sign in sign up
<<
Home , Ayutthaya Kingdom, Bunnag family, Chai (king of Ayutthaya), Chams, Chulalongkorn, Ekathotsarot

THE SHI’ITE IN who alongside Muhammad’s grandsons FROM are their descendants. Shi’ites believe that , rather than Abu Bakr, should have AYUTTHAYA PERIOD TO succeeded the Prophet Muhammad as THE PRESENT khalifa (Netton 1922: 231). Thus, Shi'as consider imams, the Prophet Muhammad's 1 descendants, as the true source of guidance Julispong Chularatana while considering the first three ruling Sunni caliphs a historic occurrence and not Abstract something attached to faith.

Shi’ite originated as a political This article aims at studying and movement supporting Imam Ali as the analyzing the status and development of rightful leader of the Islamic state. The the Shi’ite Muslim minority in Thailand th legitimacy of this claim, as initially from the 16 century to the present day. envisioned by Imam Ali's supporters, was The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand developed based on Muhammad's alleged designation and are informally separated into two of Imam Ali as his successor, Imam Ali’s groups. The original ones call themselves righteousness, and tribal customs, making Chao Sen, which means Imam Hussein’s him closely related to the Prophet. Imam followers, and are descended from Indo- Ali was murdered in 661, and his son, Iranian Shi’ite Muslim ancestors who Imam Husayn, was killed in 681 by the came from and the Shi’ite States of th army of Yazid I. The second Umayyad during the early 16 century. The Caliph at Karbala (today in ) was a others, who are called by the original seed of the Shi’a. It restored to the group Chi A Mai, which means new motive of passion, which has thoroughly Shi’ites, converted from other beliefs to penetrated Shi’ism (van Donzel 1994: Shi’ism under the influence of the Shi’a 412). revival after the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979. In the mid 15th century, the Safavids of Iran adopted Shi’a Islam, and their Introduction movement became highly millenarian in character. In 1501, under their leader Shī’a Islam, also Shi’ite Islam or Shi’ism Ismail I, the Safavids seized power in is the second largest denomination based Tabriz, which later became their capital. on the Islamic faith after . Ismail was proclaimed shah of Iran. The Shi’as adhere to the teachings of the rise of the Safavids marks the reemergence Prophet Muhammad and the religious of a powerful central authority in Iran guidance of his or his descendants within geographical boundaries attained known as Shi’a Imams. The Prophet by former Iranian empires. The Safavids Muhammad’s bloodline continues only declared Shi’a Islam the and through his beloved daughter Fatima used proselytizing and force to convert the Zahra and his cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, large majority of Muslims in Iran to the

1 Lecturer, Department of History, Faculty of Arts, University

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

Shi’a sect.2 At present, a large portion of The main objective of this article is to the 's Shi’a lives in the . explain and discuss the status and Shi’a Muslims constitute a majority in development of Shi’ite Muslims in , , Iraq, and Thailand from the establishment of their especially Iran, where 90% of the first community in the late 16th century to population is Shi’a, giving it the highest the present day. percentage of Shi’a Muslims of any country in the world. In , Shi’ites Muslims in Ayutthaya, the former form a plurality, and they remain capital of Thai Kingdom significant minorities in , , India, , and Yemen. Muslim people in Ayutthaya had contact Among the small Persian Gulf states, with the lands of Southeast by , (~30%) and the United trade routes from , Arabia, and Arab Emirates (~16%) also have Persia via India than a thousand significant Shi’a minorities, as does the years ago due to Siam4 ’s location on the Eastern Province (~33%) of international sea from Iran to (Simon, Mattar and Bulliet 1996: 1652– . They established communities in a 1653). According to Marcinkowski (2005: port of Siam before the 16th century A.D. 17), about 20% of India's Muslim According to The Book of Duarte Barbosa population is Shi’a, and significant Shi’a (Barbosa 1967: 164–165), the record of a communities exist in the coastal regions of th 3 Portuguese traveler in the early 16 West and in . century, several Muslim merchants from Shi’a presence is negligible elsewhere in Arabia, Iran, India, Malaya and the , where Muslims are Indonesian archipelago joined in the predominantly Shafi'i Sunnis. foreign trade with Chinese and local people in the western seaports of Some Shi’ite Muslims also established Ayutthaya, the former capital of the Thai communities outside the Islamic countries Kingdom from the 15th to the 18th including Thailand. Although they are a centuries. minority among Muslims, they have had powerful and close relations with Thai In The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires society for more than four hundred years. (Cortesao 1990: 109), Tomé Pires, another Portuguese traveler, notes the settlement of Muslims of many nationalities 2 See Tabatabai (1989: 66). Shah Ismail I announced that the Ithna Ashari of “Twelver” including Arab, Persian, Bengali, Kling from Shi’ism was to be the official religion of (Muslims from southeastern India), and the newly established group in 1501 A.D.. As Chinese in the Siamese seaports. Fernao previously noted, Ithna Ashari Shi’ism lay at Mendes Pinto (1904: 63–65), a Portuguese the heart of power of the Safavid leaders, their traveler who passed through Siam in the claim to be the representatives on earth of the mid 16th century, wrote about two Turkish 12th imam or Mahdi, the last Shi’ite imam. See who lived in Ayutthaya and led also Savoy (1980: 27). foreign troops to join the Siamese army in 3 During the and 1990s, many and Indonesians (mostly former Sunnites) were found at the theological study 4 “Siam” means the Ancient Thai Kingdom. center of Qum in Iran. See Marcinkowski This term was used in many documents during (2005: 17). the Ayutthaya and early Rattanakosin periods.

38

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

1547–1548. He also remarked that there consisted of people who practiced other were seven of the Turks and the , e.g. khaek , khaek Arabs, and about 30,000 households of the Hindu and khaek Sikh. According to the Moors in the capital of Siam. So it was Royal Institute (1969: 2273 – 2272), the possible that Muslim people had Siamese used the term khaek in the sense established communities in many Siamese of ‘foreigners,’ and the term later meant cities before the 16th century. the people from the West who were not Europeans. Ayutthaya, the capital of the Thai Kingdom from A.D. 1350 to A.D. 1767, is There were three large groups or situated in on an island communities of Muslim in Ayutthaya. The surrounded by natural rivers which helped first was the communities on the banks of protect the city from enemies and the Chao Phraya, the greatest river of connected the capital with the hinterland Thailand, opposite the south and southeast and sea through river branches. The city of city walls. The second group was the Ayutthaya was the center not only for Thai communities inside the outer city walls administration but also for trade and near canals or the river, and the third commerce. For some four hundred years, group was the communities inside the city the commerce of the Eastern world passed walls. However, there were other Muslims through Ayutthaya. Goods from those who spread to other areas, but mainly near great trading empires, China and to the river or canals, or in trading areas or the east, and India and Persia to the west markets that were in contact with the went back and forth through Siam. Thus, urban communities. Muslims from different nations traveled into the land for trade and other purposes, 1. Muslims of the Cham Malay groups and settled in the land of opportunity. and from the Southeast Asian Archipelago who resided in communities The Siamese referred to the various along the banks of the Chao Phraya Muslim groups as a whole by the term opposite the south and southeast city walls khaek. This term was used to refer to were Muslims of Malay race or Muslims people from the lands west of Thailand- from the States in the , the India, Iran, Arabia, and the Middle East, Muslims of State in the whose people were mainly Islamic. Other Indonesian archipelago, and the Cham nationalities from the West who were not Muslims. Chularatana (2007: 94) notes Muslims but were not Europeans also fell that these Muslims consisted of both under the category khaek, for example the traders and political refugees that migrated Hindu. Later on, the were also into the country, so they were of varied called khaek. From documents and other professions and classes. evidence in Thai history, the khaek immigrants in Siam could be separated Pongsripian (1985: 7) states that the into two groups. The first group consisted Muslims from the Malay Peninsula who of those of the Islamic religion or so called settled in Siam ranged from merchants to Muslims, e.g. khaek Malay, khaek Cham, slaves.5 Moreover, there were also khaek ya wa (khaek ), khaek Makassar and khaek chao sen (khaek man or 5 the Shi’ite Muslims). The other group According to The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (Cortesao 1990), some merchants from

