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Acknowledgements Internews Europe and the Global Forum on Media Development (GFMD) wish to thank the following people and organisations for their advice and support in compiling this publication: Sina Odugbemi, Eaimonn Taylor and Richard Rose, UK Department for International Development (DFID); Markus Dürst, the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC); Monroe Price, Director, Project for Global Communication Studies, Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania; Stanhope Centre for Communications Policy Research, UK; Communication and Information Sector, UNESCO; Annette Makino, Internews Network. Editor: Mark Harvey Associate Editors: Kathleen Reen, John West Assistant Editors: Susan Abbott, Antonio Lambino Editorial Support: Myriam Horngren, Jacky Davies Production Management: Myriam Horngren Production Coordination: Katy Pearce Design: Smith & Manz Design Partnership, Kyle Cassidy E-Distribution: Eric Johnson Printing: Images at Work, Beijing Publisher: Internews Europe

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Disclaimer Media Matters is an independent publication, published by Internews Europe on behalf of the Global Forum on Media Development (GFMD). The content of the Executive Summary and individual articles do not necessarily reflect the official views of Internews Europe, individual GFMD Steering Committee member organizations, the Annenberg School, DFID or the SDC.

Picture credits: Mark Edwards Still Pictures/Internews/Panos Pictures 2 MEDIA MATTERS 3 MEDIA MATTERS: contents Contents Section III: Section II: Section I: 109 103 55 50 45 35 28 22 19 95 89 81 76 66 59 7 5 Sasa Vucinic, MediaDevelopmentLoan Fund Affordable Capital:Turning Press Freedom Heroes intoEntrepreneurs, Strategies forMediaDevelopment, AnnHudock,TheAsiaFoundation University ofOklahomaCollege ofLaw Price, AnnenbergSchool,University ofPennsylvania,andPeterKrug, The EnablingEnvironment forFree andIndependentMedia,Monroe Challenges inMediaMatters:PractitionerExperiences and PeaceReporting Media Development A RoadMapforMonitoringandEvaluationinthe Annenberg SchoolforCommunication Antonio available indicatorsandintegrativeapproaches havetooffer?, A MonitoringandEvaluationToolkit forMediaDevelopment:Whatdo Index, MarkWhitehouse,IREX Measuring ChangeinMediaSystems:TheSustainability Group, UNDP University andDemocraticGovernance andHumanDevelopment,PippaNorris,Harvard Governance The RoleoftheFree Press inPromoting Democratization,Good the MDGs,Warren Feek,TheCommunicationInitiative Moving Media:TheCasefortheRoleofCommunicationsinMeeting How MediaMatters:MeasuringitsImpact Challenges Convention,DanielKaufmann,World BankInstitute andDevelopment: AnEmpiricalPerspectivethat Media, Governance Christian Sandvig,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign Access totheElectromagnetic SpectrumisaFoundationforDevelopment, MediaConsultant International Gender Inequality, MediaandDevelopment,Margaret Gallagher, Poverty, JamesDeane,Communication forSocialChangeConsortium Why theMediaMatters:RelevanceoftoTackling Thomas Jacobson,Temple University Media DevelopmentandSpeechinthePublicSphere, Communication andPublicInformation,UnitedNations Intercultural Tolerance, SashiTharoor, Under-Secretary Generalfor PressIntegrating Approaches Freedom toGoodGovernance, and Media Development. Network,Chair,President, Internews GlobalForumon Information Equality:theThird Revolution,DavidHoffman, Why MediaMatters:GlobalPerspectives Executive summaryandOverview Foreword Lambino II,AlexandraTebay andSarahBuzby, : Alpha OumarKonaré,Chairperson,AfricaUnion Sector, AlanDavis,InstituteofWar Section IV: 171 165 161 154 150 144 139 134 128 122 115 222 220 201 194 188 179 (2006 –2008) GFMD SteeringCommittee, RegionalForaandCoordination on MediaDevelopment,Amman, Jordan, October 2005 List ofOrganisationsthatattendedtheInauguralGlobal Forum and MyriamHorngren Selected Resources, LauraStein,KatyPearce Ellen Hume,UniversityofMassachusetts Mapping theMediaAsssistanceSector:Sector, Annenberg SchoolforCommunication Media Development:TheCaseforResearch, SusanAbbott, United NationsCapitalDevelopmentFund Participatory Diffusion orSemanticConfusion?,AdamRogers, Section 4:MappingtheSector:Literature, Surveys&Resources (IFJ) of Journalists Poverty Eradication,ChristopherWarren, Federation International Unions,Press FreedomThe NexusbetweenIndependentJournalists’ and Network into thePublicHealthAgenda,RonMacInnis,Internews Global Health–LocalNews:TheNeedtoBuildIndependentJournalism Broadcasters (AMARC) Access, Mar Community Radio:PerspectivesonMediaReachandAudience Panos Institute,London Global Issues,Teresa Hanley, andMuraliShanmugavelan, JonBarnes FacilitatingLocalAnalysisof Media, DevelopmentandGovernance: Earthquake Zones,AdnanRehmat,Intermedia Crisis andOpportunityinthePublicSphere: Lessonsfrom Pakistan’s Andijan, Andrew CrisisGroup Stroehlein, theInternational Media DevelopmentinChallengingEnvironments: Uzbekistanafter TheNation,andtheSoutheastAsianPress Alliance Chongkittavorn, Staying Alive:MediaIndependenceinSouthEastAsia,Kavi Russia Manana Aslamazyan,Internews Media AssistanceintheFormerSovietUnion:AJobWell done?, Freedom Watch and theRiseofIndependentMedia,IbrahimNawar, ArabPress Arab MediaLaggingBehind:Freedom ofExpression, LostCredibility Nuevo PeriodismoIberoamericano Development inLatinAmerica,JaimeAbelloBanfi,Fundación A RichComplexLandscape:ChallengesandAdvancesinMedia Development inAfrica,JeanetteMinnie,Consultant,ZambeziFox Ideological, Legal,EconomicandProfessional ObstaclestoMedia celo Solervicens,World AssociationofCommunityRadio

4 MEDIA MATTERS: contents 5 MEDIA MATTERS: foreword Foreword promotion ofdemocracy, the African Unionisthe and goodgovernance.” “ popular participation A centralobjectiveof lynchpin orconnectivetissueofdemocracy. TheexperienceofMali to theseradiobroadcasts. Independentmediahasbeendescribedasthe reduced are saidtoavoidrecriminations from their constituentswholisten The mayorsofpoorlyperformingcommuneswhohavehadtheirbudgets performance review oftheirlocalcommunes. instance, communitystationsnowcoverindepththeannualofficial Mali,for vibrant independentradiosectorsinAfrica.InNorthern ‘Radio Bamakan’.Fifteenyearson,mycountryhasoneofthemost In 1991IwasprivilegedtolaunchMali’s firstindependentFMstation in creating honest,transparent andaccountablegovernment. independent mediaininformingthepublicas akeyindicatorofprogress that thememberstateshaveformallyadopted theeffectiveness of for debateandthemediationofconflict.Itis no coincidence,therefore, is startingtoplayanimportantrole asawatchdog,andpublic platform the continentthere are signsthatanewgenerationofliberalisedmedia (NEPAD) -adoptedbythememberstatesof theAfricaUnion.Inpartsof development ofAfrica-theNewPartnershipforAfrica’s Development the heartofnewvisionforrevival and liesat Improving governance good governance. promotion ofdemocracy, popularparticipationand continent. AcentralobjectiveoftheUnionis for thesocialandeconomicintegrationof The AfricaUnion(AU)isAfrica’s premier institution certainly provides strong evidencetosupportthis. partnership fordevelopment. and multilateralagencies engagedonallourcontinentsintheglobal the policycommunityinAfrica,butfrom thefullrangeofbilateral concerted andconcrete response. Thisneedstocomenotonlyfrom independent mediabring.Itmerits,therefore, careful analysisanda excluded from thepolitical,socialandeconomicbenefitsthatfree and tosee nocountryis implications forallpolicy-makersconcerned for themselvesandtheirchildren’. are atadistinctdisadvantagewhenitcomes tobuildingabetterfuture sows theseedsofprosperity, andthosewithoutaccesstoinformation Shashi Tharoor, globalizingworld,information arguesthat‘inthemodern The UN’s leadcontributorto assistance intotheveryfabricofdevelopmentpolicy. media andcommunications presents acogentcaseforweaving media assistanceprofessionals, it academics withtheexperiencesof Blending argumentsfrom leading achievement inbothoftheseareas. Goals. Thepublication the MillenniumDevelopment development targets, international on progress towards the2015 healthy mediasystemsare making document thepositiveimpactthat It isevenmore ofachallengeto interference andrelevant tothegrowing needs oftheiraudiences. sector toremain andcorporate autonomousfrom government It isnoeasytasktocreate theconditionsforindependentmedia M M a a t t t t e e r r s s represents asignificant Alpha OumarKonaré, Chairperson,AfricaUnion M M e e d d i i a a M M e e d d i i a M M

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6 MEDIA MATTERS Foreward Executive Summary

Media Matters is about the central role of the media in effective development. Following a year long collaboration between media development practitioners and leading social, political and communications scientists, Media Matters presents five core messages to the international development community. The messages are grounded in academic rigour and the seasoned analysis of field professionals. Media Matters : Five Key Messages to Policy Makers

The New Governance Agenda: Independent media are integral to good governance. Media and press freedom indicators are being included in governance monitoring frameworks. But development 1 agency engagement in media and communications assistance remains fragmented and marginal. Media support needs to be mainstreamed far more effectively across both policy and practice.

Media, Governance and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): Independent media systems have a positive impact on governance, democratic transitions and the 2015 MDG targets. 2 A growing body of empirical evidence exists to demonstrate this. New communications technologies are reframing relationships between media, citizens and the state. Community media empowers those poorest communities who will benefit most from achieving the MDGs. However, research on the impact of media and communications on the poor needs to be strengthened.

Counterbalance to Extremism: Independent media systems that are inclusive and responsive to diversity play a key role in preventing the exclusion of voices that breed extremism. Healthy public 3 spheres can host a wide range of views which can dilute intolerance. Policy makers should increase support for media assistance programmes to widen access for moderate voices and balanced dis- course. And donors should engage systematically in media development in countries affected by extremism, as this threatens progress on the MDGs.

Media and Global Issues: the lack of local media coverage of the external driving forces of change on poor countries - international trade, climate change and global health for instance - is generating 4 deficits in governance through continued public disengagement in these issues. These deficits can be tackled, however, through concerted media and communications strategies, that include assisting developing country journalists to cover processes such as the next phase of the Kyoto Protocol.

Strategies for Healthy Media Systems: a global media assistance community exists that has its own history, experience base, metrics and research agenda. Development agencies need to engage 5 with this sector with more urgency in order to harness the proven contribution that media development can make to the MDGs; through established strategies such as support to media policy and legislation, the development of journalism associations, the provision of affordable capital, professional training and the capacity-building of indigenous media assistance organisations. MEDIA MATTERS: foreword MEDIA MATTERS:

7 In October 2005 the first global gathering of the media assistance sector took place in Amman, Jordan, under the patronage of King Abdullah II. The inaugural Global Forum for Media Development (GFMD) drew together over 425 representatives of media assistance organisations from 97 countries. Supported by a range of agencies and foundations including DFID, the SDC and the Ford and Knight Foundations, the GFMD also attracted high-level representation from the UN and the World Bank.

Media assistance aims to strengthen regional, national and local media systems and institutions in ways that serve the public interest. Examples of media assistance include support to regulatory reform, journalism training and media business management. It also covers support to community media, citizen journalism and media for sustainable development - on health and environmental issues, for instance - in ways that ensure that people are able to access information and to express their own opinions and priorities in the public arena.

Communication is a critical missing link in development policy and practice. A major point of consensus at the GFMD was the need for the media assistance sector to argue more cogently for its place within the framework of international development. The pioneering work of the World Bank Institute had made the case for the role of the media in economic development in its publication ‘The Right to Tell’. The GFMD called for the role of media and media support strategies to be examined more broadly against the wider canvas of the development agenda, encapsulated by the set of international targets, the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Media Matters is the response to that call.

Media Matters has four key aims:

1 To help develop- 2 To highlight work 3 To flag key global 4 To map the media ment policy makers on the evidence of and regional trends assistance sector, its and practitioners the relationship and opportunities in growing body of understand the between media, media assistance; literature, and the relevance of vibrant, communications emerging international independent media and the development research partnerships systems to their agenda; that will help define wider goals; its priorities to 2015. MEDIA MATTERS: foreword MEDIA MATTERS:

8 Overview ei matters media Media Matters draws together thinking and analysis that covers the breadth and depth of the media development landscape. The opening section, ‘Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives’ gathers the work of several thought leaders on major trends that cut across both the communications and development policy arenas; this is followed by an examination of the current debate that is engaging researchers, development professionals and media assistance experts alike, namely ‘How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact’. The third section, ‘Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences’ presents a range of regional and sectoral case studies, and the final section forms a guide to cur- rent information sources and studies of the field of media support, in ‘Mapping the Sector - Literature, Surveys and Resources’.

Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives The rise of an information and communications economy and culture, and the relevance of 1 media and media assistance to international development, form the focus of this first section of Media Matters. How and why is media important in international development, and what contribution can it play in achieving the Millennium Development Goals? The Global Information Economy and Culture In Information Equality David Hoffman, President, Internews Network, describes how the new networked information economy is creating a new wave of egalitarianism that - underpinned by adequate investment and a pro-poor policy framework - holds enormous promise for social and political development. Shashi Tharoor, Under-Secretary General for Communication and Public Information, United Nations, outlines how new communications technologies are a key driver of globalisation, but also how the Information Divide runs across technology, gender, governance and content. He is concerned that the globalised media is dangerously lacking in authentic voices from the developing world. He calls for a media that recognises and embraces the diversity of the real world, warning that ‘the alternative to this recognition may be terrorism, which has so dominated our headlines in recent times.’ Theories of the Public Sphere and Young Democracies How media contributes to the development of democracy and to an inclusive public sphere is a vital question when considering the role of media in development. Thomas Jacobson, of Temple University explores this theme by looking at the challenges that young democracies face in developing the social norms and cultural processes that underpin deliberative politics, and the complex information flows that media systems need to facilitate if governments are to remain responsive to citizens. Jacobson characterises the latter as ‘a requirement that is related to, but separate from, the news media’s important role in facilitating governmental transparency and accountability. It is the additional requirement that media represent public opinion in a way that accurately expresses the voice of citizens across the full range of their interests.’ MEDIA MATTERS Overview MEDIA MATTERS

9

media. We suggestthisisnotthecase.’ community andtheWorld Bankcandolittleinthefield of the view‘thatinternational anddevelopmentprism.Herejectspolitical lens,butshouldbe lookedatthrough agovernance Institute, whoarguesthatfreedom ofthepress shouldnolongerbeviewedsolelythrough a This sectionendswiththechallengingoftenmythsby Daniel KaufmannoftheWorld Bank permission totransmit,buttheyhaven’t stolenanything.’ behind theseoperations‘are calledpiratesbecausetheydon’t havethegovernment’s use ofnewtechnologiesshouldbeencouraged.Henotes thatoftenthesocialentrepreneurs that accesstospectrumisafoundationofdevelopment, andthatunlicensedpro-community uses severalexamplestoexplore thepoliticaldynamicsofspectrumlicensing.Sandvigmaintains inclusion inthedevelopingworld,according toChristianSandvigoftheUniversityIllinois.He New digitalsystemscreate majoropportunitiestoadvancehealth,educationandsocial marginal, inconsistent,fragmented,unstrategicandshort-term.’ donor engagement,findingthattheresponses ofdevelopmentagenciesremain ‘generally advances andthelowstatusthatsupportforindependentmediahasintermsofinternational Deane welcomessuchdevelopmentsbutflagsthemajordiscrepancy betweenthesepolicy Transparency Fund. and account.’ DFIDhasbackedthisupbythecreation ofa£100millionGovernance to necessity to‘strengthen civilsocietyandthemediatohelpcitizensholdtheirgovernments White Paper, Work Eliminating World forthePoor, Poverty:MakingGovernance pointstothe Development (DFID)initslatest Inaddition,theUKDepartmentforInternational the governed’. and andthecriticallinkinaccountability chainbetweenthegovernment good governance on anannualbasisprogress onthe2015targetsofMDGs-citesmediaasa‘crucialpillar The 20063rd GlobalMonitoringReport(GMR)oftheWorld Bank,forinstance,-whichtracks totheirpopulationsinmeetingtheMDGtargets. and accountabilityofgovernments -nowunderlinethevitalimportanceofin-countryownership Report oftheUKGovernment OECD DevelopmentAssistanceCommitteeonAidEffectiveness totheAfricaCommission that astream ofagreements, declarationsandreports -from the2005ParisDeclaration ofthe is discussedbyJamesDeaneoftheCommunicationforSocialChangeConsortium.Heexplains development andaccountabilityagendaininternational How mediarelates tothegovernance The NewAccountabilityAgenda address the current andpotentialrole ofthemediaininfluencingsocialandgenderrelations. developmentcommunity,international ontheonehand,anditsfailure, onthe other, to agendabythe underlines thediscrepancy betweentheadoptionofgoodgovernance centrality ofGoal3theMDGs(GenderEqualityandEmpowermentWomen), she media, howcanthemediafulfilitswatchdogrole onbehalfofallcitizens?’Flaggingthe barely present inthenews.Sheasks‘aslongashalfworld’s citizensare somarginalinthe news storiesfrom 76countriesleadshertoconcludethat52%oftheWorld’s populationare women andmeninthenewsmedia,produced byWACC in2005.Theanalysisofnearly13000 results ofthe2005GlobalMediaMonitoringProject, asnapshotofgenderrepresentation of gender isbrought outstarklybyGenderandMediaexpertMargaret Gallagher’s overviewofthe The failure ofthepublicsphere tofulfilthatrole intermsofvoice,andrepresentation on

1 10 MEDIA MATTERS Overview ei matters media How Media Matters: Measuring Its Impact

2 Evaluating the impact of media, and of media assistance, on development outcomes is the focus of this section. The challenge of producing robust data to substantiate the claims of media development professionals and to guide policy makers in their investments in media assistance is a central issue for both groups.

The Great Evidence Debate

Many respected thinkers reject the notion of simple cause and effect linkages between media and development impact, according to research by a team from the Annenberg School of Communication, University Pennsylvania, who surveyed over 20 leading academics.

‘What would a physician reply if he was asked for empirical evidence that the nervous system ‘made a noticeable impact’ on the functioning of the human body?’ commented Claude-Jean Bertrand, Professor Emeritus at the University of Paris; and ‘What economic, social and political developments have occurred in the absence of media and communications systems?’ asked Richard Porter of the University of Illinois.

Warren Feek of the Communication Initiative picks up Porter’s theme by arguing that many of the major social or political movements of the 20th Century - from the suffragette movement in the UK to the, the Indian Independence Movement and the American Civil Rights Movement - took place in the context of private and public argument - debate, analysis, dialogue - that was generated by public and private media. He acknowledges that, however compelling these precedents may be, measurable impact data - and above all data relevant to the 2015 targets - is still needed. Feek links empirical evidence with each of the MDG targets and outlines eight key areas that need to be mainstreamed into international policy if the MDGs and effective poverty reduction strategy (PRS) programmes are to be achieved.

Testing the Impact of Liberal Media Landscapes

Pippa Norris, Harvard University and the Democratic Governance Group, UNDP, takes the empirical process several stages further. In presenting a detailed study of the link between media and good governance, she acknowledges the claims made by many that liberal media landscapes strengthen democratisaton and good governance. She concludes that even after deploying a battery of economic and social controls the study confirms ‘many of the assump- tions about the role of independent journalism. including the core argument that the free press matters both intrinsically and instrumentally.’ MEDIA MATTERS Overview MEDIA MATTERS

11 Indexing Initiatives and Standards of Good Practice in Monitoring and Evaluation

How to measure the development of media systems and their relationship with broader development indicators is a key question, and a number of contributors present possible instruments that are available to policy-makers and practitioners.

Mark Whitehouse of IREX presents the Media Sustainability Index (MSI) system that is in use in 38 countries in Europe, Eurasia and, most recently, the Middle East. The MSI allows the measurement of the development of the media consistently across time and between countries. Assessing five years of application of the MSI, Whitehouse states that initial concerns that the index would not be applicable between regions and widely diverse media systems – i.e. countries with dominant state broadcasters, others with strong private markets or with print or broadcast biases - have proven to be unfounded.

After reviewing the indicators applied by a range of organisations Antonio Lambino, Alexandra Tebay and Sarah Buzby, of the Annenberg School for Communication, propose an organising framework for monitoring and evaluation work at the macro level of the media development sector based around three categories: 1) Journalistic Practices and Management; 2) Industry Structure and Access to Media; and 3) Legal and regulatory Environments. They also propose a ‘toolkit’ approach to monitoring and evaluation methods, from which policy-makers and practi- tioners should draw selectively. They call for greater collaboration between media development professionals and social scientists stating that ‘bridging the practical and theoretical dimensions in media development is essential in making valid and reliable evidence - based claims with regard to the impact of media’.

Alan Davis, of the Institute of War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), argues for the creation of an assessment platform that can take in both the micro dimensions, for example individual media support projects, and macro dimensions, for example of entire media systems. He calls for a collaborative process to create good practice standards on the micro level, modelled on the Sphere project, which developed standards across the humanitarian sector in the 1990s. On macro level indicators, he calls for the creation of an index that might build on existing indices but would relate media sector influence on a scale to the six dimensions of governance as identified by the World Bank, i.e. i) voice and accountability; ii) political instability and violence; iii) government effectiveness;2 iv) regulatory quality; v) rule of law, and, vi) control of corruption. MEDIA MATTERS Overview MEDIA MATTERS

12 ei matters media Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 3 Cross Cutting Issues 1. Enabling Environment

Monroe Price, of the Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania, and Peter Krug of the University of Oklahoma College of Law discuss the interaction of formal law, administrative process and the broader enabling conditions for the effective functioning of healthy media sys- tems. Bad law is not the greatest threat to media freedoms, rather administrative acts which apply the law arbitrarily or beyond its proper legal boundaries. Moreover, audiences need 'a special kind of literacy..that encompasses a desire to acquire, interpret and apply information as part of civil society'. This is essential for the broader enabling media environment. However, more research is required to decode how the many elements of the enabling environment for independent media can be linked to phases of national political transitions.

2. Media Democratisation

How independent media contributes, or not, to democracy and governance is one of the most pertinent questions facing policymakers in this sector. Through a series of compelling case studies, Ann Hudock of the Asia Foundation presents a challenging analysis of the notion that independent and economically sustainable media necessarily or by definition contribute to democracy, and calls for new strategic measures beyond support to mainstream media in ways that give greater voice to marginalised groups. Hudock shows how the maturing of the democracy and governance field, the events of 9/11 and the emergence of new technologies that are threatening the pre-eminence of traditional media outlets have fundamentally altered the context for the provision of media assistance.

Marcelo Solervicens of the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) presents a dynamic picture of the growth of community radio as a medium for participatory communications and amplifying local voice. He suggests that three key developments are influencing the growth of community radio; the first being the growing crisis in the legitimacy of mainstream mass-media; secondly technological breakthroughs that are making local radio broadcasting more accessible through FM transmitters and satellites, and thirdly, the massive influence of the Internet. Solervicens suggests that community broadcasting is now a vibrant ‘global sector’, and a valid new information technology of the poor and marginalised. He shows how despite challenges of regulatory legitimacy, access to radio spectrum and economic sustainability, community broadcasting is uniquely placed to facilitate the achievement of the MDGs through its accessibility, affordability and ability to provide voice, information and identity to the poorest communities.

3. Journalism Representation and Press Freedom

The link between the poverty alleviation agenda and press freedom is explored by Christopher Warren of the International Federation of Journalists. He convincingly argues that core concerns of journalism unions around the world - such as collective voice, the promotion of professional- ism, safety and ethics, the combating of corruption, fair wages and labour rights - must be integrated into the poverty alleviation agenda in order to support press freedom and sustainable poverty alleviation. ‘Through supporting local journalists’ trade unions, press freedom is strengthened. And through strengthened press freedom, poverty alleviation becomes a more achievable aim.’ MEDIA MATTERS : Overview MEDIA MATTERS

13 4. Affordable Capital

The challenge of how local independent media remain financially and editorially autonomous in emerging democracies is examined by Sasa Vucinic of the Media Development Loan Fund (MDLF). He outlines the reasons why affordable capital is not available to media businesses, and the experience of the MDLF in tackling the issue of undercapitalisation through its US$50 million loan portfolio. He calls for such initiatives to be scaled up, as they represent a drop in the ocean of demand for low-cost capital from the sector. He further emphasises how access to external affordable capital and innovative financing instruments lie at the heart of ensuring the independence of the non-state media sector, as media companies need financial independence to remain as insulated as possible from local political and economic assaults. 5. Tackling Global Issues

Teresa Hanley, John Barnes and Murali Shanmugavelan, of the Panos Institute London, explore the many obstacles facing media in developing countries in covering global issues, such as climate change, international trade negotiations or global governance of ICT. They identify seven challenges facing Southern journalists in covering these issues - ranging from resources, access to information and the difficulty of crafting stories to meet their own editor’s demands. They conclude that the lack of coverage of these issues brings with it serious implications for governance and policy makers: ‘Limited media engagement may contribute to reduced public support for policy decisions which at first sight do not seem to be widely beneficial in the short term – such as the allocation of funds to enable adaptation to climate change - but are crucial in the long term, setting up a situation where development may be hindered.’

