CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC BUILDING IN THAILAND

Pinraj Khanjanusthiti1

Introduction

The history and the development of towards religious architecture. The earlier conservation practice in Thailand can be records of restoration work in Thai history divided into three phases: the period before can be dated back to the Sukothai period. the modernization of the country in the nineteenth century; the transition period; A stone inscription found at Wat Sri Chum, and the period after the establishment of the dated around 1345 gives the detailed Department of Fine Arts. The distinctions account of a prince, Mahatera Srisattha, between the three periods are characterized who, following the way of the Buddha, by the different attitudes towards the left his worldly life to be ordained in a historic monuments, and the different monastery. His pilgrimage to various conservation philosophy and practice as a places including Sri Lanka is mentioned. result of the social, political, and economic During his many pilgrimage trips in changes. This article will examine those Thailand, he performed many meritorious factors that determine the development of duties which demonstrated not only his the conservation process and its problems. support for Buddhism but also hi s dedication to the preservation of the Conservation before the heritage left behind by ancient forbears. It is mentioned that old stupas and broken Nineteenth Century stone images were discovered in the jungle by Mahathera and repaired by using lime. Sukothai Period There are a number of lapidary and other Mahathera returned from the pilgrimage records of the construction or restoration of trip to Sri Lanka accompanied by Sinhalese monasteries in the past. However, only a craftsmen. At the time of his arrival, Wat few provide enough detailed explanations Mahatat, built in the reign of king Rama for · us to understand their construction or Khamheng ( 12 7 5-1317), had fallen into restoration process. Nevertheless, we are ruin. Mahathera renovated the monastery able to conceive the general concepts of and enshrined the relic of the Buddha construction and the attitudes of the period brought by him from Sri Lanka in the main stupa. The inscription mentions the search 1 Lecturer, Department of Architecture for fragments of ancient stone images of Faculty of Architecture the Buddha and collecting them together in Chulalongkom University

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the monastery. The restoration of the sacred king who promptly took on the mission of images was vividly explained as follows: safeguarding the Buddha image. Since the " ... in one place a neck or a bust had image was constructed of brick and stucco been found; in another place the hair and of colossal size, it was suggested that it or an arm or a breast; sometime the should be completely dismantled and head hadfallen and was jar from the reconstructed again using the original body and it needed jour men to carry material as much as possible. it... All of these stones ofthe Buddha were of large size. They had to be It was a common practice of Thai kings to placed on a barrow or a cart to be ask learned monks for advice on various transported to the great sanctuary matters especially when the matters were where they were joined together with related the religion. Stone inscriptions at lime" (LeMay 1954: 180). the monastery give an account of the Meritorious acts similar to the ones carried Sangha's deliberations which opposed the out by Mahathera have been repeatedly dismantling of the image. ·It is mentioned carried out by kings and wealthy Buddhists that "After deliberating, they [the Sangha] throughout Thai history. It is a tradition for said: the statue is already the Lord Buddha. Buddhists to build, repair, and restore It would not be proper to dismantle it in sacred images and religious buildings of order to remove and reconstruct it." The earlier date as an act of merit making. The decision of the Sangha was fmal and the king objective of restoration and conservation of ordered the image to be removed intact. the relic of the past, therefore, is considered The inscriptions also give a detailed account as an effort to conserve and maintain the of the operation which involved elaborate religion itself. engineering works and a great expense of time and man-power. It must have been an Ayutthaya Period ambitious project when we consider the One of the most important conservation viability of the. machinery for the task. The events of the Ayutthaya period was vihara was demolished and the image was recorded in detail by means of stone moved 168 meter further from the river inscriptions. The account concerns the bank where a new vihara was built over. meritorious act done by King Taisa (1707- 1732) at Wat Pa-mok. Wat Pa-mok, The inscriptions are a rare example of their situates in the north of Ayutthaya on the kind, since they do not only give details of bank of Pasak River, was one of the the operation that illustrate the technology important monasteries of the Ayutthaya used but also indicate the attitudes of the period. The important feature within the period towards the sacred image and the monastery is a gigantic Buddha image in monastic building. We can conclude that a vihara. The image is in the reclining the image was valued as the most important position representing the Buddha entering structure and was the priority in the entire the state of' parinivarna'. It is built of brick operation, while the destruction of the and stucco with a gilt finish and is more building was not taken to be of any than twenty meters long. At the end of importance. It is not the architectural fabric March 1726, the vihara was in an imminent but the spiritual representation of the danger from the collapse of the river bank. Buddha that was the aim of the activities to The abbot of the monastery informed the safeguard it.

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Bangkok Period Apart from the restoration of the political, During the three hundred years of the social, and economic systems, the king Ayutthaya kingdom Thailand was involved also took on the duty of a Buddhist king in several major wars with Burma which to restore the stability of the religion. resulted in many victories as well as defeats Buddhist scriptures, destroyed during the on both sides. At the end of the eighteenth Ayutthaya war, were gathered and Pali century, Ayutthaya engaged in the final war texts were translated. Rama I had the which resulted in the fall of the kingdom ambition to build a new capital which in 1767. The capital suffered greatly would have match the glory of Ayutthaya. as the consequence of the war. Most of Therefore, the creation of art and the a rchitecture, art, and literature architecture in the Early Bangkok period, were destroyed overnight. Most of the especially during the first three reigns, population migrated to safer places and is characterized by looking back to the past Ayutthaya was deserted. Tak-sin, a Thai in the attempt to recreate a lost heri4tge. general, led a small army to fight against After the fall of Ayutthaya, the new capital the Burmese and restored the independence was established in Bangkok and vigorous of the country. Having seen that Ayutthaya construction programmes were carried out. was in a dilapidated state, impossible These included the- building of several to be reconstructed without exhausted major monasteries and large Buddha manpower, he moved the capital to images. A number of Buddha images were Thonburi, an old custom post on the west also transported from Ayutthaya and other bank of the Chao Praya River. Thonburi towns in order to be reestablished in royal period is one of the most critical period monasteries in the new capital. in Thai history. It was the time of the restoration and preservation of national Wat Po is one of the monasteries restored independence. The new capital was not by King Rama I. The work started in 1789 properly built. Social and economic and lasted for twelve years. A stone improvement as well as political stability inscription on a wall of a vihara gives an were the priorities. The political situation, account of the construction of a new however, was in turmoil until the end of ubosot, surrounding cloisters, several King Tak-sin' s reign. stupas, and other buildings. It also mentions the transference of more than two In 1782, a new king ascended the throne. thousand Buddha images from Ayutthaya, Rama I, the first king of present Chakri Pitsanulok, Lopburi, and Sukothai to Dynasty, served as a high ranking officer in Bangkok. Most of the images were the Thai army and fought against the damaged. The king gave orders to have Burmese along side King Tak-sin. The new them restored by adding the missing parts, king decided that geographically Thonburi and "beautifying" the faces. The images was difficult to defend if it were to be that were made from brick and stucco invaded again by the Burmese. It was also were repaired and regilded. After the constricted by canals to permit future restorations were complete, the important expansion. So, he moved the capital to the images were installed in different viharas of small village of Bangkok, on the opposite the monastery while the lesser ones were bank of the river. placed along the cloisters. Here orie can see the similarity of the restoration works