39

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

prisoners of war from occasional conflicts located in the south of the city of between the Muslim states in the Malay Ayutthaya near Phut Thai Sawan.8 Peninsula and Siam.6 Most Malay This was considered one of merchants were in waterside communities largest markets around the capital city.9 for easy access to trade. Others resided According to Hall (1994: 218) and Scupin outside of the city walls, in the south, (1980: 68), the Cham people came into adjacent to the Cham communities. As Siam periodically, partly to trade and mentioned in A History of South-East Asia partly to escape political problems because (Hall 1994: 346–347), the Muslims from the Kingdom of was invaded by the Southeast Asian archipelago states, at the end of the 16th century, namely Java and Makassar, were forcing a number of Cham people to flee merchants and political refugees because to Java, Malaya, and Siam. those Muslim states were invaded by the Moreover, the Cham that migrated to Dutch or power struggles among Cambodia were taken prisoner when the themselves. Siamese army invaded Cambodia.10 When

The Cham or khaek Cham originated from Version and Kromphra Paramanuchit Version the south of Vietnam in the area of the and Northern Thai Chronicles, Phra Wichian triangle at the mouth of the . A Preecha (Noi) “พระราชพงศาวดารกรุงศรีอยุธยาฉบับ group of Cham migrated to Ayutthaya in the early Ayutthaya period, with หลวงประเสริฐและฉบับกรมพระปรมานุชิตและพงศาวดาร communities at the mouth of Khu Cham เหนือฉบับพระวิเชยรปรี ีชา (นอย)” (1961b: 4) that in Canal, or in old documents Patha Khu 1409 A.D. Ramracha (1395–1409 A.D.) Cham meaning “the village of the Cham,”7 ordered the arrest of Okya Maha Sena (the Minister of State) for his opposition, but he was able to escape by crossing the river to Pattani, , and Patha Khu Cham. Later, he supported King traded with the Chinese and the Moors at the Nakharinthrathirat, the cousin of King seaports of Siam. In The Suma Oriental (Lach Ramracha and the ruler of the city of Suphan and Flaumenhaft 1965: 28), it is noted that Buri, to fight in removing his cousin from the some goods from , which were traded throne. After King Nakharinthrathirat ruled the in Siam, included Malayan men and women kingdom, he banished his cousin to live in slaves. In The Chevalier de Chaumont and the Patha Khu Cham. There have been Muslim Abbé de Choisy Aspects of the Embassy to communities in the area of Patha Khu Cham Siam 1685 (Smithies 1997: 84), it is stated that until the present time. See also Kongchana most of the Malays in Siam were slaves and (1999: 71) laborers. 8 Its name means “the of Lord Buddha 6 Some Muslim kingdoms in the Malay of the ”. Peninsula such as Pattani and Kedah had been 9 The four famous floating markets around the the tributary states of Siam. When they tried to city of Ayutthaya were the Namwon Bang Kra overthrow the influence of Siamese power, the Cha Market in front of Phranang Choeng Siamese king would send their troops to Temple, the Pak Khu Cham Market subdue and forcibly move some Malay people near the Cham community, the Khu Mai Rong to Ayutthaya. See Teeuw and Wyatt (1970: Market and the Pak Khlong Wat Doem (A Yo 228–235) Thaya Temple) Market near the Chinese 7 Patha, a Cambodian word, means camp or temple. See Pongsripian (1985: 3) village. Thus, Patha Khu Cham is the village 10 The Cham Muslims originated in the of Cham people. It was cited in Royal kingdom of Champa in the south of present Chronicles of Ayutthaya, Luang Prasert day Vietnam which had been invaded by the

40

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

more Cham refugees arrived, the Pongsripian (1985: 7) also states that the communities expanded to both sides of the area of the mouth of the Khu Cham Canal Khu Cham Canal. According to Chularatana was the location for Muslim merchants (2007: 94), the Cham communities were from Java and Malaya selling beetle nuts, close to the Muslims from Malaya and , other baskets, and goods from the Makassar as they were Sunni Muslims of south. Their customers consisted of the same sect. Chinese, khaek, French, English, Dutch and Portuguese merchants. Another group Foreign evidence during the reign of King of Muslims were Cham craftsmen who (1656–1688 A.D.) of Siam indicates wove materials and mats, the Malays who that this group of Muslims was the largest made cabin ropes from husks and (La Loubère 1969: 112). The French welded boat anchors to sell to foreign ship , Nicolas Gervaise (1989: 58), captains. Another group of Muslims must who came to Ayutthaya during the reign of have been farmers because there was King Narai in 1683, recorded that the production of local sustainable products Malays outnumbered other Muslim groups such as and agricultural produce as in Siam and that this group of Muslims well as animal husbandry.12 were merchants, shipping crew, craftsmen, farmers, and civil servants. The merchants In Law of the Three Seals Volume I and shipping crew were connected, as (Khurusapha 1962: 308), it is noted that many Muslim merchants were ship another profession of this group of , since the Malays, like the , Muslims was civil service, as evidenced in were also expert in shipping (Chularatana Law of the and Provincial 2007: 96). Hierarchies13 which mentions the Krom Asa Cham (Cham Volunteer Corps) as a In The Testimony of King Uthumphon11 division of the Ministry of Defense with (Pongsripian 1985: 7), it states that the Phraya Ratchawangsan as chao krom14 Javanese-Malay khaek came by ship to (the division chief), in charge of the Cham trade with Siam regularly every year. volunteers consisting of Muslims of Cham and Malay descent. Some of the Muslims Vietnamese during the 14th–15th centuries. in this community were civil servants in They were forced to migrate from their the capital city. The Testimony of King homeland to the neighboring countries. Some (Pongsripian 1985: 2) mentions of them migrated to Cambodia and set up that within the area at the mouth of the communities in Kampong Thom and Kampong Khu Cham Canal, there was an important Cham near the Mekong. They were forcibly moved to Ayutthaya when Siamese troops 12 invaded the kingdom of Cambodia in the 15th Kongchana (1999: 77) explains that the century. See Kongchana (1999: 71), Whitaker Cham communities in the Ayutthaya period (1973: 73) and Scupin (1980: 68) which were situated near the Khu Cham Canal, 11 King Uthumphon was the younger brother of were farming society. They grew floating rice on the banks of the canal near their villages. King Ekkathat, the last of Ayutthaya. 13 After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese Law of the Military and Provincial army, King Ekkathat died but his brother was Hierarchies (พระอัยการตําแหนงหนาทหารหัวเมือง) is caught and forcibly moved as a war prisoner to a regulation in the Ancient Laws of Ayutthaya. Burma. Later, he was examined about the story 14 The ranks of Ayutthaya bureaucrats from of Ayutthaya which was recorded in the high to low consist of Chaophraya, Phraya, testimony. Phra, Luang, Khun, Muen, Phan.

