Framing Air Pollution

Student: Nutsa Dzamashvili

Faculty of Social Studies

Brno, 2019 Abstract

Last couple decades, air pollution has been one of the most important and discussed parts of the global environmental problems. It is essential to address this issue on timely manner as on local so as on global levels. The beginning of this paper briefly introduces issue of the air pollution, its importance worldwide, and gives an idea about the situation in the UK in this regard; Which parties are involved in discussions, movements around this topic; How this issue affects different levels of social structure. The research question is: What are the prevailing framings of air pollution? To answer this question, the methodology of content analysis is used. This gives a good opportunity to cover different British media sources around the topic of air pollution. Therefore, it a good way to see different sides of the story represented by various groups, such as the government/business, green groups/NGOs and the society. Framing approach has been used to formulate and analyze better the wide range of information about air pollution and in order to follow the purpose of this paper, this approach enables to answer the research question and hence to construct and shape the text. As a result, four framings have been identified: Political; Health, Economy and the Car Industry and Environmentalist and the Society.

Introduction

Air pollution, as one of important parts of climate change, is one of the most discussed topics worldwide. Nowadays, air pollution is seen as the largest environmental health threat to the modern society, responsible for 7 million deaths every year, globally. Air pollution causes and worsens number of diseases, varying from asthma to cancer, pulmonary illnesses and heart disease. Especially, outdoor air pollution and particulate matter (one of main elements), have been identified as carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research and Cancer. In European region, almost every individual is affected by air pollution with more than 90% of them being jeopardized to annual levels of outdoor particulate matter that above WHO air quality guidelines. Paris agreement of 2015 proves again how serious the issue of climate change is for the whole world. Around 200 countries have agreed to cut carbon emissions and to keep global temperature well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial level and then to put further efforts limiting temperature down to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Paris agreement includes nationally determined contributions (NDCs), meaning that member countries of the accord should put their individual effort as Nationally determined contributions to implement targeted goals. As part of NDCs, countries should have determined climate policies and targets by 2020 and they should report periodically on emission and their efforts. The UK has ratified agreement in November 2016, as Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson has signed agreement, acting on behalf of the UK government at United Nations’ climate summit held in Marrakesh. This was a strong signal of country’s commitment through this process to cooperate with other partner countries. Though, there have been some controversial comments in regard to Brexit and if UK would continue pursuing this pathway. At that time UK’s Climate and Industry Minister, Nick Hurdy, said that Brexit does not mean that UK won’t be working together with rest of the Europe on this issue, and once the time comes – when UK leaves EU, then it will be a process of making range of decisions on how to proceed with climate issue. Mostly green groups say that one who vote for Brexit are climate change sceptics. However, carbon targets are already preserved under Climate Change Act, adopted in 2008. Smog has always been an issue for London due to natural circumstances, as it is surrounded by hills and because air holds moisture due to Thames river running through the city. During industrial revolution coal was used intensively to fuel factories and to heat homes; as the city was expanding itself, consumption was increasing; smoke mixing in the air especially in cold days nasty, yellow substance was created in the air that was trapped in London’s narrow streets and alleyways. Great Smog of London of 1952, also known as “London Ivy” by Charles Dickens or the “Pea-Souper”, more traditional yellow potage, has killed almost 12 000 people. It was reported that visibility was so bad that busses and cars has stopped and people had to take tube instead. Somedays, smog was so strong that people even could not even see their own feet, there had been cases when animals were found dead at the Smithfield Show. In spite of this, Londoners were very proud of the smog. Smoke running out of industrial chimneys was a sign of employment and in homes it meant comfort and warmth. Writers have used concept of fog in their pieces sometimes given romantic or mysterious notion. For instance, Charles Dickens used this as an image of confusion of the Court of Chancery: “The air had flakes of soot in it as big as full-grown snowflakes”. As well as Henry James, George Gissing, Robert Louis Stevenson and Joseph Conrad have used London fog in their works. Painter Claude Monet was visiting London in winter time and he has created numbers of paintings portraying London for, around the turn of 19th century. Connecting fog to some mystery and detective naturally comes to mind first most of the time. In many TV shows directors use that approach lots of times. On film or