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carried out by Rama I and the works of been constructed on the top of the dome to Mahathera Srisattha of Sukothai four replace the missing original spire. The date hundred and fifty years previously. of the new structure is given between 1000- 1400 AD. The ruin of this tower was still The restoration of monasteries by the standing in the nineteenth century though successive kings was intensively pursued. completely overgrown with vegetation. The nature of the intervention always The restoration of the old stupa did not start involved the demolition of old structures until King Rama IV ascended the throne. and their replacement with new architecture The work began in 1853 and lasted for in the style of the period. One of the seventeen years. The king died before its examples which illustrates the typical completion and the work was carried on by restoration method of a stupa is at a his son, King Chulalongkorn. monastery at Nakorn Pathom. The town lies about thirty miles to the west of The restoration of the stupa by Rama IV Bangkok. According to local tradition, typifies the ancient way of restoring stu pas the city, situated on the site of an ancient in Thailand. An old stupa was usually city called Chaisiri, is believed to have enclosed within a new larger and taller been visited by King Asoka's Buddhist structure which could be of different style. missionary. Even though this claim is At Nakorn Pathom, the new structure does rejected by some modern historians, the not bear much resemblance to the original area around Nakorn Pathom is surrounded and is very much larger. It became the ' by remains of ancient stupa. Resent tallest and the largest stupa in the country. excavations reveal ancient images and other 120.45 meters in height, 233.5 meters in art objects that display the strong influence circumference and covered with orange of the Gupta tradition. There is also a glazed tiles, it dominates the plains for speculation that Nakorn Pathom may have miles around. The king also built a round been a sea port and the capital of the gallery surrounding the stupa and four Dvaravati Kingdom. viharas at the four cardinal points. It is interesting that the restoration work was Before his accession, King Rama IV who recorded, though not with architectural or at the time was in monkhood, made a archaeological correctness. A replica of the pilgrimage to the city. There he found old stupa was built on the outer platform to the ruined dome of an ancient stupa. the east of the gallery. It was from this According to archaeological evidence, the model that archaeologists and historians stupa was constructed by the Mon in the have speculated on the style and the date of style .of a Singhalese dagoba (stupa) and the original structure. can be dated back to the first Dvaravati settlement. 2 The stupa had undergone some This intervention on the monument, again, restoration even before the king's discovery. emphasises the restoring of the structure to It appeared that a Khmer style sikhara had its original glory, or what the original should have been, regardless of the archaeological or historical evidence. The 2 The exact date of this ancient stupa is still stupa became once again a shrine suitable debatable. It ranges from the first to the in every way for the relic of the Lord eleventh centuries. Buddha and resumed its function as the

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centre of pilgrimage as it was in ancient Among these activities, which gave him the times. This intention is illustrated, though reputation of being a good Buddhist king indirectly, by the mural painting in the main and which greatly impressed the population vihara. It depicts the original stupa of Sukothai, was the restoration of Wat enclosed within the new structure. The Mahatat (Temple of the Great Relic) in walls of the chamber also contain murals Pitsanulok which once was the centre of the showing gods, angels, and various Kingdom. mythological creatures paying homage to the great stupa. It was an ancient tradition that when a new king ascended the throne, he would build a The Roles of Kings in Caring for new monastery or completely restore an existing one. That monastery was regarded Monasteries as the royal monastery of that reign. The vast number of monasteries and the In the past, most of the restoration works magnificence of the buildings signified not was carried out under the kings' orders. only the stability of the reign and prosperity The role of the Thai king as a supporter of the religion but also the righteousness and .protector of Buddhism and the Sangha and merit of the ruling king. The king's had existed since the beginning of the meritorious acts would be followed by Thai Kingdom. Kingship and religion were members of the royal family, nobles and interdependent since the stability of the wealthy patrons. This resulted in the large country and the well being of the nation number of monasteries in the country both depended upon both institutions. under the royal patronage and privately built and the vast amount of land donated to Throughout the Sukothai and Ayutthaya monasteries. Today the building of a new periods, the relationship between the state monastery is no longer practised. Most of and the Sangha was closely knit. Buddhism, the money donated to a monastery goes to in a way, was exploited by politics. It was ·the repair or restoration of the existing used to legitimize the king as claim to the fabric or the construction of new buildings throne especially when that king was an for the benefit of the community and the usurper. Buddhism was manifested in the monastery such as schools, multi-purpose unification of Ayutthaya and Sukothai in halls, and new ubosots or viharas. the reign of King Trilok of Ayutthaya (1448-1488). Although Sukothai was under Slave Endowment Ayutthaya's rule, it was still not totally Another tradition that was practised by the subdued. It has been suggested that the kings of the Ayutthaya and Early Bangkok king succeeded in integrating the two periods was the donation of slaves for kingdoms because he understood the working in royal monasteries. During the importance of Buddhism and recognized Ayutthaya period when there w as a that military occupation alone would not shortage of man-power because of the be able to ensure stability. The king wars with Burma, large numbers of temporarily left the throne to be ordained the population were recruited by the and stayed for a period in a monastery in government to do military service and work the north. He also made great efforts to as forced labour. This drove many people restore and build monasteries in that region. into hiding. It was suggested that one

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method of avoiding becoming an outlaw amount of mo ney and man-power each was to register with the government as a monastery should receive as a subsidy monastic slave or Kha Phra (Suksamran from the government. The mo nasteries 1992: 14). Kha Phra were also slaves in the first group were classified as of captured from countries defeated in war special importance. They were monasteries (Pramoj 1982: 18-19). The aim of South­ built by the king of each reign and regarded East Asian warfare in the past was not only as the royal monastery of that particular to extend the country's boundaries but also king. Wat Po and Wat Bavornives in to find new human resources. It was then a Bangkok were examples of this category. common practice of the victors to take Monasteries containing chetiya or stupas away the people of a defeated country as with relics of the Buddha were included slaves, as well as to loot their cities. Most such as the monasteries of the Great Relic of the captives belonged to the king and outside Bangkok, and Wat Phrabat where were categorized as royal s laves. They the foot prints of the Buddha had been would be distributed by the king to high found. These monasteries received money ranking commanders as a reward and were and man-power for maintaining their fabric. also donated to royal mo nasteries. Kha The sum of money was not fixed, but Phra were required to look after the was dependent on the requirement of each monastery and provide security for its monastery. sanctuaries and pro pe rties. If the monastery also possessed agricultural land, The second category was all the other they also had to work on the land for the monasteries built by kings within the benefit of the monastery. capital city. These monasteries received a fixed amount of money once a year. It was Slavery in Thailand was abolished in 1874 mentioned in the official announcement by King Rama V. The abolition was a non­ that the money was for repairing the fabric violent but long and gradual process. It in time for the Katina ceremony which took more than thirty years totally to takes place at the end of the rainy season eradicate the system of slavery from the retreat. In addition to this, the monasteries country and it brought about changes within received a separate sum of money to pay the social and political structure. for the monthly salaries of three men to do the maintenance work. The care of monaste ries, especially the royal ones, was affected by these changes Monasteries in the third category were since most of the care of the monastery those built by kings in other towns outside fabri c had been done by the Kha Phra. Bangkok and those built by members of the Two years after the last legislation for the royal family by royal command both within abolition of slavery was enacted, a new and outside the capital. The final category policy for the care of monastery fabric was consisted of monasteries built by members establi shed to solve the problem which of the royal family or by high ranking resulted from the loss of essential man­ government officials who presented them power. under royal patronage. The last two categories received the same kind of The policy divided the royal monasteries subsidy as the second category. However, into four categories in order to define the the amount of money and hired labour was