According to the World Bank’s Independent Evaluation Group, the global health sector has become the lead global sector in terms of mobilising of multilateral partnerships such as the Global Fund to Fight TB, AIDS and Malaria and Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisations (GAVI). However, Ron MacInnis of Internews Network explains how both global and national public health frameworks are doing little to develop the indigenous capacity of media professionals (journalists, editors and owners) to report on health in an informed and appropriate manner. He outlines a global survey of 422 organisations engaged in health journalism support around the world, and a series of country profiles undertaken by the Health Journalism Partnership (HJP), a consortium of Internews Network, Panos London and the International Centre for Journalists. The HJP found that 61% of journalism support organisations had budgets that did not exceed US$20,000 in 2005. The country profiles identified a number of needs that were holding back the ability of the media sector to generate informed local health focused news, feature stories and talk-show programmes. MacInnis cautions that addressing these needs will require considerable time and resources in what should be viewed as ‘a revolutionary way to put public health discussions in the hands of those most affected.’ 6. Media Assistance in Challenging Environments

Developing effective strategies for media assistance in challenging environments should be a priority, according to Andrew Stroehlein of the International Crisis Group. Despite the challenging in operating in contexts such3 as Burma, North Korea and Zimbabwe, he argues that policy-makers should not be diverted from developing concerted strategies that will create the conditions for balanced information flows when authoritarian regimes finally collapse. He takes the case of Uzbekistan and proposes a series of interim and preparatory measures for media assistance in the context of potential political crisis. He proposes that ‘rather than lament the lack of opportunities, policymakers ought actively and generously to pursue the lifeboat strategies that will help societies ride out the rough waters toward which they inevitably seem headed.’ MEDIA MATTERS : Overview MEDIA MATTERS

14 state control. government is applying directly or via proxies to consolidate government or via proxies is applying directly of ownership, taxes and buy-outs, for instance - that the of ownership, taxes and buy-outs, for media currently needs from the economic pressures - monopolisation pressures the economic from needs media currently Kavi Chongkittavornnewspaper and the South East Asia of the Nation transition period in 1990 were unable to see what protections independent unable to see what protections transition period in 1990 were relates how the authors of the Russian media law written at the start of the how the authors of the relates numerous hostile take-over bids. Likewise, Manana Aslamazyan, Internews hostile take-over bids. Likewise, Manana Aslamazyan, numerous Russia, Media independence is being undermined by a potent combination of economic and Media independence is being undermined

Natural disaster zones present particular challenges and opportunities in information and in information challenges and opportunities particular zones present Natural disaster this explores Rehmat of Intermedia communities. Adnan affected support to communications he shows how In this study South Asia earthquake. study of the 2005 a case issue through of the information environment state-controlled in the previously media assistance emergency by generating higher effectiveness, aided relief Province Frontier West Kashmir and the North to a diversity of performances in government and opened up the public sphere responsiveness he also warns with donor funding horizons combined how short-term voices. However, of proliferation have undermined the government broadcasters of emergency FM closure in the earthquake zones. a time when intolerance is re-emerging moderate voices, at II. Regional Trends the media assistance landscapes experts to profile five regional Media Matters commissioned South East Asia. Although hugely Latin America, the Middle East, and in Africa, the Eurasia, the following freedoms, within themselves with highly uneven levels of press diverse regions their analyses: emerge from trends key shared • legislative measures. Thai language newspaper has faced most respected how Thailand’s Alliance relates Press MEDIA MATTERS : Overview : MATTERS MEDIA media matters 15 replicated andscaledup,concertedsupporttotheprofessionals workingtoachievethemisrequired. negligible, remain isolatedandvulnerabletoreversal, andinorder forthemtobeconsolidated, funds are testimonytothe ministerinMalawiforthemisuseof resulted inthefirstimprisonmentofagovernment toaccount through thekindofinvestigativereporting toholdtheirgovernments that journalists such asthatofthevictoryMathichonnewspaperinThailand.Theefforts ofdedicated These advancesare occurringinthewidercontext ofsuccessfuldefencespress independence, totheMDGagendaare beingmade. of centralconcern informed mediareporting oftherightschildren andadolescents,itisevidentthatimpacts Africatothegroundbreakingby GenderLinksinSouthern workinBrazilofANDIincreasing five regions. • interpretation ofwhattraditionalvaluesare. between twogroups, theotherbeingdriventoahighlydefined onebeingWesternised, music.Theresultcarrying videoclips,danceandWestern isthecreation ofa growing chasm Watch, aclashbetweenconservativeandreligious TVchannelsontheonehandand media. • mass mediaoperatemore as‘power-players than asservicestotheircitizens.’ between mediaandaudiencesheighteningaperception inthecontinentthattraditional isreframing therelationshipfor example,thatinmanypartsofLatinAmerica,theinternet established media. • careers aspublicrelations officers, according toJeanetteMinnieofZambeziFoX. of staff, andare haemorrhagingexperiencedpractitioners,whoare pursuingmore lucrative investigative coverageare pervasive. • There existsabodyofevidenceabouteffective mediaassistanceworkacross all Local mediaandlocalpoliticalculturalsystemsare runningbehindsatellite The riseofnewmediaiscorroding theeconomicmodelsanddynamicsof lowprofessional standards,Low payforjournalists, andinsufficient resources for The MiddleEastiswitnessing,according toIbrahimNawaroftheArabPress Freedom From thesuccessofon-sitenewsroom trainingonelectionscoverage undertaken Jaime AbellooftheFundacionNuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano finds, oiiecag httesco sctlsn.Teegis lhuhnot positive changethatthesectoriscatalysing.Thesegains,although African newsrooms, forinstance,faceahighturnover public 16 MEDIA MATTERS : Overview ei matters media Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources A professional sector, with a presence in all the global regions, equipped with its own literature, 4 its own mapping processes and a growing set of research partners now exists. Adam Rogers, United Nations Capital Development Fund, tracks the history of scholarship on communications from the early classic work of Daniel Lerner and Wilbur Schramm in the 1950s and 60s. He traces two dominant theoretical frameworks - the diffusion theory, with its emphasis on mass media dissemination of messages, and the participatory model with accent on ‘horizontal methodologies involving access, dialogue and participation’. These two approaches are now being increasingly combined by practitioners, and should encourage development agencies to view media as an instrument of diffusion, participation and, finally ‘participatory diffusion’. An example of the latter would be the promotion and validation of good practice by communities through community radio. Rogers concludes that development agencies could do much more to strengthen independent media and to enhance their abilities to contribute to the realisation of the Millennium Development Goals. The media assistance field is now getting the survey literature it deserves according to Ellen Hume of the University of Massachusetts, who describes how a failure to identify media assistance as a distinct sector of development - and document media development interventions - once made assessments of the international landscape difficult. Work commissioned by the Knight Foundation has helped build a more accurate picture of the field, but much more is needed as ‘the history of media development, and evaluation of its merits is not being preserved.’ International needs assessments and research programmes are generating new partnerships. In Africa in 2006 , for instance, an unprecedented number of media practitioners, media assistance organizations, owners and academics took part in an assessment of the Africa media development landscape as part of the Strengthening Africa’s Media (STREAM) consultation facilitated by the UN Economic Commission for Africa. The initiative was supported by the Open Society Foundation and the UK’s DFID, who have also commissioned a major regional knowledge-sharing process, the Africa Media Development Initiative, a partnership of the BBC World Service Trust with a group of leading African universities and communications researchers. Global research networks, guided by social and political scientists are emerging that are starting to track the relationship between media and the international development agenda. Susan Abbott of the Annenberg School for Communication encourages both the practitioner and policy community to take advantage of their growing focus on the sector: ‘‘in making the case for why media matters, the growing interest of the research community and its international networks should be harnessed to advance the field for scholars, practitioners and policy-makers alike.” 4Mark Harvey, Editor, Media Matters MEDIA MATTERS : Overview MEDIA MATTERS

17 4 Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 19 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives the ThirdRevolution Information Equality: Section I:WhyMediaMatters:GlobalPerspectives “The democratisationofthe “The be theorganisingprinciple wealth ofinformationwill of the21stcentury.” will pushaside theoldproductive relations. of bothcapitalistandsocialist societies.InMarxianterms,theproductive forces revolution willoverwhelm andtransformthepolitical,economicsocial structures of the21stcentury. Thespeed,creativity andcapital accumulation oftheinformation The democratizationofthe wealthofinformationwillbetheorganizingprinciple The third great egalitarianrevolution holdsenormouspromise for socialdevelopment. day valuationsofcompaniessuchasGoogleandSkype. history, aswitnessedin theSiliconValley explosion ofthe1990s,andpresent little capitalandyethasaccumulatedonascale unprecedented inhuman remarkably free andunfettered. Initsinnovativestageitrequires astonishingly order toregulate andcontrol it.Itishighlyentrepreneurial and,atthe sametime, havehadahard timetryingtounderstandandgetahead ofitin Governments growth ofpeer-to-peer technologiesnowmarksthegrowth oftheInternet. nuclear attackbydistributingconnectionsequallyacross anetwork,andthe wasoriginallydesignedtodefeat command norideologicaldesign-theInternet through innovationandapplications.Byitsverynature, ithasneithercentral revolution. Itislessprescriptive thanitspredecessors, butisrapidlyspreading Today athird waveofegalitarianismisrising-theinformationandcommunication to adecrease inhumanfreedom. Communism, failedbycomparisoninthecreation offinancialwealthandled revolutions, hobbledbythebureaucratization andideologicalrigidities of in financialwealthandevergreater disparitiesinincome;whilethesocialist the democraticrevolutions, byincreasing humanfreedom, ledtoavastincrease revolutions ofthe18thcenturyandsocialistrevolutions ofthe20th.Ironically timesthetwogreat wavesofegalitarianismwereIn modern thedemocratic movements forsocialequality. wealth andprivilegehavebeenthestuff of historyandhaveledtoperiodic itself mostefficient. Butthetensionsthatdevelopfrom theunequaldivisionsof private, individualcreation andaccumulationofwealththathumankind hasproven to thevagariesofNature associalanimals.Ironically, however, itisthrough the Through commonlanguagewesuccessfullycompetewithpredators andadapt through ouruseoflanguage.We donotfare wellasindividuals inNature. Humankind’s evolutionaryadvantageisourunequalledability toorganizesocially technologies thatwillputmediaattheforefront ofchangeinthedevelopingworld. We are atthebeginningofaworldrevolution incommunicationsandinformation Committee, GlobalForumforMediaDevelopment David Hoffman, President, InternewsNetworkChair, Management information accesswillhave to focusonthedevelopment of localmediawheremost people gettheirnews.” “Efforts toimprove “Efforts technologies are centraltothisprocess, from Sustainable DevelopmentDepartmentofthe 4 which ‘linksthechallengeofensuringfood From traditionalmediatotheInternet. outcomes suchasimproved pricespaidfor A viewstrengthened bytheanalysisof 2 development through knowledgebuilding Can InformationandCommunications for MediaDevelopment,Amman,Jordan, and informationsharing.Communication E. Forestier, J.GraceandC.Kenny(2002) crops inruraleconomies,reduced prices http://www.fao.org/sd/CDdirect/CDan0017.htm 5 communications networkswithspecific ownership oftelevisionwithmeasures See correlation oflowerlevelsstate Benjamin Compaine,MITPress, 2001 facing acrisisorcreating amyth? Development asFreedom security inAfricatohumanresource of autocracy, ofpolitical rights,and Knowledge andInformationfor Food andAgriculture Organisation, Telecommunications Policy26refer to studieswhichalsolinkaccess Governance andDevelopment: Governance traditional mediatotheInternet.’ presentation attheGlobalForum Washington DC:TheWorld Bank of inputs,theexpansionSMEs Media OwnershipandProsperity T. Nenova andA.Shliefer(2002) health andeducationoutcomes Technologies bepro-Poor? An EmpiricalPerspective, in World BankInstitute(ed) and betterpublicservices. food securityinAfrica: (Djankov, S.,C.McLiesh, University Press, 1999 1 6 The digitaldivide: D KaufmanMedia, The RighttoTell 3 October 2005. Amartya Sen, , Oxford about whetheritisincreasing ordecreasing. Much wassaidaboutthe"digitaldivide"andthere remains agreat dealofdebate 18 countries. which poverty mustbecomecentraltoanydevelopmentstrategy, assurveysshow, remains afundamentalchallengeforhumandevelopment andreducing information unequal distributionofwealth. between thelevelofcorruption andnationalincomethecorresponding relationship ofcorruptionandpoverty. There are statisticallyrelevant correlations In recent yearsagreat dealofresearch andattentionhasbeendevotedtothe media developmentindexthat wouldbeconsidered before awarding Bankloans. in developmentandthere is increasing interest attheBanktocreate aglobal World Bank,inparticular, hasbeguntorecognize thecentralrole thatmediaplay in mediadirectly increase indicatorsofsocialdevelopmentacross theboard. The is themessage",nowmore than40yearsold,graduallysinksin.Improvements in itsownright,astheramificationsofMarshallMcLuhan’s dictum"themedium greater awareness thatthevery process ofopenmediadeservestobesupported agricultural orhealthextensionprograms. More recently, however, there isa means todeliversocialmarketingmessages,particular content,insectorssuchas donor communityasanadjuncttocommunicationsfor development,mediaasa From itsbeginnings,thefieldofmediadevelopmentwasseenbyinternational with itsvibrantnationaldemocracyandhalfmillionvillages,ithardly existsatall. with hundreds ofstationsinasinglecountry, whileinothers,mostnotablyIndia some inAfrica,forexample,thecommunityradiomovementiswelladvanced the situationisimproving but stilluneven:inmanycountriesLatinAmericaand better health,environmental awareness andpeacefulresolution ofconflicts.Here from traditionalbroadcast media-informationthatfacilitatescivicengagement, outlets provide publicinterest newsandinformationthatcitizensoftendon’t get perspective, thesecommunityradiostations,localprivatebroadcasters andprint development oflocalmediawhere mostpeoplegettheirnews.From adevelopment Any efforts toimprove informationaccess,however, willhavetofocusonthe part ofanysolution. and complex social same istrueinpublichealth, The andarelatively freecountry withademocraticformofgovernment press". Sen hasalsofamouslyargued,"nosubstantialfamineeveroccurred ina information space,conflictandxenophobiaare more likelytofester. AsAmartya repression. Where staterunpropaganda andmisinformationdominatesthe political freedoms, limitingaccesstoinformationisessentialgovernment lead totheiralleviation.Intotalitarianstatesandcountrieswithrelatively fewer in AfricaandAsiathatwillidentifythese"informationblackholes"and,hopefully, own languages.There currently are severalprojects tomapthemedialandscapes unable toreceive anyinformationatallfrom outsidetheircommunitiesin access forgranted.Butthere are manyplacesintheworldwhere peopleare In thedevelopedworld,withitsubiquityofmedia,wetendtotakeinformation from war, povertyandrepression andfree tofulfillourhumanpotential. begin tounderstandhumandevelopmentasameasure ofhumanfreedom -free and education-thesumtotalofhumandevelopmentisincreased. Further, we By increasing freedom -through elections,openmarkets,andaccesstoinformation Amartya Senhaswrittenthat"freedom isthemeansandendofdevelopment". environment, exacerbatesproblems inpublichealth,andincreases poverty. increases corruption,fostersconflict,degradesthe and goodgovernance, link thegrowth oftelecommunicationsnetworkstoGDPgrowth inover 2 Unequal accesstoinformationinhibitsthegrowth ofcivilsociety political issuewhere accesstoinformationisanecessary 5 6 the environment, andeducation-any 1 But certainlypovertyofinformation 4 3 20 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 21 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives about economicdevelopment Paul Wolfowitz, President, World Bank without talkingabout “you reallycan'ttalk “you freedom ofthepress.” allocations onthegrounds ofpublicinterest. sector ofterrestrial broadcast, where natural estimates thatperhaps45countriesaround Financing InformationandCommunication 7 World SummitontheInformationSociety World: AWorld BankContributiontothe But even on the Internet, Freedom House But evenontheInternet, therefore thechance allowsgovernments scarcity demandseffective regulation and reduces transparency andresponsiveness This continuesmostconspicuouslyinthe the worldblockcontentinawaywhich Infrastructure Needsinthe Developing to control issuessuchasfrequency Washington, DC:TheWorld Bank. h h Working Group onFinancingICT t t t t p p : : / / / / w w / / w w p p f f w w s s 2 2 . . f f 8 0 0 r r World Bank(2005) 0 0 e e 0 0 e e / / d d s s o o u u m m s s s s h h m m o o a u u n n s s . . e e h h . . o o t t m m r r g g l l