TV series of Sherlock Holmes, we have often seen him wondering in foggy streets looking for some traces of crime or a lead. Though the writer Arthur Conan Doyle has not used notion of fog as much as it has been portrayed in films. Outcome of this deadly smog was Clean Air Act 1956 that adopted measures for cutting down air pollution levels. Main pollutant, as a result of coal burning – Sulphur dioxide had peaked at very high level, that is why families were offered to switch coal burning grates to smokeless fuel. Environment Act of 1995, part IV, sets requirements for local air quality management. According to this, authorities are obliged to perform ‘Review and Assessments’ of air quality on regular bases in their areas and then to take steps accordingly in order to improve air quality. The Review and Assessment process was established in England as an outcome of consultations in 2015 and after that a new scheme - Assessment Summary Review was introduced in 2016. If this process finds the surpass of an Air Quality Strategy Objective, then Local Authority must state ‘Air Quality Management Area’ (AQMA), and introduce Action plan in order to solve problems in respected areas and meet air quality objectives, such as: financial incentives, traffic management, congestion charges and etc. Mostly such cases happen in urban areas, where traffic emissions of nitrogen dioxide and /or PM10 are predominant pollutants, very small amount accounts for SO2. The UK is one of five countries EU has started legal affairs against in 2018, for regularly violating legally binding EU air pollution rules. UK government has been often accused of ‘apathy’, since they have failed several times again and again to ensure EU officials that the country was moving forward to making air safe to breathe. The coal is no longer issue nowadays. It has been a huge part of UK’s economy, but British government has made a commitment to phase out of coal by 2025. The highest coal production was recorded in 1913 – 287 million tons of coal. In 2009, this number decreased down to 17.8 million tones. And by 2016, the previous indicator has been decreased by 75%, giving number of 4 million tones overall. Change in these numbers are result of several following conversions: adopting laws to cleanse the air; railways have swapped from steam engines to gas and electricity; increase of North gas and oil; the pit closure program under Margaret Thatcher and urgency to tackle climate change issue. Also, by committing to Paris Agreement 2015, UK has responsibility to move to clean energy, for that at least 75% of electricity should be produced from renewables by 2030. If we look at the trends in this regard, then in 2016, UK has produced 25% of electricity from renewables, whereas it was only 7% in 2010. One of main problems causing air pollution in the country is transport sector, which is responsible for most of UK’s Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. According to the Department for Business Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS), data from 2016 shows that emissions have increased by 2%, now accounting 26% of UK’s GHG emissions, particularly coming from fuel combustion of diesel and gasoline cars. A lot of green groups have the same concerns, that the government does not have a plan which complies with critical air pollution situation, since the transportation issue is disregarded, and they continue building more roads which means increase in congestion and growing number of cars on the roads. As data shows, air pollution is accountable for premature deaths of approximately 24 000 people, every year in the UK. Estimated costs of NHS for health problems caused by air pollution, have been calculated as £20 billion a year. In long term perspective, authorities should organize different activities in forms of limit-alert- information values with regards to main pollutants in order to tackle them. Once the pollution gets close to peak point, urgent measures must be taken, in this case most attention goes to local actors. Every measure should serve and respect the precautionary principle. Therefore, actors involved around this discussions and activities should create frame(s) in respects of security while fighting air pollution. Air pollution is major worry affecting not only environment but health. Why it is important to discuss this issue in terms of politics? Part of politics is a decision - making process, that effects members of community, society. In order to take actions for fighting air pollution political decisions should be made. Several actors can be identified who are affected and involved in resolving issue of air pollution. The state can be portrayed as the first one, since it has authority, resources and tools to tackle the problem by different means – adopting laws, regulations, policies, taking economic measures etc. To get better outcome, central government delegates its power to cities, as an effective way to apply and perform these policies. Individuals, as important part of the community, are also important actors, since they are directly affected by the negative features of air pollution. They express their opinions through vote and are being represented in local institutions. In addition to these two main actors, we can also name organizations (NGOs), parties working on air pollution, environmental issues which has a vital impact on environmental policies. Also, with help of public activities, these organizations can engage into discussions and participate on various platforms, that may influence political decisions on environmental level.

