling Simulation and Analysis IFV Infantry fighting vehicle MTBCF Mean Time Between Critical Failure IG Image Generator MTBF Mean Time Between Failure IKC2 Integrated Knowledge-based Command and Control M-T-M Model-Test-Model

192 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 193 GLOSSARY GLOSSARY

MTTR Mean Time To Repair RDPS Radar Data Processing Subsystem NAVAIR United States Navy Naval Air Systems Command REC RAHS Experimentation Centre NDP National Day Parade RFID Radiofrequency identification NFRP Next Fighter Replacement Programme RFN Robotförsöksplats Norr NPS Naval Postgraduate School RGT Reliability growth testing NSCS National Security Coordination Secretariat RMAF Royal Malaysian Air Force NSF Full-time National Serviceman RMS Reliability, Maintainability, Supportability NSmen National Servicemen RSAF Republic of Singapore Air Force NTU Nanyang Technological University RSN Republic of Singapore Navy NUS National University of Singapore RT Reliability Technology O&S Operations and Support SA Systems architecting OA Operations Analysis SADA Singapore Air Defence Artillery OAB Operations Analysis Branch SADC Singapore Air Defence Command OCD Organisation Capability Development SAF Singapore Armed Forces OCF Operational Concept Formulation SAM Surface-to-air missile ODIN Optimised Decisions in Networks SAMCO Singapore Aerospace OEM Original equipment manufacturer SAP Systemanalyse und Programmentwicklung OME Ordnance, munitions and explosives SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome OMP Operational Master Plan SBIC Shore Based Integration Centre OODA Observe, orient, decide, act SBIT Shore Based Integration Test OPCW Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons SCME SAF Centre for Military Experimentation OPUS Optimisation of Units as Spares SCO Systems and Computer Organisation OR Operations research SE Systems engineering ORBAT Order of Battle SEAD Systems Effectiveness Assurance Division OSAT On-Site Acceptance Test SEEL Singapore Electronic and Engineering Limited OTE Operational Test and Evaluation SES Singapore Engineering Software OTS Off-the-shelf SI Systems Integrator OV Operational View SIMT Systems Integration and Management Team PBL Performance Based Logistics SLC System life cycle PC Personal computer SLD Service Logistics Department PCG Police Coast Guard SME Subject Matter Expert PD Project division SOA Service Oriented Architecture PHL Preliminary Hazard List SON Statement of Needs PIT Preliminary Integration Test SOR Specification of Requirements Pk Probability of Kill SoS System of systems PLC Product life cycle SoSIL System-of-Systems Integration Lab PMT Project Management Team SPD Special Projects Director PV Patrol Vessel SPF Singapore Police Force QA Quality Assurance SPO Special Projects Organisation QAD Quality Assurance Department SRB Systems and Research Branch QSM Quantitative selection methodology SRD Scenario Requirements Document R&D Research and Development SVI Sky Venture International R&M Reliability and Maintainability SVS Sky Venture Singapore R&T Research and Technology T&E Test and evaluation RAAF Royal Australian Air Force TAG Technical Advisory Group RAF Royal Air Force TCO Total Cost of Ownership RAHS Risk Assessment and Horizon Scanning TDR Target data receiver RAM Reliability, availability, and maintainability TIR Tracking and illumination radar

