Turkmenistan: Plebiscite of a Nation of Artisans CAP Paper 215, January 2019

Snezhana Atanova is a PhD candidate at INALCO. Her he Altyn Asyr bazaar, thesis focuses on nationalism and cultural heritage located in Turkmenistan’s capital, Ashgabat, attracts in Central Asia. She recently finished an IFEAC T thousands of visitors every week. fellowship devoted to national identity in everyday life Local residents and foreign tour- in Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan. She was awarded ists rush to explore the richness a Carnegie fellowship in 2017, in which she explored of the country’s largest market. National crafts, from embroidery national identity through the nation-branding initiatives and carpets to jewelry and clothing, of Russia and Central Asian countries. She earned a constitute a significant propor- Master’s in International Communication from the tion of the bazaar’s diversity. By exploring the links between the University of Strasbourg in 2012 and a Master’s from demand for and consumption of the National Institute of Oriental Languages and handicrafts within the Ashgabat Civilizations (INALCO) in 2015. bazaar, this paper aims to understand to what extent handicrafts influence Turkmen economics and society and express “banal nationalism.”

The term “banal nationalism,” coined by Michael Billig in 1995, refers to daily representations of the nation that build a shared sense of belonging to one national community. As Billig states, “the term banal nationalism is introduced to cover ideological habits which enable established nations of the West to be reproduced.”1 Some signs of nation- hood are not recognized as such by the population because they are “so familiar, so continual.”2 In Turkmenistan, national crafts seem to be the main reminders of national belonging. The ma- Turkmen carpet-maker, Altyn Asyr bazaar, Ashgabat, May 2018 jority of Turkmen women wear long dresses with embroidery and traditional jewelry; every apartment or house has wool

CAP Fellows Paper 215 1 carpets and felt mats (koshma), tional visitors, as well as acquired an essential part of everyday and as well as amulets. Carpets, em- over fifty handcrafted products. festive wardrobes alike; it is worn broidery, dresses, and jewelry I collected statistical data on so- at work and at home. Collars and make individuals the bearers and cioeconomic indicators from the necklines are decorated with creators of national narratives State Statistics Committee of ýaka, a V-shaped embroidery 3 and “flag” the Turkmen nation. Turkmenistan, as well as data on that begins at the neckline and The majority of publications on international tourism from the extends to the waist. Yaka can be post-Soviet Central Asia focus on World Bank and IndexMundi. large or narrow, with handmade states’ narratives as created and or machine-made embroidery. disseminated by official author- By analyzing interactions be- Dress cuffs may also be decorat- ities and academics. Based on a tween Turkmen artisans and con- ed with embroidery. While staple historical or even mythological sumers, as well as international dresses are worn at home, vel- past, these ideological narratives guests, this paper explores how vet, panne velvet, satin, and silk are devoted to raising national the high demand for handicrafts are preferable for special festive awareness and to legitimizing is driven by traditional rituals occasions. For special occasions, 4 and consolidating state power. and practices, how handicrafts ýaka are always handmade, while A limited number of papers ex- represent a livelihood and daily machine-made embroidery may plore the role of handicrafts in consumption practice, and how decorate casual dresses. unofficial narratives in Central handicrafts linked to tradition- Asia, analyze crafts as a source al rituals give room to everyday The Turkmen bridal costume al- of identity and livelihood, dis- narratives of Turkmen identity. ways includes a red dress and a cuss the role of textile heritage red çabyt; the kurte can be any in nation-building and cultur- Beyond the Bazaar: Long of a range of colors, such as rose, al identity, or examine artisanal Traditions in Turkmenistan green, or yellow. “A wedding products within the context of the dress is always decorated with 5 new market environment. Al- I borrow Eric Hobsbawm’s defi- embroidery and jewelry, sewn though there are academic papers nition of traditions as “a set of on the chest in several rows and on Turkmen handicrafts them- practices, normally governed by performing the function of amu- 6 selves, no research is devoted overtly or tacitly accepted rules lets. When walking, decorations to handicrafts as a source of na- and of a ritual or symbolic na- make a melodious sound and, ac- 7 tional identity. This paper aims to ture.” Among the first mentions cording to legend, drive away evil fill the gap by focusing on hand- of Turkmen traditions, dating spirits who are always hovering icrafts as presented through the back to the eighteenth and nine- near young women.”10 The several space of the Turkmen market and teenth centuries, are the pictures layers of clothes the bride wears traditional rituals and practices. and reports of Russian and West- also aim to shield her from evil ern travelers. Turkmen and Sovi- forces. The wedding costume in- 8 This research is based on visits to et scholars also devoted detailed cludes a gupba—a dome-shaped the Altyn Asyr bazaar in Ashgabat studies to everyday customs and silver headdress. The change of in August 2013, October 2017, and traditions. headgear after the wedding sym- April-May 2018. I apply a combi- bolizes “the girl’s promotion into nation of qualitative methods to Soviet ethnographer Anna Mo- the next highest age- and social analyze Turkmen handicrafts and rozova remarked, for instance, group.”11 The bride also wears social practices in Ashgabat— on the simplicity, tunic-like sil- other silver jewelry, including these include interviews and con- houette, and preference for red- bilezik (armbands) and guljaka versations with bazaar sellers and brown colors in Turkmen cloth- (an ornamental disc that is used customers (both Turkmen citi- ing of the late nineteenth and as “a button to close the front 9 zens and international visitors) early twentieth centuries. The neck part of the dress”12). The tra- and participant observations main components of women’s dition of wearing silver jewelry within and beyond the bazaar. I costume were a dress (koynek), for wedding ceremonies, festive interviewed fifty bazaar sellers/ pants (balak), and coats (kurte events, and as part of everyday customers and thirty interna- and çabyt). Traditional dress is attire has been noted since co- CAP Fellows Paper 215 2 lonial times.13 Every stage of the The cultural, social, and eco- In the Bazaar: Handicrafts wedding ceremony requires tra- nomic changes of the twentieth and Consumption ditional clothes heavily decorated century partially transformed with embroidery and jewelry. Turkmen traditional costume, yet It takes 25-35 minutes to get to its elements—color, fabric, em- Turkmenistan’s main bazaar, Al- Carpets and talismans also form broidered ornamentation, and tyn Asyr, from the city center. The part of the wedding ceremony, cut—continue to indicate ethnic bazaar is located in the northern and even of the traditional cos- and local affiliation. Traditional part of Ashgabat, in the Chogan- tume. Wool carpets decorate rituals and practices, meanwhile, li district. The market complex the room where the bride-dress- were more profoundly trans- was built in 2011 on the former ing is held. Carpets and koshma formed. Over time, the “magical site of the chaotic but charismatic (felt rugs), together with jewel- functions of the wedding costume Tolkuchka bazaar. ry and clothing, are included in have weakened or disappeared.”15 the bride’s dowry. Carpets and Today, some elements of the tra- The vast territory of the bazaar amulets like aladja and dagdan ditional costume are confined to is divided into specialized trade decorate the car that takes the museum exhibits, yet the bridal zones, each of which focuses on bride and groom to the wedding costume remains similar to those certain types of products. In the venue and then to their evening of previous epochs and remains center is a zone intended for food event.14 The amulets aim to pro- in high demand. Over time, the products. Around it are zones de- tect the bride and the groom from elements have been slightly mod- voted to household goods, build- bewitchment and evil forces. ified, but the main features have ing materials and furniture, tex- Nor is the bride alone in wearing been retained, such as embroi- tiles and footwear, electronics traditional clothes and jewelry; dered motifs and the use of the and household appliances, hab- numerous guests do so, too. It traditional fabric keteni. erdashery and perfumes, jewel- seems to be impossible to hold a ry and carpet products, etc. All marriage ceremony without arti- in all, Altyn Asyr has over 2,000 sanal masterpieces. stalls, divided into five sections: A, B, Ç, E, and D. National handicrafts are presented in section Ç. Carpets, koshma (felt mats), and tapestries are sold between section A and section D. Addi- tionally, one can find some handicrafts in other sections. In total, between 40-60 percent of the bazaar’s offerings are handicrafts or can be considered part of the traditional life of Turkmen: embroidery, national clothes, headdress- es, scarves, jewelry, carpets and koshma, amulets, and so on.16