Research question: What are the prevailing framings of air pollution? In order to answer the question, framing approach will be used. This will help me to analyze and cover the positions of all parties (how they perceive this topic, interpret and suggest solutions based on the way of their thinking) involved in debate/discussion over air pollution. Analyzing media sources is the best way to see how the problem is covered and broadcasted and how it reflects the views and represents each actor which is involved around discussions about air pollution. Using ‘policy discourse’ helps to focus on interactions of individuals, interest groups, social movements, and institutions through which problematic situations are changed into policy problems, agendas are set, decisions are made and actions are taken. An idea of frames has been formulated and used in different ways throughout the years: some used the term ‘frame’ while discussing subject of artificial intelligence and pointing to the way knowledge is presented. Others have represented the notion of frames, as tool to transform interpretation and the way data is analyzed. Goffman has established the way of ‘framing analysis’ that offers explanation of structures that shape progression of social cooperation and communication. (UNTAG - p.146) In this case, idea of framing would be combination of similar features of above mentioned definitions. It is a form of selecting, organizing and interpreting complex things/information; it is sort of attitude from which point look at vague, dubious situations can be clear and understood.

Literature Review It is hard to find research directly related to UK case on air pollution which would combine all aspects I am using in my research, including media content analysis and framing approach. Although, here are some other researches which are using the different case studies, but still adopt framing approach for analyzing environmental issues. Most of them use media sources in a way to show how media covers environmental issues; how it influences the attitudes of people and what the linkage is with political context in the country. There is a very interesting research about “Media Access and Political Efficacy in the Eco- politics of Climate Change: Canadian National News and Mediated Policy Networks”, done by Stoddart, Tindall, Smith and Haluza-Delay. Authors use discourse network analysis to show how media covers climate issues and to represent debates and interpretive frameworks of different parties [federal government, opposition political parties, provincial governments and environmental organizations] involved in debates around the climate issue. They covered three media sources the Globe, Mail and the National Post, using the timeframe of 2006-2010. They are using keyword selection for searching and then coding procedure for data analysis. Jingrong Tong in his research “Environmental Risks in Newspaper Coverage: A Framing of Investigative reports on Environmental Problems in Ten Chinese Newspapers”, uses framing analysis in order to show how environmental issues are represented and interpreted in Chinese media. As a result, the author identifies that Chinese newspaper reports represent environmental problems in such way that opposes the national priority of economic growth and challenges the current institutional discourse of development in the country. Another research about “Newspaper Coverage of Environmental Problems in China: An Analysis of Three Chinese Newspapers” by Cheng Rong is quite similar to one done by Tong. He examines these newspapers in order to understand how media represents environmental issues, also how this coverage influences on attitude of citizens; to contribute understanding of the Chinese Communist Party’s attitude towards environmental issues. He has used the framing approach for identifying certain frames; he has also used coding procedures for data analysis. Again, the same approach had been used in the research of Guo Zu on “Framing Pollution: An Analysis of the Coverage of Air Pollution in China in 2013 by ChinaDaily.com”. He also uses framing approach and content analysis (text element, visual images) in order to analyze articles related to air pollution, published in 2013 by ChinaDaily.com. For collecting the data, he has used keyword “air pollution”. Afterwards, he used content analysis based on texts and then concentrated on visual elements. One more research covering air pollution issue in China - “Smog pollution in China: News Framing and Issue-Attention Cycle per the People’s Daily”, by Yingying Zhang. In china Smog Air pollution is very important and compelling issue. Researcher is using framing theory, in order to assess how media sources approach and write about air pollution and how this topic is framed by them. Content analysis of 339 articles chosen from the newspaper of People’s Daily, between 2000-2016, determine two frames that are used for shaping narratives about air pollution. This research also examines and differentiates three cycles of related to media interest towards of the issue; based on these frames shift from the ‘problem’ and ‘effects on social economic’ frames to the ‘government responsibility’, ‘individual responsibility’ and the ‘voluntary’ ones. This paper concludes that along with different stage of development, media narratives, attention have been changing; therefor, common sentients, political effect, media pattern affect this.

Theory For the research I am using discourse analysis and framing approach to answer research question and identify certain frames for the selected case study. Discourse analysis is the way of studying and analyzing the uses of language. This term may be used in different ways, but regardless of the approach, while addressing discourse analysis, researcher uses a broad range of data sources, such as: focus groups, published literature, media, web-based materials and etc. More specifically, critical discourse analysis covers wider area of analysis than other levels, such as: social practices, individuals, institutions that help us understand and explain certain phenomena in particular way; they make statements about what is “true”. Discourse analysis at this level involves examination of the text, social uses of language and also the study of the ways in which the existence of specific institutions and roles of individuals are determined by ways of their thinking and speaking.

Framing There is no general acknowledgement of ‘framing’ that shows how exactly frames are manifested in the text or how they influence ones thinking. This concept suggests the way of describing the power of communicating text. By analyzing the frames, we can see the way how information (they get from news, novel, speech or etc.) influences their consciousness. The concept of framing is used to expand the research area by focusing in the essence of the issues; this means that you pay attention to certain events and then place them into a field of meaning. The way things are presented to the audience influences the choices people make. As Goffman explains, people use their primary framework to explain, translate what is going around them. He identifies two dimensions of primary frameworks – natural and social. Both are used to interpret data. Natural frameworks identify events as purely physical; such events are understood to be caused by natural determinants. Social frameworks provide more detailed background understanding of the events, and they view events as socially driven occurrences because of goals, manipulations of other players. Social frameworks are built on natural ones. A frame can be constructed as complex of dimensions on which one bases his or her evaluation of an object. These dimensions contain substantively distinct or logically equivalent considerations. Eventually, the frame leads to alternative representations of the problem and as a result we can get different evaluations and preferences. According to Entman, the concept of framing suggests the way how to describe the power of communicating text. Framing comprises selection and salience. This means that for framing we select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them salient, in a way to diagnose, evaluate, and prescribe. Frames define problems - to figure out what agent is doing with what costs and benefits; diagnose cause – establish entities that cause the problem; make moral judgement - to assess causal agents and their impact; and suggest remedies – suggest and advocate solutions for the problems and also anticipate possible outcome, impact of it.