would havebeenunimaginableevenonlyadecadeago. world’s populationliveswithintherangeofmobilephonesignals,figures which now haveafixedlinetelephoneconnectionandthatasmuch77%ofthe will winout.AWorld Bankstudyestimatesthatabouthalftheworld’s households their reflexive attemptstocontrol information.Inthelongrun,informationfreedom benefit from thenewglobaleconomy, inwhichICTplaysaprominent role, and areRepressive pressed stategovernments tochoosebetweentheirdesires to media andthemainstream press, willplayasignificantrole inexposingcorruption. media. Thesenewsources ofnewsandopinion,whilechallengingtraditional formatsthathavehelpeddemocratizethe viral mediaandcitizenjournalism Digital informationandcommunicationstechnologieshavenowspawnednew development withouttalkingaboutfreedomofthepress." issue ofcorruption.AsWolfowitz hassaid, media freedom isauniversalright;italsoprecondition fortacklingthecentral it wouldbeseenasinterferinginthedomesticpoliticsofsovereign states.But The Bankhasbeenreluctant inthepasttospeakoutonthisissueforfearthat homegrown independentmedia. bring. Soautocratsandcorruptpoliticianseverywhere seektosuppress their impunity outsidethebrightlightsandpublicexposure thatindependentmedia operatewith development. Corruptioncanonlyflourishwhengovernments leadtoeconomicandpolitical whichinturn transparency andgoodgovernance, making thecasethatstrong, independentnewsmediaplayakeyrole inpromoting World BankPresident, PaulWolfowitz, andseniorBankeconomistsare now offers forglobalgrowth, tradeand security. revolution oftheworldare minimalcompared to everycorner tothebenefitsit private sectorof development communityand the international tive andresponsive andgivemarginalized poor people avoice. crop yields,improve more markets,reduce effec- corruption, makegovernment technologies havethepotentialtoprovide valuableinformationthatcanincrease therightinvestmentsand apro-poor policyframework,newcommunications With The informationrevolution holdsgreat promise foreveryaspectofdevelopment. and distributionbenefitsofthenewmedia. andtheirmediatotakefulladvantageofthefinancial,production journalists media developmentfield,there ismuchworktodoretrain traditional they musttransformourworkoneverylevel.Forthoseofusworkinginthe cannot justbebuiltasanotherproject silobymediadevelopmentorganizations; convergent application-represent thefuture foreveryone.Digitalapplications andavarietyof phones andSMStextmessaging,onlinecitizenjournalism developing worldformanyyearstocome;but"newmedia"ofallkinds-cell remain theprimarysource ofnewsandinformationformostpeopleinthe media" willcontinuetobecentraldevelopment.Radio,inparticular, will While newdigitaltechnologiesposechallengesfortraditionalmedia,"old 7 " you reallycan'ttalkabouteconomic 8 xedn this extending The costs to and independentmediais Intercultural Tolerance Governance, PressFreedomand Integrating ApproachestoGood an essentialelementof “Let usstartfromthe “Let assumption thatfree prosperous society.” any stableand Global ForumonMediaDevelopmentinAmman,Jordan,October2005) Information, UnitedNations(Text adaptedfromkeynotespeechtothe in EastTimor, totakebuttwoexamples. Realizingthat,inorder topromote unity best toaidthedevelopment ofmedia,intheDemocraticRepublicCongoand Beyond theworkdonebyUN agencies,theUNitselfhasstruggledwithhow in thecountry. agency whichisalready usedwidely byscores ofnewnewspapersandbroadcasters news create aneditoriallyandfinanciallyindependentinternet-based journalists next doorinIraq,UNDPhasworkedwiththeReutersFoundation tohelpIraqi for press freedom guaranteesintheregion. Andinoneofitslargestprograms, a harshspotlightontherestrictions onindependentmediaandstrongly advocated vote count.IntheMiddleEastUNDP’s Arab HumanDevelopmentReporthascast oncoveringelectionsbefore, duringandafterthe workshops forlocaljournalists about everyweekinsomepartoftheworld-UNDPcountry offices organize democracies -UNDPandtheUN’s ElectoralAssistanceDivisionwork onanelection if necessary. Andaspartofitsworkhelpingtoorganizeelections inemerging arethrough advisedhowtolocateit-anddemandit, localmedia,andjournalists records anddataotherinformationreadily and availablethrough theinternet program are whereby encouragedandhelpedtomakepublic governments pendent media.UNDP’s Unithasastrong "accesstoinformation" Governance countries, UNDPstresses theimportanceofprovisions forsafeguarding aninde- When providing adviceonconstitutional andlegalsystemreforms indeveloping on independentmediadevelopmentindozensofdevelopingnations. UNESCO. Currently, theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram isactivelyworking Program -UNDPortheUNEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization in theformofpartnershipsbetweenmediaorganizersandUNDevelopment The UNhasdonesomeusefulworkinpromoting mediadevelopment,muchofit future forthemselvesandtheirchildren. information are atadistinctdisadvantagewhenitcomestobuildingbetter world, informationsowstheseedsofprosperity, andthosewithoutaccessto essential elementofanystableandprosperous society. globalizing Inthe modern you. Soletusstartfrom theassumptionthatfree andindependentmediaisan who givemuchcredence tothatmaxim.Whatyoudon'tknowcancertainlyhurt hurt you." There isasayingintheEnglishspeakingworld that Shashi Tharoor I trustthatthere mediaexpertsorpublicofficials are fewjournalists, , Under-Secretary GeneralforCommunicationandPublic "what youdon’tknowwon’t 22 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 23 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives INFORMATION ANDCOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIESAT THEHEART OFAGLOBALIZEDWORLD “Freedom ofinformation “Freedom access thisinformation.” don’t havethemeansto is meaninglessifpeople of technology thatcouldserveasthebridge betweentherighttoinformation When wespeaktodayabout mediadevelopment,wedosostandingonaplatform access toinformationisnotjust ahighlydesirableaim,butalsoincreasingly achievable. -universal world -aofsatellitetelevision, ofcell-phonesandtheinternet meaningless ifpeopledon’t havethemeanstoaccessthisinformation. Andinour This wasanimportantstatementofprinciple.Butfreedom ofinformationis ideas throughanymediaregardlessoffrontiers." opinions withoutinterferenceandtoseek,receive impartinformationand to freedomofopinionandexpression;thatthisrightincludes freedomtohold hadtheright 19 oftheUniversalDeclarationHumanRights,that everyone "as anessentialfoundationoftheinformationsociety, andasoutlinedinArticle Tunis inNovember2006foritssecondphase, participatingcountriesreaffirmed Nations conference held inGenevaDecember2003,andwhichreconvened in At thefirst-everWorld SummitontheInformationSociety, alandmark United in theUNcharter, of this newglobalsociety-oraprocess thatactuallydeliversonthepromise made divisive force -onethatmerely addstothegapbetweenhavesandhave-notsin We do,however, globalizationbea havesomechoiceoverhowitevolves.Will tion Whether welikeitornot,anewglobalsocietyisundoubtedlyevolvingandinforma- to theneedsanddemandsofallpeople. is onlysustainableifitsbenefitsare feltallaround theworldandifitresponds or evenofeconomics.Itisafact.Andinthelongterm,newglobaleconomy In thetwenty-firstcentury, globalizationitselfisnotamatterofpoliticalchoice, deliver atolerablestandard oflivingtoallpeople. ifweareknow thatitisapowerfulforce to thatcan-andmustbeharnessed technology isamagicformulathatgoingtosolveallourproblems. Butweall one market,audience,people.Nowouldarguethatinformation technologies haveshrunktheworldand-inareal sense-madeitallone: oftheglobe.Newcommunications tables, glimpsesofeventsfrom everycorner newspapers andmagazinesbringtoourlivingrooms, andevenourbreakfast Nowhere isglobalizationmore apparent thaninthemedia.Television, radio, recall thistoday?Becauseboththeriskandpotentialforasolutionhaveincreased. of injusticefeltbythoselivinginpovertyanddespairaworldplenty. Why thatanexplosionofviolencecouldoccurasaresult ofthesense U Thant,warned More thanfortyyearsago,in1962,theUnitedNations’Secretary-General, assumption thatIthinkwecanallacceptasfact.We liveinaglobalizingworld. andmediafreedom. Letmeaddanother be usefulinanydebateongoodgovernance It isonthebasisofourexperiencethatIwanttoexplore severalparametersthatmay be sustainedbeyondourmission. we havestruggledtofindwaysensure theverysuccessfulRadioOkapecan from scratch,onceorder wasrestored. AndintheDemocraticRepublicofCongo while everythingwehadcreated wasdestroyed. We hadtostartagain,almost wewere forcedlocal peopletooperatethem.In1999inEastTimor towatch reliable independentsources ofinformation,webuiltradionetworksandtrained and peaceinformeddecisions-making,weneedtoprovide peoplewith and communicationtechnologiesare thenervesystemofthisnewsociety. "better standardsoflifeinlargerfreedom"? THE HAVES ANDHAVE NOTSOFTHEINFORMATION DIVIDE rnhRvlto,isa French Revolution, revolution withalotof iet,somefraternity, liberty, eouin unlikethe revolution, “The information “The and noequality.” causes, learn todispelfear,causes, learn abouteachother. andabovealljustlearn torecognize hatredto seeourselvesasothers us,learn anddealwithits with theignorancethatsustains it.We willhavetoknoweachother better, learn headlines inrecent times. Ifterrorism istobetackledandended,wehavedeal tothisrecognition maybeterrorism,The alternative whichhassodominatedour easier thaneverbefore toseestrangersasessentiallynodifferent from ourselves. table, through ourdailydoseofmediamustalsobecomea worldinwhichitis A worldinwhichitiseasierthaneverbefore toseeorhearstrangersatourbreakfast other Arabic-languagenetworks. are alsowitnessingtheimpressive riseofAlArabiya,AbuDhabitelevision,and serves toprove thepoint.Indeed,AlJazeeradoesnotstand alone,becausewe media. Andweknowthatthisispossible.Thesuccess ofAlJazeera,forinstance, those partsoftheworldthatare, asyet, recipients ratherthanproducers, of One waytochangethisisincrease the numberandvolumeofvoicesfrom fragility ofyourlivelihoodasnogreat significance totherest oftheworld. or peripheral,yourreligious beliefsasincomprehensible andthreatening, andthe assideissues,summedupyourcultureindeed lifethreatening asbarbaric -concerns Imagine iftheonlymediatowhichyouhadaccessdismissedyourmosturgent- The globalizedmediahasfewauthenticvoicesfrom thedevelopingworld. suffered andbeabletoexpress one’s suffering inthelanguageofjournalist. speaks English?" going around withhiscameraandcallingout, Edward BehrspottedaTVnewsmanincampofviolatedBelgian nuns, journalist First World language.AsfarbackasthefirstCongocivilwarin1960s, of thedevelopedWest. There isanoccasionalThird World voice,butitspeaksa whatpassesforglobalmediaisstilllargelythe television, radioortheinternet, century reflects theinterests ofitsproducers. Whether weare talkingabout Equally important,there isalsoacontentdivide.Theglobalmediaofthe21st new globalmediathattheyknowwillhaveapowerfulinfluenceontheirlives. inthedevelopingworldfeeltheyhavelittlecontrol overthis even governments divide.Manypeople,companiesand of centuries.Andthere isagovernance yet togainfulladvantagefrom changesthatcouldultimatelyredress theinequalities than Africa’s 800millioncitizens.There isagenderdivide:womenandgirlsare bandwidth that 400,000citizensofLuxemburgcancountonmore international seventy percent oftheworld’s usersliveinthe24richestcountriesand internet There isatechnologicaldivide-theenormous gapinaccessthatmeans This dividehasmanyaspects. those withaccesstothebenefitsofthisbravenewworld,andwithout. What wehaveatpresent isaninformationdivide-enormousgapbetween fraternity, andnoequality. revolution, unliketheFrench Revolution,isarevolution withalotofliberty, some There are manyreasons forthis,butoneimportantreason isthattheinformation and itsrealization. Andyetthisnewworldisnot yetasaferormore justworld. In otherwords, itisnotenoughtohave suffered: onemusthave "Anybody herebeenrapedand 24 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 25 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives GOOD GOVERNANCEORAFREEPRESS:WHICHCOMES FIRST? THE CHALLENGEFORMEDIADEVELOPMENT • • • • media thatis The challengeformediadevelopmentinsuchanenvironment istodevelop be reinforced. Where thishappensinnewsprogramming, narrativesthatare familiartendto rates canmeanthatprograms are pitchedatthelowestcommondenominator. We needtobecautious,becausethewinlargeaudienceswithlowliteracy regional issuesratherthandomesticones. andinternational material thatenlargestheirmarket-share across theArabworldandfocuson world. Thishasservedasaforce forpromoting Arab unity, asprogrammers seek pan-Arab marketwithmultiplechannelsavailablealmosteverywhere intheArab expansion inmedia,especiallysatellitetelevision,andthegrowth ofahuge It ispossible.AsImentionedpreviously, intheMiddle-Eastthere hasbeenadramatic thatsuppress themedia? due toconflictorsystemsofgovernance free expression hasneverbeenthenorm,orwhere thisfreedom hasbeenlost the sumofhumanknowledgeandboostsopportunityinsocietieswhere such So howdowebestencouragethegrowth ofa mediaenvironment thataddsto question. Inmany placeswehaveseenhow themediacanbecome asubstitute orafree presswhich comesfirst-theinstitutions ofgoodgovernance -isavalid transparencyhas inpromoting andaccountabilityisbeyonddoubt, government There isrightandwrong inboththesepositions.Whilethe vitalrole themedia were established. of governance best, ignore and,atworst,inhibitthefreedom ofthepress untilsoundmechanisms wouldfollow,good institutionsofgovernance and thosewhopreferred to,at who wantedaquickandsubstantialeffort to establishafree press, claimingthat At someofthesediscussions,aninteresting conflictemergedbetweenthose the role ofthemedia. and aspecificitythathaslongbeenlackingindiscussions oftheimportance some yearspriortothewar, beenthesonofdictator-haslentanurgency unionhad,for pendent mediainacountrywhere theheadofjournalists’ But itisequallytruethatthisparticularproject -thecreation offree andinde- traditions oftheregion. it isessentialtoincludethosewithagenuineaffinity tothehistory, culture, and adequately represented insomeofthesefora.Ifsuchdiscussionistobefruitful, develop amediaculture inIraq.Unfortunately, Iraqisthemselveswere not These issueshavecometothefore recently indiscussionsabouthowbestto reminding viewersoftheirrightsandobligations. empowering, reaffirming asenseofresponsible citizenship by authentic, inreflecting theviewsofpublic towhichitisaddressed; and keepcomingback; totrusttheinformationtheyarecredible, receiving sothatviewerslearn change thechannel; attractive, sothatviewersinasaturatedmarketdon’t simply PARAMETERS FORMEDIADEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMES does notincludetheright “Freedom ofexpression “Freedom to falselycry ‘fire’ ina crowded theatre.” US Supreme CourtJustice media can,sadly, sometimesprove tobe But letusalsonotpretend thatathrivingmediaisalwaysforce forgood.Afree than thosewithout.Freedom toseek,receive, impart,anduseinformationisvital. with accesstoinformationhavefarmore chanceofenjoyingthefruitsdevelopment of fundamentalhumanrightsandessentialtodevelopment.Thepeoplecountries of HumanRights;Anindependentandcredible mediaisessentialtotheenjoyment and immutablehumanright,setoutinarticle19oftheUN’s UniversalDeclaration To saythisisnottoadvocatecensorship.Freedom ofexpression isaninalienable toresponsiblemedia canbecomeadisastrous politics. alternative rewarded forbeingobjective,andare notpunishedforfanningflamesof intolerance, are(some mightsayacaricature) not ofgenuinepoliticaldebate.Ifjournalists for democraticpoliticalexpression, withmediatalkshowsservingasafacsimile to abetter, safer, andmore prosperous world,wemustaccept thatthere isno First, ifourefforts toassistwithmediadevelopmentare togenuinelycontribute societies trembling onthebrinkofanapocalypse? But whatdowewhenthe verycourtsthemselvesdon’t exist?Whatabout must formpartofourmediadevelopmentprograms. acknowledged thatwhenthoselawsandrestraints donotexist,theircreation ‘fire’inacrowdedtheatre." the righttofalselycry Court Justiceoncesoeloquentlyputit, but fewdoubtthatsomelegalrestrictions are reasonable. AsaUSSupreme against slanderandlibel.We maynotlikethespecificsofsomethoselaws, andwriterscommentators isnotunfettered. Therejournalists are laws Even incountrieswithalongtraditionofensuringpress freedom, theworkof was owes somethingtotheirresponsible conductof"hatemedia"which,heexplained, ed, thepoliticalviolencethathaswrackedCôted’Ivoire overthelastfewyears comes tomind.And,asUnitedNationsSecretary-General KofiAnnan hasreport- The role playedbythemediaofbothsidesinfuellingconflict theBalkansalso media isnotalwaysvirtuous. propaganda armoftheHutugenocidaires. Butclearly evennon-government ment. Ofcourse,itwasnotatrulyindependentmediaoutlet;was,rather, the Collines servedaterriblepurpose,anditwasnotthatofthelegitimategovern- representatives thatseemed inclinedtoseekpeace.RadioMille ofagovernment the genocidebeganRwandanpresident wasassassinated,alongwithother effective wayofcontrolling thepeoplethemselves.ButinRwanda,evenbefore have longknownthatcontrolling theinformationthatpeoplereceive isavery occurred becausethemediawasinserviceofatyrant.Tyrants anddictators In thecaseofStreicher, itispossibletoarguethatthisabuseofthepower create anddestroyfundamentalhumanvaluescomeswithgreatresponsibility." Der Stürmer. Initsjudgment,theCourtaffirmed: sentenced NazipublisherJuliusStreicher todeathforhisanti-Semiticpublication victions were thefirstoftheirkindsinceAlliedTribunal atNuremberg in1946 conspiracy, crimesagainsthumanity, extermination,andpersecution.Thesecon- the 1994genocide.Thethree menwere convictedofgenocide,incitementto Tribunal forRwandatheirrole inincitingtheircompatriotstokillTutsis during Rwandan mediafigures were sentenced tolengthyjailtermsbytheInternational "fuelling thetensions,[encouraging]xenophobiaandincitingviolentacts." "hate media." "Freedom ofexpressiondoesnotinclude "The powerofthemediato Media professionals have On 3December2003,three 26 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 27 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives AFFIRMING OURDIVERSITY;ACHALLENGETOTHEMEDIA “There isonlyone “There and onlyoneevil, od knowledge good, ignorance.” Socrates to workmaketheworld safefordiversity. goal isessential,andincreasingly beingrealized. Butitisalsotimeforallofus have heard inthepastthatworldmustbemadesafefordemocracy. That forms ofmediaare able toflourishandcontendfortheirplaceinthesun.We and toguaranteethatindividualvoicesfindexpression, andthatallideas The onlywaytomeetthischallengeispreserve culturalfreedom inallsocieties challenge before themediatoday. worth astheabilitytoeatanddrinksleepundera roof, isalsopartofthe affirming thatculturaldistinctiveness isascentraltohumanity’s senseofitsown nology. Ourglobalmediashouldbearthisfactinmind.Recognizingit,and more wealth thantheirpresent, whoseculture ismore valuablethantheirtech- eties whoserichnessliesintheirsoulandnotsoil,pastoffers one style,orwayofdoingthings.Indeed,there exist,around us,manysoci- Fortunately, weliveinadiverseandvariegatedworld.There isnoonestandard, fundamental, universalhumanrights. its toleranceofdissent,celebrationculturaldiversity, anditsinsistenceon countriesbutinthecreation ofaglobalcivilizationthatisdefinedby strife-torn regardless offrontiers, the mediawillplayitspartnotjustintherenewal of understanding oftheworld.To beaforce forgood,themediamustbe rebuild needamediathathaslocalfaceandvoice, reflects alocal "one sizefitsall" ignorance." As Socratestaughtus, we willbecontributingnotjusttopeacein-country, butalsotoglobalsecurity. local voicestobeheard across ourglobalizedworld.Andifwecanachievethis simply besustainable.Itmustalsoseektoprovide thebestpossiblechancefor establishment ofasecond-classmedia.Whatassistanceisoffered mustnot this need.Soitisnotinanyofourinterests toprovide supportforthe been stronger. Apluralisticglobalmedia canplayasignificantrole infulfilling tolerance, understandingandaffirmation ofourcommonhumanityhasnever And finally, inaworldwhere peoplefearaclashofcivilizations,theneedfor we mustaskourselveshowtoaddress dilemmaslikethis. Arguably not,andifmediaprofessionals are totakeourresponsibilities seriously, orsetupabroadcast studio? independent judiciaryasitdoestotrainajournalist at ourperil.Doesittakethesameamountoftimetobuildalegalsystemandan questions abouttimingandprioritiesallocationofresources thatweignore as partofanintegratedapproach tonationbuilding. Butthisraisessometricky andpress freedomconcepts -goodgovernance -canandmustdeveloptogether, Ofcourse,thesimpleansweristhattwo institutions ofgoodgovernance. media cannotbedivorced from theestablishmentofsocialandpolitical enough tofocusonlyonthemedia.Thesurvivalofatrulyfree andindependent itisnot undoubtedly aidthecreation ofbetterinstitutionsgovernance, Second, althoughtheestablishmentofafree and independentmediawill cannot substitute.Buttheycanhelp. people," and outsiders-eventhemostskilledbest-intentioned If itcanhelppromote thevitalexchangeofideasandinformation for mediacontent.Countriesandsocietiesstrugglingto "there isonlyonegood,knowledge;andevil, " of the Speech inthePublicSphere Media Developmentand really auniversalgoalof “Is awesternstylepress “Is national development?” prerequisites ofdemocracy andculturalchangegenerally. Theseprerequisites thecultural at leasttwoimportantsets of problems. Oneoftheseconcerns In thecontextofmediadevelopment, Habermas’s workcanbeseenasaddressing (Habermas 1979,p.97). it,speechwouldbe impossible and operatesthrough communication.Without a neversilentalthoughseldomredeemedclaimtoreason" ment evenifitisanagreement todisagree. Thistelosisa not alwaysagree, butspeechofanykindassumesanorientation towards agree- press accomplishtoservedemocraticends? Most importantly, whethercommercial, public,ormixed,exactlywhatmustthe needed. Isacommercial press enough?Whataboutpubliclyfundedsystems? 1995; Nerone 1995).Butconsiderabledisagreement remains overexactly whatis the effects ofbottomlineprioritiesinthemediaandalsoethnocentric (Bates Today thisanalysisofpress-state relations isconsidered dated, bothnaïveabout was promoted asthesystemyoungdemocraciesneededforsuccessfuldemocracy. ownership ofmediawouldbeforbidden.Formanyyearsthelibertarianmodel argues thatunderstandingisthe causes someoneelsetopresume thisorientation,thoughasafalsehood.He But forHabermas,lyingitselfpreys uponunderstandingbecauseinlyingone intuitive inthefaceofcommonformsdeceit,manipulation, andsimplebias. "oriented towardreachingunderstanding." underlying speech.Theassumptionisthatthe structure ofspeechis Habermas arguesthatinallhumaninteractionthere isauniversalassumption But akindofimpressionistic accountofhiskeyideasmayserveforpresent purposes. world,andhencehisworkisformidablycomplex. to comebyinapostmodern sociologist JurgenHabermas(1984,1987).Answerstothesequestionsare hard Today themostwidelyacclaimedanalysisofthesequestionsisthatGerman styledpress reallyis awestern auniversalendgoalofnationaldevelopment,ornot? Both? Neither?Doesfree speechmeanprecisely thesamethingeverywhere? And, Whereas a guaranteed byprivateownershipofmediacouldonlyexistwithinademocraticstate. exist. Forexample,the"libertarian"modelofpress inwhichfree speechwas generally, inwhichthesemodelscould inrelation tothekindsof governments the contextofcoldwaritclassifiedpress-state models,includingmassmedia era wasFourTheoriesofthePress (Siebert,Petersonetal.1963).Publishedin The definitiveEnglishlanguageanalysisofpress-state relations inthePostWWII Thomas Jacobson, and Theater, Temple University Temple Theater, and "Soviet" model wassuitableforacommuniststateinwhichprivate Professor School of Communications Communications of School Professor "telos" of humancommunication.Individualsdo " Man bitesdog" Habermas’s claimmayseemcounter- "…gentle butobstinate, news? Civicjournalism? that isembodiedin 28 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 29 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives CULTURAL CHANGE ANDTHEPUBLICSPHERE MODERNIZATION, ANORIENTATION TOWARD UNDERSTANDING, ANDTHEPUBLICSPHERE with otherperhaps abandoned, andwhattraditional practicesshouldbecombinedinhybridform traditional practicesshouldbepreserved, whattraditionalpracticesshouldbe contextualizing publicopinion.Thesemediacondition public opiniononwhat Yet allmediaandformsofexpression playarole ininforming,motivating,and ideas are expressed artisticallyandsomeare expressed inescapistentertainment. through Someofthese radio, television,film,andincreasingly overtheInternet. mediacirculateThe publicsphere ideas extendsbeyondnewsmedia.Modern therefore behandledinthepublicsphere, explicitly. that duringsuchperiodsofrapidchange,democraticcultural valuesmust clear thatdemocraticculture mustbeactively in youngdemocraciesundergoingmore rapidprocesses ofsocialchange itbecomes has cometoseem tookplaceintheWest overaperiodofcenturies,democraticculturesuch learning embodiedinculturalinstitutions.Perhapsbecause social andhistoricallearning relationships inanoverlynarrow fashion.They, too,overlookthefullrangeof andthepublicsphere tendtofocusonpress-statestudies ofmedia,governance, Due inparttothecommonemphasisonscientificandtechnicalknowledge, toward understanding,andallcontributetothepublicsphere. consider theviewsofothersandcompromise, i.e.thehallmarksofanorientation Yet allthesediscourses,includingscience,share theabilityandwillingnessto are muchbroaderand hencetheculturalvaluesofmodernity thansciencealone. modernity. Democracy, justice,andhencedemocraticmediauserely onthemall, other words discussions,ordiscourses, ofmanykindsare prerequisites of social norms,infamilydiscussionsofchildrearing practices,inart,andmore. In the useof other usesofreason aswell.Reason,inhisview, includessciencebutextendsto scientistic viewofreason istoonarrow. results from Modernity thespread of viewed asthemainprerequisite ofmodernity. ForHabermastheemphasisona technological reason throughout society. From thisperspectivescienceisoften haveoftenfocusedonthespread ofscientificand Studies ofmodernization much more mustbeaccomplishedaswell. UN HumanRightsChartersuggests,withoutinterference. Butitisaspacewhere and thestate.Itisaspacewhere ideasmustbeexpressed, asArticle19ofthe for publicdiscussionthatexistshalf-waybetweentheprivatesphere ofcivilsociety problems canbeviewedinrelation tothe sake ofdemocracy, presuming thattheprerequisites are inplace.Bothsetsof repr actions with the acquire, and protect, iftheyare tobuildsustainabledemocracies.Theotherconcerns represent that young democraciesmust theculturalinstitutionsofmodernity the present andfuture, through andchoosing aprocess thatinvolvesboth learning traditions ofthepastare filtered astheybecomecombinedwiththepractices of The pointisthatthepublic sphere isabroad andsprawlingaffair inwhichthe specification of key stakeholders in media and democratic governance along specification ofkeystakeholdersinmediaanddemocraticgovernance interactions amongthesestakeholders.Thesekeystakeholdersandtheirinter- "good reasons" esent whatmustbeaccomplishedthrough communicationforthe "natural." "newer" in legaldiscussions,discussionsregarding preferred practices, includingspeech practices. But itisnot.Whenpress-state relations are observed "public sphere," "learned." It alsobecomesclear the figurativespace CULTURE AND“UNIVERSALRIGHTS” COLONIZATION OFTHECULTURAL LIFEWORLD rights," that theuniversalisticbasisofjusticeandrightsisnotasetspecific over thepast200yearsinhighlyvariedculturalcontexts.Hetherefore argues underlies strugglesforrightswhichhaveappeared more andmore commonly treated fairly, tobeunderstoodinone’s ownculturalcontext.Thisuniversaldesire viewpoint." understanding embodiedinspeechneverthelessestablishesauniversal birth. Butatthesametimehearguesthatunconsciousorientationtowards rights tofree speech,tolife,andothers,maynotbeuniversallypossessedupon Habermas’s approach tojusticeandrightsisadmitthatspecificrights,suchas of justiceandrights. tofindauniversalisticbasisuponwhichdefendintuitions But heisstillconcerned each willcontinuetocherishsome,probably many, ofitstraditionalculturalvalues. of thefactthateachsocietywilltraveladifferent pathtoward developmentand value ofhumanlife,haveeverbeenfullyuniversal.Habermasistherefore mindful Anthropology teachesusthatnosubstantivevalues, evenfree speechandthe can sustainablechangebeachieved. collectively inart,entertainment,education,scholarship,andthepublicsphere, andchoosingisdoneconsciously among citizens.Andonlyifthislearning Culture comprisesthe democratic legislation. accomplished through voluntaryreflection andcollectivediscussionleadingto forced unwillinglyfrom theoutside.Theadoptionofspecificrightscanonlybe motivations comefrom culture aswellindividualexperience,theycannotbe new lawsmustbeinaccord withthemotivationsofindividualcitizens.Because reason forthishybridizationisthatvoluntaryobservanceofthelawrequires that the moralviewpointwitheachsociety’s ownculturalpreferences. Thenecessary tradition. Nevertheless,specificandjustlawcanonlyariseasahybridcombining specific rightwhichcanonlybeadoptedfrom withinaculturalframeworkof There isadelicatebalancebetweenthemoralviewpointwhichuniversaland increasingly widespread apparently becausetheyembodythemoralviewpoint. media owners andshareholders. Italsoinvolvesmanipulation ofthelevers down ofpubliccommunication. Thisisnotsimplyamatterofgreed among Lifeworld colonizationisone importantcauseofthemuchlamenteddumbing the proper role ofpublicdiscoursewhich isorientedtoward understanding. when economicandadministrative reasoning, orientedtoward efficiency, replaces with histhesison discussion withinfamiliesandintheartworld.Habermas addresses thisproblem and withincommunities.Economicreasoning sometimeseventakesoverfor Economic justificationsoftentakeoverforpedagogicaldiscussions amongeducators displacing discussionamongpublicssmallandlargeas the basisforpolicymaking. imperatives haveintoomanyrespects takenoverasthebasisforpolicymaking, tration. IntheindustrializedWest, economicjustificationsandbureaucratic byadminis- put toonarrow anemphasis onmarketrationalityandgovernment take place.However, thelifeworldcanbedamagedwhenpowerfulinstitutions but isinsteadasetofevolving This moralviewpointisexperiencedasthedesire tobeheard and "colonization ofthelifeworld." "lifeworld" in whichindividuallivesandcollectiveactivities "universalizable rights," Lifeworld colonizationoccurs rights thatare "universal " moral 30 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 31 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives STAKEHOLDERS INMEDIAANDGOVERNANCE to the them, andfeedthemintoformalpoliticalbodies.Habermasrefers inthisregard Most generally, there mustbeamechanismtocollectideas,refine them,filter voice ofcitizensacross thefullrangeoftheirinterests. that mediarepresent publicopinioninawaythatmeaningfullyexpresses the transparency andaccountability.governmental Itistheadditionalrequirement is related to,butseparatefrom thenewsmedia’s importantrole infacilitating istoremain responsiveflows ifgovernance tocitizens.Thisisarequirement that democracyrequiresby lifeworldcolonization,modern anelaboratesetofinformation Even iftheculturalprerequisites ofdemocracyare inplaceandare notundermined understanding thatdemocracyandvibrantculturalliferequire. becomesastrategicprocess devoidoftheorientationtowardsGovernance identity isstrippedofculturalcontext,andlongtermsocialviabilitysuffers. affected. Educationishobbledinitsabilitytotransmitsocialnorms,individual fully reflect socialinterests diminishes,manysocialsubsystemscanbeadversely When moneyandpowerare exertedbehindthescenesandmedia’s abilityto of theirown.Andthedamagingconsequencesare notlimitedtopoorjournalism. without plannedintentionasaresult ofbureaucratic processes thattakeonalife power bythosewiththecapabilitytodoso,sometimesintentionallyand legislative bodiesandcourts inthecore. in democraticcommunication mustfeedintoinstitutionalizeddiscoursesamong audiences. Theinformation andopinionsgeneratedamongallthesestakeholders civil societyleadersand,importantly, the publicopinionindustryandmedia practiced bymediasystems but whichalsoinvolvespoliticians,lobbyists,influential The mediatedpublicsphere isamore organized sphere ofpoliticalcommunication society. Themodeofcommunication there is every-day-talkinepisodicpublics. interest groups express aquasiorganizedform ofactivityamongcitizensincivil conditions speaking openly on street corners isoflittlevalue.Allthepublic conditions speakingopenlyonstreet corners these linesfree However, andopendebatetookplaceonstreet corners. inmodern worse inafreeandopenencounter?(Milton,(1909-14)." Milton inhisAreopagitica, publishedin1644, "epistemic" value ofthepublicsphere, whichishiswayofsecondingJohn and associationalnetworkssuchascitizen of politicalcommunication.Socialmovements The centercolumnrepresents related arenas position betweencivilsocietyandthestate. occupies roughly amiddle,orintermediary, the figure showsthatthepublicsphere public sphere. Therighthandcolumnof political system(Habermas1996,p.356-8). or sluiced,intoparliamentsinthecore ofthe citizen discoursesfrom theperiphery tobefed, to indicatetheneedforwildandoverlapping he borrows themetaphorofa public spheres andcore publicspheres. And Habermas refers toboth formal decision-makingbodies.Here value unlessitinformsthedeliberationsof discourse intheworldisofnodemocratic F F i i g g u u r r e e

1 1 " …who everknewTruth puttothe indicates thestructure ofthe When Miltonpenned "weak" "sluice gate" or peripheral IMPLICATIONS FORMEDIADEVELOPMENT and opinionprocessing byrelying onalargeanddiversecollectionofstakeholders. sphere suggeststhatthemediamustaccomplishacomplex process ofinformation On thematterofwhatneeds tobeaccomplished,hisanalysisofthepublic mean preciselythesamething everywhere?" democraticends?" must thepressaccomplishtoserve standard libertariantheory, andaskedbywayofintroduction. that Habermas’s theoryaddresses twomainquestionsleftoverbythepassing of eventhisbriefandhighlyselectivereview ofkey ideasitispossibletosee With is pushedasidebytheinappropriate intrusionofcorporateandadministrativepriorities. themselves are underminedwhenevertheorientationtoward understandinginmedia generally are endangered. Inotherwords, theculturalprerequisites of democracy individual identities.Indeed,discoursesofactionorientedtoward understanding threatens socialintegration,transmissionofnorms,healthy formationof culture through entertainmentprogramming aswellnews,colonizationalso a broader threat aswell.Duetothefactthat allmediaparticipateindemocratic But colonizationandthenon-representative informationflowsitproduces comprise undermine thelegitimacyofdemocraticinstitutions. threatens to them, andfeedthemintothepoliticalsystem.Andthis,inturn, to undermineprocesses through whichmediacollectideas,refine them,filter bypublicdiscoursethreatenstrative prioritiesintoareas thatshouldbegoverned system. Publicopinionaffects allthesamegroups thatprovide inputtothe the extentthatmediaandpublicopinionindustriesare bothpartofasingle The massmediahaveasignificantimpactonpublicopinion,andviceversa,to of thewaythatmediaselectissuestopublicize,chooseindividualsanalyze other stakeholders.Outputfrom themediaispublicopiniongeneratedbyvirtue from politicalpartiesandpoliticianswhohavemore accesstothemediathando as wellgeneralinterest groups, expertsandintellectuals.Inputalsocomes more detail.Inputintothemediacomesfrom specialinterest groups andlobbies F i i g g u u r r e e

2 2 shows informationflowsinandoutofthemediatedpublicsphere in that theintrusionoffinancialandadminis- societies. Thecolonizationthesissuggests accuracy, andqualityinevendeveloped there isoftenasignificantshortfallinfidelity, colonization thesisindicates,hebelievesthat standards societiesmustfulfill.Andashis democracy comprisesastringentsetof tioning ofinformationflowsnecessaryto Habermas recognizes thatthehealthyfunc- they facilitate,are offundamentalimportance. representations, andthequalityofdiscussions Of coursethefidelityandaccuracyofmedia the interests ofothers. responding tothemediatedexpressions of ing innatelyheldinterests whilealso log inthemediatedpublicsphere, express- which allstakeholdersattempttoaffect dia- media, thusformingafeedbackcyclein And, "Does freespeech "What exactly, 32 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 33 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives “Producing representative “Producing and responsivepublic prducing shoelaces.” opinion isnotlike and debateskillsorientedtoward understanding(notalwaysagreement!). processes dedicatedtotheacquisitionofdiscussion,analysis, community learning institutions, civicorganizations,localnon-profits, andothersingenerating and hopes.Mediadevelopmentinitiativesshouldtherefore involveeducational citizen participantsthemselvesandtestedagainsttheirownpreferences, traditions, another. Rather, suchprocedures canonlybeplanted as ideastobetakenupby On thematterofspeechvalues,hesays citizens andinstitutionstoparticipateindiscursiveprocedures. must alsoplayaleadingrole intheevolutionofculturalnormsandskills,enabling And todothis,especiallyinyoungdemocracies,thepress andthemediagenerally culture, shouldalsoengagecontemporaryissues ofsocialchange. cultural institutions.Andtheseefforts, whileincludingcelebrationsoftraditional thevitalityof should encouragenationaldevelopmentpoliciesthatharness organizations inaddressing collectiveissuesinculturallyresonant ways,and Media developmentefforts shouldtherefore engageartistsandartsbased reflected oncollectively. Theseculturalissuesincludematterslikespeechfreedoms. any case,butatleastsomeculturalissuescanbetaken updeliberatelyand the publicsphere isavitaltoolofculturalchange.Culture change takesplacein range across includingculture. theentire Forthisreason gamutofcitizenconcerns cannot be booths, privatelyownednewspapers,andelectionlaws.Democraticprocedures them.Theseprocedural normsareand societiesmustlearn asimportantvoting structures ofhumancommunication.However, asreal socialpractices, individuals fulfill, andpolicymakersshouldsupportdetailedresearch intothesefunctions. debates withfullawareness ofthecomplexprocedural functionsmediamust heated. However, globalforumsformediadevelopment shouldhostsuch this challenge,includingthepossibleuseofpubliclyfinancedmedia,isoften to deliverthisqualityisachallenge.Debateoversuitableapproaches tomeeting and citizeninterests mustbeveryhigh,andbuildingthenecessarymediainstitutions The qualityofnewscoverage,analysis,responses topolitical institutions not automaticallyfulfilledsimplybyvirtueofthemediabeingprivatelyowned. and themediaplayaconstitutiverole inthisdiscursiveprocedure. Butthisrole is priorities donotserveallsocial processes equallywell.Producing representative importance forimproving life opportunitiesthrough economicgrowth. Butmarket social reproduction, anditmustberesisted. Marketrationalityisoffundamental can bedrawn. good one,thenafewspecificimplicationsofthistheoryformediadevelopment isa If thisaccountofhumancommunicationandtheinstitutionsgovernance excessive marketandadministrativepriorities. through speechorientedtoward understanding,whichmustbeprotected from engendering democraticnormsanddiscursiveskillsallcanonlybeacquired even European nations.Finally, thepublicopinionprocess alongwithprocesses and doesvaryascaneasilybeseenwhencomparingspeechprotections among always dependtosomedegree onculture. Themeaningoffree speechmust the moralviewpoint,healsoarguesthatembodimentofthisviewpointwill where. WhileHabermashopesfornotionsofjusticeandrightsthatare basedon 3 2 1 4 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) The concerns discussedinthepublicsphere areThe concerns notlimitedtopoliticsbut The normsenablingdiscursiveprocedures mayreflect unconsciousuniversal The centralfeature ofdemocraticpoliticallifeconsistsindiscursiveprocedure, Lifeworld colonizationthreatens tounderminedemocratic legitimacyand "transplanted" as brickandmortarinstitutionsfrom oneculture to " no" they are notthesamethingevery-