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reduced according to the category. The supervised the kings were usually the granting of government subsidy was the Supreme Patriarchs who were chosen from responsibility of the Department of Church monks associated with religious dwellings Administration (Krom Dharmakarn), a under the king' s support, or from the monks ministerial department whose duties who were of royal descent (Suksamran included the inspection of monastic revenue 1977: 31 ). In some particular matters, a and the management of monastic lands. committee of learned monks was appointed and consulted. We do not have much information on how small privately built and village The advice of the Sangha was, inevitably, monasteries were looked after or about based on Buddhist philosophy and ethics. their financial situation at this period. But Therefore, advice on the care of the it can be assumed that the abolition of monastery and sacred structures was very slavery may not have had much effect on much influenced by religious attitudes these monasteries since they probably did towards the subject. The judgement of the not have access to slaves in the first place. Sangha was considered to be final as It was always the duty of monks in the illustrated by many examples in the past. monasteries and their communities to care for and maintain the fabric by using money Merit Making and the Care of from donations. Sacred Buildings

The Roles of Sangha In Thailand, the construction and the care of monasteries are·very much related to The Sangha have always had the duty to the concept of merit making. In order care for their dwellings and monasteries. to understand the philosophy behind Even though there is no direct rule relating the conservation and care of religious to the care of a monastic fabric mentioned buildings, it is necessary to understand in the Vinaya, it is generally agreed that the religious philosophy and beliefs that cleanliness and tidiness are the qualities together form the architecture and its required of dwelling places. The abbot context. of a monastery also has a duty to report on the condition of the monastic fabric Buddhism tn Thailand has a complex to the appropriate authorities in order background. It is an amalgamation of that repairs can be carried out. Before several beliefs which fo rm the characteristic the establishment of the responsible of Theravada Buddhism of South-East organization, the condition of a monastery Asia. Three different "norms of conduct" and its environment depended solely on can be distinguished (Spiro 1972). Even its abbot and the Sangha community. The though the aim of religious practice is to Sangha have also an indirect role in caring discover the way of release from the for monasteries. In the past, they acted as endless cycle of existence, or to reach advisors to the kings and lay-community. Nibbana, this concept is confined to a small Learned monks were consulted by kings not group of people whose primary concern only on religious matters but al.so political is with salvation. Another group is the and social problems. The monks who majority of the Buddhist population who

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consider the cycle of rebirth as a kind of the ones who are born with poverty, religious pilgrimage and the doctrines suffering, ugliness, idiocy, and have comprising this system provide the means short lives. Merit and demerit for enhancing one's position within the determine who will be the ruler cycle by improving one's karma. Apart and who will be the servant or from these two types of canonical governed. .. " (I'ambiah 1975). Buddhism, there is also a non-canonical Merit is gained by several means, for type which is concerned with man's worldly example, by giving gifts, particularly to welfare. In this type, religion is used as a monks, by leading a pure life and by protection from devils, to care for the sick observing the Five Precepts in order to and as an aspect of mythical belief. avoid demerit. Merit is also gained from worship. This means the worship of In Thailand, the knowledge of sophisticated "the visible traces of the Buddha on doctrines is restricted to dedicated monks earth." Stupas and shrines are the focus and a few lay-people. Most Thai, though of this worship. The worship or "puja", understanding that Nibbana is the ultimate requires the offering of food, flowers aspiration of life, believe that Nibbana and sometimes money and also the cannot be achieved in a single lifetime and performance of particular rituals, such do not consider Nibbana to be a religious as the circumambulation of a stupa. It is objective. The religious aspiration of generally believed that the most meritorious ordinary Buddhists is the hope to be reborn action a layman can perform is to give in a better world. Better status in a future money to the Sangha for the construction of life or a time in paradise are the less a monastery. This concept has been long abstract versions of the ultimate goal. established. An example is illustrated in Since Nibbana cannot be achieved in a the story of Visaka, a wealthy lay-follower single life time, it needs the accumulation living in the time of the Buddha, who of good deeds done by an individual funded the construction of a dwelling for throughout his previous existences which monks and gave many gifts in accordance will, in turn, result in the spiritual with a wish that she had made in her former perfection. life. The story was recounted by the Buddha to his disciples and, at the end, the Though Buddhism regards life as suffering, notion of acts of merit was explained: to be born as a human being is considered "As from a heap offlowers one can a good position. This is because human make many a garland, even so many beings have the opportunity to be exposed good deeds should be done by one to the faith and to gain merit for attaining born a mortal" (I'he Dhammapada enlightenment in a future life. Most Thai trans. by Harada Thera 1959: 27). are linked to Buddhism through popular However, monastery building involves a beliefs about merit (punna) and demerit great deal of labour and financial resources. (pub). The relationship between merit and It is clear that very few individuals have karma is explained as follows: adequate means for such donations. Most "It is merit that determines one's people contribute smaller sums, sometimes destination; that is why some people as part of a Katina ceremony, which may be are born with wealth, wisdom, beauty, used for building, repairing or restoring a power, and have long lives as against monastery fabric.

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Conservation Practice as Council for judging applications for the Mentioned in the Mahavagga restoration of monasteries throughout the country. The problem of dealing with the repair or In 1914 the Council of the Elders restoration of sacred structures and images (Mahathera Samakom) considered _a n must have existed since ancient times. The application for repairing an ubosot whtch Chulakanti Pakorn, which is an amendment involved the demolition of a group of chapter of the Mahavagga, mentions the sacred images. Prince Vajirayanavaroros, restoration of ruined stupas and Buddha the Supreme Patriarch at that time, referred images as follows: to the text of the Chulakanti Pakom and "In the case of the stupa that falls reinterpreted it to signify the concept, for into a ruinous state, without anyone example: to look after it, is situated in an unsuitable place, or situated among "Anyone who, with bad intention, damages sinful people, if any merit-seeking or destroys stupas or Buddha images, their individual intervenes with it in any wilful actions are interpreted as sinful. respect or dismantles and restores it Examples of bad intentions were given such into its normal condition, he will as digging for buried treasure, re_lics or receive as great merit as in the amulets· demolition of sacred archttecture case of the royal doctor, Jivaka­ in orde; to gain an empty piece of land for Komarabacca, who bled the bad building their own dwellings or farming; or blood from the Lord Buddha. "3 destroying monuments because of different The explanation from the text is not clear belief, hatred or jealousy. On the contrary, especially when one considers wh_at is actions done by people with good permitted to be done on the fabnc of intentions are acceptable and considered to a monument. But what is obvious is be acts of merit. Example of these include: that restoration and acts of merit are the demolition of a ruined stupa and the strongly related and that architectur~l rebuilding of a new one in the same place; fabric is not considered as important as tts the alteration of a ruined stupa in order to symbolic representation. This conc~pt is improve the structure; the demolition or understandable, since the Chulakantt was dismantling of a stupa not of great beauty written when religious ideology was the and rebuilding one which is more beautiful; only consideration when dealing wi~h the removal of a stupa that had been sacred monuments and images. Even m situated in an unsuitable place to a new the early years of this century, when the place deemed more suitable."4 The archaeological value of a monument had unsuitable places were referred to by the been realized, the Chulakanti was still supreme patriarch as places where there used as a point of reference by the Sangha would be no Buddhist to look after the structure. In the case that the whole 3 Author's translation from 'Phra Maha structure of a stupa could not be removed, Sammana Yinitchai' which is a compilation of reports from the Council of Elders in 1914, headed by the Supreme Patriarch, Prince 4 Author's translation from 'Phra Maha Vaj irayanavaroros. Sammana Yinitchai', as above.