News frames operate to offer how audiences can interpret an issue or event. These frames can truly have quite an impact of public opinion, consciousness and the way they act.

Information effects News reports include not only information itself, but frames too. As Gamson and Modigliani (1978) describe framing process, they talk abut packages used by elites and media to define an issue. Those packages consist of information, arguments, symbols and images. Apparently, packages have influence on audience, the way they see, translate and react to certain issue or a problem. So, packages have a frame, i.e. central idea – story line that gives a meaning to unfolding line of events. They also include informational elements that introduces certain issue. It might show details such as people affected by a problem, costs and outcome, and etc. Therefore, such information might affect people’s beliefs about issue/event and its solution. ‘Framing effect’ develops when image, phrase offers a certain meaning or interpretation of an issue or event.

Persuasion effects Framing consists of many characteristics of persuasion processes. This also means that presentation of content is important as it might influence one’s opinion and take to a predictable direction. Framing theory includes origin, evolution, presentation and output of frames, meanwhile ‘persuasion approach’ is not concentrated much on origin and evaluation parts, but it typically includes presentation of deliberately persuasive content targeted to audiences apparently aware of that intent. Frames used in news might appear the way as journalists describe people or political issues; following element such as wording to name certain issue is also important. So, researchers think that in often cases audience is not aware of existing frames within the news and also the outcome they are about to exert.

Agenda-Setting effects Agenda setting approach is used to show how new messages have an impact on attitude of importance of an issue and how this issue can be seen and explained. News that is getting more attention and time in media reports can be perceived by an audience as an important issue the country is facing. Therefore, the first level of agenda setting is effects on anticipated important issue, as the second one would be effects of framing. Agenda setting is not only limited to the first step on concentrating public’s mind on particular topic; this process also continues to next step of communication – our understanding and attitude about topic or issue from the news. As Price and Tewksbury (1997) and Nelson, Clawson and Oxley (1997) described, accessibility effects in case of agenda setting approach are different from framing one in which meaning, cause, implication or solution of issue is framed. As first basic effect of framing is to introduce specific information or idea applicable to an issue. Therefore, fundamental distinction between these approaches would be accessibility/applicability; though it also should be mentioned that these to distinctive elements go hand-in-hand during dealing with information on daily basis. The greater accessibility of a construct, chances are higher that it will be exploited to interpret certain political issue. Also, more applicable a construct is to an issue, then likelihood is higher to be used when thinking of the subject.

Priming Priming is happening when news content offers audience to use a certain issue as a standard to measure and evaluate actions of [political] individuals, government cabinet. So, this means that as media makes certain issues more salient, this influence the form and level of assessment people give to politicians. Priming is often seen as a psychological outcome of agenda-setting, on microscopic level it can be considered as a benchmark to be used for evaluating political leaders. Priming is closely connected to agenda-setting process, as they (a) both are part of information- processing models, which stress that people shape mindset based on more salient and accessible considerations while people make decisions; also, (b) priming is considered as enlargement of media effects process commencing from agenda-setting. So, if some of the issues are more salient in individuals’ mindset, then media can form the ideas or opinions that people might take into consideration when they make any kind of assumptions on politics or any other subjects. Exactly this approach will be helpful and appropriate for my research in order to cover and introduce the way of thinking and acting of different parties involved in debates over air pollution in London, UK.

Methodology For my research I have chosen a specific case study of London, UK. London is as political as well as economic, business centre of the country. The way London shapes its country, only Paris and Moscow can come close to that, among large European countries. London’s importance and authority are more than that for Britain and rest of the Europe. Compared to other European cities, London life is seamlessly intertwined into the global economy, population flow worldwide and international culture. Specific case selection serves better identification of what are the problems related to air pollution, as there are studies showing that there are a lot of polluted places in London and in neighboring locations. Just recently, this winter, London have been on very “high alert” as air pollution index reached 10 out of 10 in areas of London – including the city of London, Camden and Westminster; also, other neighboring areas have been rated 7 or even higher. These numbers indicate that London has breached its annual air pollution limits just in five days into 2017. According to data from Kings College London [seen by the Guardian], over 58 out of 97 air pollution monitoring sites in London have breached their legal annual limits in 2016. Annual limit is 40µg/m3, for example, Putney High Street’s annual average was 125 micrograms of NO2 per cubic meter, over three times the limit.