CONCLUSION REFERENCES yet tobebuilt. cultural institutions,i.e.theorientationtoward understanding,havesometimes the culturalprerequisites ofdemocracyembodiedinsocialnormsandmodern However, inotherways,youngdemocraciesfacethegreater challenge.Forhere about thearbitraryexercise ofpoliticalpowerovermediaandaboutcorporatization. challenges are similarinyoungandmore mature democracies.Bothmustworry as hasbeenindicatedhere atleastbriefly. In certainways,mediadevelopment environment. Theimplicationsofhistheoryformediadevelopmentare numerous, within atheoretical frameworkdefensibleinthecontemporaryphilosophical Habermas’s singularcontributionistorelate eachproblem totheothersystematically must berespected. Institutionscannotbetransplanted.Marketscanrunamok. Most oftheseproblems havebeenexplored invariouswaysbyothers.Culture employed inwaysthatfacilitatepublicdiscourseandwhentheseforces inhibitit. democracy contextstodifferentiate whentheforces ofmoneyandpowerare politically protected speech.Careful analysisisneededacross thevarietyofyoung resisting thepressure toequatemoneyandpaidcommercial advertisementswith include policiesrestricting consolidationofownershipaswellregulations democracy friendlypolicies.Thesewillvarybyculture andregion butshould cultural life.Mediadevelopmentworkatthebroadest levelshouldencourage impoverishment thatnotonlyattenuatespoliticaldiscussionbutunderminesvital them lessabletoreflect thefullrangeofcitizeninterests. Thedangeriscultural media prioritiestoprofit maximizationcanrigidifyandflattenmedia,making and responsive publicopinionisnotlikeproducing shoelaces.Enslavementof and solidarity. London,Verso. Habermas, J.(1992).Autonomy Boston, BeaconPress. tique offunctionalistreason. of communicativeaction:Acri- Habermas, J.(1987).Thetheory Boston, BeaconPress. and therationalizationofsociety. of communicativeaction:Reason Habermas, J.(1984).Thetheory of society. Boston,BeaconPress. Communication andtheevolution Habermas, J.(1979). of NorthwesternUniversity. in CommunicationsPolicyStudies Annenberg Washington Program and Ours.Washington D.C.,The Hutchins Commission,ItsTimes, Journalism withDemocracy:The Bates, S.(1995).Realigning IL, UniversityofIllinoisPress press shouldbeanddo.Urbana, communist conceptsofwhatthe responsibility, andSoviet authoritarian, libertarian,social Four theoriesofthepress:The Siebert, F., T. Peterson,etal.(1963). Illinois Press. the press.Urbana,Universityof rights: Revisitingfourtheoriesof Nerone, J.C.,Ed.(1995).Last Collier &Son. Classics.NewYork:Harvard P.F. Areopagitica. Vol. III,Part3.The Milton, J.(1909-1914). MIT Press. democracy. Cambridge,MA,The oflawand to adiscoursetheory facts andnorms:Contributions Habermas, J.(1996).Between 34 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 35 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives Tackling GlobalPoverty the RelevanceofMediato Why theMediaMatters: Consortium • • • • development, principallyinfourways: development ofthemedia.Asthispaperwillargue,mediaplaysacriticalrole in This paperfocusesontherole ofmediaindevelopment,ratherthansimplythe than thosethatexistedinthe20th. series ofchallengestotherole ofthemediain developmentinthe21stCentury for MediaDevelopment,factorsthatimplyarapidlydeveloping,starklydifferent A rich,complexsetoffactorsprovided thebackground tothefirstGlobalForum James Deane • • • on therole of themediaandfocusesparticularlyonfoursetsofissues: This papertherefore seekstoprovide adevelopmentcontexttocurrent debates people ontheplanetlivinglessthan$2aday. 21st Centuryandwhytherole itplaysmattersmosttothealmost3billion such, itprovided afresh opportunitytoreflect onwhythemediamattersin development strategieshadundergonesubstantialreview andrestructuring. As energy andcommitmenttotackleglobalpoverty, andatatimewheninternational The GlobalForumforMediaDevelopmenttookplaceatatimeofrenewed by muchofthemediaitself. organizations formanyyears.Ithasnotalwaysbeenapreoccupation shared are newbuttheyhavepreoccupiedNone oftheseconcerns development marginalisation canbefreely discussedandfeedintopublicdebate; In providing publicspacesandforawhere issuesofpovertyand In reflecting theperspectivesofsuchpeopleinitscoverage; the marginsofsociety; In coveringissuesofrelevance tothoselivinginpovertyandat sense oftheirlives; In providing peoplewithaccesstoinformationthatenablesthemmake society, questionswhich mediaandsupport organizationsthemselves decade orso,raiseprofound new questionsabouttherole of themediain How theprofound changesinthecommunicationlandscapeover last in current development strategies; Why, perversely, mediaand communicationsupporthasfeatured sopoorly poverty by2015; determining successorfailure inhalvingthenumberofpeople livingin Why therole ofthemediaisincreasingly acknowledged asbeingcriticalin , Managing Director, CommunicationforSocialChange NOT MESSAGEBUTVOICE:WHYTHEMEDIAMATTERS HARMONY AMIDSTDISUNITY: THECURRENTDEVELOPMENTDEBATE The adoptionofthegoals- ofwhichhalvingthenumberpeoplelivingon means -formanyofthegoals -timeisrapidlyrunningout. goals is2015-whichmeans weare already almosthalfwaythere andwhich into oneoverarching developmentframework.Thedeadlineformeeting the global conferences ondevelopmentandenvironment inthe1980sand1990s to bringtogetheraseriesofdisparateagendasandtargets developedatmajor Development Goals,asetoftargetsadoptedin2000. The Goalsare anattempt exception) havecommittedthemselvestomeetingeight Millennium (theUSisamajor the MillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Nearlyallgovernments The globaldevelopmenteffort isnowincreasingly structured around meeting multiplicity ofsometimessmall,giantdevelopment projects. donors, thousandsoforganizations,andmillionspeople were involvedina of athousandflowersbloomingindevelopmentassistance whenhundreds of place indevelopmentassistanceandstrategies.Goneare thedays have becomeincreasingly concerted,coherent and united. Arevolution istaking instability.increasing international Instarkcontrasttothis,efforts totacklepoverty discoursefocusedonthewarterror,international theclashofcivilisationsand We liveinanincreasingly disunitedandfragmentedworldwiththedominant forays intocurrent developmentdebates,and current developmentarchitecture. lives. Therole ofthemediaiscriticalinunderpinningboth.Thisrequires some beingabletoholdaccountthosewithresponsibilitycitizens forimproving their are designedtobenefitthem;thesecondisaccountability:importanceof importance ofcountriesandsocieties two thatlieattheheartofcurrent development debate:thefirstisownership– This paperwillnotrehearse allthesearguments, butwillfocusparticularlyonthe a trend thatisreflected elsewhere inthispublication. importance oftherole ofmediainproviding avoiceforpeoplelivinginpoverty, because developmenteconomistsandanalystshaveincreasingly focusedonthe poverty saytheyneedmostifare toimprove theirlives.Itisimportantto increasingly important.Itisimportantinpartbecauseitwhatpeopleliving in povertyare reflected inthepublicdomainincludingthrough themediaisbecoming coverage isnottheonlyfactor. Theextenttowhichtheperspectivesofthoseliving secure mediacoverageofpovertyrelated issues.Thisiscritical,buttheextentof Most debatesovertherole ofthemediaindevelopmentfocusonstrategiesto a voice-sayinthedecisionsthataffected them. response wasthatpeople’s firstprioritywasnotmoney. Itwasthattheyneeded people livinginpovertysaidtheywantedandneededmost.Themostcommon In 2000,theWorld Bankcarriedoutthelargesteversurveytofindwhat • to overcome olddebatesanddivisionsontheissue; How thedebateonrole ofmediaindevelopmentcanbereframed in responding to; orevencivilsociety)shouldbetakingthelead (rather thangovernments " owning" the developmentstrategiesthat 36 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 37 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives OWNERSHIP ANDPUBLICDEBATE and accountabilitylieat development agenda.” the heartofthisnew “Issues ofownership “Issues successful ornot,istheconceptof Paris Declaration,andheadingthelistofwhetherdevelopmentassistanceis for resultswithasetofmonitorableactionsandindicators." to and otherSeniorOfficials adhered andcommittedtheircountriesorganisations agreement towhichoveronehundredinternational Ministers,HeadsofAgencies on AidEffectiveness. TheParisDeclaration, endorsedon2March 2005,isan coherent isreflected inmore recent agreements, particularlytheParisDeclaration This determinationtocoordinate development assistanceandmakeitmore within whichallbilateraldonorsagree towork. "owned" Reduction StrategyPaper(PRSP).PRSPs,whichare meanttobedevelopedand Wolfensohn inthelate1990s,theyevolvedintoanuglierjargon:Poverty Development FrameworksbyformerPresident oftheWorld Bank,Jim developing countriesthemselves.OriginallyconceivedasComprehensive much more closelytogetheraccording toasetofframeworks developedby Donors, ledprincipallybytheWorld Bank,havecommittedthemselvestowork strategies toachievethosegoals. than ontheformer).Andathird wasthedevelopmentofmethodologiesand debt andimproving termsoftrade(progress onthelatterhasbeenfarslower the developingworldbysubstantiallyincreased developmentassistance,canceling 2005 G8SummitandLive8events-totacklingpovertyinAfricatherest of assistance. Asecondwastherenewed politicalcommitment-exemplifiedbythe less thanadollardaywasthefirst-onemajormilestoneindevelopment concerned withpoverty-healthservice provision, education,socialservicesand concerned now implementingtheirsecond PRS.PRSPsencompassmostarenas ofgovernment the foundationsoftheirnational developmentstrategies,andseveraloftheseare To date,61 countrieshaveadoptedorare intheprocess ofadopting PRSPsas have founderedinthepast because theyhavenotbeenrootedinlocalownership". Bank, thethenPresident oftheBankstatedthat strategies. WhenPovertyReductionStrategieswere firstproposed bytheWorld having ownershipandbeingresponsible fordevelopingtheirowndevelopment A centralprincipleunderpinningthecurrent developmentagendaiscountries five totenyears. has beenmarginaltomostofthedevelopmentdiscourse andactionofthelast their ownperspectives,inenablingthemtoholdauthorities toaccount–thisrole those issuesinpublicdebate,enablingthemtospeakoutandcommunicate understand theforces thatshapetheirlives,inenablingthemto talkanddiscuss communication ingeneralandofmediaparticularenablingpeopleto of thisnewdevelopmentagenda.Despitethis,therole ofinformation and than anytimeinhistory. Issuesofownershipandaccountabilitylieattheheart assistance withmore money, betterorganisationandmore urgentleadership In essence,then,westandatatimeofunprecedented opportunityindevelopment and parliamentsfortheirdevelopmentpolicies,strategiesperformance. enhancing donors’andpartnercountries’respective accountability totheircitizens "continue toincreaseeffortsinharmonisation,alignmentandmanagingaid by developingcountriesthemselves,are designedtoformaframework "ownership". "Too manycapacitybuildingefforts The declarationisalsoaimedat At theheartof W H H A A T T

H H A A S S 9

With theSupportofMultitudes: to fightpovertythrough PRSPs, A A Using strategiccommunication N N Mozammel, M.;Odugbemi,S.; Y Y strategy onpovertyworking,

10 O O DFID /World Bank,2005 See IstheWorld Bank’s F F support ofmultitudes

Panos, and With the Panos, andWith T T H H I I S S

T T O O

D D O O

W W I I for meetingthe centralMillenniumDevelopment Goalofhalvingpoverty by PRSPs are thecentralstrategic mechanismagreed bythedevelopmentcommunity In general,analysishassuggested: ludicrously loworpoorlevelofcoverage. debate havehadtheirperspectivesaired inthemedia-hasrepeatedly showna debate, theextenttowhichthosewhohavemostwinorlosefrom apublic reported inthemedia,extenttowhichmediahasprovided aforumforpublic Analysis ofmediatreatment ofPRSPs-the extenttowhichtheyhavebeen media infostering proactive media.Thesamereport recommends thatitisessentialtosupportthe than strategic.Suchdebatecannothappenwithoutanengaged,informed, a fewworkshopsandseminars.Whatisworse,theyare usuallyadhoc,rather often mere publicinformationcampaigns,involvingtop-downdisseminationand major stakeholdersremains anissue.So-calledparticipatoryexercises are stilltoo information aboutthestrategiesbeingdevelopedandimplementedamong found, inamajorreview ofcommunicationstrategiesandPRSPs,thatalack of theWorld Bankitself.A2005 is aviewnotonlyofcivilsocietycriticsinmanycountriesandinternationally, but insufficient publicconsultationanddebatehasunderminedthatownership.This examples. Aboveall,theyhavebeenweakenedbyalackofownership,andthat togivejusttwo World Bankadviserscontinuetoshapepolicyforgovernments on variousaccounts-thatmacro-economic policyisnotopenfordiscussion,that and are consequently, inmanycases,failing.Theyhavebeensubjecttocriticism There isincreasing agreement thatPRSPshavesuffered from lackofownership, suchownership,arguedWolfensohn,ownership rested. PRSPswouldfail. Without policy andofpublicdebate,adebatewhichcouldprovide acentralpillaronwhich strategies. Theywere, inotherwords, conceivedasaproduct bothofgovernment public insociety, were tobetakenintoaccountinthedesignofdevelopment of poorpeople,togetherwiththosecivilsocietyorganizationsandthebroader they were alsodesignedtobethemechanismwhichensured thattheperspectives PRSPs were anessentialconditionforpoorcountriestoqualifydebtrelief, but fundamental process affecting more peopleontheplanet. safety nets,livelihoods,housingandsoon.Itisdifficult toimagineamore • • • • • • • • T T H H

T T H H development andsectoralspecificissuessuchashealth,education andagriculture; corpstoreport oneconomic Lack oftechnicalskillswithinthejournalism Reporting whenithappensisdisengagedandformulaic; Very lowlevel ofawareness ofPRSPprocesses withinmediaofPRSPcountries; Strategies to engage media have often not adjusted to new media environments; Strategies toengagemediahave oftennotadjustedtonewmediaenvironments; Urban biasofmedia; development related issues; Media outletsincreasingly demandingpaymentforcoverageof greater understandingandengagementbymedia; Lack ofinteractionbetweenNGO/CSOsandmediawhich couldleadto investigative andstrong coverageofPRSPrelated issues; hindering andjournalists Poor relationship betweengovernment E E

R R O O L L E E

O O F F

T T "a processofopenandinclusivenationaldialogue". H H E E

M M E E D D I I A A ? ?