The bazaar is very popular in Ash- gabat and throughout the country, attracting people from all social groups. The marketplace oper- ates on Wednesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays, and Sundays, with the Altyn Asyr bazaar, Ashgabat, October 2017 busiest days being the weekend days and festive days, when many

CAP Fellows Paper 215 3 kiosks with handicrafts are add- “a well-developed tradition, using atively ancient objects imported ed. In the spring and summer, a single medium, silver (gilded or from Afghanistan, where a sizable one can meet women-artisans plain); a single stone, the carne- Turkmen community is located. who offer their embroideries and lian; arabesque design; and coin- Turkmen silver ornaments are tapestries from the grass outside age.”22 Centuries later, Turkmen among the most requested hand- the bazaar. silver ornaments remain essen- icrafts, despite their high price. tially unchanged. The wide range However, jewelry purchases are Jewelry of jewelry displayed at the ba- made with a much lower frequen- zaar includes bilezik (bracelets), cy than purchases of embroidery There are very few remaining ex- gulyaka (collar-clasp), teneçir or carpets. amples of Turkmen jewelry from (earrings), asyk (pendant), dag- previous epochs. This can be ex- dan (neck jewelry, amulet), and Carpets plained by the fact that Turkmen tumar (pectoral jewelry, amulet). women gave about 7,392 kilo- Only women’s jewelry is available Artifacts indicate that car- grams (16,297 lbs) of silver and at the bazaar; silver items for men pet-weaving has taken place on gold to the Defense Fund during and jeweled trappings for horses the territory of present-day Turk- the Second World War. This can be seen in museum exhibi- menistan since the Bronze Age.23 amounted to about 80 percent tions. In the fourteenth and fifteenth of all precious metals collected centuries, carpets acquired an throughout the Soviet Union.17 Jewelry represents about 20 per- “individual-tribal character”24 cent of all handicrafts available at that makes it possible to differ- The illustrations of Henri Couli- the bazaar. A significant share of entiate between the carpets of the boeuf de Blocqueville are one of these items are made by the sil- five main Turkmen tribes, if not the most important sources we versmiths of Ashgabat and Mary, be more specific. The ornaments have about nineteenth-century or by the jewelry plant Turk- of the Turkmen tribes date back Turkmen jewelry.18 However, the menaltyn, located in Turkmena- to the totem symbols of the Oguz earliest description of Turkmen bad, which produces jewelry for tribes.25 The Oguz tamgas26 were women’s jewelry was provided the state jewelry stores. Besides described by Makhmud Kashgari by the German explorer Samuel silver, gold, and non-precious in Divanu Lugat-it-Turk (1077 Gottlieb Gmelin in the eighteenth ornaments produced in Turk- AD). Such ornaments-guls27 co- century.19 Edmund O’Donovan, menistan, one can also find rel- exist with motifs characteristic Henri Moser, Samuil Dudin, Grigoriy Karelin, and de Blocque- ville all described the impressive silver ornaments that covered women’s clothing from head to waist, front and back, and ac- knowledged the presence of ex- pert jewelers among the Turkmen people.20 Armin Vambery, meanwhile, noted the melodious sound produced by this jewelry.21 These historians assessed the degree of Turkish, Persian, Mongolian, and Islamic influence on Turkmen ornaments and jewelry, conclud- ing that they were clearly distinct from those of their neighbors. The earliest accounts, dating from the mid-nineteenth century, describe Tumar, Altyn Asyr bazaar, Ashgabat, October 2017

CAP Fellows Paper 215 4 imum of 10 times more expensive than machine-made embroidery.