194 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 195 GLOSSARY INDEX

UK United Kingdom INDEX Bofors 40mm gun 8, 9 USN United States Navy Bofors AB 12, 14 V&V Verification and validation British Army 16 VA Vulnerability assessment 160 Battalion 11, 12 Business Process Management System VIP Very Important Person 170 Squadron 3, 11, 12, 18 (BPMS) 151 VSS2000 Vision for SAF Simulation 2000 Butterworth Air Base 1, 2, 4, 8 VWT Vertical Wind Tunnel A A-4 Skyhawk 20, 37, 55, 77, 79, 81 C Advanced Systems Engineering and C-130 52 Management course 101 CDS Office 78 Agency for Science, Technology and CH-47 Chinook 52 Research 99 Changi Air Base 3, 6, 8, 12, 19 Air Battle of Britain 75 Changi Naval Base 80, 126 Air Command and Control Hub (AC2H) Chew Bak Khoon 9 42-44 Chief Defence Scientist 78, 100 Air Defence Radar Unit (ADRU) 3, 4, 9, 14 Chinniah Manohara 21 Air Defence Systems Division 32 Cognitive Edge 110 Air Force Systems Command 32 Command and control (C2) 5-7, 20, 24- Amoy Quee Camp 2, 17 26, 29, 31, 36, 38-44, 50, 51, 64, 77, 82, AMX-13 light tank 38 87-89, 96, 107-109, 129, 138, 143-148, 151, AN/TPQ-29 18 163, 169, 172, 173 AN/TPS-32 radar 6, Command, control and communications AN/TPS-43 radar 4, 6, 31 (C3) 33, 62, 126, 129 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) 72, 83, Command, Control, Communications and 84, 166-168, Computer Organisation (CSO) 66, 88, 97, Apache Longbow 84 108, 109 Artillery Fire Control Training System Command, control, communications and (AFCTS) 81 computers (C4) 109, 129, 144, 174 Artillery Hunting Radar (ARTHUR) 171, 172 Common Situation Picture (CSP) 39 AS332, Super Puma 52, 81 Contact Track and Trace (C-T&T) 112 AS550 81 Critical infrastructure vulnerability Aster 30 30, 37 assessment (CIVA) 79, 119 Aster anti-missile missile (AMM) system Crotale 9 177, 178 Aviation Supply Office (ASO) 26, 60, 153 D Data Processing Department 45, 95 B Dave Adams 25, 26 Basic Systems Engineering and Dave Snowden 110 Management course 101 Defense Advanced Research Projects Basil Fox 8 Agency (DARPA) 110, 130, 133 Battle of the North Atlantic 75 Defence Industry and Systems Office 98 Bionix Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) Defence Management and Systems 57, 58, 128 Course (DMSC) 100, 101 Blindfire Rapier 9 Defence Medical Research Institute Bloodhound Mk2 2, 3, 8, 11, 16-18, 20, 31, (DMRI) 98 77 Defence Operations Analysis Blowpipe 10, 11 Establishment (DOAE) 76 Bo Johannsen 18