Content analysis Content analysis is widely used in different areas of studies – political science, language studies, psychology and etc., but most commonly it is used in social science and mass communication researches. This method helps to explain quite range of topics from different fields, such as cultural motives, changes in mass media content, essence of news media coverage, also including other social issues and etc. There are four most common reasons to use content analysis in research: 1. To understand determine features of the text; 2. To understand what is origin and creator of the text; 3. To get familiar with and understand audience and user of the text, and 4. To find out what impact this text has over audience. Qualitative content analysis is one of the commonly used methods in research for analyzing text data, which might be in forms of print, vernal of electronic and acquired from survey questionnaire, interviews, observations, focus groups, media reports, articles, books and etc. It focuses on features of the language as communication. By analyzing language, content analysis enables to arrange massive amounts of text into adequate number of categories representing similar essence. Ultimate aim is to show knowledge and comprehension of phenomenon under study. Sometimes it is approached as a subjective way through classification process of coding and describing themes or designs while classifying textual data. Media content analysis Media content analysis is a sub-part of content analysis. Usually context analysis is studying variety of texts, just transcripts of interviews, examination of social or political research, editorial content of newspaper and magazines and research of films or different TV shows. Fist time Media content analysis was presented by Harold Lasswell as an integral method to study mass media, at the beginning intended to examine propaganda. As Lasswell describes content analysis in his book together with Lerner and Pool, it “operates on the view that verbal behavior is a form of human behavior, that the flow of symbols is a part of the flow of events, and that the communication process is an aspect of the historical process…content analysis is a technique which aims describing, with optimum objectivity, precision, and generality, what is said on a given place at a given time”.

Data Selection As there are quite many articles from chosen British news sources covering my chosen timeline, I will be using sampling to choose number of articles and to have manageable amount, in order to answer research question, changing trends in distinct subjects shown and discussed from theoretical angle. For my research I have chosen the most read (according to Ofcom polls) British media sources: The Guardian, Daily Mail, Mirror and The Telegraph. The sample was drawn from 654 articles from April 2015 to the January, 2018. I have chosen 2015, because the same year in April the NGO Client Earth had court against the government over illegal action plan on air pollution. Since then the process was renewed two times. Random Sampling was done by choosing every 3rd article. Coding is commonly defined as the process of shortening verbal data to important facts – so they are easy to recognize and assess. As part of content analysis, coding is used to categorize unorganized data, which are stated, objective and mutually exclusive before codes are assigned to categories and illustration of coded material.

Prevailing Frames

Political Environmental issues have become quite important part of British politics, since the government has received warnings from European Union (EU) several times already, to tackle issue of air pollution. UK has broken EU legal limits since 2010. Due to constant delays to submit action plans for improving air quality, British government has received warnings from high court and request to implement strict actions for solving the issue or the consequences might be defined in form of financial fine. This issue is not only restricted by regulations coming from EU. Several environmental groups are fighting for better air quality. Client Earth has opened case against the government in the court. The first time this was discussed in April of 2015. The client Earth has won the case against the government and ministers were ordered to come up with new action plan. Stating that government’s plan would not cut toxic air in the timeframe required by EU laws. As Client Earth has argued, new plan was illegal, and they have gone back to court in October of 2016. They have used government documents to strengthen their arguments, such as – document stating that departments of environment and transport wanted diesel cars included the government’s suggested Clean Air Zones. Treasury blocked the initiative as considered politically hard decision, having effect on motor industry as well. As the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) has mentioned (in 2015) that new plan would include widening clean air zones to 16 cities around London, together with package covering measures applicable for the whole country to tackle air pollution. This charge is applicable or pre-Euro 4 vehicles within the zone covering all of Central London to the King’s Cross station, to the east of Hyde Park, west of the Tower of London and North of Elephant and Castle. Generally, pre-Euro 4 vehicles are considered one registered before 2006; but according to the Transport for London, anyone who has car registered before 2008 should check if they are accountable for the charge. In case drivers automatically register to pay congestion charge, they can get deduction of £1. For those living and driving within the zone that is covered by new charge can pay £11.05 in total for two charges per day. But the critic of this initiative is that not that much cars fall under this category to be applicable for T-charge. As most of motor manufacturers’ argument would be, more and more car producers have invested in modern diesel and petrol technologies. So more effective way would be to adopt policies which support progression of green, low-emission vehicles. CEO of Client Earth, James Thornton, said that Theresa May should take urgent actin to try to solve issue of air pollution and to prevent additional further early deaths in the UK. Also, high court requested urgent actions to be taken by the government. This means increasing number of clean air zones throughout the UK, making tougher scrappage schemes for dirty vehicles. Sadiq Khan, London mayor, also participated in second court hearing against the government. He also blamed the government for unsuccessful efforts to tackle air pollution. As he introduced new ‘toxin charge’, so called T-charge in October, 2017. According to this, drivers of most polluting vehicles must pay £10 charge together with congestion charge, which is £11.50 introduced in 2003, in order to get in to London. As mayor of London announced, this is preparation base before introducing ultra-low emission zone in April, 2019.