41

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

tha nam (river ferry) called Tha Nam were khaek ta ni (Pattani Muslims) and Phraya Ratchawangsan where was used to khaek thet. The khaek thet might have cross between the south side and inside the been Sunni Arabian or Indian Muslims capital. The ferry was located near the who resided in the Tha Ka Yi area, the old house of Phraya Ratchawangsan, the khaek area of Ayutthaya. They built division chief of Krom Asa Cham, who houses on the capital city side in the east was in charge of the Cham communities in and south, as mentioned by Dewongsa Ayutthaya. Some of the Cham and Malay (1987: 19). This group of Muslims Muslims who were civil servants in the consisted of both small merchants selling Krom Asa Cham must have used this ferry in the city markets and those selling from to travel between inside the city walls and ships anchored around Ban Nam Won their communities at the Khu Cham Canal. Bang Kra Cha Market.

2. Khaek thet groups, Muslims from Pattani and groups of Muslims with small enterprises settled in communities just outside the city walls, near canals or rivers to the south of the city island. They

Figure 1: Map of Muslim Communities in Ayutthaya City (Source: Garnier 2004: 146–147)

42

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

The area of Ban Nam Won Bang Kra Cha Turkey and Iran (Datta, Raychaudhuri and Market was where the Chao Phraya and Majumdar 1987: 451–452, 469). the Pa Sak joined to the southeast of the city of Ayutthaya. It was the route local According to Cole (1988: 22), Indian merchants to ship merchandise from the Ocean trade routes linked the Persian Gulf north to sell, and foreign merchants would with southern India, encouraging a bring their ships to offload and buy local migration of people and ideas between the goods. The Muslims in this area were two areas. Iranian nobles, administrators, mainly merchants and craftsmen, building military men, and literati flooded into the their homes along the Chao Phraya. The Deccan during the 13th century. merchants would trade with foreign ships Diplomatically and in its elite culture, and at the same time buy their goods to southern India became a dependency of sell in the city markets.15 The craftsmen Iran under the Safavid Empire in the 16th who were khaek thet and khaek Malay century. The longest-lasting of the Shi’a- made cabin ropes from coconut husks and ruled states in the Deccan was the Qutab welded boat anchors to sell to foreign ship Shahi kingdom of Golconda (1512–1687). captains. Others were khaek ta ni who Before this kingdom came into power, the lived near Wat Lot Chong and were Nizam Shahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar weavers of and cotton material, both (1508–1633) and the Adil Shahi kingdom plain and patterned, which they sold. of Bijapur, the Shi’ite Iranian had spread along the Deccan and the 3. Indo-Iranian Muslims resided inside Coromandel coast of Southeastern India. the city walls and consisted of Iranian, Arabian, Turkish and Indian Muslims. The Qutab Shahi kingdom of Golconda They were of mixed ethnicity and culture served thus also as an important gateway and were known as “Indo-Iranian Muslims”. to Southeast Asia. By the second half of However, according to Chardin (1988: the 16th century, there existed intensive 126), it is difficult to determine the real trade links between Golconda’s main port ethnicity of this group because Iranwas a at Masulipatum and Siamese Tenasserim, place of many races that were already as mentioned by Alam (1959: 169–87) and mixed to a certain extent,16 as were the Arasaratnam (1984: 113–35). The sea Muslims in India who were mixed trade route from southeastern India to the between locals and Muslims from Arabia, western seaports of Siam not only fostered the politico-economic relations between the Shi’ite Deccan states and Siam, but also supported the expansion of Shi’ism to 15 Pongsripian (1985: 15) cited that there were the Buddhist Kingdom of Ayutthaya. khaek thet (Muslims from the country west of Siam) shops at the Chi Kun Market in the city wall where jewellery and brasses were sold. Shi’ite Indo-Iranian Muslims 16 According to Chardin (1988: 26), Iran was a during the Ayutthaya period place of many races that were already mixed to a certain extent. The races of Iranians are Western documents generally call the the Persian, the Kurdish, the Gilani, the Indo-Iranian Muslims in Thailand Mazanderani, the Lori and the Baluchi, and the “Moors” which was the term the major non-Iranian races are the Semitic or Portuguese and Spanish used for Muslims Arabs and the Turkish. See also Limbert (1987: 21) or people of the Islamic religion who came

43

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

from North and East Africa, the Middle Moors, Mughals or Mouros.17 Ma ngon East, Central Asia, and India. It was a may also have come from the word general term that did not distinguish “Mahol” which the Iranians used to refer between race, region or religious sect. to Indian Muslims, as evidenced in Safinai When other Westerners came to Asia later, ye Sulaimani “the Ship of Sulaiman” (Rabi they also used the Portuguese and Spanish 1972: 95), a travel account of the Iranian term “Moors”. envoy from the Safavid Shah Sulaiman of Iran to King Narai’s court in 1685. It The word ‘Moors’ in Western documents records that the Mahols were Shi’ite therefore included the Muslims from West Muslims from India. Thus the term khaek Asia and sometimes also Muslims from ma ngon probably meant the Indo-Iranian India. In the account of the Chevalier de Shi’ite Muslims. This term appears in Chaumont, the first French envoy sent by Poems on Festivals (กาพยหอโคลงวาดวย King Louis XIV to King Narai’s court in 1685, the name “Moors” included Turks, งานณขัตฤกษ) by King II (Khurusapha , Moguls, Golcondans and Muslims 1961a: 28) which mentions the Muharram from . Ceremony, a ceremonial procession in memory of the martyrdom of Imam The Siamese during the Ayutthaya period Hussein of the khaek chao sen or khaek called the Indo-Iranian Muslims by ma ngon in Siam. According to various names, for instance, khaek chao Thipakorawong (1979: 131), the Siamese sen, khaek ma ngon, khaek yai and khaek Minister of Trade and Commerce, called thet. The term khaek chao sen was used by the khaek chao sen or Shi’ite Muslims the Siamese to denote Muslims of this khaek ma hon or khaek ma ngon. sect, the word chao sen being the name of Imam Hussein, one of the most important According to Kaempfer (1987: 4), imams of Shi’ite Islam. The Siamese Gervaise (1989: 39), Choisy (1993) and called this group khaek chao sen because Smithies (1997: 165), this group of the Indo-Iranian Muslims during the Muslims was said to reside inside the city Ayutthaya period were Muslims of the walls near the Chinese , with Shi’ite sect. According to Smithies (1997: houses and shops along the large brick 84) and Gervaise (1989: 175), westerners road which led to the Royal . The recorded that the Moors in Siam were a Indo-Iranian Muslims had their different sect of Muslims from the Malay communities in the commercial district of as the Malay were of the Shafis school of Ayutthaya, from the Chinese gate to the Laws from the Sunni sect and the Moors gate south of Tha Ka Yi.18 The Testimony in Siam mostly were Ithna-asharis or Imamiyya, one of the Shi’ite Muslim sects. 17 Portuguese and Spanish call the According to Kanjanakphan (1974: 49), Muslim people “Mouro”. the term khaek ma ngon comes from the 18 Book of Court Customs in the Ayutthaya word “Mogul” or “Mughal” because the Period (ตําราแบบธรรมเนียมในราชสํานักครั้งกรุงเกา) Siamese thought that this group of mentions that the two Muslim officials, Khun Muslims were khaek Mughal (but actually Kocha Ishak and Khun Setdhi, took the Mughal Indians were Sunni Muslims) responsibility for overseeing and protecting the or they were using the Western terms Muslim district from Pratu Chin (the Chinese Gate) to Pratu Tai Tha Ka Yi (the Gate South