Different Turkmen tribes prefer different embroidery stitches, which makes it possible to identify the origin of a particular piece of embroidery.32 The embroidery’s motifs, which echo the designs on carpets, also help to determine its origin. The favored colors for embroidery and carpets alike are yellow, white, red, and green, which symbolize the four elements of fire, earth, air, and water. The most elegant motifs decorate a woman’s kurte, the coat that is part of the costume of a bride or married women. The Turkmen carpets, koshmas, clutch purses and handbags, traditional ornament used on a Altyn Asyr bazaar, Ashgabat, October 2017 kurte is called the “tree of life”: of the material culture of the re- about one-third of the handi- stylized embroidered tulips are gion. Five carpet guls, each corre- crafts for sale in the bazaar. reflected by silver ornaments. sponding to a tribe—Teke, Yomut, Embroidery may also decorate Salor, Chovdur, or Ersary—are Embroidery and Clothes handmade bokche (small bags), represented on the national flag wallets, balak (pants), and tahya of Turkmenistan.28 Embroidered yaka are the most (skullcaps). In general, this cate- requested of the handicrafts pre- gory represents about one-third Each carpet has a small geo- sented in Altyn Asyr. Women buy of handicrafts in the bazaar.33 metric pattern along the border, them to decorate their traditional while the center is filled with dresses or modernized versions medallion guls. According to the of traditional dresses. In the first Russian specialist Elena Tsare- half of the twentieth century, va, “the range of carpet products embroidery was confined to the produced by the Turkmen [...] is neckline or cuffs of a dress. To- more than 30 types,”29 and the day, by contrast, the entirety of existing varieties are constantly a woman’s attire may be lavishly supplemented with new ones.30 decorated with embroidery. Usu- Besides the traditional tapestries, ally, garments are embroidered carpet-weaving techniques are in sections and then made into a used to produce novelties like dress.31 Thus, there are three op- clutch purses, handbags, cushion tions for embroidered purchases: covers, and cell phone cases, all “yaka only,” “yaka and cuffs,” of which are available at the ba- and “yaka, cuffs, and additional zaar. One might say that global- sections.” With the advent and ization has transformed the car- broader usage of embroidery Newly married women visit their pet industry: carpet makers are sewing machines, embroidery is husbands’ relatives in the Mir producing products that meet the divided into two principal groups: 2 microdistrict, Ashgabat, May needs created by globalization. handmade and machine-made. 2018 Carpets and tapestries represent Handmade embroidery is a min-

CAP Fellows Paper 215 5 Amulets dan (literally, “made from moun- Plebiscite of the Turkmen tain,” a reference to both its hard- Nation of Artisans Amulets and talismans, intended ness and the fact that the tree is to ward off evil spirits and the evil found in mountainous areas).35 At the end of the nineteenth cen- eye, are displayed in houses and Its hardness means that evil spir- tury, the French intellectual Er- apartments. Usually, triangular its cannot dwell in dagdan amu- nest Renan (1823–1892) stated, or round amulets are suspended lets.36 Dagdan are widespread in “The existence of a nation is a on the wall above the front door Turkmenistan and are worn un- daily plebiscite, like the existence to a house/apartment. They may der clothes. of an individual is a perpetual af- be accompanied by yuzerlik, a firmation of life.”41 According to plant that is said to have the mag- The second category of amulets him, a nation has two faces: the ical property of keeping evil spir- is doga.37 Today, doga are made common heritage of memories its away and helps increase one’s from cloth or wool and have a and the current consent to live number of offspring and rein- handwritten prayer enclosed in in a community and continue to force prosperity. Today, yuzerlik them.38 The third category, alaja, assert an undivided heritage.42 is sold in small shopping kiosks is a colored braid. The most pop- A century after Renan, Michael in villages and sophisticated bou- ular color combination is white Billig explored the idea of daily tiques in the cities alike. Stores and black, representing the con- representation of a nation. His protected with amulets and yu- frontation between the forces of conclusions intersected with Re- zerlik can also be found in the good and evil.39 Another explica- nan’s approach: both insist on the bazaar. tion is the confrontation between idea that citizens express a “dai- strong-willed actions and those ly plebiscite” by indicating, flag- Amulets are worn mainly by led by the heart, analogous to the ging, appreciating, remembering, woman and children. Divided masculine and feminine sides of and sharing the nation. into three main categories (ala- character.40 Another type of alaja ja, doga, and dagdan), they are is a braid with three or four col- Continuity of Knowledge made from colored braid and ors. All in all, amulets represent wool, sometimes by adding the about 5 percent of bazaar hand- For centuries, the Turkmen peo- wood of the sacred tree34 dag- icrafts. ple have valorized their common heritage by producing and con- suming handcrafted products. Altyn Asyr is one of the public places where one can watch how Turkmens express their daily consent to live together. Produc- ers and consumers of handicrafts from all over Turkmenistan meet at the bazaar. Among the country’s regions (velayat)—Akhal, Balkan, Mary, Dashoguz and Lebap—Akhal and Balkan are the most represented among sellers. Akhal artisans or members of their families dominate almost all handcrafted products, while Bal- kan and Mary artisans are mostly present in the carpet section.