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dismantling of the old structure and using to religious monuments and images. Here the old materials to build a new one was the various acts of offence and vandalism acceptable, even though the new structure are mentioned: for example stealing was not the same in appearance as the Buddha images from a monastery; smelting original. These principles were applied to gold from images or stupas; vandalizing Buddha images as well. stupas, viharas, images or sacred Bodhi trees. Those who committed these criminal It can be concluded from the opinions of acts were regarded as sinners who must the supreme patriarch and the Sangha be persecuted. The corporal punishment Council that the 'objective' of any mentioned in the law was rather severe intervention was considered the most ranging from lashing to various kinds of important factor. No matter what degree of torture with execution as the final penalty. intervention was involved, if it was done The methods of punishment seem with a pure and moral mind (kusala), the incongruous with the Buddhist concept of deed was considered acceptable. compassion and non-violence. However, the justification for the law was given as The Development of Early the need for protecting the sacred Legislation representations of the religion itself. The growing interest in safeguarding the The law relating to the care of religious national heritage as artistic and historical monuments in Thailand did not exist until evidence started in the reign of King Rama 1854. However, an awareness of the IV. The idea was stated in a royal edict, importance of sacred structures and images issued in 1854, concerning the care of had long been recognized. The care of monasteries in the country. The problem of monuments in Thailand before the looting and treasure-hunting in monasteries nineteenth century was largely dependent was still continuing at this period no matter on the personal initiative of individual how harsh the corporal punishment was. rulers. It stressed the protection of the Therefore, the purpose of the edict was to religious institution rather than the cultural prevent the further damage to a monastery significance of the structure. This can by keeping it under surveillance. If any be seen by studying the ancient law damage caused by looters was found on promulgated at the beginning of the the structure of ubosot, vihara, stupa, or Ayutthaya Kingdom ( 13 50). The law Buddha images, the people who lived in the included traditional Thai customs and was vicinity of the monastery were obliged to subsequently modified by assimilation with report this damage to the authorities within the Laws of Manu, the ancient Indian law one month. If they neglected to do so, they and so~ial ideology dating from the second were obliged to restore the structure to its to first centuries BC. The law provided the former state at their own expense. The basic principles of Thai law until the reign purpose of this decree was stated at the end of King Rama V ( 1868-191 0) when it was of the edict as follows: replaced by modern legislation. "The purpose of this [decree] is to encourage the people to look after One section of the ancient law dealt with the monastery that is close to their corporal punishment for crimes that related residences, not to let any one dig up,

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damage, or destroy the sacred place. between the kingdoms in the area and the Since the monasteries were built by western world since the sixteenth century, our ancestors, using bricks, mortar, the interest in art and archaeology was stones or other materials, large or previously not developed. The European small, even though in decay, they are quest for knowledge in the field of human still the elements which adorn our science during the nineteenth century was city." one contribution to the study. The Royal Geographic Society in London was one of The Transition Period many organizations who sponsored several explorers to distant lands. In 1858, Henri Mouhot, a French naturalist, made a journey The influx of western influences during the to Thailand and, later Laos and Cambodia reign of King Rama V not only transformed with encouragement from the Society. the characteristic of Thai art and It was during this expedition that he visited architecture but also the attitude towards the ruined city of Angkor. The study of them. The interest in art and archaeology Indochina attracted a lot of attention from was started among the new generation of the west and several permanent research educated Thai. It was the first time that the institutions were established as a result. national heritage was regarded as an object The Ecole Francaise d' Extreme Orient was of art distinct from its religious context. founded by the French to carry out research However, the enthusiasm towards and survey monuments and archaeological conservation was confined the area of sites in French Indochina as well as studies antiquity. Archaeological research was of the history and languages through started by individual initiative focusing on ancient inscriptions. the ancient artifacts. This group of people consisted of members of the royal family, The Ecole Francaise d ' Extreme Orient western educated Thai, and foreigners played an important role in bringing living in the country. Several excavations Indochinese archaeology to light. The first were carried out on various sites. These inventory of Khmer monuments in resulted in a better understanding of the Cambodia and Thailand was drawn up history and the development of art and by Lunet de Lajonquiere in 1900. This architecture. Art objects were collected inventory was used by the Thai authorities from sites all over the country and the as one of the fundamental pieces of National Museum was established. information for surveying monuments in the country. In 1907, the French The Western Approach to successfully forced Thailand to surrender Conservation in Thailand the provinces of Siemreap and Battambong in which Angkor and other principal Khmer The systematic study of the archaeology monuments are situated. The Angkor and history of monuments in Thailand and Conservancy, an office responsible for the elsewhere in South-East Asia began in the documentation and conservation of the late nineteenth century. It is suggested that monuments, was set up and conservation colonial conquest was the origin of the works were carried out. The method and study of Indochina (Groslier 1970: 155). philosophy used in the conservation of Even though there had been relationships Angkor later became one of the popular

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approaches used in Thailand at a later date. The ruined temples of Thailand and Cambodia were restored by the method Even though Cambodia, as in Thailand and of anastylosis. It is noticeable that the Laos, possessed Buddhist monuments monuments that caught the attention of the which were very much in use, the works of West were constructed of stone. From a the French in Indochina dealt entirely with practical point of view, stone and its ruined stone monuments. It is possible that construction technique were more familiar the interest of the western nations in South­ to the West than other kinds of materials East Asian culture was triggered by a used by indigenous peoples. As the result, romantic approach to an ancient and the stone monuments of Thailand and unknown civilization. It is mentioned that French Indochina were intensively studied, "The basis of our concern with archaeology recorded, and restored while other kinds or, more generally, with Oriental studies is, of monuments were not given so much quite simply, a curiosity about man" importance. Monasteries which can be (Groslier 1971: 250). The zeal ofthe West considered as centres of traditional art and in the study and conservation of historical crafts were, at the beginning, disregarded heritage derived from the attitude towards by western scholars as unworthy of study. colonialism that prevailed during the James Fergusson (1808-1886), an period. It was generally believed by the architectural historian who was the first in western countries that it was the duty of a England to set about writing a world history civilized nation to safeguard world heritage of architecture, writes about monasteries in from the negligence and ignorance of the Burma as follows: native people. The idea was expressed in "The travellers who have visited the many writing by the leading figures both country have been silent on the French and British. Sir Stamford Raffles subject, principally because the wrote with naive enthusiasm as follows: monasteries are, in almost all "[We must collect} the scattered instances, less magnificent than the remains of the literature of these pagodas to which they are attached, countries ... The rays of intellectual and are, with scarcely an exception, now divided and lost will be built of wood- a practice destructive concentrated into a focus from which of their architectural character, and they will be radiated with an added also depriving them wholly of that lustre, brightened and strengthened monumental appearance of stability by our superior lights ... If the time which is so essential to true shall come when [Britain's} Empire architectural expression" (Fergusson shall have passed away, these 1899: 626). monuments of her virtue will endure, The early study of South-East Asian when her triumphs shall have architecture shows the subjective become an empty name ... Let interpretation of historians towards [Britain} be remembered. .. as the incomprehensible art and culture. gale of spring, reviving the Fergusson, again, gives his opinions about slumbering seeds of mind, and the lavishly decorated monasteries in calling them to life from the winter of Burma and Thailand as the representing ignorance" (Raffles cited in Groslier " ... a building such as the West never 1970: 254). saw, and, let us hope, never will see; for,