44

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

of King Uthumphon describes the area because the city was destroyed and burnt where these Muslims lived as almost in the in the battle between Ayutthaya and center of the capital city, and because the Burma in 1767 A.D. However, we are able Siamese called these Muslims khaek thet, to find some ruins of buildings such as an khaek yai or khaek chao sen, the Indo-Iranian arch bridge and the landmarks in the area of these pedestal of a religious building in the area communities bore their name, for instance, of the Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat Ban Khaek Yai Chao Sen (the village of University in Ayutthaya city. khaek yai chao sen), Khlong Pratu Thet (the canal of khaek thet gate) and Thanon The main factor that persuaded the Court Ban Khaek Yai (ban khaek yai street).19 In to permit this group of Muslims to settle this area, there were houses and shops down inside the city walls, along with the along the roads that were called “bazaars” Chinese, was the importance of the which were depicted in Western community to local and international as rows of shops parallel to the road. This trade. The Muslims inside the city walls group of Muslims also built religious were merchants who bought luxury goods places in the communities20 as evidenced to sell, such as Persian carpets, rose water, in the account of the French during the brocades, jewelry and ornaments.21 reign of King Narai which mentions that These goods were expensive and bought the Moors performed their religious rites by the rich, courtiers, members of the in this area. royal family and the King, who resided within the city walls. These merchants Nowadays, there are few traces of the must have been selling to rich and Shi’ite Muslim presence in Ayutthaya powerful people in the capital city from the beginning, so they received special treatment to set up their communities in of Tha Ka Yi) . See Book of the Siamese Court the important areas of Ayutthaya. Gervaise Customs Volume 2 (ลัทธิธรรมเนียมตาง ๆ เลมสอง) , (1989: 63) points out that the Moor 1972, p. 519. merchants played as prominent a role as 19 It was probably called Shikun Street, a name the Chinese merchants in the commerce of which came from Sheikh Street, meaning the Siam. As noted in Na Pombejra (1990: Street of Scholars. 130), in the 17th century, the rulers and 20 Phraya Boran Rajchatanin, the Lord members of the royal family, plus some of Lieutenant of Ayutthaya district in King Rama V’s reign, called thung khaek (the Muslim pasture) which stood in the area of the 21 The Dutch trade records cited that clothes Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University and golden treasures from Persia were highly nowadays. There are some ruins of the building valued in the Ayutthaya market. See Suttakul in it such as an Indo-Iranian style arc bridge (1970: 61). The records of French merchants and a pedestal of the religious building. See An mention that some of the presents which were Explanation of the Ayutthaya Map with Phraya given to Constantine Phaulkon, King Narai’s Boran Rajchatanin’s Opinions Concerning the Greek counselor, also included Persian wine, Art and Historical Background of Ayutthaya rose water and Persian fruits. See Collected and Phichit (อธบายแผนทิ ี่พระนครศรีอยุธยากับคํา Historical Data Volume 25 (Part 41–43), วินิจฉัยของพระยาโบราณราชธานินทรเรื่องศิลปะและภูมิ French Merchants’ Records (ประชุมพงศาวดารเลม สถานกรุงศรีอยุธยาและจังหวัดพิจิตร) , 1971, pp. 72– ที่ 25 ภาคที่ 41 (ตอ) ถึงภาคที่ 42–43, จดหมายเหตุพอคา 73. ฝรั่งเศส), 1968, p. 270.

45

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

the khun nang, , prospered by as other Muslims of the same race, relying on foreign merchants to conduct as they had to work in close contact with this trade on their behalf. Thus, according the King and also perform religious rites to Andaya (1999: 135), as one of the two with their own communities. principal trading communities, the Muslim merchants, especially those from Persia As for those in the bureaucracy, most were and India, had a significant impact on the attached to the Krom Tha Khwa, the history of Ayutthaya. Siamese Department of Western Maritime Trade Affairs, and also resided inside the This group of Muslims also worked in city walls. Krom Tha Khwa is a commerce government, both in military and civil and foreign communication section under service. The ones in were the Krom Phra Khlang (the Department of in the Kong Asa Tang Chat (the Foreign Trade and Treasury), with responsibility Volunteer Corps) and the Royal Guards for commerce, the merchant marine, and appointed by the King to work as special foreign affairs. However, Krom Tha Khwa forces, possibly volunteers or foreign had another important duty: the volunteers specifically employed for this supervision of foreign subjects consisting purpose.22 Rabi (1972: 100) mentions that of Muslims, , and King Narai employed 200 Iranians from baptized Christians. Therefore, even if the India to be his Royal Guards, whereas Guy majority of officials in the Krom Tha Tachard, a French Jesuit priest who came Khwa were Muslims, there were officials to Ayutthaya for the first time in 1685 in and experts of other nationalities in these the reign of King Narai, describes the positions, e.g. Portuguese, Hindu Indians welcome ceremony for the French and Armenians. The majority of these diplomatic corps of Chevalier de officials were the groups that came Chaumont as including a company of originally from lands west of Siam or were Moor soldiers on horseback carrying related to the Westerners, for example, spears on duty in the second level of the those who were baptized Christians. Royal Palace. In the fourth level of the Palace, in the two side halls, there were According to the Chronicle of the Bunnag around 500 Persian Royal Guards Family, a record of history of officials in (Tachard 1999: 166). The Indo-Iranian the , a powerful family in Muslim Volunteer Corps must have Siam in the early Rattanakosin or resided inside the city walls in the same period,23 Sheikh Ahmad, as ancestor who was a Shi’ite Iranian, came to trade in 22 Damrongrachanuphap (1991: 42), the Siam with his younger brother Muhammad Minister of the Interior in King Rama V’s Sa-id in 1603 A.D., during the reign of reign, explained that the Kong Asa Tang Chat King (1605–1610) and began (The Foreign Volunteer Corps) consisted at to serve in the civil service in the reign of first of foreigners who had had military skills, King Song Tham (1610–1628), the and volunteered in the Siamese army. Later, younger son of King Ekathotsarot. The they were collected into the Kong Asa (The Volunteer Corps) which was sent into battle, 23 Bunnag was the most powerful family in and separated by nation, for example Kong Asa Thailand in the 18th–19th century. Some of the Nippon (The Japanese Volunteer Corps) and members of this family held high ranks in the Krom Asa Cham (The Cham Volunteer Corp Thai government for a hundred years into the Division). early Bangkok Era.