9 report publishedbytheWorld BankandDfid 10 38 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 39 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives IF THEMEDIAISSOIMPORTANT, WHYISN’TITAHIGHERPRIORITYFORDEVELOPMENT ORGANISATIONS? ON AWINGANDPRAYER? ANASSUMPTIONOFACCOUNTABILITY increasing concerns –includingamongmany increasing concerns issue islikelytobecometheresponse to 12 One bellweatherofjusthowcriticalthis HIV/AIDS organisations–ofmoneythat the AIDSpandemic.Rapidlyincreasing expenditure onHIV/AIDSisleadingto This wasanimportantandrecurring theme at the XVI International AIDS theme attheXVIInternational w w Conference inToronto in2006. w w 11 is inefficiently spentorwasted. w w Report oftheCommission . . c c o o m m m m i i s s s s i i o o n n London, 2005, f f o o r r for Africa, a a f f r r i c c a a . . o o r r g g governments willact inthebestinterests ofandbeaccountabletotheircitizens. governments All oftheseplansandstrategiesmakeacriticalcentralassumption–that possibly billions-ofpeoplelivinginpoverty. There are real opportunitiesandpotentialtotransformthelivesofmillions- of developingcountries,althoughprospects ofthislookincreasingly desperate. real. Someprogress mayevenbemadeinreforming thetermsoftradeinfavour few yearswill,itisproposed, increase substantially. Debtreduction isbecoming and practiceisintentonchangingthis.Developmentassistanceoverthenext The AfricaCommissionreport andmuchofcurrent developmentpolicythinking accountable todonorsthanrepresentativesofnationalinstitutionsandcitizens." Africa and unsustainable.InoneofthestarkestconclusionsCommissionfor reached theconclusionthatplacingconditionsontheirfundingwascounterproductive what wasbestforthecitizensofdevelopingcountries,donorshaveincreasingly strategies are becomingmore coherent andorganized.Havingspentdecadesdeciding It is,indevelopmenttermshowever, becomingevermore critical.Mostdevelopment The importanceofthemediafortheseandmanyotherreasons isclear. systemandamechanismforensuringpressure action. warning forgovernment don’t occurindemocracies,largepartbecausethemediaprovides anearly policy andhasbeenformanyyears.AmartyaSenfamouslywrote thatfamines It isatthecore ofmostmediadebates.Itisattheheartmuchdevelopment beingheldtoaccountbyitspeopleisagiven. The importanceofagovernment willactinthebestinterest ofandbeaccountabletotheircitizens. governments pillar onwhichcurrent developmentstrategiesare founded-anassumptionthat education andsoon.Andverysimilarargumentscanbeappliedtothesecond can bemadewithmanyoftheotherMDGs-onHIV/AIDS,foodsecurity, on This ishowthemediamattertomeetingjustoneMDG.Very similararguments because thissystemissimplynotworking. played thatrole. Theresult isthatmillionsofpeopleare dying todayunnecessarily kind ofpublicdebatethatcanfosterownership.Themediaisnotandhas 2015. Theyare failingbecauseofalackownership.Themediaisvitaltothe lectively spendonsupportto mediainstitutionsandsupportefforts indeveloping There islittleorno data availableonhowmuchdevelopmentorganizations col- billion ontheplanetmaybe lost. to account,perhapsthelast,besthopeformakingareal changetothelivesof3 unacknowledged) pillarofthisstrategy. Ifthe mediafailsinholdinggovernment function is,oncemore, acentral(ifoftenand–atleastinthepast-strangely The importanceofanindependent,informed,engaged mediainfulfillingthat account bytheirowncitizens. if theyare nottobeheld toaccountbydonors,willbeheld governments, While fewpretend thatthisistheendofconditionality, theassumptionisthat best intheinterests oftheirownpeople. expenditure ofthatmoney. Theyshouldsettheirownpriorities, astheythink decade; andthatthosecountriesshouldbelessaccountabletodonorsfor and otherincomebemadeavailabletodevelopingcountriesoverthenext In essenceitisproposed thatverysubstantialincreases indevelopmentassistance 11 , pastdonorpracticehastoooften "left Africangovernmentsfeelingmore 12 further theirownpolicyagendas. to fostergreater accountabilityinthatcountry, orgreater participation,butto support tothemediasectorinanygivencountry, ismotivatednotoutofadesire ornationally,agencies, eitherinternationally theyare opentoaccusationsthat, equipped to provide substantial media support outside such a government structure.equipped toprovide substantialmediasupportoutsidesuchagovernment anywhere couldbetrustedwithsuchatask.Yet mostdonorsare lessand whoare meanttobecomemorethe samegovernments accountable.Nogovernment media intheinterests through ofpromoting publicaccountabilityofgovernments form ofbudgetsupport.Itclearlymakesnosensetochannelsupportthe added effect ofincreasing duplicationofeffort andofcapacity. rather thancollaboratewitheachother, sometimesunnecessarily. Thishasthe tions workingtosupportmediaindevelopingcountriesare forced tocompete and setofstrategiesisbadlyneeded,donorpoliciesensure thatthoseorganisa- where co-operationamongagenciesforacollectiveandmore coherent agenda minded organisations.Particularlyinthemediaandcommunicationsphere, of theirdonorpoliciesare activelydesignedtofostercompetition betweenlike- words, the publicsphere. Thisisbeautifullycaptured byJurgenHabermas: creating ahealthy, pluralandvibrantenvironment forpublic debate,orinother support isaimednotatenhancingoneparticularorganisation orinitiative,butin indicators withinshorttimeframesare usedtoassessimpact.Thebestmedia such asresults-based management.Thesehave tendedtoinsistthatquantitative donor supporttomediaisincreasingly fragmented,inconsistentandunstrategic. the individualinterests ofprogramme officers indonorcountrydesks.Forthisreason, institutional support,commitmenttomediasupportendsupdependingheavilyon possible. Thisisclearlysensible,butforasectorlikethemedia,withlittleoverall as level ontheassumptionthatdecision-makingneedstobeascloseproblem profound decentralisationprocesses. Decisionsonfundingare madeatthecountry this doesnothappeninthe mediaandcommunicationsector, andthere isno activities atcountrylevel.Despite therhetoricofcoherence anddonorharmonization, current development monitoringandassessmenttools. measure, thehealthorotherwiseofpublicsphere isnotwellcaptured in The impactofaconfuseddinandunrulydebateisphenomenally difficult to possesses anopenflankvisacivilsociety, namelytheunrulylifeofpublicsphere". the politicalsystemthus Depending ondemocraticlegitimation,atitsperiphery talkand mediatedcommunication. confused dinofvoicerisingfrombotheveryday and publicdebatewithindevelopingcountries.There are manyreasons forthis. reduced staff ordowngradedprogrammes whichwere focusedonsupporting bilateral andmultilateral Indeed manydevelopmentagencies–both a lowpriorityondevelopmentagendas,underminingachievementofthe Italy in2004concludedthatmediaandcommunicationsupportstrategies A meetingofbilateralandmultilateraldevelopmentagenciesinBellagio, marginal, inconsistent,fragmented,unstrategicandshortterm. institutions foralackofsupporttothemedia.Theseare, however, generally developing countries,andgiventhisitmayappearperversetocriticizedevelopment countries. There are, itistrue,manyinitiativesdesignedtosupportmediain F F T S S F i i o o i i e e h h i f f r r x x c c t t u u i i s s t t r r h h o o t t r r h h d d , mostbilateral,andmanymultilateraldonors,haveundergonerapid , t t n n , , evenwhendonorsare abletoprovide fundsdirectly tomediasupport h h donors haveincreasingly movedtoevaluationmechanismsfocusedonsystems d d there isextremely limitedcoordination ofmediasupport andcommunication , while most donors work in the name of international cooperation,many , whilemostdonorsworkinthenameofinternational , donorsare channellingincreasing inthe fundsthrough governments aeactively - have MDGs." "remain media " the 40 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 41 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives system thus at itsperipherythepolitical on democraticlegitimation, communication. CAN THEMEDIAPLAY THISROLE? namely theunrulylifeof rising frombotheveryday “the “the flank visacivilsociety, talk andmediated confused dinofvoice public sphere.” Jurgen Habermas possesses anopen Depending will activelyplacetheirownsupportwithintheframeworkofsuchaninitiative. articulate theirownagendaforsupport.Itremains tobeseenwhetherdonoragencies designed toenablemediaandcommunicationorganisationsinAfricadevelop currently supportinganunprecedented effort, theStrengthening AfricaMediaProcess, DevelopmentandtheOpenSocietyFoundationare Department forInternational interventions suchasmediasupport.TheUK less developedfornon-governmental indeveloping countries,thesamemechanismsare far and guidedbygovernments absence ofclearer coordination andmore transparent strategies. the in have aclearstrategicdialoguewithdevelopmentanddonororganisations them,to extremely difficult formediaorganisations andthosewhoexisttosupport clear responsibility withinthedevelopmentsystemformakingithappen.It the questionneedstobeasked abouttheextenttowhichmediaorganisations toaccount, the mediaexiststoactonbehalf ofthepublicinholdinggovernment hope, andmuchtosuggest despair. Ifdevelopmentorganisations assumethat trawl ofsuchtrends indevelopingcountriessuggests there ismuchtoprovide the placeforacomprehensive analysisofmediatrends, but even asuperficial in thefirstpartofthispaperisperhapscentralquestion facingus.Thisisnot domain. Theextenttowhichthemediaisableorwilling toplaytherole outlined It isnotonlythedonorswhoneedtoexaminetheirpolicies andpracticeinthis countries (andforthatmatterinothercountries)are abletoplaythisrole. arguably agrowing crisisthatneedstobeaddressed ifmediaindeveloping butafteryearsofinaction,itislateandthere is mayhavebeenturned, A corner the role ofmediaandcommunication. and multilateralagenciesare alsotaking arenewed andmore seriousinterest in designed tosupportmediaandcivilsocietyindevelopingcountries.Otherbilateral Transparency ofanewWhitePaperondevelopment Fundasacornerstone and Developmentannouncedanew£100millionGovernance International positive socialchange,isbeingrecognised. InJuly2006,theUKDepartment for fostering thekindofpublicdialogueandhealthysphere that cancatalyse living inpoverty, toaccount,and enablingcitizenstoholdtheirgovernments ownership through publicdebate,increasing participationandempoweringpeople issue fordonoranddevelopmentorganisations,thatitscriticalrole infostering There are now, strong signsthat,afteryearsof media supportbeingaperipheral urgently inthemediasector. the evidencebaseforimpactofmediasupportneedstobedevelopedboth developing countries,suchastheStrengthening AfricanMediaprocess. Andsecond, the needsandagendasneedtobedevelopedasmuchpossiblefrom within However, whilethiscanbefostered andarticulatedbymediasupportagencies, and effective advocacystrategyaimedatdonorsbymediasupportorganisations. clearly twoprioritiesare obvious.Thefirstisamuchmore concerted,coordinated How theseandotherchallengescanbeaddressed are subjectsfordiscussions,but of theorganisationovermore complexbusinessofsupportingmediasystems. result organisationalimperativesprioritisethebrandingandpromotion thatinternal many cases,thesamedepartmentsdealwithbothsetsofissuesinevitable debate andstrengthen mediaasavitalcomponentofhealthypublicsphere. In improve theirowncorporateprofiles, withefforts designedtofosterhealthpublic that isdesigned,inessence,toadvancetheirowndevelopmentagendasand F S i i e e n n v v a a e e l l n n l l y y t t , h h most developmentagenciesconflatecommunicationandmediasupport , whilethere are increasing mechanismsfordonorpoliciestobeinformed becomes Ed BruceGirard andSeanO’Siochru,UNRISD,2003, The otherinformationrevolution: mediaand Kunda Dixit,NjonjoMueandSilvioWaisbord in Communicating intheInformationSociety (www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Yearbook empowerment indevelopingcountries, Some ofthissectionisdrawndirectly from previous articlespublishedbytheauthor. by JamesDeanewithFacksonBanda, substantially expandedbythisauthor 13 and othersinthe and updatedmore recently in London SchoolofEconomics These argumentshavebeen Society Yearbook 2002 full textavailableat www.unrisd.org. published bythe Global Civil , ) and are farmore complexthanspaceallowshere, butsomeare worthhighlighting information revolution" structure, contentandcharacterofthemedia.Thetrends shapingthis living onlessthan$2aday, isthatprompted bythesweepingchanges inthe swept mostofthedevelopingworld,particularlyinrelation tothe3billionpeople last twodecadeshasbeenoneoftechnology. Theinformationrevolution thathas The informationrevolution thathassweptmostoftheindustrialworldover people ofcompleteuninterest tomostadvertisers. themselves feelequippedorinclinedtoplaythisrole, particularlyinrelation to major exceptionstothistrend, ofwhichtheemergenceAlJazeeraisjustone). coverageandthe settingofnewsagendas(there areorganizations forinternational are news perceived tobepartial,biasedoratleastfundamentallyNorthern-centric renewed media’s andgrowing frustrationattheSouthern dependenceonwhat democratic countriesintheSouth,andparticularlywithincivilsociety, there isa politics;andinnewly on storiesofglobalization,tradeandinternational newsandinformation,particularly News Network(CNN),fortheirinternational providers, suchastheBritishBroadcasting Corporation(BBC),Reuters andCable divides withindevelopingcountriesbetweenrichandpoor, urbanandruralare growing. leading toamore commercial, advertising-drivenmediawhere informationandpower debate andcivicengagement,particularlyinthefieldofbroadcasting. Itisalso crowded andcomplexmedialandscape.Thisisopeningupnewspacesfor public decade inmanypartsoftheworldhasledtoamuchmore democratic,dynamic, in or concern forpeoplelivinginpovertyandthosebeyond thecity.in orconcern increasingly urbanbiased,consumer orientedmediawhichhasdiminishinginterest media, andanincreasingly dominanttrend tofocusonprofitability. Theresult isan shaped bythedemandsofadvertisers andsponsorswhopayforthenewlyliberalized evidence isgrowing that,ascompetitionintensifies,contentisincreasingly being was initiallymarkedbyanupsurgeofpublicdebateon awholerangeofissues, But whiletheproliferation ofmediainthewakeliberalizationmanycountries countries brought aboutaprofound socialchange,muchofitpositive. greatly enhanceddemocraticdebate,andhasinamyriadofcasesmany competitive marketamongmediahasbrought innovation,dynamismandoften marked byacollapse(orsometimesstillbirth)ofpublic interest media.Anew from theperspective ofdevelopment,agrowing crisismaybeemerging,a Whenviewed often accompaniedbyphysicalassaultsandmurder ofjournalists. too are thecontinuingandincreasing assaultsonfreedom ofexpression, too control overinformationhaveallcharacterized this revolution.of government So and thesometimesrapid,agonizinglyslowornonexistentloosening titles across allmedia,adynamicinterplaybetweenoldandnewtechnologies debate, aresurgent communityradiomovement,aproliferation ofchannelsand tion overlittlemore thanadecade.Newfreedoms, ablossomingofpublic This isacomplex,contradictoryrevolution markinganextraordinary transforma- ofcommunicationwithincountries. networked andhorizontalpatterns and interactionbetweennewoldtechnologiesare prompting increasingly and politicalone. replace concentrationofmediapowerwithacommercial government-controlled national levels-issqueezingoutindependentmediaplayersandthreatening to F F S T i i o o e e h h r r c c u u s s i i r r o o t t r r d d , athoroughgoing liberalizationandcommercialization ofmediaoverthelast t t n n , developingcountriesare increasingly news reliant onpowerfulnorthern h h d d , newtechnologieshavebrought downthecostsofmediaproduction , growing concentrationofmediaownership-attheglobal,regional and are inconsistent andobviouslyvaryfrom countrytocountry, " other 13 : 42 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 43 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives important asjournalists in bringingdevelopment “DJs arebecomingas “DJs issues topublic attention.” continue tobemarginaldevelopment action.Andwewillcontinuenottoknow. part oftheirstandard countryassessments ofdevelopmentneeds-theseissueswill and capacityopportunity tocommunicateinthepublicdomain-includingas organisations begintoaskmore andbetter questionsoncitizen’s accesstoinformation we haveextremely limiteddataandresearch inthisarea. Unless development over thelastyears,answeriswedon’t really know. We don’t knowbecause how theextraordinary changesinthemediahaveaffected peoplelivinginpoverty whether andhowmediamatterstopeoplelivinginpoverty. Inessence,whenassessing confused andcontradictory, andthisisamplifiedbyourlackofunderstanding current mediatrends, anddevelopmenttrends inrelation tothemedia,are also media inrelation tocurrent developmentpracticeandstrategy. Thisisbecausemost The aboverepresents, perhaps,aconfused and contradictorycritiqueofthecurrent orpublicinterestthrough criteria. any journalistic organization -developmentorotherwisethathasthe mostmoney, ratherthan created andthatpublicare receiving informationdeterminedbywhatever organization’s income,butfearsare growing thatanartificialmarketisbeing organizations isbecominganincreasingly criticalcomponentofsomebroadcast form ofpaymentforspotsorsponsorshipprograms -from development some radiostationsare developmentorganizationsanddonors.Income -inthe market byactivelyenteringit,andsomeofthemostconsistentcustomersfor Many developmentagenciesare responding tothenewcommercialized media information dividebetweenurbanandrural,richpoor. being reflected inamuchbroader, deeperandperhapsmore fundamental some peoplecannotreceive asignalatall). Inthissense,thedigitaldivideis services (forexampleinagriculture) andoftransmittercapacity(meaning that including (particularlyminorityormarginalisedlanguages),technicalextension oriented content.Astheydosooftencutbackonlesspublicservices, with theirbrashcommercial competitorsbyoffering more commercial andconsumer reduce budgets.Asaconsequencesomeare incrisis,andfeelforced tocompete are facingintensecompetitionfrom commercial organizationsasgovernments radio -whichretain thegreatest capacitytoreach ruralandmarginalizedpopulations, The formerstatemonopolybroadcasters andmediaorganizations–particularly are bynewsorganizations. are asoftensnappedupbythepublicrelations andadvertisingindustriesasthey schoolsinsome developingcountriesare findingthatgraduates and journalism trainingisalsounderpressure,Journalism particularlywithapublicinterest remit, and developmentrelated storieshavetraditionallyfallenwithinthiscategory. terms,are oftentreatedwhich intraditionaljournalistic asnonstarters?Poverty terms,butcanitbeexpectedtosurvive,letaloneincrease, forstories journalistic reporting maycontinuetosurviveinpursuitofstoriesthatmatter inconventional so routinely andasthecore oftheirjobdescription?Suchcourageandsuch beexpectedtoplaythisrole, letalonedo long andtowhatextentcanjournalists environment whichisnotonlypoliticallyhostile,buteconomicallyhostiletoo,how interests ofthepublic.Very oftentheylosetheirlivesinsuchaninterest. Butinan theworldovercontinuetorisktheirlivesinpursuitoftruth, Journalists or attentionfrom theireditors. outside thecapital,are findingitmore andmore difficult togeteitherresources want toexplore andinvestigatedevelopmentstories–particularlythosefrom whothemselves in bringingdevelopmentissuestopublicattention.Journalists to adjustthenewenvironment. DJsare becomingasimportantjournalists Communication fordevelopmentorganizationsandpractitionersare beginning THE MISSINGLINKOFDEVELOPMENTACTION bet ces understand able toaccess, development debatesare most towinorlosefrom “Unless thosewhohave “Unless and contributetothem, people willdie.” challenge nowistoplacethisissueattheheartofdevelopment action. for MediaDevelopmentsuccessfullyprovided oneimportantopportunity. The is urgentanditsoutcomecouldbarely bemore important.ThefirstGlobalForum exist toconfront, debateanddevelopresponses totheseissues.Yet, thisdebate free, independentandgenuinelypluralmedia.Very fewotheropportunitiescurrently withsupporting itself, particularlyfrom developingcountries,andbythoseconcerned agenda foraddressing theseissuesshouldfundamentallybeshapedbythemedia The have beenrelatively secondaryandconcertedactionhasbeenwoefullylacking. inthedevelopment sector,prominent indebatesongoodgovernance butthey Andtheroleand orientedaround ofthemediahasbecomemore government. in 2005.Thesethoughare nottheplacesfor thisdebatebecausetheyare driven like theWorld SummitontheInformationSociety(WSIS)heldin2003andagain there where are suchissuesare venues internationally raised,suchasatUNsummits debate. Theseissuesare arena. barely Itistrue that discussedintheinternational set ofstepsthatrecognizes theenormityof theimplicationsofthisissueand this paperperhaps;toexplore whatstrategiescanbemade;tobegindefinea public sphere more seriously. To contestanddisagree withtheanalysissetoutin ment toembracethecomplexandsometimesmessy"din"thatmakesup responsibility onthoseinthemediatodebatetheseissues,anddevelop- organisations ofwhatneedstobedone).There surely rests, ataminimum, (although there isincreasing consensusandclarityamongmediasupport Opinions maydiffer onthesequestionsandtheymayalsodiffer ontheremedies what itsownresponsibilities are? strategies? Surely themediaexistsinitsownrightandhastodetermine choosetostructure theirdevelopment adapt itself,becauseofhowgovernments Should itbeassumedthatthemediashouldhavetopayanyattention,letalone and unfair. Isittheresponsibility ofthemediatoassumesuchagrandiose role? This isaheavyresponsibility toplaceonthemedia,andisarguablybothmisplaced in theirhundreds orthousandsbutintheirhundreds ofmillions. and contributetothem,peoplewilldie.Theydie,astheyare dyingnow, not development debates-closetohalfofmankindare abletoaccess,understand market foradvertisers;andunlessthosewhohavemosttowinorlosefrom whole populationofdevelopingcountriesandnotjustthosewhoconstitutea play therole ofguardian ofthepublicinterest, unlessthepublicisseenas clusion ofmuchcurrent developmentpolicyisclear. Unlessthemediaisableto media todevelopmentpolicy. Atitsheartandputsimplistically, thelogicalcon- This paperhassoughttosetoutaseriesofproblems linkingtherole ofthe 44 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 45 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives Media andDevelopment Gender Inequality, potential roleofthemedia www.undp.org/women/docs/en-route-to-equality.pd in determiningsocialand address thecurrentand r-epe ifitdoesnot pro-people, “How candevelopment “How gender relations?” policy claimtobe A GenderReviewofNational Bureau ofDevelopmentPolicy, 14 MDG Reports2005. En RoutetoEquality: UNDP, 2005. New York: Millennium DevelopmentGoals. 'gender review' ofallavailablenationalreports onprogress towards the In 2005theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme publishedadetailed Margaret Gallagher cited toexplain whypolicy-makersprefer toallocateresources to'concrete' The amorphous,unquantifiable nature ofmediaprocesses andoutcomesisoften role ofthemediaindeterminingsocial andgenderrelations? policy claimtobe'pro-people' ifitdoesnotaddress thecurrent andpotential institutions overwhelminglyreflect thevoicesofurbanelites-howcandevelopment removed ofmostcitizens,and where from media thedaily livesandconcerns people are untouchedbymedia messages,yetwhere media contentisoftenfar poverty atthecentre ofdevelopmentpolicyringshollow. Inaworldwhere few claim thattheMDGsprovide aframeworkthatplaceshumanrightsand characterises theMDGsthemselves.Butuntiltheseomissions are addressed, the UNDP review isindeedanunfortunateomission,andonewhich ofcourse Ten yearsafterBeijing,the'silenceon role ofthemedia'notedin2005 social andgenderinequality-poverty, education,healthandsoon. the mediaalongsideissuesthathadlongbeenaccepted asmajorsignifiersof on media-SectionJasitbecameknownwasahistoricbreakthrough. Itplaced needed fortheadvancementandempowermentofwomen.TheBPA's section inwhichpriorityactionwas media asoneoftwelve‘criticalareas ofconcern’ United NationsattheFourthWorld Conference onWomen in1995,citedthe Platform forAction(BPA), adoptedunanimouslyby189MemberStatesofthe crucial factorsthatdeterminewomen'sstatusandgenderequality. TheBeijing have helpedtolocatemedia,informationandcommunicationamongthemost Decades ofresearch, level advocacyandpoliticallobbyingattheinternational reports reviewedisanunfortunateomission. a situationthesilenceonroleofmediainoverwhelmingmajority equality inmanycountriesbygovernmentsandcivilsocietygroupsalike.Insuch sitivity towomen’s rightshavebeenidentified asmajorimpedimentstogender of women.Negativeportrayalswomeninthepopularmediaandinsen- media increatingorcounteringpopularmisconceptionsandnegativestereotypes It isamatterofconcernthatonlytwothe[78]reportsmentionrole to themedia,review hasthistosay(p.30,emphasisinoriginal): to fundamental issues that- fail tohighlightlinkagesbetweentheGoalsormakeconnectionswithwider - isatthecore ofalleightMDGs.Itconcludesthatthenationalreports generally ‘Gender equalityandempowermentofwomen’-specificallyaddressed inGoal3 although notheadlinedinthetargetsandindicatorsthemselves-are the changeprocess andtoachievement oftheMDGs.Inrelation , International MediaConsultant 14 The review startsfrom thepremise that NEWS: AMIRRORONTHEWORLD? Who MakestheNews:GlobalMedia London: World AssociationofChristian 15 The followingsectionsare basedon the executivesummaryof2005 www.whomakesthenews.org Monitoring Project 2005, Communication, 2006. by Margaret Gallagher, For thefullreport, see GMMP. virtually invisible. that itdoesnot.Theworldweseeinthenewsisawhichwomenare It isoftensaidthatnewsprovides amirror ontheworld.ButGMMP2005shows sources, presenters andreporters -were covered inthe2005GMMP. sented by14,273newspersonnel.Altogether39,944people-including is about.Thestorieswere reported and(inthecaseoftelevisionradio)pre- included 25,671newssources -personswhoare interviewedorwhomthenews stories were monitored ontelevision,radioandinnewspapers.Thesenewsitems countries submitteddatathatwere analysedandcompared. Intotal12,893news 1995. Theundertakingisimpressive inscaleandscope.In2005groups in76 thathaveunderlinedtheGMMPsinceitsinceptionin These are theconcerns events are portrayed.Equally, itmatterswhoisleftoutandwhatnotcovered. who andwhatisselectedtoappearinnewscoverage,howindividuals throughout theworld.Intoday's24-hournewsenvironment, itmattersprofoundly News isthemajorsource ofinformation,facts,ideasandopinionforpeople of whomakesthenews,inwhatcapacityandwithlevelauthority. and meninworld'snewsmedia.TheGMMPprovides aunique,globalanalysis five yearssince1995,hassystematicallymonitored therepresentation ofwomen studyistheGlobalMediaMonitoringProject (GMMP)which,every international inequality insociety. Inthefieldofgender, themostfar-reaching andsignificant of document thewaysinwhichmediareflect andperpetuatepatterns activities with'measurable'results. Yet quantitativedatacanreadily befoundto • • • • • homemaker (75%)andstudent(51%). newsmakers outnumbermalesinonlytwooccupational categories- but ascelebrities(42%),royalty (33%)oras'ordinary people'.Female or as'ordinary' people.Women makethenewsnotasfigures ofauthority, When womendomakethenewsitisprimarilyas'stars' (celebrities,royalty) it isthemalevoice(64%ofnewssubjects)thatprevails. Even instoriesthataffect womenprofoundly, suchasgender-based violence, 20%. Yet theseare thetopicsthatdominatenewsagendainallcountries. 14% ofnewssubjectsare women;andineconomicbusinessnewsonly only outnumber menasnewsmakers.Instoriesonpoliticsandgovernment news agenda.There isnotasinglemajornewstopicinwhichwomen Women's pointsofvieware rarely heard inthetopics thatdominatethe abysmal. Foreverywomanwhoappearsinthenews,there are fourmen. heard andseeninthenewswere women,thesituationin2005remains female. Thoughthere hasbeenanincrease since1995,when17%ofthose subjects -thepeoplewhoare interviewed,orwhomthenewsisabout-are Women are dramaticallyunder-represented inthenews. Only21%ofnews spokespersons. Bycontrast,womenappear inapersonalcapacity- as eye in thenewsisoverwhelmingly male.Menare 83%ofexperts,and 86%of As authoritiesandexpertswomen barely feature innewsstories.Expertopinion of politiciansinthenewsare women. the highestproportion offemale politicians intheworld(49%)-only13% share oftheseoccupationsishigher. Forinstance,inRwanda-whichhas such aslaw(18%),business(12%)andpolitics(12%). Inreality, women's As newsmakers,womenare under-represented inprofessional categories 15 46 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 47 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives DELIVERING THENEWS • • • • • • • • by women),orartsandentertainment (48%). assigned tostoriesthatare downright trivial-celebritynews(50%reported issometimesunder-valued,journalists andwomen reporters are frequently as suchinthehierarchy ofnew values. Asaresult, theworkoffemale Although many'soft'newsstoriesare important,theyare notalways perceived 'soft' storiessuchassocialandlegalissues(40%reported bywomen). are more32% ofstories).Femalejournalists likelytoworkon theso-called (where womenreportnews spectrumsuchaspoliticsandgovernment only report attheso-called'hard'Overall, malejournalists or'serious'endofthe is theleastlikelytobereported bywomen,withjust21%offemalereporters. and radio(52%)storiesonpoverty, housingandwelfare (51%).Sportsnews Female reporters predominate inonlytwotopics-weatherreports ontelevision and 7%ofpresenters are female. both newspresenters andreporters. Bytheageof50,only17%reporters valued thanexperience.Uptotheageof34womenare inthemajorityas get older. Forwomenintheprofession, ayouthfulappearanceismore highly On television,femalemediaprofessionals disappearfrom thescreen asthey of storieswrittenbyfemalereporters in2005. newspapers. Thepress lagsfarbehindtheelectronic media,withonly29% Female reporters havegainedmore ground inradioandtelevisionthan by women-from 28%in1995,to31%2000,reaching 37%in2005. There hasbeenasteadyincrease inthepercentage ofnewsitemsreported body isoftenusedtotitillate. employed fordramaticeffect. Innewspapers andontelevision,thefemale In storiesoncrime,violenceordisaster, pictures ofwomenare frequently Women are muchmore likely(23%)thanmen(16%)toappearinphotographs. than from herownautonomous being,thatawomandrawsherauthority. primarily from theirrelationship toothers.Itisfrom theserelationships, rather and valuedasautonomousindividuals,women'sstatusisdeemedtoderive women donotescapethisidentificationwithfamily. Sowhilemenare perceived and soon.Eveninauthoritativefunctionssuchasspokespersonorexpert, daughter, motheretc.;only5%ofmenare describedashusband,son,father identified intermsoftheirfamilystatus:17%womenare describedaswife, Female newssubjectsare more thanthree timesaslikelymalestobe sexual violence,domesticculturalpractice-are givenlittlecoverage. both sexes-accidents,crime,war. Topics thatspecificallyinvolvewomen- News disproportionately focusesonfemalevictimsineventsthatactuallyaffect of femalenewssubjects,compared with8%ofmalesare portrayedinthisway. Women are more thantwiceaslikelymentobeportrayedvictims:19% nearly three-quarters (72%)offemalenewssubjectsare under50. male newssubjectsare aged50orover. Butolderwomenare almostinvisible: Men goonmakingnewswellintotheir50sand60s:nearlyhalf(49%)ofall For women,agehasacrucialbearingonwhethertheyappearinthenews. popular opinion(34%). witnesses (30%),givingpersonalviews(31%)orasrepresentatives of NEWS CONTENT JOURNALISTIC PRACTICE and thechoiceofimages- all thesehaveabearingonthemessagesthatemerge From thestoryangleandchoiceofinterview questions,totheuseoflanguage practice. Gender portrayalinthenews istheresult ofmanyaspectsjournalistic editorial staff -bothfemaleandmale. approach to news selectionandproduction requires thecommitment ofall becausethedevelopment ofamore gendersensitive only zone'injournalism, gender (in)equality. Itisimportantthatthisshould notbeperceived asa'female- dowritestorieson A smallrayoflightcomesfrom thefactthatmalejournalists approach to the definitionofnewsandnewsworthiness. absence ofagenderangleinstoriesthe'hard' newstopicsreflects ablinkered the newsagenda-contentreflects maleprioritiesandperspectives.The sofewwomencentraltothenews-particularly instoriesthatdominate With do sofewwomenmakethenewsatall-andwhatcanbedonetochangethat? Irrespective ofwhoreports thenews,however, thefundamentalquestionis:why • • • • • • to becomemore genderbalancedinthe future. ifthenewsis mustbeconcerned because bothfemaleandmalejournalists 53% ofsuchstories.Thisissomethingtobewelcomedandencouraged, stereotypes andhighlight(in)equality-theydo.In2005menreported male reporters alsohavearesponsibility toproduce storiesthatchallenge that highlightissuesofgender(in)equality, are reported bywomen.But almost half(47%)ofthestoriesthatchallengestereotypes, andofthestories report 37%ofallnewsstories.However,than mendo.Femalejournalists reportWomen proportionately journalists more storiesongenderequality absent from themajornewstopicsofpolitics(3%)andeconomy(1%); in theoveralloutput.Storieswithagenderequalityangleare almostcompletely rights, familyrelations, orwomen'sactivism-topicswhichare barely visible highlight equalityissues,andtheyare concentratedinareas suchashuman News ongender(in)equalityisalmostnon-existent.Only4%ofstories stereotypes), sports(12%)andartsentertainmentstories(11%); gender stereotypes inthenews:celebritynews(16%ofwhichreinforces gender stereotypes. Three topicscontributegreatly tothereinforcement of News storiesare twiceaslikelytoreinforce (6%)astochallenge(3%) stories thatare attheperipheryofnews; violence, where womenare centralin16%ofitems,womenare centralin issues, HIV-AIDS -womenseldomfeature centrally. Apartfrom crimeand female newssubjectsisrelatively high-education,child-care, consumer - politics(8%),theeconomy(3%).Evenintopicswhere thepercentage of Women are rarely centralinstoriesthatcomprisethebulkofnewsagenda proportion ofthetotal; in thisregion onlyonestoryinfivefocusesonwomen-stillaverysmall to thenewsin20%ofstories(23%Canada,19%USA).Buteven North Americastandsapartfrom theotherregions: here womenare central Very littlenews-just10%ofallstoriesfocusesspecificallyonwomen. (20%). (25%) thaninstoriesreported bymalejournalists There are more femalenewssubjectsinstoriesreported byfemalejournalists 48 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 49 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives LESSONS FROMTHEGMMP www.dfid.gov.uk/wp2006/default.asp Making Governance Work forthePoor.Making Governance 16 Eliminating World Poverty: Department for International Department forInternational Development, July 2006. thus to promote good governance anddevelopment, thus topromote goodgovernance toaccountonbehalfofcitizens,and to -evenrudimentarilyholdgovernments the world,thismirror hasaverylargeandenduringblackspot.Ifthemediaare it comestoreflecting women, women'sviewpointsandperspectiveson ing theimportanceofcertaingroups, whilepushingotherstothemargins.When of theworldprovided bythenewsislike acircus mirror. Itdistortsreality, inflat- news. Ten yearsafter the firstGMMP, thissituationhasbarely changed.The'mirror' barely present inthefacesseen,voicesheard, theopinionsrepresented inthe deficit inthenewsmediaglobally. Women -52%oftheworld'spopulationare The 2005GlobalMediaMonitoringProject demonstratesaglaringdemocratic • • • • in thenews.Qualitativeanalysisofstoriescovered inGMMP2005foundthat: within thestructures, prioritiesandpractices ofthemediathemselves. work willbeneededtoredress theprofound genderinequalitiesthatpersist fulfil itswatchdogrole onbehalfofall citizens?Before thatcanhappen,much long ashalftheworld'scitizensare somarginalinthemedia,howcanmedia Inprinciplethis islaudableideal.Butas bility andencouraginggoodgovernance. accounta- civil society-isfrequently invokedasameansofensuringgovernment watchdog role ofthemedia-sometimesonbehalfof,togetherwith, development. The underpinning theUK's2006WhitePaperoninternational Goals alsoencompassthisconcept(MDG8).Itisintegral tothephilosophy national developmentplanningandpolicy-making.The MillenniumDevelopment hasbecomealmostasinequanonofinter- Commitment to'goodgovernance' media definitionof‘citizens’isinseriousneedrevision. though rare, practice. are ahearteningglimpseofgendersensitivejournalistic - the'glassceiling'inemployment,unequalaccesstoresources, andsoon- Storiesthatfocusdirectlyinterests onaspects ofgenderinequality andconcerns. and aboutmen-inrelation toattributes,areas ofexpertiseandcompetence, prevalent assumptionsaboutwomen ways. Suchnewsitemstendtooverturn Some storiesdochallengestereotypes orhighlightequalityissuesinunexpected to enrichsuchassportsreporting -wasonegiganticmissedopportunity. its differential impactonwomen,menandfamilies-theseare missedopportunities includes onlymalesources; astoryaboutnationalunemploymentthatignores differentiates betweenwomenandmen.Astoryaboutdivorce legislationthat News reports frequently misstheopportunitytoanalyseissuesinawaythat of maleorfemaleexperience; language andimages,bytheemphasisthatisplacedoncertainaspects the roles ofwomenandmen-assumptionsthatare hiddeninthechoiceof in asubtleway. Thesestoriesusuallyembodyunstatedassumptionsabout Many newsreports uselanguageandimagesthatreinforce genderstereotypes of stories-includingsport,crime,violence,andevenpolitics; are plentyofexamplesthis.Sexistreporting extendstoaverywiderange Nor isitlimitedtothegratuitousdisplayoffemaleflesh-althoughthere Blatant stereotyping isaliveandwellinnewsreporting around theworld. 18 it wouldseemthatthe Development Spectrum isaFoundationfor Access totheElectromagnetic ACCESS TOTHESPECTRUM:NEWRULESINPLAYGROUND dont havethegovernment’s called piratesbecausethey “Purbo andMahatoare “Purbo permission totransmit, Australian Broadcasting toRemoteAboriginal For anoverviewofrecent similarefforts across stolen anything.” but theyhaven’t 19 For newscoverage,seeTewary (2006). 20 (Warlpiri MediaAssociation,2003). The media, seeSlater&Tacchi (2004). Warlpiri MediaAssociation 18 17 For example,leadingtothe This quoteisfrom Michaels Communities Scheme later received alicense. (1994, p.98). media development, taking nonoticeofourletters." conceptual conditionsforaccess tothisresource -theelectromagnetic spectrum- garage dooropenerstoaircraft radar. The technical,legal,evennotionaland cellular phonestoradiotelescopes, militaryradiostowireless pacemaker controls, Raghav FMinterminglewith thoseofotherstationsandservices,from of allpossibleelectromagnetic radiation: theplayground onwhichthewaves of their destinations.Theelectromagnetic spectrum(orjust radiation thatcarriestheirmessagesofnews,education, andentertainmentto access totheelectromagnetic spectrum.Thesetransmittersproduce invisible or asproducers ofcontent,firststepbackandwitnessthattheseefforts require and RaghavFM.Before consideringthe statusoftheseprojects asbroadcasters However, muchhaschanged inthetwentyyearsbetweenWarlpiri broadcasts producers. for development" enough toconceptualizetheseprojects asfallingwithinthecategoryof that we really did come and ask for these things,asthe that wereallydidcomeandaskfor video camera.Asonecouncilmembersaidontape, Council traveled290kilometerstoconfront regional educationofficials witha In onememorablemomentfrom theearliestdays,entire Yuendumu School organization, tangibleeducationalreform andotherself-developmentassistance. tional programming, andparlayedlocally-controlled televisionexposure intopolitical produced local,independentnewsbroadcasts, aired indigenouslanguageeduca- the Warlpiri aboriginalnation. development agenda,andwere initiallyillegal. of ples Christian Sandvig, songs. HIV andpolioprevention information,andamixofBhojpuri,Bollywood,devotional India witharelated agenda.RaghavFMbroadcasts brief,locally-produced news, Twenty yearslater, RaghavFMMansoorpur1beganillegally broadcasting inBihar, popular, award-winning content. signal, anentirely 1,000 -ontheedgeofTanami desertinAustralia.Thewaveswere atelevision In 1985,unusualwavesbegantopropagate from Yuendumu township-population 19 many things:bothwere locally-initiated,hadnooutsidesupport,a Both RaghavFMandtheWarlpiri MediaAssociationcouldbeseenasexam- "unauthorized, unfunded,uncommercial,andillegal" and todiscussthemasindependentbroadcasters ormedia University ofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign 18 leading toalargerindigenousbroadcasting movementand 17 Over thenextyears,Warlpiri MediaAssociation h rjc a enaclbae ucs in The project hasbeenacelebratedsuccess 20 In the1980sand1990s,itwas "We wantthisvideotoprove "spectrum" education department is ) istherange effort of "media 50 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 51 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives POLITICAL CONTROLOFTHE SPECTRUM THE RADIOSPECTRUM by jargonthanothertechnologytopics.However, thenoun Discussion ofthespectrumisoff-putting becauseitisevenmore heavilycloaked significance formediadevelopmentprojects, andmaynowbeinflux. some countries.Thisandmanyotherrulesofthisplayground havegreat digital applications,andnewlawsallowingtransmissionwithoutalicensein have beenwhollytransformedsince1985becauseofplummetingcosts,new ever-expanding, thiscouldeasilyleadto theconclusionthatmore channelsare If theabovesuggeststhat humancapabilitytousethespectrumhasbeen that everyonecanhavetheirownradiostation. previously thought,butthatchannelsmightnotbenecessaryatall.Itcould be the mediaintoquestion.Itisnotjustthatmore channelsmaybeavailablethan less helpful,throwing long-heldideasabouttheorganizationof broadcasting and change. Theoldtrickofdefiningachannelorpassage nowappearssuddenly ofthe21stcentury,At theturn thenotionofradiospectrumcontinuesto definition ofpassagesforcommunicationallowingmore capacity. VHF television(channels2-13)succeededbyUHF(14-83), witheachnew changed. Forinstance,inNorthAmericaAMradiowas succeededbyFMradio, waves hasdeveloped,sotoothedefinitionofradiospectrumcontinually began radiowitheffectively onechannel.Asknowledgeaboutmanipulating these different passagesbyfrequency wasnotwellunderstood,andGuglielmoMarconi reception. Atthedawnofthisknowledge,separatingradiotransmissionsinto always dependsontheavailableknowledgeandtechnologyoftransmission the impositionofhumanorder onthespectrum.Thedefinitionofa useful passage channels ofthetelevisionandfrequencies ontheradio.Thesepassagesrepresent which wecantransmit-ineverydaylifemostpeopleknowthesepassagesasthe It hasbeenhelpfultoconceptuallydividetheradiospectrumintopassagesthrough can beusedhasexpandedwiththehumanabilitytomanipulatethem. "radio spectrum"orthe the electromagnetic spectrumthatcanbeusedforcommunication iscalled how todesign,deploy, andorganize transmittersandreceivers. Thatportionof for transmittingandreceiving waves,combinedwithpoliticaldecisionsabout Radio isasmuchakindofphysicalwaveittheresult ofthehuman capability solely physicalphenomena;theyare alsopoliticalandtechnicalphenomena. The keypointtobemadehere isthathuman communicationsystemsare not no gapsinthisspectrumandawavecouldbeinfinitelylongorshort. as footballfieldsandplanetsontheother. Asaphysicalphenomenon,there are Waves aslongatomsoramoebasitononeend,compared towavesaslong organized bythelengthofwave(asinwavelength,shortwave,microwave etc.). The electromagnetic spectrumisarangeorganizedbyfrequency -inotherwords, spectrum refers tohistoricalseatingarrangementsintheFrench NationalAssembly). political spectrum" telephones andradiosare designedtosendandreceive. Theconceptof electromagnetic radiation-thestuff thatthefamiliarantennasofourcellular indicate arangeofideas.Thespectrumusedforcommunicationisthe indicates arange,asthephrase"thepoliticalspectrum"issometimesusedto is arangeorganizedbyopinion(the " useful spectrum," but thedefinitionofwhichwaves "left" "spectrum" and "right" simply "the of this NON-MONETARY RADIOANDDIGITAL CONVERGENCE Radio pirateStephenDuniferhasrecently stations across theUnitedStates,inHaiti, distributed atransmitterkitfor$300-700 that allowsanaudiobroadcast radius 21 These kitshavebeenusedfornew For areview, seeHorvitz(2005). 22 This phenomenonisglobal. between 5and15miles. and inChiapas,Mexico. political andlimitingdissentcontrolling speechisoftenthegoal. scarcity isonlyonereason toimposelicensing.Licensingwasandisexpressly than citizens,somesystemofallocationwasrequired. However, thisrationaleof between different signals.Sinceitisobviousthatthere are farfewerchannels limitations ofearlyradiotechnologythatcouldnoteffectively distinguish scarcity ofchannels.Theintroduction ofchannelsservedinparttomeetthe licensinghasbeentheperceived is oldnews.Onerationaleforgovernment This kindofcontrol overspectrumanditsdangerforthefreedom ofinformation having apublicvoiceinrepressive regimes. new broadcasters, forinstanceblockingtheunpopularandsubversivefrom intervenes tocontrol mediaandcommunication.Thelicenselimitstheentryof permission, intheformofbroadcast license, isaprofound waythatthestate permissionisaxiomaticintheregulation ofcommunication. This government they were using.Therequirement thatthosewhowishtotransmitmustfirstobtain not havepermissionfrom totransmitonthefrequency theirrespective governments spectrum wasavailableforthem,theywere breaking thelawbecausetheydid began theirtransmissionsaspirates.Thatis,despitethefactthatcapacityin this conclusionshouldbeputoff. TheWarlpiri MediaAssociationandRaghavFM services. More channelsmustmeanmore voices,andthatmustbegood.However, could easeentryfornewbroadcasters andpromote pluralismincontentand necessarily aboontomediadevelopmentanddemocratization.More capacity Mansoorpur payfortheradio setthatreceives it(about$5). equipment forRaghavFMcosts1/5asmuchtheamount thatlistenersin communication onitshead.According toaBBCestimate,thetransmission thetypicalthinking aboutthecostsof"mass" than adeclineinprice:itturns to buildhistransmitterfrom partsworth50rupees(about US $1).Thisismore mercial, RaghavFMwasalmostnon-monetary. RaghavMahatofoundouthow dissemination ofknowledgeaboutit.WhiletheWarlpiri project wasnoncom- Raghav FM.Thefirstisthedramaticimprovement inwireless technologyandthe vened inthetwentyyearsbetweenfoundationof the Warlpiri project and A numberofnewdevelopmentsinbothtechnologyand regulation haveinter- communication capacitythatcouldmeanmanythings,dependingonpoliticaldecisions. determine thesechoices.In2006,nationsare againatthebrinkofanexpansionin Careful attentionneedstobepaidthepoliticalandinstitutionalsurroundings that generally, itwasapoliticaldecision. the manifestdestinyofspectrumexpansion,satellites,ornewtechnology promulgation ofSesameStreet farandwideacross theTanami desertwasnot why wouldchildren stillspeakKaytetyeandWarlpiri? Ofcoursetheplanned andwayoflife Aftertheintroductionlanguage, ofSesameStreet intoeveryhome, English-language televisionwasadangertothepreservation ofAboriginalculture, the Tanami desertvia anewsatellite,Aussat.Theintroduction ofmainstream and newcapacity. Theyactedjustinadvanceoftheintroduction ofTVsignalsacross When theWarlpiri beganbroadcasting in1985,theywere afraidofnewtechnology means thatmore capacitydoesnotnecessarilymeanmore voices. the features and organization of radio technology at the turn of the21stCentury the features andorganizationofradio technologyattheturn While theWarlpiri station wasastoryaboutcheap,newtechnology(videotape), they havedeclineddramatically inpricewhileoffering newabilities. not limitedtoold-fashioned analogradio.Whilenewdigitalsystemsare notfree, 22 This fallincostsis 21 That 52 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 53 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives A FIRSTQUESTIONFORMEDIADEVELOPMENT 26 25 See see 24 see http://www.n-logue.com/ http://www.free2air.org/ Proenza (2005, p.19-20). http://www.sctdv.net/ 23 See Werbach (2003). and forareview, see pioneer OnnoPurbowrites, popular sentiment,butthis sortofsecurityisuncertain.AsIndonesianWi-Fi sources haveproven popularenoughtosustainandprotect illegalpirates with permissioninonly4-6%ofAfrica. Sometimesnewinformation government project islegalanddoesnotrequireIn contrast,buildingyourown Wi-Fi advance with lawsthatallowfree accesstothespectrumonlyinpartsofglobalnorth. produced newpossibilitiesforcommunicationsystems,thishasbeencoupled treasury. Whileresearch andinvestmentinadvancedwireless technologyhas spectrum asalucrativepursethatcanbeusedtoextract licensefeesforthe theworldoverare used toimaginingtelecommunicationsandthe Governments While theseupstartshavepotential,thefuture isnotyettheirs tomake. on theirown.Thoseinterested inmediadevelopmentmustact. forward isnottowaitfor theseunstoppabletechnologicalpotentialstounfold of mediadevelopmentisthen:godigital.Buttolaunch theseservices,theway and related technologies.Insomeplaces,goodadviceforthesocialentrepreneurs efficiently thaninthepast-manymore systemscancheaplycoexistwithWi-Fi these newwireless systemshavetheprospect ofusingthespectrummuchmore telephone, one-to-manyorone-to-onecommunication.More fundamentally, providerswireless offer Internet videoconference, audioandvideocontent,email, radios tocomputershasalloweddistinctionsbetweenapplicationsdisappear: changes thepolicylandscapeformediadevelopmenttoday. Connectingcheap communication systemsthatdidnotservethemwell.Itisthismarriage these groups tosupplementanddisturb(ifnotusurp)themonolithicmedia The happymarriageofcomputerswithcheapwireless equipmenthas allowed London. together withwired telephonelinestoextendservice artistsloftsin permission tooperate.Inthelate1990s, and generallyawealthofshort-rangeradiostationsthatdidnotrequire government exempt" bandgavetheworldcordless phones,garagedooropeners,babymonitors, ference whentwouserswantedthesamechannel.Thisunlicensedor"license- and ashortrangeobviatedtheneedforlicensingtoprevent collisionsandinter- out overmanychannelsanddidnotrequire alicensetotransmit.Newtechnology experiment, theUSFCCalloweduseofdevicesthatspread theirtransmissions passage orachannelinthespectrumnowseemstobelessnecessary. Ina1983 are nowfundamentallydifferent. Asalludedtoearlier, theoldtrickofdefininga of atransformedspectrum. communication overshortdistances.Itbecameademonstrationofthenewrules allowedcheap,high-speedcomputer-to-computerAround 2000,Wi-Fi came onthemarketandusedthisregulatory easementinthespectrum. ($5.74/month), and Internet horoscope matching($0.69for40pages). ($5.74/month), andInternet officials (US$0.23/each),Englishlessons or medicalqueriestogovernment kioskproject offering,rural Internet amongotherservices,agricultural,veterinary, that havenopowerortelephoneservice. accessonrural,mountainousIndianreservationsto provide high-speedInternet California’s Tribal usessolarandgasoline-generator-powered DigitalVillage Wi-Fi voices. new and startedbuildingcheapunlikelycommunicationsystemsthatpromote overquicklytookthisindoor, short-rangeequipmentouttotheirrooftops world 25 In India,wireless allowedn-loguetolaunch anambitious,sustainable 23 "we runthe[equipment]without anylicensefrom Media developmentactivistsandentrepreneurs the 24 "Wi-Fi" "Wi-Fi" Free2Air patches Wi-Fi networks Free2Air patchesWi-Fi wireless Internet technology wireless Internet 25