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however dazzling its splendour, such which have a relatively shorter life-span, barbar~c magnificence is worthy only of a rapidly deteriorate in the intense heat and half-civilized race" (Fergusson 1899: 628). the heavy rain fall of a tropical climate. It was more comprehensible for the West to The nature of the deterioration of study architecture as an object of art and architectural surfaces involves the fading of research into its origin. Together with the the gold leaf, dull coloured glass, and the idea of conserving the neglected remains of loosening or breaking of tiles on the relief a past civilization, the ruined monuments patterns. Hard tropical timber is the main and archaeological sites were the focus of construction material for the roof structure, attention rather than the living monasteries. windows, and doors, and other decorative Western archaeologists were able to impose elements such as ceiling and eave brackets. their own methods of research and This timber suffers from the effects of conservation approaches on the ruined weather as well as from fungus and insects. monuments without creating much conflict It would have been more efficient if with local people who still carried on problems could have been detected earlier the traditional way of caring for their so preventive measures could be carried living monasteries. There were however out. However, most of the Thai monasteries some restoration works that related to did not have a regular inspection monasteries and their occupants; in these programme. It always was too late when cases the western conservation approach the problems of deterioration became had to give way to the traditional method evident. of repair. The restoration of temples in Pagan in Burma was carried out by the During the early part. of this century, there Burmese Archaeological Survey. They were several major restoration works were " ... anticipated by the monks, whose carried out in various monasteries under the zeal - comprehensive but somewhat over­ patronage of King Rama V. The records of possessive - led them to undertake lavish all the restoration works, which were white washing or regilding operations, or in always major interventions, illustrates the some cases to adopt the alternative solution norm of practice. The restoration often of applying a fresh layer of brick or stucco" involved replacement of materials of both (Groslier 1971: 180). decorative and structural elements that had deteriorated far beyond the point of repair. The Nature of Repair In 1839, sixty-three years after the major restoration by King Rama III, Wat Po in The distinctive character of Buddhist Bangkok was in the state of disrepair. monastic architecture in Thailand is lavish A detailed proposal for its restoration decqration of architectural elements. Gold was drawn up by the order of King Rama leaf, mirror tiles and ceramic tiles are V. A proposal written by Prince common materials used for exterior Narisaranuvatiwong, the royal architect, decoration. The materials are used as part mentions that most of the architecture in the of the intricately carved timber or stucco monastery was in a dilapidated condition. motifs. Tiles are cut into small pieces and In his report, Prince Naris suggested the arranged into delicate low-relief patterns. It demolition of several structures which were is inevitable that these detail decorations,

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too decayed to be repaired.5 A number of elements that were decayed beyond repair structures pending demolition were stupas were replaced with new ones using the within the Buddhavas area. The stupas are same design and material. The surfaces of components of the whole lay-out of the the timber elements that were fmished with Buddhavas complex. The ubosot which is gilding or mirror tiles were stripped off in the centre of the complex is surrounded by order to be regilded or replaced with a new double cloisters with a small vihara at each layer of tiles and gold leaf. Both exterior of the four cardinal points. Seventy-one and interior walls were re-plastered and small stupas are placed at close intervals mural paintings inside the vihara repainted. outside and follow the outline of the The windows and doors, decorated with cloisters. At each corner of the cloister, a gold gilded patterns on lacquer surfaces, group of stupas is constructed. Each group were in a dilapidated condition. It was consists of five stupas on the same pedestal, planned that all of windows and doors were with the central stupa slightly larger than to be repainted and regilded. the others. The proposal of the restoration signifies the The restoration proposal mentions that all two different approaches to the care of a of the four grouped stupas were to be living monument. The traditional methods demolished and out of the seventy-one of repair were undertaken without concern small stupas, only thirty-two would be for the archaeological value of the repaired while the rest would be structure. It is mentioned in the proposal demolished. The restoration programme that the objective of repairs was not to was divided into several phases and would make the old look new as if they had been last for seventeen years. It was carried just constructed but to repair the dilapidated out until the end of the reign, when King elements so that they retained their use and Rama VI took on the task. However, the durability. It also illustrates the attitude restoration records of the later pe~iod do not of an architect of the period towards mention the demolition of the stupas. The monastic buildings. Prince Naris proposed plan must have been altered at a later date. the demolition of the stupas even though, as seen from an architectural point of view, Nevertheless, other proposed schemes were they are part of the architectural elements carried out. The vihara that enshrined a that form the unified plan of the Buddhavas reclining Buddha image, built in the reign area. The proposal was made about sixty of King Rama III, was in disrepair when the years after the vihara and the seventy­ restoration programme took place. The one small stupas had been constructed. roof of the building was repaired and the Therefore, it is possible that the structures timber roof decorations were removed. The were seen not as historical architecture but functional and contemporary ones. 5 Information on the restoration ofWat Phra Chetupon (Wat Po, Bangkok) was taken from During the reign of King Rama V, there documents ofThe Ministry of Engineering was no legislation directly related to service in the National Archive, Bangkok, the care and conservation of historic dated between 1837-1839 as well as records of monuments. Nevertheless, an interest restoration works published by Wat Phra in antiquity arose and was promoted. by Chetupon (see bibliography). the king. The Archaeological Society

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(Borankadee Samosorn) was established in religious, and ancient man-made structures 1907 under royal patronage. The role of such as reservoirs and bridges. The second the Society was to raise public awareness of group concerned movable objects, for the importance of national monuments and example stone inscriptions, Buddha images, antiquities. During this period, the king and other artifacts. Criteria for determining issued an edict protecting the ancient city of the values of monuments and artifacts were Ayutthaya as a national heritage site. In the established by the Council. Two factors reign of Rama VI, the care of national which were considered important were their heritage became an activity of the royal historical and artistic value. How these government. In 1923, the king established values could be established was explained a committee responsible for this task. by Prince Damrong Rajanuparb, the first Codes of practice were issued. The content president of the Council, in his lecture of the codes dealt mainly with the survey given in November 1930 which can be and selection of ancient artifacts and regarded as a landmark document m monuments by the committee, and the roles conservation in Thailand. of the committee as an advisory body for local authorities in matters dealing with Monuments, sites and artifacts that could be national heritage. Even though the king related to a particular period or important passed away two years after the committee events in Thai history were of historical was established and the committee was value. The monuments or artifacts that annexed to a new institute founded by the showed distinguished craftsmanship or succeeding king; it was the first step to an were the specimen of a particular style from organized body directly responsible for the past were considered as having artistic national heritage. value. This lecture is the only written document describing the conservation The Royal Academic Council approach of the council. At that time, however, there was no legislation issued by the government to support the Council in The Royal Academic Council was carrying out its conservation works. The established by King Rama VII in 1926. pioneers in the conservation field undertook It was divided into three divisions, namely: their projects within many constraints Art and Craft, Literature, and Archaeology. and experienced many difficulties. The The works of the Archaeology Division early work of the Council was to make an ranged from caring for archaeological sites inventory of important monuments and and artifacts in the country to museum artifacts in the country. Since the Council management. The conservation policies was centralized, this being unavoidable and the practical approach of the Council because of the limited number of staff, were established by using western it asked for collaboration from local examples carried out by western authorities to inform it of monuments and archaeologists as they had always done artifacts in their region. The inspectors in other countries in South-East Asia. were sent by the Council to inspect the National heritage was categorized into condition of the monument and an two groups. The first group consisted of inventory was made. One of the purposes monuments and sites such as cities, of the inventory was to use it as a reference important buildings both secular and for judging which monuments should be