46

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

book states that Sheikh Ahmad assisted in Muslims, had important roles in the the activities of Krom Tha, the Foreign building the trading networks and linking Trade Department, and was later Iranian politics, religion, society and appointed head of Krom Tha Khwa as culture to Eastern lands. Shah Abbas I also chularajmontri,24 the head of Muslim expanded trade with China, having communities in Ayutthaya. This same diplomatic ties with the Chinese court, to book also mentions that Sheikh Ahmad the point of bringing Chinese craftsmen to was a very close personal friend of Phraya build chinaware factories in Iran. Silk Maha Amat,25 who later became King from Persia was widely distributed as far (1629–1656), the king of as the of the Shoguns of Japan. It Siam after King . According to was during the time of Shah Abbas I that a Chularatana (2003: 156), all of the large number of Iranians came to trade and chularajmontri men of Siam before the expand their influence in Southeast Asia. democratic revolution in Thailand in 1932 were descended from Sheikh Ahmad and Sheikh Ahmad traveled to Ayutthaya the Krom Tha Khwa administration was under the context of political, economic, monopolized by Shi’ite Muslims of his religious and cultural expansion by the family. Iranian court during the Safavid . At the same time, an important supporting During the 16th and the 17th centuries, the factor was that the Kingdom of Ayutthaya shahs of the Safavid dynasty ruled Iran. In had developed into a cosmopolitan port those days, they wanted to expand their which welcomed the migration of people influence and so built up communities of of other nationalities and other religions. Shi’ite Iranians in India. According to The Kingdom of Ayutthaya had become a Sykes (1969: 175–77) and Floor (2001: stronghold for Shi’ite Muslims from Iran 180–81), Shah Abbas I (1587–1629) of and India who came to expand trade and Iran had a very close relationship with the Shi’ism. Emperor of the Mughal dynasty. At the same time, the shahs of the Safavid Moreover, there were religious institutes dynasty also supported the Shi’ite states of called Kudi Thong or the Golden India, such as Golconda, Bijapur, and imambara within the community to hold Ahmadnagar, by sending different experts ritual ceremonies and to act as community into the civil service in those states. Many centers. Imambara in Urdu (Indian Iranians married local women, mixing Muslim language) or imamsadeh in Farsi races and cultures. This group of Indo- means the house of the imam. The original Iranian people, especially Indo-Iranian imambara in Ayutthaya looked like some styles of local in the northeastern provinces of Iran near the 24 Thipakorawong (1979:12) states that Caspian Sea in Mazanderan and Gilan. chularajmontri compounds of an word shura means an Islamic council and a Sheikh Ahmad probably came from a word montri means a King’s counselor so that town named “Kunni” in the northeastern chularajmontri means the King’s Muslim part of Iran near the Caspian Sea counselor. He was the head of Muslims in (Chularatana 2004: 94–105), and he Thailand as Sheikh al Islam. probably built an imambara in Ayutthaya 25 Thipakorawong (1979:14) notes that Phraya in the same style as in his homeland. The Maha Amat was lord of the Ministry of imambara buildings in Siam remained Defense.

47

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

under the patronage of noblemen in the family of Sheikh Ahmad until Ayutthaya was destroyed by the Burmese in 1767 A.D. During the reign of King , the first King of the Bangkok era, it was rebuilt in the Shi’ite Muslim community in Thon Buri province on the western side of the Chao Phraya near Bangkok.

The imambara building is not only the center of the Shi’ite Muslim community, but also the center of taziyat, the most important ritual of Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand. The taziyat or ashura ceremony is performed to commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. He was killed by Yazid I, the second Caliph of the Umayyad in 680 A.D. Shi’ite Muslims, who highly respect Muhammad’s descendents as the holy family, perform taziyat in the month of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic lunar . Every year they mark the martyrdom of Imam Hussein for ten days. They wear black, the color of , and make a procession which represents the epic of Imam Hussein and his followers in Karbala.

Rabi (1972) claims that King Narai (1656– 1688 A.D.) and his companions hid in the taziyat procession of the Shi’ite Muslims in Ayutthaya to seize the Royal Palace and arrest his uncle, the former King. According to the descriptions of the French Envoy who was sent by King Louis XIV to the Siamese court of King Narai in the 17th century, the taziyat procession was a famous and well–known Moorish ceremony in Siam.

48

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

The prelude of the Bunnag family: The Shi’ite Muslims in the transition period

The Shi’ite Iranian Muslims

Sheikh Ahmad A Muhammad Sa’id A (Ok Phra Chula) (Ok Ya Bawonratchanayok)

Chuen A AChi Aqa Muhammad A (Ok Ya Worachetphakdi; acting Chula) (Ok Phra Si Naowarat) (Ok Ya Aphairacha; Samuhanayok)

Sombun A Yi A Kaeo A (1630–c.1683) (Ok Ya Si Chaihannarong) (Ok Phra Chula) (Ok Ya Chamnanphakdi) ( of Tenasserim) (Samuhanayok)

Chai AD (Chaophraya Phetphichai)

Chen A Sen D (Phraya Chula) (Phraya Chasaenyakon) (Phraya Wichitnarong) (Chaophraya Mahasena)

Konkaew A Bunma D Bunnag D (Phraya Chularajmontri) (Chaophraya Mahasena) (Chaophraya Mahasena)

The Shi’ite Muslim Lineage The Bunnag Family

A Shi’ite Muslim D Buddhist

Figure 2: The Early Sheikh Ahmad’s Lineage (Source: Chularatana 2003: 102)

49

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

After King Narai died, Phra , a religious missions prohibiting Thai, Mon high-ranking courtier-official, usurped the and Lao in Siam from professing mistaken throne and founded the Ban Phlu Luang beliefs.27 As mentioned in The Laws of the dynasty in 1688. The Ban Phlu Luang Three Seals (Khurusapha 1962: 98–99) formed new diplomatic policies to and Lailert (1972: 283), those Thai, Mon limit contact with foreigners and control or Lao who deserted the holy Siamese the roles of Muslims and Christians in the religion for Christianity and Islam would kingdom (Chularatana 2003: 244–245). be subjected to . Lailert King (1733–1758) emphasized (1972: 287) also mentions that during the the as the center of Ban Phlu Luang period, was Buddhism. In 1751, King Kirti used to create a sense of and a Sri Rajasinha of sent his envoy to sense of unity within the kingdom. the Siamese king to invite Siamese to perform the ordination ceremony for the Some of the Sheikh Ahmad’s descendants Kandyan , which had deteriorated in the Siamese bureaucracy probably as a result of European expansion since the worried about the situation which had an late 16th century. At the end of 1751, King effect on their stability, and then probably Borommakot sent a group of senior monks were pressed to convert to Buddhism. to to re-establish Buddhism. According to Thipakorawong (1979: 23), Because of this, Buddhism in Sri Lanka is Phraya Phetphichai (), the head of called Siamwong Buddhism.26 Sheikh Ahmad’s family, converted to Buddhism in to join the royal To solidify his reputation as a true of King Borommakot to Phra Buddhist king, he ordered renovations on Phutthabat in 1750. After Phraya many royal in Ayutthaya and Phetphichai (Chai) changed his belief and concentrated on Buddhist royal ceremonies, came back from Phra Phutthabat, he and for instance the annual pilgrimage to Phra his family succeeded in re-establishing Phutthabat, the Buddha’s footprint, in their power and roles in the Siamese , a province north of Ayutthaya. administration. Phraya Phetphichai (Chai), Moreover, he strictly controlled the the head of the , was appointed expansion of Islam and Christianity by to be Chaophraya Phetpichai, a high- emphasizing the royal regulation of ranking noble, and his second son, Sen, was put in the position of Chaophraya Mahasena, the master of the Ministry of 26 Buddhism in Sri Lanka had suffered a Defense, during the reign of King Ekkathat decline under Portuguese rule between 1594 (1758–1767). Chaophraya Mahasena (Sen) and 1612. The movement for a Buddhist had a son with his second , named revival in Sri Lanka dated from about the Bunnag who had close relations with second decade of the 18th century under the Luang Yokkrabat (the patronage of the Kandyan kings. The Kandyan embassy left Sri Lanka in 1750, arrived in ruler of Ratchaburi), named Thong Duang, Ayutthaya in May 1751 and left toward the and he married Nuan, a younger sister of end of this year accompanied by eighteen Nak, Luang Yokkrabat Mueang Ratchaburi‘s monks led by Phra Ubali and Phra wife also. After Luang Yokkrabat Mueang Ariyanamuni. Sri Lankan monks who were ordained by Siamese monks of the Buddhist 27 The Laws of the Three Seals (กฎหมายตราสาม mission formed a sect known as Siamwong or Ubaliwong. See Lailert (1972: 279–282) ดวง) (Khurusapha 1962: 98–99)

