Bellona report 2012 Nuclear Fissile Materials Bellona report 2013 Nuclear Fissile Materials (management practices, technologies, problems, and prospects) Authors: Alexander Nikitin; Prof. Vladimir Kuznetsov, D.Sc. Eng.; Andrei Zolotkov; Valery Menshchikov, Ph.D. Eng.; Alexei Shchukin, Ph.D. Chem. The second edition of this report has been prepared with support from the Autonomous Non- Profit Organization “Center for the Support of Territorial Development of the Atomic Industry” and the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Published by the Bellona Foundation: www.bellona.org Russia Bellona St. Petersburg pr. Suvorovsky, 59 191015 St. Petersburg [email protected] Russia Bellona Murmansk P. O. Box 4310 183038 Murmansk [email protected] Norway Bellona Oslo Post: Boks 2141 Grünerløkka 0505 Oslo [email protected] Copying permitted when source is stated (Source: Bellona) Executive editor: Alexander Nikitin English version prepared by: Maria Kaminskaya, with assistance by Lewis Dorman Cover design and layout: Alexandra Solokhina TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword .............................................................................................................. 5 List of abbreviations ............................................................................................. 6 Chapter 1. Uranium ...............................................................................................7 Chapter 2. Uranium oxide nuclear fuel ................................................................20 Chapter 3. MOX fuel ........................................................................................... 32 Chapter 4. Weapons-grade fissile materials ........................................................43 Chapter 5. Spent nuclear fuel ............................................................................. 52 Chapter 6. Thorium ............................................................................................. 69 Chapter 7. Safety and environmental issues of handling nuclear fissile materials ................................................................... 72 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 81 Terms, definitions, and reference materials .......................................................85 Appendices .........................................................................................................92 References ........................................................................................................106 3 About the authors: Alexander Nikitin is an expert with the international environmental organization Bellona, author and co-author of articles, reports, and books on issues relating to the use of nuclear energy, and winner of numerous international environmental and human rights awards. Prof. Vladimir Kuznetsov holds a doctorate degree in engineering and is a member of the Academy of Industrial Ecology and the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences; he is also a member of the Public Council of the State Corporation Rosatom. Valery Menshchikov, Ph.D. in Engineering, has authored over 80 research papers and analytical publications; he is a member of the Public Council of the State Corporation Rosatom. Andrei Zolotkov, an expert with the international environmental organization Bellona, is a radiochemistry engineer, author and co-author of articles, reports, and books on issues relating to the use of nuclear energy. Alexei Shchukin, Ph.D. in Chemistry, is an expert with the international environmental organization Bellona, author and co-author of articles, reports, and books on issues relating to the use of nuclear energy. TRANSLATOR’S NOTE: Names of Russian companies and locations, as well as personal names mentioned in this report, have been rendered in English in accordance with common Russian-English transliteration rules. Certain exceptions, however, have been made for a number of companies or locations, and names may appear as they are spelled on the respective companies’ websites or in corporate documents, such as annual reports. English translations are provided for company names in certain cases. 