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given priority in conservation. Since there change in the style and details of the was not a large amount of government original. In the case of monasteries, a local funding, the monuments had to be authority had a duty to explain these classified and work undertaken according principles of conservation to the monks. to their condition and need. If there were any problems related to the restoration, the Council should be Three degrees of intervention were set up, immediately informed in order that expert beginning with a programme to recognize advice could be given or the Council could the monuments. Though this process is intervene in the restoration process when similar to the listing of historic monuments, necessary to prevent damage to the there was no legislation to support this monument. process. The next step was to put a kind of structural support around the monument to An important task of the Council was to prevent further deterioration. The work of raise awareness of the value of cultural this kind was carried out on both stone and heritage among ordinary citize.ns. During brick buildings. Scaffolding for supporting this period, antique collection had become a the structure was built using timber, bricks, fashion among the elite Thai as well as and, at a later date, reinforced concrete. among foreign visitors and there were The third degree of intervention was total several reports to the Council about the restoration. It was mentioned in the lecture looting of monuments by treasure hunters. by the president of the Council that this Deserted monuments in remote parts of the method was tried at a stone Kluner temple country suffered the most. in Lopburi and it was also being put into practice by L' Ecole Francaise d' Extreme The establishment of the Royal Academic Orient at Angkor Thorn in French Indo­ Council was the first step to a more China. The method used here was organized conservation practice based on anastylosis which was an acceptable western models. The Council was started conservation technique for restoration of from devotion of like-minded people who dry stone masonry. Though the ethic in realized the necessity of systematic restoration has always been arguable and conservation. However, they had to the technique has never been satisfactory overcome many obstacles such as the lack when used on brick and stucco buildings. of qualified personnel and funding. This is The Council did not mention the method of mentioned in a letter from Professor George intervention between the supporting of a Coedes, a French archaeologist and advisor structure and the total restoration nor did to the Council, written to Prince Damrong they object to anastylosis. But the Council in 1929 that: realized there was a loss of historical value "I have a sad feeling that... when I when r~storation was undertaken. Prince shall retire, nobody in Siam will be Damrong Rajanuparb illustrated examples able to read a Sanskrit, Cambodian, of several monastic buildings that were or even old Thai inscriptions ... The repaired or reconstructed not in keeping collaboration with Your Royal with their original style. The Council also Highness in the creation of the asked a local authority to supervise the Archaeological Service and of the repair or restoration of any historic building Museum has been for me a source of in their area, so that there would be no immense satisfaction, but here again,

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owing to lack offunds and of staff were listed for the first time. From then on I cannot see the realisation of what there have been several amendments to I deem most essential in that the legislation and several restoration connection: I mean a full and programmes have been carried out. detailed survey of the antiquities of Siam, and a numbering and During this period, there were collaborative cataloguing ofthe objects kept in the projects between Thai and French Museum" (Coedes's letter: National archaeologists in many parts of the country. Archive). The Ecole Francise d' Extreme Orient made Until 1926, there was no legislation enacted an agreement with the Thai authorities on by the government directly concerned with the excavation of archaeological sites in the conservation of historic monuments. 1937. According to the agreement the The first legislation related to the caring of Ecole would send a French expert to national heritage was aimed at protecting Thailand to supervise the excavation and artifacts which, at that time, were being research. The Thai authorities had priority widely excavated and smuggled out of in selecting the finds from the sites for the country. Important monuments were the national collection while the French recognized and protected to a certain received according to the proportion of the extent. However, the care of most of money that they spent in the operation. The monasteries still very much depended upon first site that was excavated by the Ecole their patrons and monks while the quality was at Wat Pra-meru in Nakorn Pathom. of the repaired work depended on employed local craftsmen. French Restoration Works in Thailand Conservation after 1932 Restoration of historic monuments by the 1932 saw Thailand enter another major French and the Department of Fine Arts period of change. On June 24, 1932 a was carried out on stones temples in the revolution broke out, bringing in a new era north-east of the country. The restoration of constitutional government and ending method that the French commonly used was the seven hundred year rule of the absolute anastylosis. It was also successfully used monarchy. The political change had an by the Netherlands Indies Archaeological indirect impact on the care of national Service in restoring the stone temples in heritage. The duty that had always been Java which, at the time, was under Dutch under the patronage of the kings and royal occupation. The principle of this method family was transferred to the government. was that " ...whenever necessary, the whole In 1933, the work of the Royal Academic building was taken to pieces, a nd Council in matters relating to national reconstructed, stone by stone, exactly as museums and the care of the historic it stood originally and reinforced by monuments was transferred to' a newly modern methods, as it never was before" established body: the Department of Fine (LeMay 1954). Maurice Glaize, who was Arts. In 1934, the first legislation for the a conservator at the Angkor Conservancy care of historic monuments and ancient from 1937 to 1945, applied the techniques artifacts was issued and historic monuments of complete restoration to some of the large

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complexes of buildings at Angkor and it is archaeologists at that time since anastylosis the result of this restoration that we see had been carried out on several Khmer today. The work of investigation and monuments not only in Cambodia but also presentation was gradually extended to the in Thai territory. The completeness of the whole of Cambodia. These interventions restoration made a substantial visual on the monuments created some impact. Foundations and walls of the controversy. George Coedes writes that: monuments were strengthened and made "The lovers of Romanticism have to align. New stones were inserted to ever reproached the French replaced the missing ones. By comparing archaeologists for denuding the the photographs recording the condition ruins of the vegetation which of monuments before and after the obscured them, and for making them interventions, it is obvious that the both accessible and comprehensible. approach involving complete restoration Unfortunately, we were obliged to was carried out to a great extent. choose between clearing the ruins or having them devoured by forest" In 1964, the first restoration work using (Coedes 1963: 10). anastylosis was begun in Thailand at the Bernard Philippe Groslier, a French sixth century Khmer sanctuary in Pimai, specialist and the custodian of Angkor at a small town in the north-eastern part of the time, described in his book the approach the country. It was the first collaborative to restoration to increase the understanding project between the French and the of the monument as follows: Department of Fine Arts. Groslier planned "Some of the temple at Angkor the restoration process by using the method had been known for sixty years, that had been successfully applied to 'excavated' after a fashion, and several stone structures in Cambodia. The frequently discussed in the literature; French method of anastylosis was carried but when at last they were properly out in Thailand without controversy at the . studied they were found to be raised beginning. It was used in restoring only on large understructures, to be stone architecture and was later accepted by surrounded by walls, ancillary the authorities as the only effective way of buildings and entrance pavilions, restoring stone monuments. Even though, and to be built on top of earlier the method is not applicable to brick and settlements none of which had stucco building, the idea of complete hitherto been suspected. In this field restoration was put into practice on brick only the complete reconstruction ofa ruins as well. building allows us to understand it completely; and we know that this is Restoration and Nationalism (llso the only way to save buildings. Movement This, therefore, is the aim which lies before us, for we have a responsibility for the preservation of The realization of the historical and the building in our care" (Groslier archaeological value of historic monuments 1970). was not the only reason for conservation Coedes's and Groslier's opinions must activities. Since our culture is our identity, reflect common practice for French historical relics have been used to support