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Media, andTechnological Horizons.Minneapolis, Michaels, Eric.(1994).BadAboriginalArt:Tradition, European University:Budapest,Hungary. of activisminnewmediaenvironment.Central presented toRE:activism:Re-drawingtheboundaries Licensing, Convergence,andGlobalization.Paper Robert.(2005,October14).Media Horvitz, stolen anything. they don’t havethegovernment’s permissiontotransmit,buttheyhaven’t like theseneedencouragement.PurboandMahatoare calledpiratesbecause Onno Purbo’s networkorRaghavMahato’s JakartaWi-Fi Mansoorpoor1,projects celebrate thecommunicationofhealth,education,andpoliticalinformationon spectrum -accesswithoutafeeandadvancepermission.To truly developing countriesifthelawpermitsatleastsomeunlicensedaccessto to seizenewcapacitythrough digitalsystems.Thischanceisonlyopento television andradiostations,the2000shavepresented theworldwithachance questions aboutthemedia,andwhilespectrumpolicyisasimportanteverfor access tothespectrum?" tries, afirstquestionformediadevelopmentis, If mediaprojects promise tohelpalleviatesocialproblems indevelopingcoun- being jailed.” the government.Fortunately, theIndonesianmediahelpskeepusfrom 27 28 The politicsofspectrumhavealwaysunderpinned http://werbach.com/docs/RadioRevolution.pdf Accessed March11,2006. Paper. Washington, DC:NewAmericaFoundation. America Foundation/PublicKnowledgeWorking ANew Coming AgeofUnlicensedWireless." Werbach, Kevin.(2003)."Radio Revolution:The 15, 2006.http://www.warlpiri.com.au/pdf/bracs.pdf Communities Scheme(BRACS).AccessedonMarch Fire:TheBroadcastingtoRemoteAboriginal With Warlpiri MediaAssociation.(2003). FightingFire http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4735642.stm Accessed onMarch15,2006. DIY villageFMradiostation."BBCNews:SouthAsia. Tewary, 24)."Theamazing Amarnath.(2006,February United States.Chicago:Univ. ofChicagoPress. of thePolicyCommercialBroadcastingin Streeter, Thomas.(1996).SellingtheAir:ACritique ments/APCITY/UNPAN007779.pdf http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/docu- 15, 2006. Region AnalyticalReport#7779.AccessedMarch Administration andFinance(UNPAN) Asia&Pacific United NationsOnlineNetworkinPublic Review –InternetInfrastructureandInitiatives." Purbo, OnnoW. (2003)."AnIndonesianDigital " What aretheconditionsfor 54 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 55 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives Convention Perspective thatChallenges Development: AnEmpirical Media, Governanceand PRONOUNCEMENTS ARENOTENOUGH:THEPOWEROFDATA ANDANALYTICAL RIGOR “We theimportance suggest development andfreedoms development perspective.” from agovernanceand of viewingmedia and strong institutions; andtheword for economicdevelopment.TheBankunderestimated theimportanceofgovernance management -reforms thataccording totheWashington Consensuswere essential purely economicissuessuchastradereform, privatization,orfinancialsector Until themid-1990s,World Bankbelievedthatitsmandatewaslimitedto Daniel Kaufmann and theireffect onthemedia,competitiveenvironment, andanumberof ment (forexample,freedom ofexpression), thelegalandregulatory environment structures. Similarly, assessmentsneedtobecarriedout onthepoliticalenviron- be collectedanddisclosedincluding accurateinformationonreal ownership widely publicized.Dataon the mediaindustryandatfirmlevelalsoneedto Muchofthisdataisavailable,buthasnotbeen media freedom andgovernance. comparableindicatorsof the developmentofcountry-levelandinternationally which canthenbeshared withclientsaround the world. Thisincludes,forexample, are supportinginitiativesto collectandassessthecurrent stateofthemedia issuesaswell.We economic andfinancialdecisionsshouldapplytogovernance analysis andevidence-basedpolicy-makingthatwehave appliedtotraditional that militateforandagainstanopenmedia.We believethatthesamerigorous understand thestatusofpress freedom intheworldtoday, includingthefactors To makeaconvincingcaseanddevelop properly designedinitiatives, weneedto andultimatelyeffective development. governance to informationanddevelopingafreer mediaasmajorcomponentsofgood upon request. Mostrecently, theBankhasfocusedonimportanceofaccess civil society, issueswithselectedcountries andworkingdirectly ongovernance officialsto diagnosecorruption,deliveringtrainingprograms and forgovernment raising awareness abouttheissue,conductingresearch, developinginstruments but thatthepoorwere mostaffected bytheseabuses.GraduallytheBankbegan were notonlysevere impedimentstotheeffective useofdevelopmentassistance, andcorruption By thelate1990sBankbecameaware thatpoorgovernance , Director, GlobalPrograms,World BankInstitute " corruption" was notpartofourvocabulary. “A freepressisnot a luxurythatonly rich countries can afford.” development andfreedoms anddevelopmentperspective. from agovernance We reject thisview, andinsteadwesuggesttheimportanceofviewingmedia viability isessentialtoensure thatmediadevelopmentobjectives are attained. objectives ofthemedia,itisalsoimportanttoviewas abusinesswhere financial it isimportanttorecognize some particular characteristicsand(amongothers,social) its mandateandobjectives,thatitoughtnotbeviewed asan‘industry.’ Although community radio,andsoforth). encouraged, aprocess thatcanbeaidedthrough newtechnologies(web,cell, This alsoapplieswithintheprivatesectorwhere more competitionshouldbe high levelsofownershipconcentrationare associatedwithlessmedia effectiveness. is usuallyassociatedwithamore restricted andineffective media.More generally, rather beneficial.Theevidencesuggeststhecontrary:large-scalestateownership restrictions), andoughtnotjustifyrestrictions onthetypeofownershipperse. they require rathernarrow andspecificareas ofcaution(ratherthanbroad Although there aboutconfidentiality andnationalsecurity, are legitimateconcerns media ownership,are oftenjustifiedonthegrounds ofnationalsecurityconsiderations. for instance,matterfullyasmuch. Information Acts,andthede-monopolizationoftelecommunicationsector, legal andregulatory frameworks,theeffective implementationofFreedom of rules andregulations, buttheyare farfrom sufficient. Theapplicationofsuch absence ofpress freedom. Written lawsdomatterasthe‘dejure’ codificationof enormously. is vastlyexaggerated.Thisnotthecase.Theevidenceindicatesthatitmatters lessons, andhelpsinformfuture strategies. empirical analysisbasedonthisdataisimportant.Ityieldsevidence progress andmedia-related indicators,andthatthesolid madeongovernance unreliable andnotuseful.We challengethisnotionaswell,indicating the only richcountriescanafford. to economicdevelopmentandgrowth. Infact,afree press isnotaluxurythat industrialization process andhigherincomes,ratherthanasacontributorinitself freedoms whichrequire otherinitiativesandsupport. in generalterms,donotthemselvesguaranteemedia developmentandpress suggests thatelections,whileassociatedwithahigher degree ofpress freedom initiatives exist;andmanyothers couldbecontemplatedinthefuture. field ofmedia.We suggestthatthisisnotthecase. Infact,anumberofongoing 1. a setoftenmyths(orpopularnotions)onpress freedoms, namely: open media.More specifically, ourevidence-basedapproach beginsbychallenging other factorsthathelpdeterminetheeffectiveness andviabilityofafree and 10. 9 . 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. Freedom ofthepress oughttobeviewedfrom astrictly politicalperspective. The mediaisnottobetreated asabusinessundertaking.It issodistinctivein Significant stateownershipofthemedia,andsubsidiestoare often Broad press restrictions, includingOfficial Secrecy Acts,andlimitationstoprivate The writtenlaws‘onthebooks’are crucialdeterminantoftheexistenceor The Impactofpress restrictions oncorruption,poverty, andunderdevelopment isscant,andthelimitedexistingdata Data onmediaandgovernance Press freedom shouldbeseenasanoutgrowth (orresult) ofacountry’s Does holdingelectionsinacountryguaranteepress freedoms? Theevidence The international community andtheWorld Bankcandoverylittle inthe The international 56 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 57 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives please see:http://70.87.64.34/~intint/gfmd_info/pdf/GFMDoct05.pdf Kaufmann attheGlobalForumforMediaDevelopment,Amman,October2005, indicators,surveys, andexpertpolls-presentedaggregate byDaniel governance anddevelopment-including For thefullpresentation onmedia,governance partner countries,highlightingachievementsandactivelydiscouragingabuses. Finally, theBankhasbeencommentingpubliclyonmediadevelopmentsinour research andanalysisonmediadevelopmentratings andworldwideindicators. interference. Incollaborationwithotherorganizations,weare deepeningour competitive mediaandtelecommunicationsectors,withmore limitedstate such asMexico,andweare sharinggoodpolicypracticesforbuilding states, andincountriesimplementingfreedom andaccesstoinformationacts media management.We are alsoproviding supporttonascentmediainfragile and covered byotherinstitutions,suchasbusinessandeconomicjournalism To programs ontopicsnot helpdevelopmediacapacitieswedeliverlearning in povertyreduction strategies. efforts byincludingthemattheearlystagesofproject workincountriesand anticorruption,andpovertyalleviation important partnerinourgovernance, documents, anddecision-makingprocesses. We are treating themediaasan "practicing whattheypreach" Today theWorld Bankandotherdevelopmentdonoragenciesare In particular, the followingcanbehighlighted: by increasing publicaccesstoinformation, How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 59 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact Meeting theMDGs Role ofCommunicationsin Moving Media:TheCaseforthe Section 2:HowMediaMatters:MeasuringitsImpact building asreportafter when weseetheflowofnews official statementdescribea the wrongdirectionwhenit and officialstatementafter New strategiesareneeded. world generallyheadingin bewilderment aredoubled patterns needtochange.” Development investment comes to'achieving’the emerging fromtheUN “The frustrationand “The MDGs by2015. Warren Feek 3. 2. 1. This "case"hasthreecomponent parts: development communicationprofessionals globally. online networkthatnownumbersmore than58,000mediadevelopmentand from allover theworldand[b]viewsopinionsfrom aninteractive, ences, strategicthinkingpieces,evaluationresults andotherrelevant themes Initiative onlineknowledgebaseofsummaries35,000 plusprogramme experi- case" havebeenprovided from both[a]thenow veryextensiveCommunication The followingargumentsandinformationuponwhich Idrawtomake"the and financingstrategiesaround theMDGs.Thesectorjusthas tomakeitscase. agencyisframing theirpolicy which weare walking:everymajorinternational should notletthesectoroff thehook,however. TheMDGsare thelandscapeon and long–termgoalsembracepoliticalchange.Thisapparent disconnect communications: thelatteremphasiselocalagendasandcontexts,socialcomplexity present amismatchwiththeprocesses underlyingmediadevelopmentandstrategic decided, universalandtechnical,time-boundnon-political,forinstance–which The taskismademore complexbythenature oftheMDGsthemselves-centrally targetsembodiedintheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs). of international sector encountersfurtherdifficulty inpresenting itscaseforrelevance totheset line question:whatimpactdoesthesectorhaveonpeoplelivinginpoverty?The and communicationsfordevelopmentsectorrelates toansweringasinglebottom One ofthebiggestchallengesthatfacesprofessionals inthemediadevelopment The CommunicationInitiative The Methodologies thatunderpintheway theCommunicationInitiative works The Datafrom research andevaluations The Historyofthemajorsocial forces thathaveshapedthisworld , Executive Director, THE BIGCHANGES A "DDDAAAH"QUESTION “Whether welikeitornot “Whether measurable impactdata strongly webelievethat srqie.Anddata is required. that isrelevanttothe - andnomatterhow particularly needed.” what wedoworks- MDG targetsis in somecountries, etc… company leadersonwhatthe anti-tobaccomovementhasdonetosmokingrates on anti-apartheidaction,indigenous communityleadersonlandrights,tobacco There are manyothersyoucould talktoaswetravelthisroad: NelsonMandela essence shewouldmean"Daahhh!" question alongthelinesof: almost alwaysthrough amediaform.Iamsure thatEmilywouldrespond toour columns, highlightingprinciplesandcommunicatingtheir visionandideas- needed forpublicdebateandprivatedialogueonthese issuesbywriting They stagedeventsthatdemandedmediacoverage. created thespace Women didnotgetthevotethatisrightfully theirsbyholdingdinnerparties. shift tookplace.Themediawere centrallyinvolvedinthatshift. vote insomecountries.Butthefirst50yearsof 20th centuryaseismic was aleaderoftheWomen’s Suffragette movement.Manywomenstillcannot You moveontoaspiritualneighbourofMartinandMahatma:EmilyPankhurst more compellinganswerthanany media -intheIndianIndependencemovement.Thatsilencewouldprovide a small andlargemedia-publicprivateinformingmobilising as heconsidersthebestwaytorespond giventhevitalrole oftheIndianmedia- asked whetherthemediahaveimpact?Perhapsthistimethere issimplesilence about movingondowntheroad andchattingwithMahatmaGandhi.Heis So, ifallyougetfrom Martinisanadmittedlydreamy movement changedthisworldinverysignificantways. substantial partofwhichischanneledthrough themedia.Andcivilrights public argument:information,debate,ideas,dialogue,analysisandconvictions,a build orculturallyrelevant newtechnologysystemstointroduce. Justprivateand grand economicplantochangethediscriminatoryworld.Noequitydams change prejudiced socialnorms.Nofoodsupplementstoalterethicalstates. a strategywaspublicandprivatemediacommunication.Novaccinesto Just abouttheonlythingCivilRightsmovementhadgoingforitintermsof "daahhh"but response wouldNOTbe itwouldbeanequivalentexpression. his sure am course ofwhichheisasked Let’s imaginehavingachatwithMartinLutherKingJr, theCivilRightsleader, inthe needtochange. Development investmentspatterns when itcomesto‘achieving’-theMDGsby2015.Newstrategiesare needed. official statementdescribeaworldgenerallyheadinginthewrong direction emerging from theUNbuildingasreport afterreport andofficial statementafter The frustrationandbewildermentare doubledwhenweseetheflowofnews That response goessomethinglikethis: daughter givesmewhenIaskherwhatisinopinionaverystupidquestion. In myviewthisquestionqualifiesforthekindofresponse thatmy13yearold media -andotherformsofcommunicationhaveimpact?" technical expertsinotherfieldsandpolicymakersask effect onthecore developmentchallengesthatthisworldfaces.Manyfunders, we are challengedtoprove thatmediainterventionsandstrategieshaveadirect Like manypractitionersIamoftenfrustratedandbewildered byhowmanytimes " Hey, Martin,doyouthinkthatthemediahasimpact?" "Oh mydear…letmetellyouexperience"butin "daaahhh’ "Dddaahhh!" from anyteenager. "daahh" "Can youprovethatthe equivalent, how I 60 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 61 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MDG 3 MDG 2 MDG 1 NOW THAT THECASEISMADE N N h h 2 h h t t e e : Gender : Education : Poverty P P t t t t w w o p p t t p p : : w w s s / / : : p p / / World BankInstitute-December2003 / / e e w w a a / / by RitvaReinikkaandJakobSvensson r r w w p p

see summaryandlinkstooriginalat w w o o e e w w Theory andEvidencefrom Indiaby Timothy BesleyandRobinBurgess Timothy f f w w r r

w w I I e e C C . . n n G G c c v v v Quarterly Journal ofEconomics Quarterly Journal a a . . f f o o c c o o a a a a o o m m o o m m l l l l v v r r 2 2 2 2 m m p p e e m m m m 0 0 0 0 see SummaryandLinksat r r a a m m 0 0 0 0 a a n n i i i i 5 5 5 5 n n g g t t m m i i 1 i i / / / / n n i i n n P P o o t t e e e e e e i i

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protecting vulnerablecitizens". was that"Stateswithhigherlevelsofmediadevelopmentare more activein distribution anda5.5%increase incalamityrelief expenditures. Theirsummary in newspapercirculation isassociated witha2.4%increase inpublicfood responses.between newspapercirculation A1%increase levelsandgovernment States. Theirresearch reveals strong, significant, andpositivecorrelations relief related tothemostvulnerablepeopleandpopulations inselectedIndian expenditures ondisaster the publicdistributionoffoodandstategovernment basic ofdevelopmentissues,hungerandfoodsecurity. InIndiatheylookedat A group ofLondonSchoolEconomicseconomistswere interested inthatmost that isrelevant totheMDGtargetsisparticularlyneeded. believe thatwhatwedoworks–measurableimpactdataisrequired. Anddata changes havebeen.Whetherwelikeitornot–andnomatterhowstrongly we not thehistoricalprecedents –nomatterhowcompellingandmajorthose What thefundersandpolicymakersappeartosaytheyneedisdetaileddata probably sayifyouaskedfordirections: Ahhh –no!AstheNewZealandbackcountryfarmerinmynativelandwould policy developmentandmonitoring? media andcommunicationperspectivebecomeanintegralcentralpartof will nowflowformediadevelopmentandcommunication?The So, thecaseismade!There isnoneedtogoanyfurther. Bigincreases infunding there isapersistent andfrequentlystrong associationbetweenexposure tothe The ExecutiveSummaryof their paperstates: socio-economic status;age; rural-urbanandsoon. they controlled forthevariablesthatcoulddistortsuch findings: incomelevels; data asthebasisforanalysis. Inassessingthedataandmakinganalysis mass mediahadonpeople'sreproductive healthchoicesinAfrica,usingDHSS equally eminentcolleagueAkinrola Bankole,lookedattheimpactthataccessing Charles Westoff isaleadingdemographeratPrincetonUniversity. Heandhis Increased publicaccesstoinformation(…)reduce[s] (…)corruptionofpublicfunds. effective education–acrucial componentindevelopment. dollars gottotheschools.Theresources are dramaticallyimproved formore initiative theonlymajorvariable,situationhadbeenreversed: 80%ofthe schools. 80%ofthosedollarsjustwandered away. By 2001,withthenewspaper were striking:In1995only20%,onaverage,ofthefundsallocatedgottothose education –notintootherpeople’s handsthrough corruptpractices.The results toschoolsgotthoseforthepurposeof allocated bygovernment handling ofalargeschool-grantprogram -toensure thatthemoneywas newspaper campaigntoboostschools'andparents' abilitytomonitorlocalofficials' The World Bank’s PolicyResearch initiated Group assessed aUgandangovernment 1 "If Iwereyouwouldnotstartfromhere!" " The generalconclusion(…) isthat 2 In summary: MDG 4 MDG 5 the 1990Philippineexperience.WHOBulletin h h h h Hernandez, J.R.,deGuzman, E.,Dayrit,M., Hernandez, : ChildMortality : Maternal Mortality : Maternal Analytical Reports;byCharlesWestoff and t t t t by Zimicki, S., Hornik, R.C.,Verzosa,by Zimicki,S.,Hornik, C.C., t t t t p p p p h h Demographic andHealthSurveys[DHS] : : : : / / / / t t / / / / t t w w w w 4 p p t t DMS. Vol. 72,1994.Pages409-419 h h i i I I : : w w w w 3 n n m m / / i i / / n n M M

w w w w w w p p u u k k r r a a Fausto, A.,Lee,M.B.,Abad,M r r i i . . . . w w n n o o b b c c c c s 5 o o o o c c s s g g v v a a w w T T o o

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r r / / i i t t h h c c c c and Yaya Coulibaly e e c c t t n n i i e e t t 1 1 1 1 h h a a n n o o o o n n h h a a e e h h Akinrola Bankole; h h i i e e 5 5 5 5 l l e e d d m m m m t t a a t t