196 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 197 INDEX INDEX

Defence Procurement Division (DPD) Enterprise Systems for Logistics 24, 49, Harvard Business School 100, Joint Conflict and Tactical Simulation 96, 97 146 Hawker Hunter 8, 31, (JCATS) 158 Defence Research and Technology Office Enterprise Technical Architecture (ETA) Henry Cheong 9 Joint Consultative Council 1 (DRTech) 98 145 Horizon Scanning Centre (HSC) 111, Joint Modelling and Simulation Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 5, Ericsson Microwave System 8, 9, 18, Hospital Movement Tracking System 112, Environment for Wargaming and 11, 16, 20, 24, 25, 33, 44, 54, 59, 73, 78, 79, Ericsson Radio System AB 40, 41, Housing and Development Board 3 Experimentation Labs (JEWEL) 83, 158, 95101, 103, 109, 110, 112-114, 117, 119, 120, 121, Executive Agency 97, Humanitarian assistance and disaster 159, 161, 169 126, 127, 128, 131, 134, 144 Extended Air Defense Simulation relief (HADR) 52, 117, Joint Operations and Planning Defence Technology and Resource Office (EADSIM) 158, Directorate (JOPD) 78 (DTRO) 97, 98 I Defence Technology Community (DTC) F Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) 11, 13, K 29, 31-39, 45, 50, 51, 53, 57, 59, 61, 69, 70, F-15SG 79, 84, Improved Assault Firing Unit (IAFU) 17, 19 KC-135 52 73, 74, 78, 85-87, 95-102, 105, 107, 122, 123, F-16 Fighting Falcon 32, Improved Hawk (I-Hawk) 16-19, 29, 31, 32, Kent Drefeldt 18 125-127, 129, 131, 134, 136, 137, 142, 154 F-50 52, Indigo 9 Kirpa Ram Vij 8 Defence Technology Ecosystem (DTE) 99 F-5E Tiger II 7, 20, 55, 81, 153, 157, Infrared Fever Screening System (IFss) Koh Wee Liam 54, 70 Defence Technology Group (DTG) 31, 32, Failure mode effects and criticality 112, 113, Kok Khew Fai 176 66, 67, 87, 96-98, 107-109, 128, 129 analysis 56 Installation, Check-out, Integration and Deputy Secretary for Technology (DS(T)) Falklands War 11, 19, Testing (ICIT) 71, 87, 89, L 66, 96, 107, 108, 129 FIM-43 Redeye 10, Integrated Air Defence System (IADS) Land and Estates Organisation (LEO) Directorate of Organisation Capability FIM-92 Stinger 10, 11, 12, 1, 129, 169, 88, 96, 97, 108 Development 100 Finance Management Information System Integrated Bridge-Combat Information Landing ship tank, Endurance-class (LST) DN181 Blindfire radar 10, 16 46, Centre-Machinery Control Room (IBCM) 52, 55, 87, 128 DSTA Analytical Lab 36, 37 Finance Systems Branch (FSB) 45, 37, LAR2 radar 6, 7 DSTA Masterplanning and Systems Five Power Defence Arrangements 1 Integrated Knowledge-based Command Large-Scale Integrated Search and Architecting (DMSA) Programme Centre Foreign Military Sales (FMS) 17, 18, 22, 23, and Control (IKC2) 144, 145, 147-149 Analysis (LISA) 110 35 26, 28, Integrated logistics support (ILS) 52, 53, Lee Hsien Loong 51 FPS 117 30, 58-62, 70, Lee Kheng Nam 76 E Frigate, Formidable-class 52, 55, 84, 88, Interface Requirements Specification Lee Kuan Yew 19 E-2C Hawkeye airborne early warning 89, 105, 126, 168, 177, (IRS) 6, 7, Letter of Offer and Acceptance (LOA) aircraft 19-29, 32, 41, 59-62, 96, 153 Future Systems and Technology Intermediate Systems Engineering and 19, 20, 21, 24, 27 E-3 Sentry 20 Directorate 98, Management course 101 Life Cycle Cost (LCC) 52-54, 56-58, 71, Economic Development Board 103 Future Systems Directorate (FSD) 98, International Business Machines 72, 153, 156, 167 Electronics Test Centre (ETC) 95 Corporation (IMB) 8, 47, 110, 133, Life Cycle Management (LCM) Manual Engineering Master Plan (EMP) 34, 35, 37, G International Council on Systems 1, 24, 59, 62, 70 80 G550 Airborne Early Warning (AEW) Engineering (INCOSE) 158, Lim Lay Geok 76 Engineering Resource Deployment (ERD) system 27, 28, 30, 62, Island Air Defence 1, 3, 10, 19, 29, 31, 33, Lim Ming Seong 21 65 Gepard 10 44, Lim Siong Guan 70, 96, 125, 127 Enterprise Business/Operational German Army 10, ITT-RS320 radar 6, 7, 29, 31, Lim Swee Say 47 Architecture (EBA) 145 Giraffe radar 9, 11-13, 15-19, 30, 32, Link 11 24-26 Enterprise HR 49 GL-161 control centre 3-5, 29, J Link 4/4A 24, 25 Enterprise Information Architecture (EIA) Goh Chok Tong 19, 102, Jeff Jonas 110 Link Σ 24, 25 145 Goh Keng Swee 19, 21, 32, 77, 95, 123-125, Jemaah Islamiyah 109 Littoral Mission Vessel (LMV) 37 Enterprise Information Technology (EIT) Government Electronic Business (GeBIZ) Jim White 21, 25, Logistics Enterprise System 146 39, 44, 45, 49 48, John Langer 8, Logistics Management Information Enterprise Solutions Architecture (ESA) Government of Singapore Programme John Petersen 110 System 24, 62 145 Office (GOSPO) 22, 23, 26, John Poindexter 110 Logistics support analysis (LSA) 59, 60 Enterprise Systems for Innovation, Ground Entry Station (GES) 24-26, John Wong 21 Logistics Support Management Plan Learning and Knowledge (eSILK) 49 Grumman Corporation 20-27, 41, 59, 61, Joint Air Traffic Control Centre (JATCC) 3 (LSMP) 61, 62