Amulets and yuzerlik, Altyn Asyr bazaar, Ashgabat, May 2018 The interviews I conducted at

CAP Fellows Paper 215 6 the bazaar highlight the everyday idja, does embroidery. With her While women artisans dominate plebiscite nature of crafts in Turk- friends, who are also carpet-mak- the fields of embroidery and car- menistan. Djahan is a typical rep- ers, Ogultaç comes to Altyn Asyr pets, silver jewelry is mostly the resentative of bazaar attendees, on Saturdays. To illustrate her domain of men.44 Maral herself particularly of sellers-producers. family’s long tradition of car- does not make any silver orna- She lives in Akhal velayat and is pet-weaving, Ogultaç showed me ments, though she does design about 28 years old. Three times a a wide variety of carpets and tap- them. I later spoke to her hus- week, she comes to the bazaar to estries, from the biggest haly to band, Begenç, who told me more offer yaka embroidered by her- the smallest clutch bag. about Turkmen jewelry. My con- self and by women in her fami- versations with Maral and Be- ly. Djahan’s assortment includes I have a large collection of carpets genç demonstrated the heredity handmade and machine-made made in previous years by my grand- of silver jewelry production. embroidery. When I bought a mother and mother. They were very yaka of green, blue, red, and skillful and taught me many things. The talismans produced by my I did my first carpet with my moth- white, Djahan told me about the next interlocutor serve as a good er. When my daughters grew up, motifs used in embroidery. Her I passed my skills on to them. My example of widespread demand words demonstrate that to wear daughters will transfer this knowl- in Turkmen society. Mamadjan a Turkmen dress is to continue a edge to my granddaughters. Turk- is about 65 years old. She is from tradition—the same motifs, col- mens need carpets and Turkmen Akhal velayat and comes to the ors, and stitches remain popular: women will always make them. bazaar twice a week. Very ener- getic and charismatic, she makes I know the motifs that were used Ogultaç showed me relatively old alaja amulets for her relatives by my mother and grandmother. I carpets, dating back to the 1980s, and for the bazaar’s clients. She also insert traditional Turkmen mo- and more recent ones. Like my has alaja for every occasion, from tifs into my embroidery, mostly for previous interlocutor, she knew wearing as a wardrobe detail to handmade items. The motif goçak motifs and could distinguish decorating the interior of a home. protects against evil; you can see it on the tandoor.43 Floral or geomet- carpets with teke, beshir, and She also offersdagdan and doga, ric ornaments also have protective yomud gul ornamentation. She but their producers are from force. demonstrated a knowledge of the Dashoguz. During our conversa- history of carpet production and tion, Mamadjan shared stories Djahan added that the yaka or- highlighted the importance of about the meaning of Turkmen naments could be used to em- continuity in carpet-making. talismans: broider tahýa or kurte. She went into great detail, showing a genu- Maral lives in Ashgabat. A thirty- Alaja protects against evil forces. The most powerful are the combina- ine knowledge of the ornaments. year-old aссountant, she comes tion of white and black threads. I rec- Other bazaar sellers and their to the bazaar only once a week, on Saturdays. She offers silver ommend that you take an alaja with clients provided equally in-depth dagdan to wear on your wrist. This jewelry made by her husband, a descriptions of embroidery or- will help you, as you travel a lot and naments and Turkmen women’s silversmith. She pointed out the meet many people. I am also wearing dress. items made by her husband and an alaja in my clothes. by his father. Ogultaç lives in Balkan velayat. These conversations with sell- My husband is a hereditary silver- In her fifties, she is an artisan ers and artisans demonstrate smith from Mary region. He makes who makes carpets. Carpet-mak- traditional or modern jewelry. If you the continuity of handicrafts and ing is a family tradition: she would like to order something, you traditional practices, and sellers’ learned it from her mother and could call him or meet with him and respect for both. They also show grandmother, and today she explain exactly what you want. He the transmission of knowledge on makes carpets with her daugh- has great experience with making traditional practices and handi- ters, though the youngest, Khat- preordered pieces. crafts from the older generation