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such skilled support significantly reduces maternal mortality.such skilledsupport significantlyreduces maternal intervention wasimplemented. We knowfrom manystudiesthatthepresence of under 20%atthestartof project to77%intheyearaftercommunication Assisted birthsbyprofessional healthworkersintheproject area increased from sensitive issue.Andtheresult mortality? related tomaternal domestic communicationbetweenhusbandsandwives onaveryculturally seeking behaviorduringpregnancy. Allindicatorsshowedsignificantlyincreased cation betweenhusbandsandwivesregarding pregnancy andtoimprove health- mortalityissues.Thegoalwastoincreaseclothing toaddress communi- maternal local mediaresources includingsongs,singer/storytellers(griots) and traditional an initiativeinMalicalled significantly achieve.Researchers attheBASICSproject investigatedtheimpactof mortalityisavitalissuethatproving extremelyReducing maternal difficult to role -theamountoftheseincreases thatwere attributedtothemediawas0.54. of thecampaignhadtheirchildren vaccinated.Theyevenquantifiedthemedia had theirchildren immunised;42%ofmotherswhodidnothavetheknowledge 1989 and1990byafactorof0.77.64%motherswhoknewthecampaign under 2yearsreceived increased from 4.32to5.10.Coverageincreased between time jumpedfrom 32.2%to56.2%.Theaveragenumber ofvaccinationsthatachild started ontimeincreased from 43.3%to55.6%andthenumber thatfinishedon increased from 54%to65%.Theproportion ofchildren whosevaccinationswere that campaign" assessed thatmediacampaign.Theyconcluded in supportofroutine vaccinationservices.AWHOcross-disciplinary research team the PhilippinesDepartmentofHealthconductedanationalmass-mediacampaign Reducing childmortalityisaveryimportantMillenniumDevelopmentGoal.In1990 and intentiontostopchildbearingthatencouragessuchchange. contraceptionuse,fewerchildren horizons thattransfersto,inthiscase,modern of information.Itisthewaythatmediaopensupoverallpossibilitiesand to haveasignificanteffect. Itisnotnecessarytohearaspecificmessageorpiece What isinteresting isthatjustaccessingthemedia,inparticularradio,enough exposure toanymedia. regular exposure totwoofthosemedia,5.7foronetheand6.3no desire ameannumberofchildren of3.7;compared with4.2forwomenhaving Burkina Faso:Allwomenregularly exposedtoradio,televisionandprintmedia those mediaand7percentexposedtonomedia. and TVare currently usingcontraceptioncompared with9%exposedtooneof Zambia: 15%ofmarriedwomenwithnoeducationregularly exposedtoradio Some examplesofthedataproduced: both marriedandsingle" at marriage.Theseconclusionscanbegenerallyappliedtowomenandmen, addition, thereisevidencethatmediaexposurealsoassociatedwithlaterage the future,preferencesforfewerchildrenandintentiontostopchildbearing.In greater knowledgeanduseofcontraception,intentiontocontraceptionin mass mediaandreproductivebehaviourinAfricatheexpecteddirection;(…) the proportion offullyvaccinatedchildren ofages12-23months [para 4ofExecutiveSummary]. "The GreenPendelu" which usesindigenouscultural, "significantly attributableto 5 3 4 62 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 63 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MDG 7 MDG 6: h h Rand L. Stoneburner HealthandPopulation Rand L.Stoneburner Is UgandaUnique?byDanielLow-Beerand t t : Environment t t Evaluation UnitandCambridgeUniversity p p HIV/AIDS : : / / / / w w w w 6 B B w w e e . . h h c c h h o o a a Health, CambridgeUniversity, t t m m v v UK, 2004–seeSummaryat t t s s i i p p o o t t C C m m o o see SummaryandLinksat 7 2 : : u u h h / / u u S S i i 0 0 / / r r n n a a o o l l w w 0 0

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circumstances andcontexts-includingtheveryimportantmediaresponse? extensive supportforcommunitiestodowhattheyknowworksbestintheir partners by65%.Onthebasisofsuchevidence,whyisthere notmuchmore from 21%to9.8%from 1991-98andthere wasareduction innon-regular sexual initiated Ugandancommunicationresponse. InUganda,HIVprevalence declined The media–nationaltolocal-were, ofcourse,acrucialpartthatlocally other situationswhere HIVhasdeclined:ThailandandtheUSGaycommunity. The authorsidentifiedsimilarhigherlevelsofcommunicationaboutHIV/AIDSin people withAIDSthrough socialnetworksinUganda, unlikethecomparisoncountries. for peoplewithAIDS.There were greater levelsofcommunicationaboutAIDSand response, initiatedatcommunitylevel,toavoidrisk,reduce riskbehavioursandcare found evidenceofabasicpopulationlevel,earlybehaviourandcommunication As anexplanationofwhyUgandadidsomuchbetterthanothercountries,they publication managedtoidentifywhattheprincipleforsuccesswas. efforts onHIV/AIDSthatproved somewhatsuccessful.ACambridgeUniversity more extensivelythanatpresent thestrategicprinciplesthatguidedearly continue onthecurrent trajectory. Onethingwecandoistoincorporatemuch widely availablevaccine.Bythenwhoknowswhatsituationwewillbeinif What doweaboutHIV/AIDS?Itwillbe20yearsbefore there isaneffective to promote theuseofcommunal wastedumpsand latrinesby, forexample,the The GhanaUpperRegionWater SupplyProject hadrepeatedly (URWSP) attempted big environmental issuesletslookatsomebasic,localenvironmental concerns. communication process integraltothe overallstrategy. Rather thanlookatthe So, itisinstructivetolookat whathappenswhenthere isnomediaand is justanotherboat. issues. Itisundeniablethatwithoutthemedia,Greenpeace’s RainbowWarrior communication whentheyhavetojustifytheimpactof the mediaonenvironmental What astrangefeelingitmustbeforthosepeopleinvolved inenvironmental watch SoulCity, reported thattheyalwaysusedcondoms. condoms. Incomparison,26%ofthosewhowatchtelevision, butdidnot Thirty-eight percent ofthosewhowatchSoulCitytelevisionalotalwaysused exposed toSoulCitywere alsomore likelytosaytheyalwaysusecondoms. medium and28%withlowSoulCityexposure. Young respondents (16-24) Soul CityTVexposure saidtheyalwaysuse condoms,compared to31%with The evaluationfoundthatthirty-twopercent ofAfricanrespondents withhigh advisorypanel. - SoulCity4wasguidedbyaninternational priority onthorough andwellresourced evaluation.Thelargestofthoseevaluations of theSoulCityinitiativeinSouthAfrica.hasalwaysplacedahigh A verygoodexampleofpartnerresearch istheveryextensiveanddeepevaluation FAO, CalandriainPeru,ANDI–theChildRightsNewsAgencyBrazil. Programs, BBCWorld ServiceTrust, Africa, Exchange,MediaInstituteofSouthern HIV/AIDs. TheseincludeJohnsHopkinsUniversityCenterforCommunication research ontheimpactofmediadevelopment/developmentcommunication There are manyCommunicationInitiativePartnerorganisationsthatdoexcellent 7 6 MDG 8 STRATEGIC ANDPROGRAMMATIC ACTIONFOREFFECTIVEINTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT h h t t h h : Governance t t t t p p t t : : Project PlanningCentre DiscussionPaper p p University ofBradford Developmentand / / : : / / / / w w / / w w w w H H w w w w y y 8 g g v v w w G G W W . . c c a a i i o o e e . . o o l l c c a a Series 2No.20,byS.Kendie, 2 2 v v n n F F m m o o t t 0 0 e e a a e e e e World BankPolicyResearch m m for SummaryandLinkssee i i m m r r 0 0 c c : : r r d d see SummaryandLinksat

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CULTURE: KNOWLEDGE bearing theheaviestburden ofpovertyandrelated issues. edge andinformationgenerated withinthecommunitiesandcountriesthatare including, forimproved relevance andotherreasons, ahigherpriority onknowl- contribution ofthosemostaffected bypovertyandotherdevelopmentissues. address, and harness thevitallyimportantfactorsofleadership, community,address, andharness and theimportantdiverse waysinwhichthosevariedcultures understand, Below areeightkeyareas: effective povertyreduction strategy(PRS)programmes. and mediaare required ingreater scaletoachievetheMDGsandimplement and quantify. Italsoneedstoidentifywhichofthecore elementsofcommunications move beyondtheideathateffect of communications isimpossibletomeasure exists, therefore. Thepractitionersectoranddonorcommunityalikeneedthento The datalinkinginvestmentsincommunicationstoimpactontheMDGagenda for freedom ofspeechandfreely availableinformation,andtransparency. better.better informationflowsalsogovern Themediaare maybethekeyactors nance orinstitutionalqualityinIslam’s paper. Itdemonstratesthatcountrieswith There isfurtherexplorationofthelinkbetweeninformationflowsandgover- of(...)making thisdatawidelyavailableispolicyadvicethatcanboosteconomicgrowth. markets boostsgrowth",whichsuggeststhat"advisingcountriesontheimportance VOICE quality andplacementof University ofBradford. WhilsttheGhanaWater Supplyproject focusedonthe from theCenterforDevelopmentStudiesinGhana,apaperpublishedbyThe and importantquestionswere simplynotasked.Thiswashighlightedbyresearchers The absenceofamediaandcommunicationstrategymeantthatsomeverybasic of mediaandcommunicationprocess. technical project, withanapparently simplesolution.Butthere waslittlebyway this project didnotimprove. Theproject beganandcontinuedasatop-down and hygienenorms,expectationsbehavioursinthecommunitiestargetedby subsidised provision ofsquattingslabs.Theseattempts"failed". Inthatsanitation Islam's analysisalsoshowedthat Of coursethemediaisaprimevehicleforbettersharingofsuchdataandinformation. Just givingbetterdatatopeople",shesummarises, significant andpositivecorrelation betweentransparency andimproved governance". "information givespowertomonitorandmakegoodchoices"; Using twokindsofindicators,RoumeenIslamfrom theInstitutefoundthat worldwide. between informationflowsandgovernance, Economic ManagementDivisionatTheWorld BankInstitute,explored thelink A World BankPolicyResearch Paper, produced bythePovertyReductionand dynamics appeartohavebeenjustplainignored. nications strategymeantthatissuesliketraditionaluseandfamilyhousehold : : Increased space forandattentiontothevoice,perspective,central Improved waystoengage therichculturaldiversityacross the globe : : Widened andexpandedknowledgeinformation sharing Widened "squatting slabs" " better decision-makingineconomicandpolitical the absenceofamediaandcommu- 8 "can helpcountriesdobetter." thus, there is"a 9 " 64 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 65 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact A TROVEOFPROVENEXPERIENCEANDMETHODOLOGIESTOBEAPPLIEDAT SCALE LEGISLATION POLICY DEBATE countries. behaviour, andinclusioninorder toimprove theirfamilies,communitiesand most affected bypovertyandotherdevelopmentissues. that increase thesubstantiveintegrationofviewsandperspectivesthose local context. national,and the issuesthatare ofpriorityimportanceineachinternational, and voices. pluralistic communicationenvironment withspaceforafullrangeoforganisations BEHAVIOUR andATTITUDES development community. Ensuring thatthisshiftoccursisthemosturgentchallengefacinginternational in development,andmainstream itacross theworkingsofalldevelopmentagencies. from itscurrent marginalstatustheuseofstrategiccommunicationsandmedia developmentthatwouldraise decision-makers inlocal,nationalandinternational For thistohappenatthescalerequired calls,however, foramajorshiftfrom by theMDGs. developmentissuescoveredto addressing povertyandtotheotherinternational necessary experienceandknowledgetoolsisready tomakeitscontribution The caseismade,Ibelieve.Furthermore, a community ofprofessionals withthe guide theimplementationofinitiativesinformedbystrategiesoutlinedabove. and ishostingagrowing richsetofplanningmodelsthatcansystematically pieces ofstrategicthinking,gathered over75individualandsocialchangetheories, drawn from Ithasassembledover200 on-the-ground experienceandlearning. agencies? TheCommunicationInitiativehassummarisedover35,000experiences apply increased investmentsintheseareas bythedecision-makersindevelopment Does thepractitionersectorpossesscapacityandmethodologytosuccessfully and socialdimensionsofdevelopment. action onthedevelopmentissuesofconcern. behaviours ofbothpeopleaffected anddecisionmakersinorder toaccelerate DATA : : Improved collection,sharing,andutilisingofdata related tothehuman : : : : More open,participative,andinclusiveprocesses ofpolicydevelopment Significantly expandedpublicandprivatedebatedialogueon : : More effective legislation,includingonmedia,supportinga : : Expanded focusonaddressing therelevant Development Good GovernanceandHuman Promoting Democratization, The RoleoftheFreePressin r r Toward and anormative modelofjournalism e e s s For a discussion of how alternative theories For adiscussionofhowalternative 11 p p have evolvedinthenormativedebatesee For abibliographicguidetotheliterature o o national development.’Communication n n 10 Clement E.Asante.Press Freedom and meeting onWorld Press Freedom Day: s s Paper originallypresented atUNESCO p p i i h h v v h h on themediaanddevelopmentsee Westport, Conn:Greenwood Press. t t M M e e Theory. 6(2);DenisMcQuail.2001. marginalization andemancipation: p p t t Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. T T Media, Development,andPoverty n n p p - e e O O e e U U Development: AResearch Guide Political CommunicationTheory. Eradication, Colombo,SriLanka : : P P H. Shah. 1996. ‘Modernization, H. Shah.1996.‘Modernization, d d For fullsetoftechnicalannexes / / s s T. BesleyandR.Burgess.2001. P P R R / / o o i i 13 s s I I a a p p L L

C C l l D D D D Goran Hyden,MichaelLeslie i i a a

o o _ _ European EconomicReview. t t & & a a e e e e n n I I i i r r D D and SelectedBibliography. n n c c U U t t v v v v New York: AnchorBooks. New York: AnchorBooks; d d a a a a d d = = e e e e R R

to thisstudypleasesee: l l l l t t

2 2

l l l l . . L L and FoluF. Ogundimu. D D h h o o o o a a u u 12 1 1 _ _ 14 g g e e p p p p e e n n 8 8 S S Amartya Sen.1999. Amartya Sen.1999.

e e m m m m m m e e 9 9 E E r r n n o o s s 9 9 C C 45(4-6): 629-640. o o e e e e c c c c l l & & T T n n n n c c e e o o y y r r I I U U 1-2 May2006. t t t t , ,

. . O O London: Sage. a a

o o

o o g g R R a a a a c c f f N N r r o o s s s s y y L L

g g t t = =

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Eds. 2002. F F F F / / h h i i 2 2 D D e e c c n n r r r r e e 0 0 i i e e e e r r O O

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A A n n 1 1 e e e e m m e e = = . . m m d d d d f f n n h h D D e e r r o o o o / / t t i i e e d d e e O O c c m m m m m m n n a a i i v v a a _ _ t t l l ......

economic needs. enhances thevoiceofpoor peopleandgeneratesmore informedchoicesabout Thefreeencouraging responsiveness press, topublicconcerns. Sensuggests, inlow-income countriesby development outcomesand goodgovernance Amartya Sen’s argumentthatpoliticalfreedoms are linkedtoimproved economic process isalsovitalforhumandevelopment.Thisperspectiveexemplified by for democracy, amatterwidelyacknowledged,butthefinalclaimis thatthis Through thisprocess, manyobserversemphasizethatafree press isnotjustvaluable public debate,andhighlightingsocialproblems toinformthepolicyagenda. in theirwatch-dogroles, aswellproviding acivicforumformultiplevoicesin stations facilitategreater byserving transparency andaccountabilityingovernance, strengthened inindependentnewspapers,radioandtelevision where journalists the secondstagedemocraticconsolidationandhuman developmentare andmobile telephones.Oncemedialiberalizationhascommenced,in Internet and TVchannels,aswellthediffusion ofnewtechnologiessuchasthe to awidervarietyofculturalproducts andideasthrough accesstomultipleradio control ofinformation.Thepublictherebygovernment receives greater exposure media toprivateownership,diffuses access,andreduces official censorshipand stage, theinitialtransitionfrom autocracyopens upthestatecontrol ofthe zation isthoughttobereciprocal (see Figure 1).Thecore claimisthat,inthefirst relationship betweenthegrowth ofthefree press andtheprocess ofdemocrati- Human Rights,andtheAfricanCharteronPeoples'Rights.Thepositive 1948, theEuropean ConventiononHumanRights,theAmerican human rightintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsadoptedbyUN The guaranteeoffreedom ofexpression andinformationisrecognized asabasic are theconsequencesforhumandevelopmentandalleviationofpoverty. andwhat extent free andindependentmediadoescontributetogoodgovernance paper willexplore howandtowhatextendtheaboveisindeedtrue, the absolutecore ofequitabledevelopment, becauseifyoucannot enfranchise the president oftheWorld Bank: Director, DemocraticGovernanceGroup,UNDP University; John FKennedySchoolofGovernment,Harvard and humandevelopment? What istherole ofthefree press democracy instrengthening goodgovernance, Pippa Norris and channelofpoliticalexpression foramultiplicityofgroups andinterests. toallcitizens,andproviding apluralistplatform accountability ofgovernments expression, thoughtandconscience,strengthening theresponsiveness and process ofdemocratizationbycontributingtowards therightoffreedom of an unfettered andindependentpress withineachnationisessentialinthe through LockeandMadisontoJohnStuartMillhavearguedthat theexistenceof 10 , McGuire LecturerinComparativePolitics, 14 James D.Wolfenson echoedthesesentimentswhenhewas 11 A longtraditionofliberaltheoristsfrom Milton A freepressisnotaluxury. Afreepressisat 12 13 This 66 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact “A free press is not a luxury. poor people, if they do not have a right to expression, if there is no searchlight on corruption and inequitable practices, you cannot build the public consensus A free press is at the absolute needed to bring about change.” 15 core of equitable development, More liberal media landscapes are therefore widely regarded as strengthening because if you cannot democratization and good governance directly, as well as human development indirectly. These claims are commonly heard among popular commentators, donor enfranchise poor people, agencies, and the international community. But what systematic evidence supports if they do not have a right these contentions? Despite historical case-studies focusing on the role of the press in specific countries and regions, it is somewhat surprising that relatively little to expression, if there is no comparative research has explored the systematic linkages in this process. Much searchlight on corruption existing research has also focused on assessing the impact of media access, such as the diffusion of newspaper readership or television viewership, rather than press and inequitable practices, freedom. To explore these issues, Part I presents the analytical framework, develops you cannot build the public the core testable propositions, and summarizes the previous research literature on the topic. Part II outlines the comparative framework, evidence, and research design. consensus needed to This study utilizes a large-N cross-sectional comparison to analyze the impact of bring about change“ press freedom on multiple indicators of democracy and good governance. Freedom House provides the principle measure of Press Freedom, with annual data available James D. Wolfenson, former from 1992 to 2005. This indicator is strongly correlated with the independently President of the World Bank developed Press Freedom Index created by Reporter’s Without Borders, increasing confidence in the reliability of the Freedom House measure. Part III describes the distribution of press freedom and regional trends. Part IV analyzes the impact of this pattern. The regression models control for many factors commonly associated with processes of democratization and good governance, including levels of eco- nomic development, colonial origins, population size, and regional effects. The 15 James D. Wolfenson. 1999. results presented confirm that the free press does matter for good governance, ‘Voices of the Poor.’ and it is integral to the process of democratization. The Conclusion summarizes Washington Post, 10 November 1999, A39. the key findings and considers their consequences for strengthening development.

THE ROLES OF THE NEWSMEDIA AS WATCH-DOG, CIVIC FORUM, AND AGENDA-SETTER

16 For the classics in this account see In the late 1950s and early 1960s, early modernization theories assumed a fairly Daniel Lerner. 1958. The Passing of Traditional Society. simple and unproblematic relationship between the spread of access to modern Glencoe, Il: The Free Press; forms of mass communications, economic development, and the process of Lucian W. Pye. 1963. Communications and Political Development. democratization. Accounts offered by Lerner, Lipset, Pye, Cutright and others, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; suggested that the diffusion of mass communications represented one sequential Seymour Martin Lipset. 1959. ‘Some social prerequisites of democracy: step in the development process. In this view, urbanization and the spread of Economic development & political legitimacy.’ literacy lead to growing access to modern technologies such as telephones, American Political Science Review 53: 69-105; Donald J.McCrone and Charles F. Cnudde. 1967. newspapers, radios and television, all of which laid the basis for an informed 16 Toward a communication theory of democratic citizenry able to participate effectively in political affairs. Hence, based on a political development: A Causal model. MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS American Political Science Review 61(1): 72-79. strong connection between the spread of communications and political development, 67 THE ROLEOFJOURNALISTSASWATCHDOGS OFTHEPOWERFUL older literature andheateddebatesaboutthe Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; EndowmentforInternational Carnegie ‘Bloodhounds orMissionaries:RoleDefinitions 27 Reports andPapersonMassCommunication, Oklahoma: TheUniversityofOklahomaPress. F F C C Global PolicyProgram No21Washington DC: P P ’Censor Dot Gov: The Internet &Press Freedom.’’Censor DotGov:TheInternet f f Annabelle Sreberny Mohammadietal.1984. Annabelle Sreberny o o ‘The effect ofdemocracyandpress freedom role ofthemediaindevelopmentthatarose r r r r See ShanthiKalathil&Taylor C.Boas.2001. r r Minneapolis, UniversityofMinnesotaPress. 20 o o e e i i r r t t H H e e s s m m See Pippa Norris. 2000. A Virtuous Circle.See PippaNorris.2000.AVirtuous i i ‘A free press isbadnewsforcorruption.’ c c William Preston, EdwardsWilliam S.Hermanand E E s s o o i i 19 Ames, Iowa:IowaStateUniversityPress; I I R R g g Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress. a

h h J J

u u n n p p a a A A o o For adiscussionofthecriticisms See alsoLouisEdward Inglehart.1998. l l e e n n t t International FederationofJournalists. International r r 26 t t

21 e e n n u u t t F F T T n n p p S o o e e ‘Political andmedialiberalization

See, forexample,casesdocumented p p

T T N N d d C C o o George A. Donohue, Philip Tichenor George A.Donohue,PhilipTichenor 23 h h r r t t r r t t o o p p a a and the International Press Institute and theInternational h : : u u n i i

n r r u u e e e e n n 'A Critical Analysis of International 'A CriticalAnalysisofInternational / / r r A. BrunettiandB.Weder B.2003. e e of German and British Journalists.’ of GermanandBritishJournalists.’ q q S S e e e e d d a a / / in thelate1970sandearly1980s The World Press Freedom Council t t a a w w b b Washington DC:Freedom House.

Reston, VA: World Press Freedom a a d d A A p p ‘A Guard DogPerspectiveonthe u u on corruption:anempiricaltest.’ w w P P i i i i

Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. l l i i t Donald LewisShaw(eds).1984. n n a a g g Glencoe, Il:TheFree Press p.60. n n I I

e e

e e P P i i s s a a i i u u n n F F o o t t

o o w w g g n n P P

s s

r r e e and theHumanRightsWatch. political corruptioninTaiwan.’ s s a a y y t t G G o o J J t t J J i i f f

e e r r n n

s s h h n n c c o o e e o o n n i i

w w i i N N h h w w e e l l 18 24 l l s s n n i i h h u u P P a a n n l l see HamidMowlana.1985. o o

r r o o u u u u n n by theIndexonCensorship d d Leonard R.Sussman.2000. s s y y s s t t t t E E e e u u

Samuel Huntington.1993. l l Leonard R.Sussman.2001. . .

n n n n

w w r r t t b b s s

r r r r h h g g M M

i i

F F : : T T c c w w F F i i n n p p b b F F t t

t t e e

n n n n a a r r t t w w e e

o o T T w w F F h h i i r r l l C C o o d d : : t t l l a a e e a a Robert L.Stevensonand a a a a l l h h s s o o Herbert I.Schiller. 1989. l l S.K. Chowdhury. 2004.

e e 22 r r / / h h i i n n

e e

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News FlowResearch.' Renate Kocher. 1986.

i i

s w w h h n n d d t t i i x x K. KyloonHur. 1984. U U e e o o o 9 9 n n a a r r C C T T E E d d e e n n

n n e e m m p p Daniel Lerner. 1958. I I See forexamplethe t t e e

o o t t C C U U o o d d r r 9 9 n n f f f f d d c c n n o o w w p p N N Role oftheMedia.’ o o 93. Paris,UNESCO; o o a a d d t t d d y y : : a a e e

o o n n o o 8 8 m m o o i i / /

p p

n n f f u u o o C C C C T T m m f f

i i E E

c c

d d R R d d S S / / w w w w o o Q Q : : n n a a c c N N m m

m m t t : : i i h h n n s s r r o o o o

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r r : : A A o o t t

n n t t u u Paris, UNESCO; . . i i

/ / w w e e t t a a e e

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o o T T e e w w m m m m

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h h

1801-1824; Committee. r r t t

S S t t et al.1995. e e c c t t t t n n e e r r d d C C e e . . 1 1 o o a a C C u u u u m m e e h h r r e e e e i i e e w w i i v v u u r r s s t t m m . . w w r r i i o o s r r v v 9 9

o o l l u u h h w w o o o o n n n n r r a a e e c c s s 1: 43-64. r r 875-893. e e 365 378; A A

n n r r d d h h a a 87 (7-8): o o l l 4 4 n n p p S S s s u u a : : r r s s e e . . t t

n n n n i i i i 93-101; y y y y a a

i i t t

G G i i n n c c c c W W w w e e 5 5 e e l l o o

t t f f C C n n d d f f W W p p W W t t o o

i i 85 (1): u u a a a a O O t t i i c c a a j j s s o o

2 2 . . (184): r r e e c c o o h h t t i i i i ...... l l 1 1 c c t t t t t . t . o o

o o a a o o o o l l o o o o i i o o 0 0 r r r r a a n n n n o o o o a a i i i i o o i i n n i i y y e e 9 9 i i r r d d o o o o o o . . l l n n n n 0 0 r r r r r r v v g g : : e e e e r r r r n n a a

m m s s l l t t

8 8

g g g g g e e g n n g n n n n d d i i l l 0 0 a a a a 1 1 e e y y y y s s s s A A i i t t d d n n d d 5 5 s s / / r r / / / / , , l l , , ...... : . , ......

modify orsuppress newsstoriesunflatteringtotheregime. press to employedbytheinternational dissent andforced journalists internal human rightsobserversreport thatthestatehasmanipulatedmediatostifle wave’ experiencedinLatinAmerica,Sub-SaharanAfrica,andAsia. of theworld,andmajorsetbacksfordemocracywith‘secondreverse grew, facedwiththecomplexitiesofhumandevelopmentevidentindifferent parts process involvedaseriesofsequentialstepsgraduallyfelloutfashion.Skepticism By thelate-1960sandearly-1970s,however, theassumptionthatmodernization societies." participation (e.g.voting)whichwefindinalladvancedmodern the spread ofliteracy. Outofthisinteractiondevelopthoseinstitutions accelerates radio networks,andmotionpictures onamassivescale.This,inturn, development isfairlywelladvanced,doesasocietybegintoproduce newspapers, society. Notuntilthethird stage,whentheelaboratetechnologyofindustrial people, equipsthemtoperformthevariedtasksrequired inthemodernizing theorized:"Thecapacitytoread, atfirstacquiredDaniel Lerner byrelatively few corruption inthejudiciary, andscandalsinthecorporatesector. in power, byhighlightingpolicyfailures, maladministrationbypublicofficials, transparency,government accountability, andpublicscrutinyofdecision-makers In their‘watchdog’role, thechannelsofnewsmediacanfunctiontopromote responsivenessfor policymakers(strengthening tosocial problems). government for politicaldebate(facilitatinginformedelectoralchoices),andasanagenda-setter the abuseofpower(promoting accountabilityandtransparency), asacivicforum andhumandevelopmentwhere theyfunctionaswatch-dogover good governance, that thenewsmediaismosteffective instrengthening theprocess ofdemocratization, channel forthedisadvantaged. consolidate thepowerofmediaoligopolies,asmuchtoprovide ademocratic could beusedtomaintainautocracies,reinforce crony capitalism,andto was insufficient byitselftopromote democracyanddevelopment,asthesemedia growing recognition thatwideningpublicaccesstonewspapers,radioandtelevision regulations, legalrestrictions andstatecensorship. restrictions onpress rulersthrough freedom official tocriticizegovernment in Myanmar, SriLanka,andSaudiArabia,amongothers, commonly placeserious scandals. and thereby exposeandhindermisuseofpublicoffice, malfeasance,andfinancial watchdogs promote decision-makingprocess, thetransparency ofgovernment nations withafree press. The reason, theyargue,isthatjournalist’s roles as Brunetti andWeder, amongstothers,foundthatthere waslesscorruptionin Taiwan, haveexplored evidencefortheimpactof the newsmediauponcorruption. and historicalcasestudiesofdevelopmentswithinparticularcountriessuchas non-profit organizations,orprivatecompanies.Comparativeeconometricstudies, hold authoritiesaccountablefortheiractions,whetherpublicsectorinstitutions, can openthegovernment’s record scrutinyandcriticalevaluation, toexternal classic checksandbalancesinthedivisionofpowers. Edmund Burke,the‘fourthestate’hastraditionallybeenregarded asoneofthe and thereby filterboth accessandcontent. as ChinaandCuba,state-controlled service monopolies provide theonly Internet tocensoronlinecommunications, butneverthelessinnationssuch governments and intimidation against journalists andbroadcasters. and intimidationagainstjournalists through oligopolies incommercial ownership,andtheuseofoutrightviolence (such asstringentlibellawsandrestrictive official secrets acts),limitedcompetition television channels,legalrestrictions onfreedom ofexpression andpublication through censorship,stateownershipofthemainradioand official government regimes byindependentjournalists, and todetercriticismofthegovernment By contrast,control ofthenewsmedia is usedtoreinforce thepowerofautocratic by themediatoholdpartiesandleadersaccount‘kickingrascalsout’. 23 In competitivemultipartydemocracies,voterscanuseinformationprovided 19 Access remains important,butthisstudytheorizes 27 Media freedom organizations demonstrate 26 It remains more difficult for 22 24 Investigative journalism In Malaysia,forexample, 25 Elsewhere governments 21 Ever since 18 There was 17 20 68 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 69 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact THE ROLEOFNEWSMEDIAASCIVICFORUM S P P E E A A K K 30 r r 34 ‘Media proliferation anddemocratictransition Rakotovoavy, andH.S.Razafinimanana.2005. e e I I Organization forSecurityandCooperationin 29 c c Arthur LupiaandMathewD.McCubbins.1998. See Jeremy Tunstall andMichaelPalmer.1991. p p N N o o h h T T Europe ontheOctober2000parliamentary See PeterDahlgren andColinSparks.1995. o o m m t t 33 h h Haggblade, B.Minten,M.Rakotojaona,F. t t G G r r e e P. Andriantsoa,N.Andriasendrarivony, S. p p m m t t Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress. P P s s