Court have ordered the government to submit plan to tackle air pollution by 9th of May, 2017 and full report by 31st of July. Even though the plan was published in July city headers and doctors had given very low assessment, calling it “woefully inadequate” and “inexcusable”. He had concerns towards government and urged them to face their responsibilities and introduce diesel scrappage fund and Clean Air act, as people living in polluted areas are forced to breathe toxic air. The government has spent £370,000 of taxpayer’s money, while as a result they have been defeated in court hearings as government plans for fighting air pollution has been evaluated as illegally poor. British government has paid approximately £90,000 to Client Earth, as environmental lawyers has defeated government in two court cases. As most of critics say, government could successfully have been spent this amount of money for reducing pollution levels. Together transport pollution, fumes from wood-burning stoves are quite problematic. Especially in cold weather air pollution levels are expected to increase, reaching peak at around 10-11pm. Wood-burning stoves are fastening air pollution, that makes London even more polluted than Beijing or Deli. UK plans to ban new petrol and diesel vehicles from 2040. Moving to green and electric transportation is important step forward for tackling air pollution. In 2016, mayor of London, Sadiq Khan introduced new system, which signals air quality alerts at bus stops and entrances of subway stations, when increase in pollution level is detected. Therefore, road signs show drivers to switch off engines when they are stopped in order to reduce emissions. One of initiatives of Sadiq Khan is to convert Oxford street from overloaded, polluted motor highway along with shops into a green, clean space for retail. Because the concerns rise abut the air quality in this area, Khan is discussing new plan with other important participants, how to make Oxford street more hospitable. This is not an easy and quick process, just to put signs saying “no entry”, or planting few trees. Transportation to more environmental-pedestrian friendly space requires taking into consideration thought and attitudes of different sides directly related to the street and also many neighboring ones that would also be heavily affected. First most important issue about this would be – where to redirect busses. Besides shops there are large residential areas, if sending busses down the street, it will now create congestion problem. As Westminster councilor Heather Acton said, that in past times when Oxford street has been closed for Very Important Pedestrian Days (VIP days), that had a very serious impact on rest of the areas as for residents and businesses. As managing director of Transport for London (TfL), says if radical manners are used in this case it will affect the whole central London. That’s why TfL is considering reduction of number of busses by 20-40% in short term perspective. Highways agency is studying Dutch model of cantilevered canopies, which are constructed over most polluted parts of highways. This type of material absorbs pollution and protects residents of area to breathe toxic air. These types of tunnels will be part of air improvement plant to reduce air pollution. For this, millions of pounds will be invested in new technologies in order to tackle air pollution. It is predicted that traffic volumes will grow by 55% between 2010 and 2040. Department of Transport is investing £100 million to experiment on new ideas and technologies, such as low-emission vehicles, less-polluting fuels and road barriers, that are capable of absorbing emitted pollutants. There have been observations on two types of barriers. The first one, consists of wood panels of 4 and 6 meters of high, those have been installed across M62 near junction 18 in Manchester. Second one is 3 meters fence coated mineral polymer material that can absorb nitrogen dioxide. If the results will be positive from this trial, it has a big potential to be implemented in rest of the network.