50

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

Ratchaburi took control of Siam and The Shi’ite Muslims in the crowned himself king, King Rama I Rattanakosin Period (1782–1809), Bunnag became a high- ranking courtier-official of King Rama I. After Ayutthaya was destroyed by the His family played a vital role in Burmese in 1767, some of the members of administering the Siamese kingdom from Sheikh Ahmad’s family migrated to the early Rattanakosin period until the Bangkok, the new capital city of the 1880s (Keat Gin Ooi 2004: 288). Siamese Kingdom after Ayutthaya, and re- established a new Shi’ite Muslim community It was possible that Chaophraya Phetpichai on the banks of the Chao Phraya opposite and some of his heirs applied taqiyah, the the . The increasing power of Shi’ite practice of dissimulation, to avoid the Bunnag family during the early the complicated problem with Ban Phlu Rattanakosin period sustained the stability Luang’s policy. Among the followers of of the Sheikh Ahmad’s descendants. the different schools of Islam, Shi’ites are Konkaew, a descendant of Sheikh Ahmad well known for their practice of taqiyah. and a cousin of Bunnag, was appointed to In case of danger they dissimulate their the position of Phraya Chularajmontri, the religion and hide their particular religious 28 head of Muslim communities in Siam. and ritual practices from their opponents. Between 1782 and 1932, the Shi’ite Taqiyah might have been applied to chularajmontri men from Sheikh Ahmad’s maintain the positions of Sheikh Ahmad’s family continued to administer the Krom family in the Siamese bureaucracy and to Tha Khwa with the support of the protect the Shi’ite community from the members of the Bunnag family who held ethno-religious persecution during the Ban influential positions in Siamese departments Phlu Luang’s era. especially Krom Phra Khlang, the Ministry of Trade and Finance, which commanded Though Chaophraya Phetpichai and his Krom Tha Khwa as well. younger son, Sen, converted to another religion, his eldest son, , remained faithful to Shi’ism, his ancestors’ faith. He was appointed to the position of Phraya Chula, the master of Krom Tha Khwa, in King Ekkathat’s reign, and his son, Konkaew, was appointed to the position of Phraya Chula, the first chularajmontri in the Rattanakosin period, by King Rama I.

28 According to Tabatabai (1989: 223), the practice of taqiyah is permitted if there is definite danger facing one’s own life or the life of one’s family, or the possibility of the loss of the honor and virtue of one’s wife or other female members of the family, or the danger of the loss of one’s material belongings to such an extent as to cause complete destitution and prevent a man from being able to continue to support himself and his family.

51

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

Sultan Sulaiman’s Family Sheikh Ahmad’s Family Wang (Phraya Ratchawangsan)

Chan Pheng Plong Thongkhao Noi (Phraya ) (Phraya Phatthalung) (Phraya Ratchawangsan)

King Rama II Riam Phong Thap Sem Konkaew (Somdet Phra Si Sulalai) (Phra Akson Sombat) (Phraya Chularajmontri)

King Rama III Sap A son Nok Thuean (Concubine) (Phraya Chularajmontri)

Siriwong Klin Nam (Krommamuen Mattayaphithak) (Phraya Chularajmontri)

King Rama IV Ramphoei Sin Phae (Somdet Phra Thepsirin) (Phraya Chularajmontri)

King Rama V Lamai (Concubine)

Figure 3: The connection between the Muslim and the Chakkri Dynasty (Source: Chularatana 2007: 250)

The Shi’ite chularajmontri men from Sulaiman declared the independence of the Sheikh Ahmad’s family not only had Sultanate kingdom of . He and closed relations with the members of the his successors ruled Songkhla until the Bunnag family but also had connections kingdom was invaded by Siamese troops with the members of the Chakkri dynasty. in 1668. Some of their descendants Phraya Chularajmontri (Konkaew) migrated to Ayutthaya and were appointed married Sem, a daughter of Phraya to high positions in the Siamese Ratchawangsan (Noi), the master of the bureaucracy especially Krom Asa Cham Siamese navy, a member of (Chalayondecha 1986: 130). Some of the Sulaiman’s family, Sunnite Iranian members of Sultan Sulaiman’s family Muslim from Songkla. Sulaiman was a son were closely connected with the Chakkri of Dato’ Mogol, an Indo-Iranian traveler dynasty and Sheikh Ahmad’s family from the Indonesian archipelago. Dato’ through . Three of the Shi’ite Mogol was appointed to be the first chularajmontri men in the early governor of Songkhla by King Song Tham Rattanakosin period, Konkaew, Thuean (Chalayondecha 1986: 130–32). After the and Nam, married women from Sultan usurpation of King Prasat Thong in 1629, Sulaiman’s family. Because of their

52

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

relations with the members of the Chakkri 13. Phra Chularajmontri (Son dynasty and other powerful families in Ahmadchula) during the reign of King Siam, they were supporters of the head of Rama VII Muslims including the Shi’ites and Sunnites in the central part of Siam. By the time of the Bangkok kingdom, the chularajmontri had become an official The thirteen Shi’ite Muslim leader of all Muslims in Thailand. In the Chularajmontri 29 Bangkok period, there were nine chularajmontri men, all of whom were 1. Ok Ya Bawon Ratchanayok descended from the Shi’ite chularajmontri (Sheikh Ahmad), chularajmontri (the in the Ayutthaya period, and all of whom king’s supervisor) during the reign of King served under the Chakkri kings as high- Prasat Thong ranking nobility in Krom Tha Khwa. 2. Phraya Chularajmontri (Kaew) during the reigns of King Prasat Thong Following the Democratic Revolution in and King Narai Thailand in 1932, there was no appointment 3. Phraya Chularajmontri (Son) of a chlarajmontri after the death of during the reigns of King Phetracha and Phra Chularajmontri (Son), the last King chularajmontri from Sheikh Ahmad’s 4. Phraya Chularajmontri (Chen) family, in 1936. It was not until the during the reigns of King Borommakot turmoil and disaffection of Muslims in and King Ekkathat following General 5. Phraya Chularajmontri (Konkaew) Pibun’s forced integration policies, against during the reign of King Rama I which the rise of Malay 6. Phraya Chularajmontri (Akayi) threatened the stability of the central Thai during the reign of King Rama I government that a new chularajmontri was 7. Phraya Chularajmontri (Thuean) hurriedly appointed (Aphornsuvan 2003: during the reigns of King Rama II and 20). King Rama III 8. Phraya Chularajmontri (Nam) The Islamic Patronage Act of 1945 during the reigns of King Rama III and (revised in 1948) authorized the King Rama IV government to form the Council 9. Phraya Chularajmontri (Noi) of Islamic Affairs (NCIA) of Thailand, during the reign of King Rama IV headed by an ex-officio chularajmontri. 10. Phraya Chularajmontri (Sin) The chularajmontri is appointed directly during the reign of King Rama V by the King on the recommendation of the 11. Phraya Chularajmontri (Sun Minister of Interior, and can be removed only by the King. His tenure is for life Ahmadchula) during the reigns of King 30 Rama V and King Rama VI (Aphornsuvan 2003: 21). The first 12. Phra Chularajmontri (Kasem chularajmontri in the democratic period Ahmadchula) during the reign of King was a commoner, Cham Promyong, a Rama VI Sunni Muslim who was a member of the

30 See also “The Islamic Patronage Act of 1945” in The Collected Laws of Islam 29 Chularatana (2007: 243) (Bangkok: Nidhivedh, 1997), p. 12.