198 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 199 INDEX INDEX

Logistics Systems Branch (LSB) 45 Missile corvette, Victory-class (MCV) P Roland II 9, 10 Long Range Radar and Display System 41, 55, 86, 87, 90, 96 Patrol vessel, Fearless-class (PV) 87 Ronald Reagan 21, (LORADS) 6 Missile gunboat, Sea Wolf-class (MGB) Performance-based logistics (PBL) Royal Air Force 1, 2-4, 8, 10, 31, 76 Lui Pao Chuen 1, 5, 8, 9, 21, 22, 28, 31, 41, 86, 88, 95 155-157 Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) 1, 2, 76-78, 100, 107, 125, 129 Mobile operations command centre Peter Ho Hak Ean 50, 98, 110, 125, 127 Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) 1, 2, 53 (MOCC) 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 29 Philip Yeo 19, 45, 95, 124, 125, 128 Royal Malaysian Navy 53 M MOD Aberporth 3 Pipeline Simulator (PIPER) 154, 155 Royal Military College of Science 78 M S Gill 9 Model-based systems engineering Plessey 6, 7 Royal Navy 19 M113 armored personnel carrier 14 (MBSE) 158 Police Coast Guard (PCG) 107, 108, 109 RSS Steadfast 52 Maintenance, repair and overhaul Model-driven architecture (MDA) 151 Preliminary Hazard List 179 (MRO) 72 Modified Improved Assault Firing Unit Preliminary Integration Test (PIT) 89 S Malaysian Airlines MH370 Search and (MIAFU) 17, 18, 19 PRIMUS 92, 172 S-70B naval helicopter 52 Rescue Operation 52 MV Swift Rescue 52 Procurement Information Management SAF Centre for Military Experimentation Map Aware Non-uniform Automata System 46 (SCME) 36, 82 (MANA) 158 N Scenario Requirements Document (SRD) Marconi Type 97 Scorpion radar 2 Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Q 88 Marie Turnbull 8 103 Quantitative selection methodology Sensor Master Plan 33 Maritime Port Authority (MPA) 26, 108 National Computer Board 45, 95, 128 (QSM) 83, 84 Service Logistics Department 66 Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) 20, 47 National Science and Technology Board Quek Gim Pew 16 Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) Materials Management Organisation 103 146, 151 (MMO) 54, 96 National University of Singapore (NUS) R Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Mean Time Between Critical Failure 55 103, 126 Radar Data Processing Subsystem (SARS) 80, 109, 112, 113, 114, 127 Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) NAVAIR 231 23, 26 (RDPS) 108 Shore Based Integration Centre 89 55, 60, 171 Networked Air Defence System 29, 33, Radiofrequency Identification (RFID) 112 Shore Based Integration Test (SBIT) 89 Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) 55, 60, 171 85, 173, 174 RAHS Experimentation Centre (REC) 111 Singapore Aerospace (SAMCO) 27 Measure of effectiveness (MOE) 75, 79, Next Fighter Replacement Programme 79 Rapier 8-10, 15, 16, 19, 29, 31, 32 Singapore Air Defence Artillery (SADA) 160, 172-174 Ng Chee Meng 27, 28 Raytheon Company 17, 18 14, 17, 19, 32 Measure of performance (MOP) 160 Ng Eng Hen 125 RBS-70 10-16, 19, 29, 32 Singapore Air Defence Command Melvin Kline 70 Nimrod 20 Reliability and maintainability (R&M) (SADC) 8 Memorandum of understanding (MOU) Norman Augustine 10 53-56 Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) 9, 88, 10, 109, 121 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 24, 25 Reliability growth testing (RGT) 57, 58 12, 22, 24, 27, 29, 31-38, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, Military Domain Expert Scheme (MDES) Reliability, availability and maintainability 53, 56, 57, 59, 61-63, 66-68, 70, 71, 73-75, 67, 98, 101 O (RAM) 52, 53, 55-58 78-87, 91, 95-98, 100-103, 107, 108, 112, 117, Mine countermeasure vessel (MCMV), Oerlikon 35mm twin cannon 8-10, 31 Reliability, maintainability, supportability 122, 123, 125-130, 132, 137, 142-144, 146, 147, Bedok-class 87 Operational Analysis Department (OAD) (RMS) 71 155-157, 163, 164, 166-170, 176, 179-181, 183 Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) 1, 5, 7, 8, 78 Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, 24, 27, 31-33, 34, 36, 41-43, Operational Master Plan (OMP) 34, 35, 3, 11, 12, 13, 18, 20, 21, 24, 26, 27, 32, 33, 37, 109 45-50, 52, 54, 55, 59, 62, 65-67, 69-73, 76, 37, 80 43, 44, 49, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 68, Singapore Electronic & Engineering 78, 79, 84, 86-88, 91, 92, 95-103, 107-109, Operational Test and Evaluation 163-166 79, 81, 85, 91, 153, 157, 174 Limited (SEEL) 86 117, 121, 123-130, 137, 143, 144, 166-168, 170, Operations Analysis Branch (OAB) 78 Republic of Singapore Army 4, 10-12, Singapore General Hospital (SGH) 112 180, 183 Operations Research Laboratory (ORL) 14-17, 49, 56-58, 68, 78, 81, 91, 96, 112, 154, Singapore Police Force (SPF) 107-109, Ministry of Defence (MOD), United 78 155 121, 180 Kingdom 3 Optimisation of Units as Spares (OPUS) Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN) 26, 37, Singapore Technologies Aerospace Ministry of Health (MOH) 112 26, 153, 154 49, 56, 57, 68, 78, 81, 86-88, 92, 105, 107, (ST Aerospace) 59, 99, 157 Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) 107-109, Optimised Decisions in Networks (ODIN) 108, 126, 157, 177, 178 Singapore Technologies Electronics 121 170, 173, 174, 175 Richard Lim 35, 104 (ST Electronics) 41, 86, 87, 99, 112, 157 Mirage 2000 2 Order of battle (ORBAT) 8, 32 Risk Assessment and Horizon Scanning Sky Venture International (SVI) 179-181 (RAHS) Programme 109, 110