Health

Toxic air has been claimed to be UK’s biggest health risk, causing approximately 40 000 deaths annually, from lung and heart diseases, also connected to diabetes and mental health problems. In early 2017, in January Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan has issued a health alert due to heavy smog, especially warning people with lung and heart problems to restrain themselves from exhausting activities, particularly outdoors. Unanimous letter has been published by several organizations along with Royal Colleges of Physicians and of Child Health, Unicef, the British Lung Foundation, the British Heart Foundation and Asthma UK declared, that emissions from vehicles especially from diesel ones, represent risk for everybody’s health. It also worsens already existing conditions likes asthma and has a big impact on children’s development even before they are born. Professor of London’s Queen Mary College, John Grigg, who has been done research for few years now on impacts of air pollution on health, says that pollution modifies cells in lungs, then showing allergic reactions. It’s not only making asthma worse, it causes asthma. Official data published by British government show 29000 premature deaths a year caused by air pollution from particle pollution emitted by vehicles, throughout the UK. These numbers don’t contain numbers of deaths related to nitrogen dioxide pollution emitted from diesel engines. Data provided by Public Health England, percentage of premature deaths accounted to particles of PM2.5 increased to 5.3% in 2013 (5.1-in 2012). Another research, that studied 3000 children, has shown that air pollution harms youngsters’ brains. This means that children’s brains react slow, if they are going to schools that are more exposed to high levels traffic and air pollution. It does not only effect on their ability to learn at school, but this might even damage their DNA. Children are more vulnerable compared to adults, air pollution can hider formation of their lungs and increases risk of developing asthma and other respiratory complications. Mayor’s office report of 2016 revealed 90 secondary schools of London exposed to illegal levels of air pollution. Former mayor, Boris Johnson was accused of hiding a report revealing hundreds of schools those fell in polluted areas breaching EU pollution limits in 2010. Also 433 primary schools out of 1777are located in areas where level of nitrogen dioxide exceed EU limits. Former government chief scientific adviser, professor Sir David King says that walking to schools is not that harmful for children compared to ones who sit in the backseat of the car. This is because exposer to air pollution is much higher inside of the car than outside of it, since it is collecting al toxic gases from surrounding vehicles. Several experiments from back to 2001, have indicated that drivers inside vehicles are more exposed (nine to twelve times higher) to high levels of air pollution than those walking or cycling along the same route. The same results have been shown from experiments in 2014. Based on experiments, scientists were able track how nanoparticles from polluted air get into lungs from there to blood within 24 hours, they still can be detected three months later. As a result, those nanoparticles move through lungs and bloodstream, that can increase the risk of strokes and heart attack. Especially, people with coronary heart disease are at high risk as these nanoparticles build up in damaged blood vessels, that increases probability of heart attack. One of the researches revealed, that air pollution especially effecting those living in city and causes premature aging of the skin, hastening to appear wrinkles and aging spots on the skin. Toxins in the air also have negative impact on preexisting skin conditions – eczema and hives. It is still under study, but many pollutants easily pass through the skin and show different outcome. That’s why numerous cosmetic companies are trying to find solution and to come up with such compounds to hider damage. As the traffic pollution is becoming more problematic, for whose living and working in such affected area, problems related to skin are becoming visible. If last 20-30 years scientists were working on skin issues caused by sun, in upcoming decades it is most likely that they will be working more on skin complications caused by toxic air. As known, fumes from traffic consists of small particles-PM, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). As lab results show, PM causes wrinkles and spots on the skin.

Economy and Car Industry Millions of drivers have been mistakenly encouraged by previous Labor government to buy diesel cars, based on tests as it was emitting less greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. But in the real- world conditions have shown different results than lab tests and it appears that they emit more pollutant particles and nitrogen oxides. Transportation pollution and especially nitrogen dioxide emitted from diesel cars is major part of London’s filthy air. Khan is proposing £500 plan – a scrappage scheme, to tackle air pollution. This estimation is applicable only for London. Mayor’s incentive would offer low-income families and businesses to replace their diesel vehicles. Van drivers would receive £3500 and low-income families would get a credit worth £2000 in order to transfer from diesel to cleaner models. City hall believes that tough measures such as scrappage scheme would be a great step forward to tackle air pollution throughout the whole country. Volkswagen scandal which broke in 2015 as chief executive of the company had misled investor, as they have not show information about company cheating on diesel emissions tests. VW has admitted that they have released around 11 million cars throughout the world, with technology sensing when cars were on test stands and turned emission controls up, for every day driving in order to improve performance then it would turn the controls off. Besides, they have VW has agreed to pay $16 billion during civil settlements with car owners and environmental organizations, in US. As per EU law, national governments are liable for checking if certain type of car falls under EU standards, only afterwards they can be allowed to be sold on single market. And if car manufacturer breaches legal requirements, it is responsibility of national government to step up and act according to national legislation, it might be in forms of penalties or some kinds of legal actions. London mayor urges that Volkswagen, German carmaker to pay £2.5 million to Transport for London as a congestion charge bill. 80000 VW vehicles registered in London out of half-a- million ones, were built during 2009-2015, most of diesels cars are equipped with defeat devices in order to mask actual levels of emissions produced in real-life driving. This means that cars were able to deceitfully pass approval tests, in many cases some cars can still access Congestion Charge zones of London without paying any fee, even though they still emit more pollutants than accessible. According figures published by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and traders, sales of diesel cars have been significantly decreased, approximately by 9.1%. As of February 2017, new diesel car registers went down to 36,981. On the other hand, sales of petrol vehicles have been increased by 5.8%, up to 42,981. As for more eco-friendly, green vehicles, such as hybrids and electric cars, even though sale increased by 48.9%- number of sold vehicles was only 3308.