53

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

People’s Party and a senior government Qum, have prospered. Over the years, the official in the Public Relations department Islamic academies in Qum have trained at that time (Aphornsuvan 2003: 21). The the next generation of Shi’ite Muslims and Shi’ite Muslims in the Siamese religious leaders from across the Middle administration lost their positions and the East and other parts of the globe. They last three chularajmontri men after the spend years in Qum, learning Persian, Democratic Revelation were appointed Arabic, religious sciences, jurisprudence, from the Sunnites, the majority of theology and . Long stints of Muslims in Thailand. study in Qum allow them to forge cultural ties with Islamic Iran and learn much The Shi’ite population in the Rattanakosin about the country. Time spent in Iran no period grew and some of their members longer impacts only the spirit of Islamic moved to establish settlements in other revolution to seminary students, but is also areas. In 1950, Masjid Kudi Luang, the more likely to wind up exposing them to first Shi’ite Muslim community established reformist and democratic thought (Nasr in the early Bangkok period, moved from 2007: 217–218). the banks of the Chao Phraya to a new place because they gave up their property The Islamic Revolution subsequently for enlargement of the Thai Navy’s head impacted the Shi’ite communities in office, situated near their community. Thailand. The new republic has had a Today, there are four Shi’ite Muslim policy to export the Shi’ite revival to mosques in Bangkok, Masjid Kudi Luang, Shi’ite communities around the globe. As Kudi Charoen Phat, Masjid Dinfallah and Shi’ite , Iranian sheikhs have Masjid Phadung Tham Islam. All of them propagated their religious ideas and practices are situated in the district of in Shi’ite communities in Thailand. The Bangkok and they are also centers of Iranian government has also provided Shi’ite Muslim communities in Thailand. funding for religious activities in their There are around 6,000 to 7,000 Shi’ite communities and Iranian Shi’ite academic Muslims in the Bangkok area, which institutes have given scholarships to young makes them a minority group of Muslims. people to study Islamic practices in Iran. Most of them are descended from Indo- Iranian Muslim ancestors that settled in The Shi’ite revival stemming from the Thailand in the Ayutthaya and the early Islamic Republic of Iran is disseminated Bangkok periods. through their communities and has brought about changes in their rituals and culture. The Shi’ite communities and the For example, the traditional taziyat that new Islam impact had been followed from the four hundred years’ local conservative ritual, were changed, and some imambara buildings The Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 were also changed from the local to the had an impact on the Muslim world. It Middle Eastern traditions. came, not primarily from the left, but from the religious establishment; not in the During the transition period, Shi’ite name of socialism, but in the name of Muslims in Thailand are informally Islam (Lapidus 2002: 485). Since the separated into two groups. The original revolution, Shi’ite centers of Islamic group who call themselves chao sen, learning in Iran, especially in the city of

54

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

meaning Imam Hussein’s followers, have of a Commercial System. Journal of tried to conserve their traditional local Asian History 18.2:113–35. Wiesbaden, culture and old ways. The other, who is : Harrassowitz Verlag. called by the original group chi a mai, meaning the new Shi’ite, converted from Barbosa, Duarte. 1967. The Book of other beliefs to revival Shi’ism. Their Duarte Barbosa. Volume 2. Millwood religious activities have been influenced and New York: Kraus Reprint. by the new Iranization after the Islamic Revolution. Chalayondecha, Prayoonsak. 1986. Muslims in Thailand (มุสลิมในประเทศ At present, these two groups of Shi’ite Muslims have different ideas. They are ไทย). Bangkok: Sultan Sulaiman confronting new changes. The chao sen Foundations. (In Thai) start to decrease in number while the chi a mai increase and try to expand their Chardin, John. 1988. Travels in Persia influence through the support of Iranian 1673–1677. New York: Dover Islamic institutes. Thus Shi’ite Islam in Publication. Thailand is at this very moment in the process of vital changes once again after Choisy, Abbé de. 1993. Journal of a four hundred years of their establishment Voyage to Siam 1685–1686. Kuala in the Buddhist Kingdom of Thailand. Lumpur: Oxford University Press.

References Chularatana, Julispong. 2003. The Nobility in the Department of Foreign Alam, Shah Manzur. 1959. Masulipatam: Affairs, Right Division: The Study of A Metropolitan Port in the Seventeenth Role and Duty from Ayutthaya Period Century. Islamic Culture 33.3: 169–87. to Rattanakosin Period (ขุนนางกรมทา Hyderabad, Deccan, India: Islamic ขวา: การศึกษาบทบาทและหนาที่ในสมัยอยุธยา Culture Board. ถึงสมัยรัตนโกสินทร พ.ศ.2153–2435). Andaya, Leonard Y. 1999. Ayutthaya and Bangkok: Chulalongkorn Univerity the Persian and India Muslim Press. (In Thai) Connection. In From Japan to Arabia: Ayutthaya Maritime Relations with ---. 2004. Sheikh Ahmad: The Prelude of Asia, edited by Kennon Breazeale. Bangkok: the Bunnag Family (เฉกอะหมัด: ปฐมบท Printing House. สกุลบุนนาค). Art & Culture Magazine

Aphornsuvan, Thanet. 2003. History and (ศิลปวัฒนธรรม) 25.5: 94–105. (In Thai) Politics of the Muslims in Thailand. Revised edition. Bangkok: Thammasat ---. 2007. Muslim Communities during the University. (In Thai) Ayutthaya Period. MANUSYA 10.1: 94. Bangkok: Arasaratnam, Sinnappah. 1984. The Press. Coromandel-Southeast Asia Trade 1650–1740: Challenges and Responses ---. 2007. Chao Sen during the

55

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

Rattanakosin Period (กรุนระบั่นบนชั้น Siam. Translated by John Villiers. Bangkok: White Lotus. ชะฎัต: เจาเซ็นครั้งแผนดินกรุงรัตนโกสินทร). Journal of the Historical Society Hall, D. G. E. 1994. A History of South- (วารสารสมาคมประวัติศาสตร), Volume 29. East Asia. 4th edition. : Macmillan Press. Bangkok: The Royal Historical Society

of Thailand. (In Thai) Kaempfer, Engelbert. 1987. A Description

of the Kingdom of Siam 1690. Cole, J. R. I. 1988. Roots of North Indian Bangkok: White Orchid Press. Sh’ism in Iran and Iraq. Berkeley:

University of California Press. Kanjanakphan. 1974. The Geographic

nd Cortesoa, Armando (tr. and ed.). 1990. The Studies of Wat (ภูมิศาสตรวัดโพธิ์). 2 Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires and the edition. Bangkok: Burinth Publishers. Book of Francisco Rodriques. Volume 1. (In Thai) : Asian Educational Services. Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. Southeast Asia: A Damrongrachanuphap, Prince. 1991. The Historical Encyclopedia, from Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya, Royal Wat to . Santa Barbara, CA, Autograph Version (พระราชพงศาวดารกรุง USA: ABC-CLIO.