200 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SYSTEMS-OF-SYSTEMS 201 INDEX

Sky Venture Singapore (SVS) 179, 180, U DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY COMMUNITY 181, 183 United States Air Force (USAF) 4, 10, 20 Software Engineering of Singapore 8 United States Army (US Army) 10, 17-19, Special Projects Organisation 5, 12, 20, 58 “ENGINEERING SINGAPORE’S DEFENCE – THE EARLY YEARS” Book Series 24, 28, 54, 59, 96, 99 United States Navy (USN) 19-27, 59, 60, Strategic Planning Office 98 153 Editorial Panel Su Guaning 101, 125, 130 United States Navy Naval Air Systems Co-Chief Editors of Series : Prof Quek Tong Boon Super Giraffe radar 16-20, 32 Command (NAVAIR) 21, 23, 26 Prof Lui Pao Chuen Superfledermaus fire control radar 8, 9 United States Army Missile Command Supply Management Systems 46 17, 18 Editor, Engineering Land Systems : Prof Lui Pao Chuen Surface-to-air PYthon and DERby United States Naval Postgraduate School Editor, Aviation Engineering : Mr Tay Kok Khiang (SPYDER) 30, 37, 44 25, 70, 76, 93 Editor, Engineering Our Navy : RADM (Ret) Richard Lim Cherng Yih Swedish Armed Forces 9 Editor, Engineering Systems-of-Systems : RADM (Ret) Richard Lim Cherng Yih System life cycle (SLC) 24, 62, 70, 72, 73, V 136, 137 V-200 Armored Fighting Vehicle 12-15 Panel Members : Prof Su Guaning System-of-systems (SoS) 1, 21, 29, 30, 31, Vallely Power 17, 18 RADM (Ret) James Leo 33-37, 39, 40, 44, 51, 69, 74, 85, 92, 93, Vertical Wind Tunnel (VWT) 178-183 Er. BG (Ret) Wesley D’aranjo 122, 123, 125, 136-143, 148, 150, 151, 158-163, Vision for SAF Simulation 2000 Mr Quek Gim Pew 165, 168-170, 175, 177 (VSS2000) 81, 82 Mr Tan Yang How System-of-systems Integration Lab VSS21 82 Mr Chua Poh Kian (SoSIL) 162 Ms Surine Ng Pei Gek System safety 69, 73, 90-93, 175-181, 183 W Systems and Computer Organisation Weapon Systems Safety Advisory Board (SCO) 29, 30, 54-56, 104 73, 91 Systems and Research Branch (SRB) 45 Weapons Systems Steering Committee Systems architecting 33-35, 106, 136, 137, 69 158 Wesley D'aranjo 1, 4, 14, 21, 22, 70, 107, Systems engineering 1, 55, 69, 87, 95, 100, 125, 129 101, 108, 121-126, 129, 136, 137, 158 Westinghouse Electric Corporation 4 Systems integration 4, 6, 8, 21, 33, 42, 44, Wong Yeok Yeok 8 81, 85, 105 Systems thinking 77, 107, 123 Y Yeo Ning Hong 19 T Tactical Training Centre 81 Tan Chin Nam 45 Target data receiver 13 Tengah Air Base 2, 3, 8, 129 Teo Chee Hean 29, 82, 121, 126 Teo Ming Kian 125, 128 Tony Tan 87, 125, 126 Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) 72, 167 Total system approach 69-71, 129 Tracking and illumination radar (TIR) 2, 3 Sitting left to right: Mr Tan Yang How, Prof Su Guaning, Prof Quek Tong Boon, Prof Lui Pao Chuen, Mr Quek Gim Pew Standing left to right: RADM (Ret) James Leo, RADM (Ret) Richard Lim Cherng Yih, Ms Surine Ng Pei Gek, Mr Tay Kok Khiang, Er. BG (Ret) Wesley D’aranjo, Mr Chua Poh Kian

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