Another big issue was related to expansion of Heathrow Airport, adding 3rd runway. This caused a lot concerns on further worsening air pollution. Back in 2009, then the Prime Minister, David Cameron, said that there would be no new runway in London airport because of raising concerns related to impact on air and noise pollution. But airport commission has published report in 2015, claiming opposite, that adding the new runway is best option to broaden capacity of airport terminals. Estimated cost for building new runway, would be £17.6 billion, plus few more billions spent in transport costs. At the same time, long term outcome would be economical contribution of around £147 billion in 60 years and would bring 70000 additional jobs by 2050. The government of Prime Minister Theresa May, should decide to add a new runway at Heathrow, Europe’s busiest airport, or to competitor – Gatwick. Public has expressed its protest in different ways, some of them lay on the floor of 2nd Terminal in Heathrow, wearing masks, banners with script: “Stay Grounded. No New Runways”. While others were participating in cycling, wearing T-shirts reading: “No 3rd runway”. Response from Heathrow’s administration about air pollution was that if they receive approval for building new runway then they are gong to extend ban on night flight.

Environmentalists and society

Society and environmental green groups are actively involved in resolving air pollution issue. Besides, challenging government in legal battle, green groups use other methods to express their concerns towards the issue and to show how urgent and dangerous is current situation. Some of activists from Greenpeace organization, got on board of the ship in Thames Estuary, by which VW cars were imported to UK; activists tried to force vessel take those cars back to Germany. Also, more than 40 other volunteers are trying to block cars, which are parked at Sheerness port in the southern English county of Kent; they are removing keys and sticking labels. The message to VW is to stop producing more diesel cars. In April, 2016, two Greenpeace activists have climbed Nelson’s Column to attach a gas mask to statue, expressing their protest against air pollution in the country. Other activists did the same to other statues in the city, including statues of Oliver Cromwell and Winston Churchill. Overall, 17 statues were covered with masks – some of them were ones of Queen Victoria opposite Buckingham Palace Eros at Piccadilly Circus and Thierry Henry outside Arsenal FC’s Emirates Stadium in north London. As one of Greenpeace campaigners said, this act is expression of how serious is air pollution issue, and if those statues were real people, they also would be breathing toxic air. Activist are underlining that political action is necessary to see tangible results. It is important to add more lean air zones in the city.

One of problematic issues was expansion of M4, adding 4th lane, giving 32-mile stretch to the highway. In defense of transport secretary, this would reduce time of travel and lessen the traffic flow. But as sustainable transport campaigners claim, that expanding M4 would add more vehicles on road leading to increase in air pollution levels, which already breach EU limits. Government just needs to find alternative solution and give people different options for their trips. For now, the most prominent subject of thinking for all of the green groups in UK, is the issue of Brexit, and what will be it’s influence on the whole environment in the country. Around 8 million campaigners from various organization including RSPB, Client Earth, Greenpeace, The National Trust and Friends of the Earth, are highlighting the threat to environment if EU law and ability to formulate it, is not imposed in national legislation. Government has given promise, that all environmental laws will be incorporated in domestic one, but laws are effective as long as there are relevant institutions willing and capable to enforce them. As 80% of environmental laws come from EU directives, union of environmental groups are urging MPs and hoping for support for amendments to the bill. It is supposed to cover three areas: minimize possibility of ministers interfering without parliamentary scrutiny to amend or remove legislation they do not like, ensuring that powers of enforcement of European Court of Justice and European Commission are replaced with relevant and experienced domestic institutions and authorities, and ensuring key conventions of EU law are not disregarded after the Brexit. Just transfer of EU laws in domestic legislation is not enough, environmentalist want to make sure that those laws do not just be part of statute books. They want to see that government will show political will and enforcement of law will be maintained through judicial and parliamentary reviews.

Conclusion

As environmental issues are very important nowadays and are now part of high politics, case of UK is interesting not only because, government often is target of criticism from environmental groups and international organizations, but also as it is facing a challenge after Brexit. As air pollution levels are quite high, especially in cold weather, government is constantly failing to introduce proper strict plan to tackle air pollution. This is the reason why environmental groups have brought government to court 3 times already, and this costs government quite a lot of money, which could have been used for actually taking actions for reducing pollution levels. As per research, the following frameworks have been revealed: Political – green group against government in court, how mayor of London tries to tackle air pollution by introducing new charge and expanding clean air zones; Health – what direct and long-term affects does air pollution have on children and adults; Economy and Industry – role of car makers, VW scandal- as a big reason why nowadays air pollution levels are high, airport expansion and economic good vs air quality; Environmentalists and society – how green groups try to challenge government and show in different ways importance and urgency of air pollution issue. All of the parties involved in discussion around air pollution are important part of system and play a big role in shaping politics.

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