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the idea of national identity or the identity started a restoration project at Sukothai. of political movements. Cultural heritage The principal approach to the conservation can be seen in three essential components. was to protect and consolidate the ancient First, the intellectual cultural heritage, structures with minimum intervention. It which can be identified in the achievements is mentioned in the principles that new of science, ·literature, art, and the concept rendering was not allowed since it would of humanity. Secondly, material cultural falsify the original structures. Ruined heritage which is a concrete statement stupas where the original form could not of human creativity. Thirdly, the be identified must be left as they were ideological tradition moulded by historical found and only the consolidation of the circumstances and events which spans foundations was allowed. However, many centuries (Herrmann 1989: 33). It is Piboon Songkram, the Prime Minister at obvious that the material culture with its the time, suggested some rather obscure tangible quality will be selected as the principles to the working committee of the identification of a collective society. The Department as follows: need for material identity is particularly "1. Repair and restore [monuments) strong in a nation that has just gone through to the form and the style of the a stage of identity crisis, for instance, original period as much as through major war, or being colonized. possible. National monuments or whole cities have 2. The restored monuments must been restored or reconstructed throughout able to show their age. [ie. the history in order to serve this function. monuments must look old and ancient even though they have Thailand has never been colonized or been recently repaired to their devastated by war. However, nationalism original form). and patrioticism were integrated into 3. The conclusion is that the form government policy to counter-balance the [must be] the same as the original encroachment of western powers as well as but looks old in the present communism which was considered context, but must not be dead" dangerous to the stability of the nation. (The Department of Fine Arts The new 'nationalist' movement after the 1990: 35). 1932 revolution continued after the second The principles were carried out by the World War and was supported by a Department at Sukothai, Ayutthaya and succession of governments. One of the other historical sites in the country. Most leading propagandist was Luang Vichit of the ruined structures were consolidated V adhakarn who for a time held the position and given a new coat of render which often of director-general of the Department resulted in a change of form and proportion. of Fine Arts. The idea of promoting Stucco sculptures and reliefs which were nationalism through national heritage was the decorative elements of stupas and put into practice resulting in the repair and ubosot halls were repaired in a way which, restoration of several major national according to an art expert, caused more monuments especially at the two former damage to the elements than if they had Thai capitals, Sukothai and A,yutthaya. been looted by treasure hunters (Na Paknam 1987: 48). In 1953, the Department of Fine Arts

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Some of the ruined structures were which can lead to enlightenment and completely reconstructed. The vihara of refinement of an individual' s mind. The Wat Mongkol Borpit in Ayutthaya stood in conservation of historic monuments for ruinous condition after the fall of the city. the sake of national identity alone can When it was burnt down by the Burmese undermine its real value. The appreciation army, the roof fell on the gigantic Buddha of monuments as works of art and as image, damaging the head and the right products of creative and intellect minds arm. The image was repaired by King must be taken in to account as another Rama V but the vihara was left as it was criterion in conservation. until the major restoration in 1955. It is an irony that this restoration project was a From Restoration to Heritage collaboration between the Thai and the Management Burmese governments. There is no doubt that the restoration is a symbolic one and that the message that the two governments International conservation activity nowadays wanted to communicate at that time was covers much more ground than the first one of reconciliation. movement in the nineteenth century. The objective in conservation also has changed, The restorations of the period drew very from the concern with archaeological and strong criticism from many people artistic values to more complex social and especially from the academic sector. economic issues. The current conservation Most of the critics commented on the trend considers historic monuments as loss of archaeological evidence after the entities in the whole cultural context. The restoration, as well as the loss of aesthetic idea of the monument as a relic of history and architectural values as the result of a has been used to fulfil a number of modem lack of understanding of history and style, functions. Monuments with historical and the poor workmanship. Some also significance are considered by modern lamented the irretrievable loss of the planners as " ... a product, selected according picturesque ruins and " ... the atmosphere to the criteria of consumer demand and reminiscent of eerie power." The conflict managed through the intervention in between the Department and the academic the market" (Ashworth 1994: 16). This sector has been a persistent and unresolved concept has transformed the past and problem which can be summarized as history to a commodity that needs to be arising from a difference in conservation managed and utilized in order to gain the philosophy. best outcome. The resources for the heritage industry are not only the surviving historical relics but also historical events In Thailand, material culture has been used ' as an obvious device for promoting national personalities, memories, mythologies, and identity. However, we must not forget that literary association (Ashworth 1994: 16). relics of the past are only one facet of the whole cultural context. Culture can also be History and culture have been used to defined as the act of developing the moral, support the idea of national identity. intellectual, and aesthetic nature of man. However, when history becomes ·a It is also the familiarity with and the commodity, this use of the past became appreciation of art, science, and humanity discriminatory. Particular aspects of history

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are selected, emphasised, and manipulated problems relating Jo authenticity and the to satisfy the heritage consumers. Various balance between values sacrificed during museums and cultural theme parks have the restoration and the outcome of the been created with heritage consumers in intervention. It is generally agreed that the mind. They are places where particular display of historical sites usually means periods of the past are reinvented and damage and sometimes destruction. The interpreted according to present attitudes reconstruction is equated to a modem piece towards history. In such cases, the of 'quasi-heritage' which has been described authenticity of the past depends on the as " .. .impressive may be for the public but a consumers' judgement. Therefore, the past monumental dodo from an academic point is in danger of being restored according to ofview" (Hewison 1987). what people would like to see rather than what actually existed. Important tourist destinations suffer more than the loss of archaeological or Tourism and Historic Monuments architectural value. New facilities that form the basis of the tourism industry have to be developed. At present, when Historic monuments and sites are only a competition within the tourism market is part of tourists' experiences. Visiting a high, tourism product has to be developed historic site includes a rather wider to suit the consumers as much as possible. experience than the monument itself. It has been suggested that the successful Encountering the local life, food, product of tourism is " ... an interpretation of entertainment, shopping for souvenirs the local historical experience in so far it together form the whole tourists' activity. can be related to, and incorporated in, the The emphasis given to historic monuments historical experience of the visitor" and the by each tourist is different depending on success of foreign heritage tourism industry individual motivation. Curiosity about depends on " ... the resale in~ different guise the past is the primary urge. Historical of the consumers' own heritage in an sites and monuments are presented and unexpected context within the destination interpreted in order to inform the enquiring country" (As hworth 1994: 24). For mind as well as the need to escape from the developing countries in the East, the normal day to day present. People also heritage consumers are western tourists seek aesthetic enjoyment from relics of the who expect to experience the exotic culture past. Romantic or exotic scenery provide a in a familiar, comfortable atmosphere as backdrop for people's imagination. they would experience it in their home countries. The development of tourist Heritage as a consumer product has facilities is not only confined to hotels, always been designed to fit the consumer's shops, or restaurants but also includes need. ·The reconstruction of Colonial transportation systems and other additional Williamsburg in Virginia is the classic touristic activities that can be totally alien example of an extreme approach to the to the indigenous people. interpretation of the past; as well as in England the reconstruction of the 'authentic' Tourism has been one of Thailand's major interior of several country houses. This industries since the beginning of the kind of interpretation always brings seventies. The nature of tourism includes