CAP Fellows Paper 215 7 to the younger generation, and which prompts more artisans to Djeren, and Batyr—are typical the widespread demand for and also come. Many of these “week- representatives of the bazaar use of handicrafts in daily life. end artisans” have a professional public. They wear clothes em- background that is not related to broidered by themselves or by Everyday Items their bazaar activities: five days their compatriots; their houses per week they work as accoun- and apartments are decorated by In Turkmenistan, the average tants or clerks, but once or twice carpets they made themselves or monthly wages in 2013, 2016, per week they come to Altyn Asyr bought at the Altyn Asyr bazaar. and 2017 were 1,047, 1,381, and with their handicrafts. These On a daily basis, they produce 1,509 manat, respectively, equal- non-professional sellers also of- and they consume; they sell and ing US$299, $395, and $431 at fer products made by their rel- buy local handcrafted products. the official rate.45 The report on atives. During working hours at This commercial activity sup- retail prices for products and ser- the bazaar, they sometimes leave ports and revives their traditions, vices prepared by the State Statis- their stalls to purchase items of- serving as an everyday plebiscite tics Committee of Turkmenistan fered by other sellers. Those who of the nation. states that a çөrek flatbread costs offer embroidery purchase car- 1 manat, a dozen eggs 3 manat, a pets or dagdan with yuzerlik, and At the same time, Turkmen cul- kilogram of fish 11 manat, a kilo- vice versa. Yet even when a seller tural heritage, such as handicrafts gram of sausage about 13 manat, is also a buyer, he or she remains and ornaments, is broadly pre- and a kilogram of soft cheese 15 above all an artisan. sented in official narratives. Car- manat.46 Prices for handicrafts pet guls are represented on the range from 25-30 manat for a Women constitute the majority of national flag. The Day of the Car- machine-made yaka to 250-550 artisans and sellers in the bazaar, pet has been celebrated on the last for a handmade one. The most producing almost all handicrafts Sunday in May every year since expensive carpets, those with a except jewelry. But it would be 1992. The State Carpet Museum high knot density, range from wrong to say that men are exclud- in Ashgabat, which has hundreds 800 to 1,500 manat. Those with ed from artisanal practices. They of examples of Turkmen carpets, low or average density cost only are engaged in herding flocks of opened in 1993. Permanent ex- 100-300 manat. A carpet clutch sheep and camels, whose wool hibitions of Turkmen embroi- or small women’s bag costs be- is necessary to produce carpets, dery, jewelry, and garments are tween 150 and 450 manat. Silver tapestries, and felt rugs. Men visible in state museums across bracelets with carnelians start at also make silver ornaments and the country. President Gurban- 1,000 manat. Alaja cost about 2 wooden handicrafts. guly Berdymukhammedov writes manat each and doga 5-10 manat. books devoted to Turkmenistan’s A handcrafted talisman alaja, I talked to some Turkmens who tangible and intangible cultural 47 therefore, costs about the same visited the bazaar to purchase heritage. The national narrative as a çөrek, while an embroidered handcrafted items. Batyr and created and maintained by Turk- yaka costs a little more than soft Djeren are a married couple. men citizen-artisans is therefore cheese. The prices of handcrafted Both are working professionals. reflected in the country’s official products are thus affordable for While Batyr was choosing a car- narrative. Turkmens. pet, Djeren explained: Billig’s analysis of the nature of I can embroider yaka for myself, but banal nationalism in “the es- Sellers and Buyers I don’t have much time. I came to the tablished nations of the West”48 bazaar to buy a ready-made yaka. demonstrated that their nation- As mentioned above, far more We will also purchase a carpet, as we hood is continually reproduced handicrafts are displayed on just moved to a new apartment. through political discourses weekend days and during holi- and cultural and media prod- days. The bazaar attracts more My interviewees—Mamadjan, ucts. Taken together, they nar- potential buyers on these days, Ogultaç, Djahan, Maral, Begenc, rate the “endemic condition”49

CAP Fellows Paper 215 8 of “state-guided” nationalism. Bazaar visits are listed on sample small and non-expensive items In Turkmenistan, “people-guid- travel itineraries and suggested could be explained by the limits ed” and “state-guided” narra- by tourist guides.53 Ashgabat’s ex- of luggage space and time, ex- tives overlap over the meaning of patriate community also actively pats have more opportunities to handcrafts in everyday national- purchases Turkmen handicrafts purchase handcrafted products. ism. at bazaars, commercial centers, Many of them, having lived in the and specialized shops. country for some period of time, Self-Orientalism and Exoti- demonstrate a genuine interest in cism: International Visitors Tourists and expats are attract- Turkmen handicrafts. They make ed to bazaars to purchase souve- gowns from keteni with embroi- International visitors also consti- nirs or presents for their relatives dered yaka, they wear Turkmen tute a share of bazaar consumers. and families. Sellers indicate that silver ornaments, and they deco- For them, handicrafts are not an tourists prefer to purchase small rate their apartments with Turk- everyday plebiscite of the nation, handcrafted items: mobile phone men carpets or koshma. to which they do not belong, but covers, clutch bags, and scarves. rather an element of Orientalism. Expats are less interested in em- Marie is a French expat who has broidered yaka, jewelry, or Turk- lived in Ashgabat with her hus- The Orient has always constitut- men traditional clothes. Bazaar band for a long time. Her days ed an intrinsic part of European sellers agree that locals are the are very busy with her kids, but (Western) civilization, serving principal consumers of hand- she likes to spend some of her as one of Europe’s “constituent icrafts and their main source precious free time at Altyn Asyr. Others.”50 Orientalism is defined of revenue, but they appreciate She has aсquired a number as “a style of thought based upon foreign visitors’ interest in their of embroidered pieces, tapes- ontological and epistemological handicrafts. tries, Turkmen keteni cloth, and distinction made between ‘the scarves. Though Marie perceives Orient’ and (most of the time) ‘the While foreign travelers’ need for Turkmen handicrafts to repre- Occident.’”51 Following this logic, Self-Orientalism is defined as the decision by the “subjects” of Ori- entalism to highlight their own Otherness to speak to a Western imagination. This section, dedi- cated to foreign expatriates and tourists in the bazaar, seeks to understand which perception— Orientalism or Self-Oriental- ism—dominates interactions between domestic sellers-artisans and international visitors.

According to tourist agencies based in Turkmenistan, Altyn Asyr is a prime tourist attrac- tion in the country. International tourists (whose post-indepen- dence number peaked at 1998 in 300,000 before falling to a nadir of 3,400 in 200052) visit bazaars in Ashgabat and in other cities, such as Mary and Turkmenabat. Turkmen carpet, Altyn Asyr bazaar, Ashgabat, May 2018

CAP Fellows Paper 215 9 She also commented on the silver asyk that she wears:

I purchased the asyk during my first visit to the bazaar. I was charmed by its simple beauty and I know that it symbolizes a woman. Sometimes I wear the asyk to work with my office suit. And yes, by wearing it, I partly feel my connection to Turkmen history, art, and probably to the Turk- men people.