ศรีอยุธยาฉบับพระราชหัตถเลขา). Bangkok: Khurusapha. 1961a. A Collection of Chunum Sahakorn. (In Thai) Poems Sung in Ayutthaya Royal Barge Processions (ประชุมกาพยเหเรือสมัยอยุธยา). Datta, Kalikinkar; H. C. Raychaudhuri and Bangkok: Khurusapha. (In Thai) R. C. Majumdar. 1987. An Advanced

History of India. Madras: Macmillan ---. 1961b. Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya, India Press. Luang Prasert Version and Kromphra

Paramanuchit Version and Northern Dewongsa, Komcum. 1987. The Role of Thai Chronicles, Phra Wichian Ayutthaya’s Market Places in Internal and External Trade (A.D.1630– Preecha (Noi) (พระราชพงศาวดารกรุงศรี A.D.1767). M.A. Thesis, Department of อยุธยาฉบับหลวงประเสริฐและฉบับ History, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University. (In Thai) กรมพระปรมานุชิตและพงศาวดารเหนือฉบับ พระวิเชียรปรีชา (นอย)). Bangkok: Floor, Willem. 2001. Safavid Government Khurusapha. (In Thai) Institutions. Costa Mesa: Mazda

Publishers. ---. 1962. The Laws of the Three

Garnier, Derick. 2004. Ayutthaya Venice Seals Volume I (กฎหมายตราสามดวง เลม 1). of the East. Bangkok: River Books. Bangkok: Khurusapha. (In Thai)

Gervaise, Nicolas. 1989. The Natural and ---. 1968. Collected Historical Data Political History of the Kingdom of Volume 25 (Part 41 – 43), French

56

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.16, 2008

Merchants’ Records (ประชุมพงศาวดาร dissertation, University of London.

เลมที่ 25, ประชุมพงศาวดารภาคที่ 41 (ตอ) ถึง Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic nd ภาคที่ 42 – 43, จดหมายเหตุของคณะพอคา Societies. 2 edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ฝรั่งเศส). Bangkok: Khurusapha. (In Thai) Limbert, John W. 1987. Iran at War with History. Boulder: Westview Press. Krom Silpakorn. 1971. An Explanation of the Ayutthaya Map with Phraya Marcinkowski, Muhammad Ismail. 2005. Boran Rajchatanin’s Opinions From Isfahan to Ayutthaya: Contacts Concerning the Art and Historical between Iran and Siam in the 17th Background of Ayutthaya and Phichit Century. : Pustaka National. (อธิบายแผนที่พระนครศรีอยุธยากับคําวินิจฉัยของ Na Pombejra, Dhiravat. 1990. พระยาโบราณราชธานินทรเรื่องศิลปะและภูมิสถานกรุง Trade and Court Politics in Ayutthaya ศรีอยุธยาและจงหวั ัดพิจิตร). Bangkok: during the Reign of King Narai (1656– Sammit Printing House. (In Thai) 88). In The Southeast Asian Port and Polity: Rise and Demise, edited by J. ---. 1972. Book of the Siamese Court Kathirithamby-Wells and John Villiers, Customs Volume 2 (ลัทธิธรรมเนียมตาง ๆ เลม pp. 127–42. Singapore: Singapore สอง). Bangkok: Klangwitthaya Press. University Press.

(In Thai) Nasr, Vali. 2007. The Shia Revival. New Kongchana, Plubplung. 1999. Historical York: W.W. Nortion. Development of Cham Communities in Ayutthaya (พัฒนาการประวัติศาสตรชุมชน Netton, Ian Richard. 1922. A Popular จามอยุธยา). Journal of History (วารสาร Dictionary of Islam. Worcester: Billing & Son. ประวัติศาสตร), 67–80. Bangkok: Department of History, Faculty of Pinto, Fernão Mendes. 1904. Subsidios Social Science, Srinakharinwirot para a sua Biografia. Translated by University. (In Thai) Christovao Aires. Lisbon: Academia das Ciencias. La Loubère, Simon de. 1969. The Kingdom of Siam. : Pongsripian, Winai (ed.). 1985. Thai Oxford University Press. Historical Data on Ayuttaya from Thai Lach, Donald F. and Carol Flaumenhaft and Western documents (ขอมูล (eds.). 1965. Asia on the Eye of ’s Expansion. Englewood Cliffs: ประวัติศาสตรไทยจากเอกสารไทยและ Prentice-Hall. ตางประเทศ). : Department of History, Faculty of Arts, Lailert, Busakorn. 1972. The Ban Phlu . (In Thai) Luang Dynasty 1688–1767: A Study of the Thai During the Closing Rabi, Muhammad. 1972. The Ship of Year of the Ayutthaya Period. Doctoral Sulaiman. Translated by John O’ Kane.

57

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access The Shi’ite Muslims in Thailand from Ayutthaya Period to the Present

London: Routledge & Keagan . ดวยศาสนาอิสลาม). 1997. Bangkok:

Nidhivedh. (In Thai) Savoy, Roger. 1980. Iran Under the

Safavids. Cambridge: Cambridge The Royal Institute. 1969. The Royal University press. Institute Thai Encyclopedia (สารานุกรม Scupin, Raymond. 1980. ไทยฉบับราชบัณฑิตยสถาน). Volume 4. before the Bangkok Period. The Bangkok: The Royal Institute of Journal of 68.1: 55–71. Thailand. (In Thai ) Simon, Reeva S.; Philip Mattar and Richard W. Bulliet (eds.). 1996. Thipakorawong, Chao Phraya. 1979. Book Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle of Multifarious Duties (หนังสือแสดง East, Volume 4, pp. 1652–1653. New กิจจานุกิจ). Bangkok: Khurusapha. (In York: Macmillan. Thai)

Smithies, Michael (tr.). 1997. Aspects of van Donzel, E. 1994. Islam Desk the Embassy to Siam 1685: The Reference. Leiden: E.J. Bill. Chevalier de Chaumont and the Abbé de Choisy. : Silkworm Whitaker, Donald P. 1973. Area Books. Handbook for the Khmer Republic Suttakul, Nantha (tr.). 1970. The Dutch (Cambodia). Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. Papers in Ayutthaya Period (A.D.1608

– A.D.1620 and A.D.1624 – A.D.1642)

เอกสารของฮอลันดาสมัยกรุงศรีอยุธยา พ.ศ. 2151 – 2163 และพ.ศ. 2167 – 2185). Bangkok: Khurusapha. (In Thai)

Sykes, Percy. 1969. A History of Persia. Volume 2. 3rd edition. London: Routledge and Keagan Paul.

Tabatabai, Husayn. 1989. Shi’a. Qum: Ansariyan.

Tachard, Guy. 1999. A Relation of the Voyage to Siam. Bangkok: White Lotus.

Teeuw, A. and David K. Wyatt. 1970. The Story of Pattani. Volume 2. The Hague: Nijhoff.

The Collected Laws of Islam (รวมกฎหมายวา

58

Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 11:56:47PM via free access