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weekend trippers, domestic holiday makers, historical area, restore and conserve the and an increasing numbers of foreign monuments within the area, and develop tourists. However, tourism does not provide the surrounding landscape. Most of the enough funds for the conservation of the areas designated as historical parks are heritage since the main economic benefit either large monumental complexes such as goes to the accommodation, catering, Phanom Rung or ancient cities such as transport, and retailing businesses. The Ayutthaya and Sukothai. wear and tear on the fabric of monuments, as well as the disruption of indigenous During the fifteenth century Sukothai was culture, sometimes cannot be compensated the centre of political, commercial, and by the economic gains that come from religious vitality in the kingdom. A opening up monuments to the public. hundred and twenty-six ancient sites, most Though this fact is obvious, the support of of them monasteries, were situated within the heritage industry by the government is the walls of the city and in the area beyond. extensive and has become part of its policy. Its architecture illustrates the inventiveness The Tourism Authority of Thailand has of Thai style that derived from the Khmer become another major fund provider as well as Singhalese architecture. The for historic monuments, especially the glory of Sukothai's creative genius was its prominent ones. Important monasteries sculpture which is considered by most such as Wat Po in Bangkok receive a large art historians as the apex of Thai artistic proportion of grant aid towards the creation. Thousands of Buddha images restoration of the monastic fabric. The were cast from bronze. Even though few Authority has a major role in the National examples remain, stone inscriptions of the Historical Park projects. It also sponsors thirteenth century describe the city as filled several cultural programmes such as annual with images many of which were made religious festivals organized by local of gold. The ancient city of Sukothai authorities over the country. possessed a very advanced city plan. Archaeological evidence shows an ancient Historical Parks road connected Sukothai with other major cities in the north of the kingdom, and show as well there was an advanced irrigation The government policy towards national system. The city was left in ruin at the heritage can be seen in one major beginning of the sixteenth century after a conservation scheme: the National hundred years of being a vassal state of Historical Park. In 1977 the scheme was Ayutthaya. The modern Thai population first approved for monetary support in the discovered the glory of Sukothai Kingdom Fourth National Economic and Social through several stone inscriptions, the ·Development Plan ( 1977-1981 ). The project historical remains, and the artifacts of the expanded the conservation activity from period. It is not surprising that the ancient individual monuments to complexes of city was used as the symbol for the glory of monuments and their surrounding sites. the past and its restoration was among the The scheme was first carried out at first schemes that the Thai government Sukothai and later was implemented on carried out. eight other major sites. The aim of the project is to specify the boundary of the It is mentioned in the master plan that

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the Sukothai Historical Park project is When history and past relics are treated aimed " ... not only at restoring the ancient as commodities, we are faced with the structures but also calls for the development danger of cultural deterioration. Culture of the city as it was at the height of and civilization are the creation of profound Sukothai civilization" (The Department of upheavals of spirit, the succession of man's Fine Arts 1982: 7). The plan includes the creativity. Art and architecture are the landscape development which is intended physical outcome of this process. When to create " ... an atmosphere that closely history becomes a commodity, it forces · resembles the one described in the stone people to relate to their own history in a inscription" (The Department of Fine Art different way. Instead of living in the 1982: 51), as well as the relocation of about present which is the continuity of the past two hundreds families living in the walled that will evolve into the future, people are city, and a major tourist development detached and become like spectators of programme which means many new their own culture. Modern attitudes facilities are to be introduced to towards the past have changed. People accommodate the growing number of take the recreated past as a refuge from tourists. Tourism is an important criterion the real present. It provides the ground in laying out the master plan of the for nostalgic experiences. It has been Historical Park. The economic development suggested that: of the area is the sole result of the tourist "A past seen as open to manipulate industry. One of the objectives is to not only undermines supposed increase the earnings of the population historical varieties but implied a living in the vicinity by promoting various fragile present and portends a shaky activities, particularly for the purpose of future" (Lowentha/1990). tourism. The master plan also mentions the The created distance between the present revival of ancient festivals and ceremonies and the past makes the past seem ' dead' that were practised in the ancient kingdom. and signifies that the past can only survive The Department of Fine Arts and the when it is reconstructed and conserved. Tourist Authority of Thailand have co­ organized these activities annually, and Conclusion consequently the number of visitors during the festival period has greatly increased. The conservation of historic monuments in Thailand has developed and changed The government policy of creating a new through time. Nowadays, conservation kind of tourist attraction is emphasised in activity encompasses a wider definition and the master plan which states that the involves not only archaeological aspects ' ... improvements and developments will but also social and economic factors. Amid enhance the city's atmosphere and attract the rapid change of Thai society, people more tourists' and that the restoration of often look back to their heritage and realize Sukothai can help alter the image of how important it is as a basis for their Thailand as ' the land of pleasures with identity. Safeguarding national heritage, worldly enjoyment' to 'a land of ancient therefore, has become a duty of modern civilization' (the Department of Fine Arts man and a part of government policy. In 1982: 42). 1986, the National Cultural Policy was

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established by the Office of the Prime References Minister. One of its objective is: " ... to promote the preservation of Ashworth, G.J. & Lartham, P.J. 1994. Thai culture in all aspects by Building a New Heritage: Tourism encouraging research on Thai Culture and Identity in the New Europe. culture, restoring and developing London: Routledge. Thai culture in order to be used as Fergusson, James. 1899. History ofIndian and an important tool in dealing with Eastern Architecture. London: John Muny. Groslier, Bernard. 1970. Indochina. Trans. by problems in the everyday course of James Hogarth. London: Frederick living, ... such as problems in social, Muller Ltd. economic, and political development Herrmann. 1990. World Archaeology- The as well as national defence" World's Cultural Heritage. In (Department ofFine Arts 1992: 33). Archaeological Heritage Management in From this policy, it seems that the the Modern World. Ed. by H.F. Cleere. government considers culture as an entity London: Unwin Hyman. that can be selected and produced in Hewison, Robert. 1987. The Heritage order to serve various needs. Cultural Industry: Britain in the Climate of Decline. London: A Methuen Paperback. heritage can be created to serve specific LeMay, Reginald. 1954. The Culture of contemporary purposes. South-East Asia. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. It must be emphasised that the realization of Lowenthal, David. 1990. The Past Is a the value of Buddhist heritage should not Foreign Country. Cambridge: Cambridge be the result of these needs alone. Buddhist University Press. monastic architecture, even in ruin, is a Spiro, E. Melford. 1972. Buddhism and creation of the mind's pure intention that is Society: A Great Tradition and Its directed towards the devotion to the Lord Burmese Vicissitudes. New York: Harper Buddha. The care of Buddhist monasteries &Row. Suksarnran, Somboon. 1982. Buddhism and in the past illustrated the combination of Politics in Thailand. Singapore: Institute this devotion and architectural creativity. of Southeast Asian Studies. The safeguarding of Buddhist heritage, ____. 1977. Political Buddhism in therefore, should stem from the Southeast Asia: the Role ofthe Sangha in consciousness of being a Buddhist, a the Modernization of Thailand. Ed. by comprehension of the meaning of the Trevor 0. Ling. London: C. Hurst & architecture and an appreciation of its Company. value, as well as a recognition of the duty Tambiah, S.J. 1975. Buddhism and Spirit of a Buddhist towards architecture that is Cults in North-East Thailand. regarded as a representation of the belief. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The devotion and the realization of these values, together with the modem knowledge Translated Pali and Sanskrit Texts and appropriate technology could be the foundation for the future of the Buddhist The Dhammapada. 1959. Trans. by Narada heritage. It can be conserved as well as Thera. London: John Murry. developed, or re-created, and thus maintain Vinaya-Pikata (The Book ofDiscipline) Vol. its position at the core of Thai culture. IV (Mahavagga) and Vol. V (Chullavagga). 1962 & 1952. Trans. by LB. Horner. London: Lizac & Co. Ltd.

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References in Thai

The Department ofFine Arts, Bangkok. 1982. Jodmaihet Karn Burana Wat Phrasrirattanasasadaram (The Account ofthe Restoration ofthe Royal Temple). _ ___ . 1990. Jodmaihet Karn Anurak Maung Boran Sri Satchanalai (The Account ofthe Conservation ofAncient Sri Satchanalai) Bangkok: Amarin Printing. Pramoj, Kukrit. 1982. Sangkom Thai (Thai Society) in Laksana Thai. Ed. by Kukrit Pramoj. Bangkok: Thai Wattana Panich Press. Wat Phra Chetupon Wimon Mongalaram. 1993. Prawat Wat Phra Chetupon Wimon Mongalaram (History ofWat Phra Chetupon). Bangkok: Mahachulalongkom Press.

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