Foreign tourists interpret handmade items slightly differently. They perceive handcrafted products to be exotic and even magical. Julian, a tourist from Swit- zerland, explained:

Central Asian markets are places with a special atmosphere. Turkmen rugs, embroideries, and clothes are kind of like we saw in Uzbekistan, where I was a few days ago, but they Turkmen koshma, Altyn Asyr bazaar, Ashgabat, May 2018 are also different. I like the colorful dresses and scarves that I see every- sent the culture of the Other, she of French cities.” where here. The color combinations does not interpret them as exotic. are striking. I don’t think I will pur- When she wears a Turkmen asyk Olga has been working in Turk- chase anything except a round am- pendant or a Turkmen scarf made menistan for a year. She came to ulet. This will decorate my home to of keteni at work on a daily basis, Altyn Asyr with members of her remind me about my trip to Asia. she demonstrates her respect for family, who were visiting her for the host country’s culture. The a few days. They were looking Hannah, a German traveler, com- Turkmen carpets and amulets to purchase a koshma for their mented: that decorate her apartment can dacha in Russia. Olga had expe- be interpreted in that same spir- rience of living in other Central I always dreamed of going to the re- it: “Embroideries and carpets are Asian countries, and her inter- gion of mountains and steppes. What I see here, around me, is so exciting. colorful and they are made with pretation of handcrafted prod- People are so friendly and smiling. great taste. Handicrafts reflect ucts blended a perception of their Women look beautiful in their ori- Turkmen culture and they look exoticness with an aesthetic ap- ental clothes. I bought embroidered very bright and modern. I’d love preciation and a utilitarian ap- phone сases for my daughters and to decorate my apartment with proach: camel miniatures for my friends. Turkmen carpets,” she explained. I believe they will be happy to get Her husband, Sebastien, was Turkmen felt rugs differ from Kyrgyz them, because the embroidered cases similarly positive about Turkmen ones. I cannot say that one is bet- are unique and they stand out among handicrafts: “Turkmen women ter than the other, because both are all those ordinary phone cases. look very elegant and stylish in unique. I really appreciate that their their traditional long dresses with ornaments create a special atmo- These international visitors’ com- sphere in my home and they fit per- embroidery. Today, it is rare to ments reflect two different but fectly in every interior, whether the see such elegance on the streets intersecting narratives. Many furniture is modern or antique. expats testify to their integration

CAP Fellows Paper 215 10 into Turkmen society through consumption of handicrafts, peo- Policy Recommendations the active consumption of na- ple-guided national narratives tional handicrafts: they decorate are expressed and constructed on Recommendations for the cen- their houses with carpets and felt a daily basis, enabling the Turk- tral government: rugs and wear silver jewelry and men national identity to be seen embroidered items. Internation- as banal and obvious. • Initiate a working group al tourists apparently interpret comprised of representatives Turkmen handicrafts mostly as The plebiscite of the nation in of governmental institutions; exotic and catchy souvenirs. How- Turkmenistan is realized through the World Intellectual Property ever, except for a few small items, the role given to handicrafts in Organization (WIPO) and like mobile phone cases and cam- everyday life. Turkmen motifs are UNESCO; the state carpet, fabric, el miniatures, almost nothing identified and known, tradition- and jewelry plants; the Turkmen within the bazaar is made specif- al clothes are worn, and amulets State Academy of Arts; experts ically for international guests.54 are requested and used beyond on Turkmen material culture; From observations and conver- and within the bazaar. Artisans and international consultants sations with sellers and buyers, and their masterpieces nurture to prepare comprehensive it appears that the majority of and foster “people-guided” and files on Turkmen traditional Turkmen handicrafts, garments, “state-guided” national narra- knowledge or cultural heritage, embroidery, carpets, and jewelry tives. As long as the “tree of life” such as Turkmen craftmanship, are aimed at and bought by local is an essential embroidery motif handicraft techniques, and motifs. residents. on a kurte and the kurte is an es- The documents will be useful sential element of the marriage for classifying and registering International visitors thus con- ceremony, handicrafts will exist Turkmen cultural heritage in the sume products that are designed and will continue to epitomize International Trademark System for locals. In the eyes of foreign the everyday plebiscite of a Turk- under WIPO or for inscribing it on travelers, the exoticism distin- men nation of artisans. the UNESCO Lists of Intangible guishes and unites Turkmen arti- Cultural Heritage. sanal items in the context of oth- However, in recent years, Turk- • Conduct an international er souvenirs bought at bazaars in men colorful ornaments and tra- lobbying campaign with the Central Asia or beyond. However, ditional clothes have begun to help of WIPO experts and WIPO artisans are driven by the needs pop up in the collections of In- member states to classify and of Turkmen society, not by in- dian and Pakistani designers. If internationally register Turkmen ternational requests. With mi- Turkmenistan does not put ap- traditional knowledge under nor exceptions, Turkmens do not propriate preventative measures the “Turkmen” brand under cultivate their own exoticism to in place, Ashgabat could lose the the International Trademark attract international tourists’ or “licensing” and “branding” of its System of the World Intellectual expats’ attention. Artisanal prod- crafts and motifs. The same is Property Organization (WIPO) in ucts are made for domestic con- true of other Central Asian mo- accordance with the conditions sumption. tifs, which are now widely used in established by the Madrid haute couture or designers’ col- Agreement concerning the Conclusion lections, often without any men- International Registration of tion of any Central Asian country. Marks (1891) and the Madrid The case of Turkmenistan is ap- In accordance with intellectual Protocol (1989). plicable to a greater or lesser de- property law as well as respect • Inscribe Turkmen cultural gree to every country of Central for traditional knowledge and heritage on the UNESCO Lists Asia. Existing or reinvented tra- cultural heritage, I propose here of Intangible Cultural Heritage. ditions impact the contemporary a series of recommendations that This will ensure the recognition lifestyles of Central Asian soci- would help to protect Turkmen of Turkmen heritage as part of the eties. Through traditional prac- craftmanship, handicraft tech- cultural heritage of humanity and tices, which ensure the use and niques, and motifs. acknowledge the role of Turkmen