4 Foreword The first edition of Nuclear Fissile These chapters also include information Materials was prepared and published by on the management (application, storage, Bellona’s experts in late 2011. The report transportation, decommissioning, etc.) of sparked an interest among the general public nuclear fissile materials. and specialists in the field, who offered Additionally, the report presents Bellona their comments and suggestions information on the major companies and regarding additional information and enterprises engaged in production and amendments for the report. enrichment of uranium, fabrication of various This is the second and updated edition of kinds of fuel, reprocessing of spent nuclear the report Nuclear Fissile Materials. In this fuel, and management of accumulated revised version, a new chapter, Thorium, has stockpiles of plutonium and enriched been added to the report, and the chapter uranium. Issues of international practices in Safety and Environmental Issues of Handling managing nuclear fissile materials, and the Nuclear Fissile Materials has been expanded policies that the top nuclear nations have significantly. The authors have also decided adopted in this domain, are examined as well. to remove the previous edition’s chapter Our hope is that the information offered on economics and issue it as stand-alone in this report will give the public a more publication. detailed view of the nuclear fissile materials Structurally, the present edition is divided accumulated in the world, the varying into seven chapters with information on practices of managing these materials, and uranium, uranium oxide and MOX fuels, spent the policies of various nations – including nuclear fuel, weapons-grade plutonium, Russia – in this field. We deem it important highly enriched uranium, and thorium. Each that the information gathered in this report chapter contains brief information on the might be used in order to form opinions, technologies and sources of production proposals, and signals for political and public (generation) of nuclear materials, their initiatives where issues of management of chemical, physical, and other properties. nuclear fissile materials are concerned. 5 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AGR Advanced gas-cooled reactor APWR Advanced pressurized water reactor BWR Boiling water reactor FR Fast reactor GCR Gas-cooled reactor HEU Highly enriched uranium HM Heavy metal IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency ISL In-situ leaching IUEC International Uranium Enrichment Center LDM Low dispersible materials LEU Low-enriched uranium LMR Liquid metal cooled reactor LWGR Light water graphite-moderated reactor LWR Light water reactor MOX fuel Mixed uranium-plutonium oxide fuel NDA Nuclear Decommissioning Authority, Great Britain NPP Nuclear power plant NRC U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission PHWR Pressurized heavy water reactor PWR Pressurized water reactor R&D Research & Development SEU Slightly enriched uranium SFA Spent fuel assembly SNF Spent nuclear fuel SWU Separative work unit TNR Thermal neutron reactor TUK Transport cask (for Russian transportny upakovochny konteiner) Russian reactor designs: AMB Water-cooled graphite-moderated channel-type reactor (for Russian atom mirny bolshoi) BN Fast neutron reactor (for Russian fast neutrons) EGP Water-graphite heterogeneous channel-type power reactor (for Russian energetichesky geterogenny petlevoi reaktor) RBMK Water-cooled graphite-moderated channel-type reactor (for Russian reaktor bolshoi moshchnosti kanalny) VVER Water-cooled, water-moderated power reactor (for Russian vodo-vodyanoi energetichesky reaktor) 6 CHAPTER 1. URANIUM Uranium is the main source material for is approximately 2.5×10-4%. It is part of all rock the generation and manufacture of nuclear forming the Earth’s crust and is also present fissile materials. Uranium occurs as a mixture in natural waters and living organisms. of three radioactive isotopes: The lowest uranium concentrations are – U-238, natural abundance: 99.274%, found in ultrabasic rocks, and the highest half-life period: 4.468×109 years; in sedimentary rocks (phosphate rocks and – U-235, natural abundance: 0.72%, carbon shale). half-life period: 7.04×108 years; It has been established that due to – U-234, natural abundance: 0.005%, the natural process of radioactive decay, half-life period: 2.455×105 years. throughout geological history, uranium Uranium emits alpha, beta, and gamma content in the Earth’s crust has been radiation. The specific radioactivity of U-235 gradually depleting. in natural uranium is 21 times less than that of U-238. U-234 is not a parent isotope, but a radiogenic one. It is a member of the U-238 1.1.1. Uranium ores decay series and is a product of nuclear decay of U-238. The radioactivity of natural Of the 14 known geological types of uranium is mainly the contribution of U-238 uranium ores and over 100 uranium minerals, and U-234; in equilibrium their specific only 12 minerals are of industrial value. radioactivity values are equal. Natural The primary uranium ore minerals are uranium’s specific radioactivity is 0.67 μCi/g pitchblende, uraninite, and carnotite. (2.5×104 Bq/g) and is essentially equally Natural uranium ore (with an average divided between U-234 and U-238. concentration of 3 g/t) is one of the most In its pure form, uranium is a very heavy, frequently occurring ores in