CAP Fellows Paper 215 11 artisans in the production, Notes Culture (Munster: Waxmann Verlag, maintenance, and safeguarding 2017); Aisalkyn Botoeva and Regine 1 of this cultural heritage, which Michael Billig, Banal Nationalism A. Spector, “Sewing to Satisfaction: enriches global cultural diversity. (London: Sage, 1995), 6. Craft-Based Entrepreneurs in 2 Ibid., 8. Contemporary Kyrgyzstan,” Central 3 Ibid., 8. Asian Survey 32, no. 4 (2013): 487- Recommendations for interna- 4 Erica Marat, “State-Propagated 500. tional and local donor organiza- Narratives About a National 6 N. Dubova and A.T. Bayliev, eds., tions: Defender in Central Asian States,” Turkmeny (Moscow: Nauka, 2017); The Journal of Power Institutions Layla S. Diba, Turkmen Jewelry • Provide technical assistance in Post-Soviet Societies 6/7 (2007); (New York: The Metropolitan in designing, developing, Matteo Fumagalli, “When Security Museum of Art, 2011); Dieter and implementing national Trumps Identity: Uzbekistan’s Schletzer and Reinhold Schletzer, intellectual property strategy Foreign Policy under Islam Karimov,” Old Silver Jewellery of the related to Turkmen traditional in Constructing the Uzbek State: Turkoman: An Essay on Symbols in Narratives of Post-Soviet Years, knowledge. the Culture of Inner Asian Nomads ed. Marlene Laruelle (Lanham, (Berlin: Reimer, 1984). • In cooperation with the EBRD, MD: Lexington, 2017), 3-19; Nick 7 Eric Hobsbawm and Terence OSCE, and USAID, the Union of Megoran, “The Magic of Territory: Ranger, Invention of Traditions Industrialists and Entrepreneurs Remaking of Border Landscapes as a (Cambridge: Cambridge University of Turkmenistan should develop Spatial Manifestation of Nationalist Press, 2012), 1. a training in how to market and Ideology,” in Constructing the 8 These scholars include Georgiy distribute Turkmen handicrafts Uzbek State: Narratives of Post- Karpov, Galina Vasilieva, Sergey to international audiences, as Soviet Years, ed. Marlene Laruelle Polyakov, Yuriy Bregel, Gennadiy well as small grant programs (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2017), Markov, Anna Morozova, Annadurdy for individual entrepreneurs to 21-44; Marlene Laruelle, “The Orazov, Ata Djikiev, Tchary Yazliev, Nation Narrated: Uzbekistan’s support small-scale handicrafts. and Orazberdy Amantyev. Political and Cultural Nationalism,” 9 A.S. Morozova, “Traditsionnaia • In cooperation with the in Constructing the Uzbek State: narodnaia odezhda Turkmen,” in UNESCO Intangible Heritage Narratives of Post-Soviet Years, Traditsionnaia odezhda narodov Fund, the Turkmen State ed. Marlene Laruelle (Lanham, MD: Srednei Azii i Kazakhstana, ed. Commission for UNESCO should Lexington, 2017); Rico Isaacs and N.B. Lobacheva and M.V. Sazonova develop preventive programs and Abel Polese, eds., Nation-Building (Moscow: Nauka, 1989), 60. activities aimed at safeguarding and Identity in the Post-Soviet 10 A. Soyunova, N. Bashimova, and G. Turkmen cultural heritage. Space: New Tools and Approaches Ataeva, “Semeinye obriady turkmen (London: Routledge, 2016); Erica i sviazannye s nimi pover’ia,” in Marat, “National Ideology and Turkmeny, ed. N. Dubova and A.T. State-Suilding in Kyrgyzstan Bayliev (Moscow: Nauka, 2016), and Tajikistan,” Silk Road Paper 294-329, 300. (January 2008), https://www. 11 Schletzer and Schletzer, Old Silver silkroadstudies.org/resources/ Jewellery, 182. pdf/SilkRoadPapers/2008_01_ 12 Ibid., 200. SRP_Marat_National-Ideology. 13 Narody Srednei Azii i Kazakhstana. pdf; Bhavna Dave, Kazakhstan: Etnograficheskie ocherki (Moscow: Ethnicity, Language and Power Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1962), 96. (London: Routledge, 2007). 14 Sh. N. Djumaev and A.A. Tcharyev, 5 Gül Berna Özcan, “Seeking Divine “Svadebnye obriady Turkmen,” Harmony: Uzbek Artisans and Nauchnaia diskussiia: Voprosy Their Space,” CAP Uzbekistan sotsiologii, politologii, filosofii, Initiative Papers 9 (February 2014), istorii 1, no. 41 (January 2016): 41. http://centralasiaprogram.org/ 15 A. Bayrieva, “Evoliutsiia archives/7852; Gabriela Mentges svadebnogo kostuma turkmenok- and Lola Shamukhitdinova, eds., teke” (PhD diss., St. Petersburg, Textiles as National Heritage: 2005), 135-136. Identities, Politics and Material 16 This figure is based on visits to

CAP Fellows Paper 215 12 the Altyn Asyr bazaar, where they Turkmenistana, 2000), 203. en.html. constituted 60 percent at weekends 30 These include the floor carpet 46 State Statistics Committee of and during the holiday season, and (haly), the door curtain (ensi, Turkmenistan, “2017-njy ýylyň 40 percent on other days. kapounnuk, and dezlik), carpet noýabr aýy üçin “Türkmenistan 17 “Тurkmenistan v gody voiny: bags for storing utensils, dishes and boýunça bölek satuw söwdasynda tol’ko fakty,” May 8, 2013, http:// clothes (torba, tchouval, mafratch, harytlaryň we hyzmatlaryň infoabad.com/vs-o-turkmenistane/ and khordjoun), camel blanket ortaça bazar nyrhlary barada turkmenistan-v-gody-voiny-tolko- (asmaldyk), prayer mat (namazlyk), maglumat,” accessed January fakty.html (accessed January 24, burial mat (ayatlyk), yurt band 24, 2019, http://www.stat.gov. 2019). (iolam, bou, and yup), cradle tm/netcat_files/70/125/h_ 18 Henri Couliboeuf de Blocqueville, rug (salachak), and Quran case fff40da074638fab702d2e6bf8ebd7d “Quatorze mois de captivité chez les (bochtche). f. Turcomans (frontières du Turkestan 31 Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood, 47 Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov, et de la Perse), 1860-1861, Le Tour “Turkmen Dress and Embroidery,” Türkmen Medenieti du monde, 1866,” in Layla S. Diba, in Encyclopedia of World Dress and (Ashgabat, 2015); Gurbanguly Turkmen Jewelry (New York: The Fashion: Central and Southwest Berdymukhammedov, Bakhshis Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011), Asia, ed. Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood are Heralds of National Happiness 225-272. (Oxford: Berg, 2010), 355-368. (Ashgabat, 2015). 19 Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin [1774- 32 Ibid. 48 Billig, Banal Nationalism, 6. 1784], cited by Diba, Turkmen 33 I include in this category telpeks 49 Ibid. Jewelry, 282. and men’s clothes. 50 Edward Said, Orientalism (New 20 Diba, Turkmen Jewelry, 17. 34 The word dagdan has the double York: Vintage, 1979), 1-3, 5. 21 Armin Vambery, Travels in Central meaning of “amulet” and “ash tree.” 51 Ibid. Asia (London, 1864). 35 There are also amulets made of 52 We do not have data for more 22 Diba, Turkmen Jewelry, 23. silver: bozbend, tumar, gөzmonžuk, recent dates. “Turkmenistan- 23 E.G. Zareva, “Kover kak and çapraz. International Tourism,” Index istoricheskii istochnik: k istorii 36 Schletzer and Schletzer, Old Silver Mundi, accessed January 24, 2019, formirovaniia khudozhestvennogo Jewellery, 48. https://www.indexmundi.com/ oblika i strukturnnykh osobennostei 37 Derived from Arabic, doga means facts/turkmenistan/international- turkmenskogo kovra XVI—nachala “prayer call.” tourism; “International Tourism, XX v.,” Vestnik arkheologii, 38 S. Demidov, Turkmenskie ovliady Number of Arrivals,” World Bank, antropologii i etnografii 3, no. 22 (Ashkhabad: Ylym, 1976), 24. accessed January 24, 2019, https:// (2013): 166. 39 Author’s field research (AFR) in data.worldbank.org/indicator/ 24 Jack Cassin and Peter Hoffmeister, Altyn Asyr bazaar, October 2017. ST.INT.ARVL?locations=TM. Tent Вand, Тent Вag: Сlassic 40 AFR, May 2018. 53 “Sample Program 3: Short & Turkmen Weaving (Coburg/Esbach: 41 Ernest Renan, “Qu’est-ce qu’une Spectacular,” Owadan Tourism, Magna Mater Press, 1988). nation? Conférence en Sorbonne, accessed January 24, 2019, http:// 25 Jack Cassin, “Turkmen Rug Paris,” 1882, accessed January 24, www.owadan.net/en/custom-tours/ Studies: Some ‘S’ Group ‘Salor’ Gol 2019, http://www.iheal.univ-paris3. short-spectacular; “Sample Program Chuval Examined,” accessed January fr/sites/www.iheal.univ-paris3.fr/ 2: A Week of Highlights,” accessed 19, 2019, https://www.academia. files/Renan_-_Qu_est-ce_qu_une_ January 24, 2019, http://www. edu/15399119/TURKMEN_RUG_ Nation.pdf. owadan.net/en/custom-tours/a- STUDIES_Some_S_group_salor_ 42 Ibid. week-of-highlights. gol_chuval_. 43 Tandoor (Turkm. tadyr) refers to a 54 However, in the boutiques 26 A tamga is the emblem of a cylindrical clay oven used in cooking in Turkmen hotels like “Nisa,” particular tribe, clan, or family. and baking in Turkmenistan and “Grand Otel Turkmen,” and “Ak 27 Gul is a medallion-like design Central Asia more broadly. Altyn,” one can find a wide range of element typical of Turkmen 44 There are a few women silversmiths souvenirs made especially for foreign traditional carpets. in modern Turkmenistan. In earlier tourists. Among these souvenirs 28 Law “On the National Flag,” Meijlis eras, Turkmen jewelry was produced are embroidered boxes, miniatures of Turkmenistan, 2001. exclusively by men. of Turkmen women and men in 29 Elena G. Tsareva, Iskusstvo 45 According to exchange rate of national costume, and miniatures of kovrodeliia i kultur’noe nasledie the Central Bank of Turkmenistan, camels and Turkmen horses. Turkmenistana (Ashgabat and St. accessed January 24, 2019, http:// Petersburg: Kulturnoe nasledie www.cbt.tm/kurs/kurs_today_

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