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forum orwatch-dogroles. standards, canalllimittheroleand unevenjournalistic ofthemediainitscivic with thefailure ofregulatory reform, legalpolicieswhichrestrict criticalreporting, fully-independent andpluralisticmediasystems.Broadcasting cartels,coupled example innationssuchasRussia,BrazilandPeruwhichhavefailedtocreate of televisionhasbeenreplaced byprivateoligopoliesandcrony capitalism,for caution thatthequalityofdemocracystillremains limitedwhere stateownership providing theessentialconditionsforinformedchoice. prospective policiesandleadershipcharacteristicsofpartiescandidates, provides citizenswithinformationtocompare andevaluatetheretrospective record, for competitive,free andfairmultipartyelections.Duringcampaigns,a free media as fairaccesstotheairwavesbyoppositionparties,candidatesandgroups iscritical in publicdeliberation.Thisrole isparticularlyimportantduringelectioncampaigns, society, inafairandimpartialbalance,thenmultipleinterests andvoicesare heard channels ofcommunicationreflect thesocialandculturalpluralismwithineach the majorissuesofday, andinformingthepublicabouttheirleaders. sphere, bymediatingbetweencitizensandthestate,facilitatingdebateabout Equally vital,intheircivicforumrole, thefree press canstrengthen thepublic personal dangerfrom warsorimprisonmentby thesecurityservices. inmanypartsoftheworldfacedailythreat of harassment, whilejournalists broadcasters and editorshaveexperiencedintimidationor many journalists, their work.InColombia,SierraLeone,Liberia,ZimbabweandEgypt,forexample, that eachyeardozensofmediaprofessionals are killedorinjured inthecourseof varied asGhana,SriLanka,Belize,India,Trinidad andTobago, andZambia. campaigns. Thisprinciplehasbeenrecognized injurisprudencefrom countriesas rather thanbeingopentoapluralityofpoliticalviewpointsandpartiesduring party,stations heavilyfavorthegoverning intheamountortoneofcoverage, as acivicforumremain deeplyflawedwhere majornewspapersandtelevision for decision-makers, helping to make democratic governments more responsivefor decision-makers,helping tomakedemocraticgovernments In thesesituations,independent reporters canactasavitalchannelof information the scopeandnature ofanydisaster isvitalifofficials are torespond effectively. the deliveryofeffective emergencyrelief, timely andaccurateinformationabout communications amongofficial agencieswhichhinderedand thepoorinternal overtheKatrinadebacleinUnitedStates, by thedramaticfailure ofgovernment suffer from abreakdown inthe usual channelsofcommunication.Asillustrated Particularlyincasesofnatural disaster,makers ingovernment. publicofficials often about urgentsocialproblems to decision- andthereby channelingcitizens’concerns Lastly, thenewsmediaalsofunctionsasanagenda-setter, providing information each nation,orofmajormultinationalcorporationswithmultimediaempires. ownership ofthemedia,whetherinhandsbroadcasting oligopolieswithin but threats tomediapluralismare alsoraisedbyover-concentration ofprivate democratic consolidation.Stateownershipandcontrol isoneimportantissue, By contrast,where themediafailstoactasaneffective civicforum,thiscanhinder of autocratsacross muchofAfrica,facilitatingmultipartyelectoraldemocracies. has underminedtheolderstate-controlled mediawhichonceconsolidatedthegrip for example,Andriantsoaetalarguethattheprocess ofliberalizationandprivatization the public,reducing thediversityofnews mediaoutlets. in thehandsofafewmultinationalcorporations,whichremain unaccountableto feared thattheprocess ofmediamergersmayhaveconcentratedexcessivecontrol exemplified bycampaignsinRussia,Belarus,andMozambique bias ontelevisionandradiohasfailedtoprovide alevelplayingfieldforallparties, are manycaseswhere electoralobservershavereported thatpro-government 36 30 The role ofthenewsmedia 35 Contemporary observers 32 . InMadagascar, 28 29 31 If the There 34 It is 33 MEASURING PRESSFREEDOM II. DATA, INDICATORS, ANDRESEARCHDESIGN MEASURING DEMOCRACY ‘Political agency, responsiveness government ‘Conceptualizing andmeasuringdemocracy: Geraldo L.MunckandJayVerkuilen. 2002. 38 A usefulreview oftheseisavailablefrom C C E E o o u u m m r r o o p p p p a a e e 37 r r a a a a T. BesleyandR.Burgess.2001. n n Evaluating alternative indices.’ Evaluating alternative t t i i

v v E E e e c c and therole ofthemedia.’ o o

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S S e e t t v v u u i i e e d d w w i i e e . 45(4-6): 629-640. s s . 35(1): 5-34. with databasedonannual research. Theyeachhave broad cross-national scopeandalengthytime-series, of democracycommonlyused byscholarsandpolicyanalystsincomparative based oncontesteddemocracy. These represent themost widely-citedindicators Vanhanen’s indicator ofparticipatory compared inthisstudy:thePolityIVpr quality ofdemocracyinawiderangecountriesworldwide. attempts togaugeandmeasure systematic,validandreliable indicators ofthe nance. SeeAppendixAforadescriptionofthese.Recent yearshaveseengrowing The dependentvariablesare indicatorsoflevelsdemocracyandgoodgover- tions includeCuba,Eritrea, ChinaandTurkmenistan. Fasa. Thecountrieswhichrankashavingtheleastfree mediabybothorganiza- opment, includingMaliandBenin,NicaraguaElSalvador, aswellBurkina freedom are classifiedbytheUNDPashavingonlymoderateorevenlowdevel- linkage betweenaffluence anddemocracy. Butothercountrieswithhighpress such asNewZealand,theNetherlandsandSweden,expectedgivenstrong highly onpress freedom byboththeseindicatorsare highlydevelopednations, confidence inthereliability ofthemeasures. Manyofthecountriesscoring most these organizationslargelyconfirmsimilarfindings,afindingwhichincreases differ intheirconstruction,datasources, andconceptualization.Despitethis, a fewoutlierswhere theorganizationsdisagree intheirrankings.Bothindices of thesesources, showastrong correlation across boththese measures, withjust pendently produced byReporterswithoutBorders. Theresults ofthecomparison index wascompared withtheWorldwide Press Freedom Index,whichisinde- To checkwhethertheresults ofthismeasure proved reliable, theFreedom House 1992 to2004. contemporary nationswere availableintheFreedom Houseannualindexfrom scale foreachcountryundercomparison.Evaluationsofpress freedom in191 broadcast andprintmedia,theresulting ratingsare expressed asa100-point Theassessmentofpress freedomto journalists. distinguishesbetweenthe violating press autonomy, includingcensorship,harassmentandphysicalthreats orprivateentrepreneurs,exerted bythegovernment andactualincidents decisions, is influencedbythestructure ofthenews is measured inthisindexaccording tohowmuchthediversityofnewscontent Freedom canbeusedasthestandard cross-national indicator. Press freedom To explore someoftheevidence,annualFreedom HouseindexofPress andthushumandevelopment. ernance expect thatgreater press freedom shouldhelptopromote democracy, goodgov- For allofthesereasons, where thepress iseffective intheseroles, wewould agenda-setter canalsopressure torespond tolocalproblems. thegovernment reporting localconditionsatthegrassroots, andtherole ofthemediaasan functionasanintermediaryby accurately andinatimelyfashionwhenjournalists reason, aboutlocalproblems more theysuggest,isthatpoliticalleaderslearn House’s indexofliberal proved more activeduringanemergencyinresponding tofood-shortages. case, andestablishedthatregional stateswithhigherlevelsofnewspapercirculation to theneedsofpeople.Forexample,BesleyandBurgessexaminedIndian the degree ofpoliticalinfluenceorcontrol, theeconomicinfluences eorc is democracy observations democracy, andPrzeworskietal’s classification also widelyused,butthisis notemployedin oject’s measure ofconstitutionaldemocracy, classifying regimes worldwide.Freedom industry, bylegal andadministrative 38 he esrsare Three measures 37 The 70 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 71 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEASURING GOODGOVERNANCE III. THEDISTRIBUTIONOFFREEPRESS ‘Democracy anddichotomies:Apragmatic 39 World BankPolicyResearch Paper2196. ‘Governance MattersIII:Governance ‘Governance David CollierandRobertAdcock.1999. Annual ReviewofPoliticalScience approach tochoicesabout concepts.’ 40 Daniel Kaufmann,AaartKraay, Daniel Kaufmann,AartKraay, Washington DC:World Bank. ‘Governance Matters.’ ‘Governance Indicators 1996-2002.’ www.worldbank.org; and Zoido-Lobaton. and M.Mastruzzi. 1: 537-565. May 2003. 1999. in North America, Western Europein NorthAmerica,Western andScandinavia, developednationsin Asia. Althoughthecountries scoringmosthighlyinpress freedom tendtobefound around theworld,showingimportantcontrastswithin Africa,LatinAmerica,and extent. Themapillustrated in Figure 4breaks thecomparisondownbycountries press inothernationstheregion, thisregion laggedbehindothersto amarked foundin AlJazeera,andmovestoliberalizethe and aggressive styleofjournalism states proving theleastfree. Despitethegrowing audienceforthemore independent regions which alsoscored relatively highlyinfreedom ofthepress, withthe Arab longest-standing democracies.LatinAmericaandSouth-East Asiaproved the found intheindustrializednations,includingmost affluent economiesand the world.Asillustratedinfigure 3,asexpected,themostliberalmediawere ofpress freedomThe contemporarypattern showsconsiderablevariationsaround are robust irrespective oftheparticularmeasure whichisselectedforanalysis. Gandhi, todoublecheckwhetherthekeyfindingsare confirmedandtheresults indicators ofdemocracyprovided byPolityIV, Vanhanen, andbyCheibub andthethree standardsented forthefiveKaufmannindicatorsofgoodgovernance this shouldbeevidentintheseindicators.Theregression analysismodelsare pre- important role accountabilityandresponsiveness, inpromoting then government of freedom ofthepress aspartoftheirconstruction.Ifthefree press playsan thatwere selectedincludedmeasuresnone oftheindicatorsgoodgovernance Itshouldbenotedthat one ofthebestavailablegaugesgoodgovernance. nations, suchasrepresentative surveysofpublicopinion,thesemeasures provide Nevertheless intheabsenceofotherreliable indicatorscoveringawiderangeof bias towards more favorableevaluationsofcountrieswithgoodeconomicoutcomes. of thejudgments,variationsincountrycoveragebydifferent indices,andpossible national ‘experts’,theuseofbusinessleadersandacademicscholarsasbasis prove unreliable forseveralreasons, includingreliance uponasmallnumberof predictable rulesforsocialandeconomicinteractions.Subjectivejudgmentsmay corruption reflect thesuccessofasocietyindevelopingfair, transparent and the difficulty ofconductingroutine businesstransactions.Lastly, perceptions of service from politicalpressures. Regulatoryqualityrefers topublicservicesand perceptions ofthequalitypublicserviceandindependence ofthecivic efficiencycrime, andtheenforceability isgaugedby ofcontracts.Government effectiveness ofthejudiciaryandcourts,perceptions ofviolentornon-violent theindependenceand violence duetoactsofterrorism. Theruleoflawconcerns of the‘rulesgame’,continuityinconstitutionalpractices,andlackpolitical important asthisreflects theregular office, rotation consolidation ofgovernment regulatory quality, andlevelsofcorruptionineachnation.Politicalstabilityis assessed thedegree ofpoliticalstability, theruleoflaw, efficiency, government drawingonmultiplesurveysofexperts,that five indicatorsofgoodgovernance, et alfortheWorld Bank. developedbyKaufmann The studyalsodrawsonthemeasures ofgoodgovernance main generalizationsholdirrespective oftheparticularmeasures whichare used. greater confidenceinthereliability oftheresults andwecanconcludethatthe measures ofdemocracywhichare employedforanalysis.Ifso,thenthisgenerates to seeifthefindingsremain robust and consistent irrespective ofthespecific study, istocompare indicators, theresults ofanalyticalmodelsusingalternative and analyticalgoalsinanystudy. are bestjustifiedpragmaticallyintermsofthetheoretical framework is bestforallpurposes,insteadasCollierandAdcocksuggest,specificchoices ponents. Thereason toadoptmore thanonemeasure isthatnosingleindicator this studyasthemeasure containsfreedom ofthepress asoneofitscore com- 40 This datasetisbaseduponsubjectiveperceptions of 39 The mostprudentstrategy, adoptedbythis 72 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact Asia-Pacific, nevertheless some poorer developing nations, such as Mali, Benin and South Africa, also scored well on journalistic freedom. The relationship between economic development and press freedom is explored more fully in figure 5, which contrasts both factors. The results show a moderately strong correlation but there are also important outliers in this relationship. Hence there are a range of nations located in the bottom right-hand corner of the scatter- gram which are relatively affluent and yet with restrictions on an independent press, notably Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Malaysia. In Singapore, for example, the People’s Action Party (PAP), founded and originally led by Lee Kuan Yew, has maintained its unbroken rule in government since 1959, despite a regular series of multiparty contests challenging their hegemonic status. One reason contributing to the ruling party’s predominance is their strong control of the press and news media, for example the leading newspaper of Singapore, the Straits Times, is often perceived as a propaganda newspaper because it rarely criticizes government policy, and it covers little about the opposition. The owners of the paper, Singapore Press Holdings, have close links to the ruling party and the corporation has a virtual monopoly of the newspaper industry. Government censorship of journalism is common, using the threat or imposition of heavy fines or distribution bans imposed by the Media Development Authority, with these techniques also used against articles seen to be critical of the government published in the international press, including The Economist and International Times Herald Tribune. Internet access is regulated in Singapore, and private ownership of satellite dishes is not allowed. Due to this record, the Reporters Without Borders assessment of Press Freedom Worldwide in 2005 ranked Singapore 140th out of 167 nations. By contrast, there are other nations which have low per capita GDP and yet which are relatively free in media communications, notably those nations located in the top-left quadrant of Figure 5. One example is Benin, which is widely regarded as a successful African democracy with constitu- tional checks and balances, multiple parties, a high degree of judicial independence, and a lively partisan press which is often critical of the government. Benin ranks 161st lowest out of 177 states in the 2003 UNDP Human Development Index, with a per capita GDP (in Purchasing Power Parity) of $1,115. One third of the population lives with incomes below the poverty level and two-thirds of the adult population is illiterate. Despite this, the country is categorized as ‘free’ by the 2006 Freedom House index, comparable to Argentina, Mexico, and Romania in its record of civil liberties and political rights. MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS

73 IV. THEIMPACT OFTHEFREEPRESSONGOODGOVERNANCEANDDEMOCRACY www.stanford.edu/~wacziarg/papersum.html 41 42 RobertA.Dahl. 1998. J J Alberto AlesinaandEnricoSpolaore. 2003. William Easterly,William SergioKurlatandRomain Christopher Clague,SuzanneGleasonand o o Alberto Alesina, Arnaud Devleeschauwer,Alberto Alesina,Arnaud Size anddemocracy u u Stephen Knack.2001.‘Determinantsof r r Culture, developmentandinstitutions.’ n n 43 a a A A lasting democracyinpoorcountries: Robert A.DahlandE.R.Tufte. 1973. l l n n

Wacziarg. 2003.‘Fractionalization’ o o n n f a a

o o E E Haven, CT:Yale UniversityPress; l l s s f f c c

o o S S o o n n o o Cambridge, MA:MITPress. f f

o o c c t t i i m m h h a a e e l l i i

c c T T On Democracy

S A A

h h c c G G . Stanford: Stanford m m i i e e e e r r

o o e e n n S S w w r r c c i i University Press; z z i i e e For detailssee: c c t t e e s s a a h h

n n o o

5 8:155-194.

f f 7 7 A A

3 3 N N c c : 16-41. a a a a d d t t . New i i e e o o m m n n s s y y .

opment, ethnicdiversity, andthesizeofpopulation. poor nationsinex-Britishcolonies,evencontrolling forlevelsofeconomicdevel- office) arecontestation forgovernment most likelytoemergeandpersistamong Clague, GleasonandKnackreport thatlastingdemocracies(characterizedby ofdemocracyhasbeennotedbyseveralobservers;forexample temporary patterns colonial legacies.Anassociationbetweenthepasttypeofruleandcon- Power Parity).Themodelsalsocontrol of fortheeffects ofthehistoricalpattern levels ofeconomicdevelopment(measured byloggedpercapitaGDPinPurchasing withstood repeated testsinthe social sciencesandaccordingly themodelsentered between wealthanddemocracyhasbeenalong-standingobservationwhich factors whichare commonlyassociatedwithpoliticaldevelopment.Therelationship evenusingmultivariateregressiongovernance, modelscontrolling formanyothers The keyquestioniswhetherpress freedom isrelated todemocracyandgood alization, basedonaglobaldatasetcreated byAlesinaandhiscolleagues. consolidation. Nationswere classifiedaccording tothedegree ofethnicfraction- divided societiesare widelyassumedtoexperiencegreater problems ofdemocratic ethnic heterogeneity isalsoentered intothemodels,ongrounds thatdeeply- wave, andindeedtobetheleastdemocraticregion worldwide.Thedegree of has beenleastaffected bythetrends indemocratizationsincethestartofthird entered intotheanalysis,sincemanyobservershavepointedoutthatthisregion recent examinationofthisproposition. widely assumed,andAlesinaSpolaore haveprovided themostdetailed Ever sinceDahlandTufte, theideathatsizemattersfordemocracyhasbeen models alsocontrol fortheimpactofsizepopulationineachcountry. consistent predictor of of consistent predictor Przeworski etal/Cheibub.Indeedtheimpactof ceptualization andmeasurement processes usedbyPolityIV, Vanhanen, and indicator ofdemocracywhichisselected,despitemajordifferences inthecon- and socialcontrols. Theresults appeartoberobust irrespective oftheparticular associated withlevelsofdemocracy, evenafteremployingthebatteryofeconomic The results oftheanalysisinTable 1confirmsthatthefree press issignificantly potential forcitizenparticipationinkeydecisions. democratically,to govern forexamplethesmallerpopulation,greater the democracy outofanythefactorsundercomparison, 43 Smaller nationsare expected tobeeasier the fiveselected indicatorsof The modelswere replicated for overall levelofdemocratization. is particularlystrong, giventheir above thelinewhere thefree press there are othercountrieswell offices. And major government free andfair electionsforthe of democracy, suchasholding be expectedfrom otherindicators may bemore severe thanmight in thesenations ent journalism gesting thatlimitsonindepend- Guatamala andBangladesh,sug- the line,suchasRussia, tries whichfallquitefarbelow plot shows,there are afewcoun- any obviousoutliers.Asthescatter- goodness offitandtoidentify of democracy, toexaminethe figure 6,usingthePolityIVmeasure wasinspectedvisuallyin pattern even stronger thanwealth.The media liberalizationwasthemost 41 The MiddleEastisalso 42 The 74 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact good governance and again the results, presented in Table 2, proved significant and consistent. The models show that countries where much of the public has access to the free press usually have greater political stability, rule of law, government efficiency in the policy process, regulatory quality, and the least corruption. CONCLUSIONS

Overall the analysis lends considerable support to the claims of liberal theorists about the critical role of the free press, as one of the major components of both democracy and good governance. Nevertheless there are many questions remaining for future research. The analysis presented here has not been able to explore which of the three roles of the free press - as watch-dog, as civic forum or as agenda-setter - is most important in these rela- tionships. Plausibly, for example, the effectiveness of the press as watch-dogs should have the great- est impact upon stamping out corruption, while their function in calling attention to social problems should influence government effectiveness. It probably requires detailed case-studies focusing upon how the news media work in particular countries to flesh out these linkages. Moreover the limited cross-sectional analysis presented here cannot seek to disentangle some of the reciprocal relationships between the government and the media which may be at work, and time-series analysis of develop- ments over time would provide a more satisfactory handle on these matters. Lastly the analysis has not sought to demonstrate the indirect effects of the free press on levels of human development, as proposed in the last stage of the analytical model. Nevertheless it remains plausible, as many other studies suggest, that improving democracy and good governance will ultimately contribute towards the eradication of poverty, particularly by making governments more accountable and 44 responsive to human needs. The study therefore confirms many of the assumptions about the role of independent journalism, which are pervasive in liberal theory, including the core argument that the free press matters, both intrinsically and instrumen- tally. Policies which eradicate limits on the free exchange of information and communication, whether due to state censorship, intimidation and harassment of journalists, or private media oligop- olies, therefore have important consequences for those seeking to strengthen both good political and human development.

44 See, for example, Joseph T. Siegle, Michael Weinstein and Morton Halperin. 2004. ‘Why democracies excel’ Foreign Affairs 83(5):57-72; Adam Przeworski, Michael E. Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub and Fernando Limongi. 2000. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. NY: Cambridge University Press. MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS For a full technical annex to this paper, see: www.pippanorris.com 75 The MediaSustainabilityIndex Change inMediaSystems: Measuring WEAKNESSES INMEASUREMENTANDASSESSMENTTHEFIELDOFMEDIADEVELOPMENT a mediaassistanceprogram? across countriestodetermine if amediaassistanceproject the relativeneedsofvarious whether tobeginormodify “How candonorscompare “How measure changeinmedia countries whendeciding systems overtimeand n,howcandonors And, is havinganeffect?” Media DevelopmentDivision,IREX consistent methodology usedtoassessthe mediasystemsbetween countries? suited tomediadevelopment ordeservingofmore funds whenthere isno another. Canapolicymakerinthoseconditionssaythat one countryismore However, thescopeofeachassessmentcanvarywidely from onecountryto assistance programs, theyusuallyundertakespecificassessmentsineach case. When donorsare consideringthedevelopmentormodificationofmedia project ishavinganeffect? media systemsovertimeandacross countriestodetermineifamediaassistance or modifyamediaassistanceprogram? And,howcandonorsmeasure changein compare therelative needsofvariouscountrieswhendecidingwhethertobegin This causestwoseriousproblems fordonorsandimplementers: howcandonors field. and evaluationfacedbyotheractivitiesinthedemocracy andgovernance Yet, mediadevelopmentstill suffers from manyoftheweaknessesinmonitoring as health,povertyreduction, anti-corruption,andeconomicdevelopment. societies, aswellanessentialcomponenttootherdevelopmentactivitiessuch seen asvitaltothesuccessfuldevelopmentoftransitioncountries,post-conflict US, European, andprivatedonors.Anindependentprofessional mediais the democracy, developmentandpost-conflictagendasofthemajor governance, agenda inthelate1980s,mediadevelopmenthasbecomeavitalcomponentof Growing from asmallandoftenoverlookednicheofthelargerdevelopment been viewedasasubjectiveexercise. application ofreplicable andquantifiableindicatorsonwhathasessentially professionals from eachcountrybeingassessedintheprocess, andbyits of mediaasasysteminterrelated components,byitsinvolvementofmedia and themediathemselves.Theapproach totheMSIisdistinguishedbyitsview and measurement toolfordonors,policymakers,mediadevelopment implementers, out totheMiddleEastin2006,MSIhasproven itselfavaluableassessment and supportinginstitutions.Inusesince2001forEurope andEurasiarolling free pluralityofnewssources, speech,professional mediabusiness, journalism, The MSImeasures mediasystemsaccording tofivekeycomponents(orobjectives): capture theareas professional deemedkeytodevelopinghealthymediasystems. sistently measure thedevelopmentofmediaacross timeandacross countriesand The MediaSustainabilityIndex(MSI)wasdevelopedtoaddress theneedtocon- Mark Whitehouse , Director, 76 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 77 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact THE MEDIASUSTAINABILITY INDEX:MEDIAASASYSTEM THE DEVELOPMENTOFMSI 45 see www.irex.org/msi .Supportinginstitutionsfunctionintheprofessionalinterestsofindependentmedia. 5. Independentmediaarewell-managedbusinesses,allowingeditorial 4. Multiplenewssources provide citizenswithreliableandobjectivenews. 3. Journalismmeetsprofessional standardsofquality. 2. Legalandsocialnorms protect andpromotefreespeechaccessto 1. The MSIapproaches mediaasa measure andpublishthefirstMediaSustainabilityIndex(MSI)in2001. IREX tooktheworkithaddevelopedandworkedwithUSAIDtorefine the Romania, letalonewhetherRomaniaitselfhadimproved. Beginningin2000, but onecouldnotdetermineifCroatia wasmakinggreater progress than sionalism. Attendeeswere allcollectingdataspecifictotheirindividual programs of theequation-mostoftenpress freedom, attacksonmedia,andmediaprofes- country andsomeoftheexistingglobalorregional measures addressed onlypart be comparableacross countries.Measures were beingdevelopedcountryby given countryovertime.Additionally, itbecameclearthatsuchameasure must - indicatedaneedforsustainedeffort tomeasure themedia’s progress inany mediaprofessionals,Western localmediaprofessionals, donors,andimplementers of assessment,monitoring,andevaluationwere discussedandallpresent - At severalUSAIDmediadevelopmentconferences organizedbyIREX,theissues programs, includingmedia. of democracyandgovernance of allprograms andinparticular, seekingtobringgreater rigortotheassessment the sametimeUSAIDwasinmidstofimproving monitoringandevaluation time andfoundthemlimitedfortheuseofmediadevelopmentprofessionals. At country’s specificmediasystem.We lookedatthevarioustoolsavailable In thelate1990s,IREXbeganworkingtodevelopatoolevaluategiven data alsochange,makingcomparisonsacross timewithinacountryverydifficult. priorities, andthechangingenvironment. Implementers’anddonors’evaluation over timetendtochangeinresponse tofundingfluctuations,changingpolicy little possibilitytocompare results across countries.Additionally, donors’activities and sinceprojects tendtovaryconsiderablyfrom onecountrytoanother, there is understandably require implementerstoproduce project-specific evaluationdata Successes are noteasilyquantifiablenorisiteasytolinkcauseandeffect. Donors time, specificquantifiableindicators fortheaboveobjectiveswere scarce. Existing In surveyingthecountriesof Europe and Eurasiawhere IREXwasworkingatthe which countrieswere rated. and professional independent mediasystemandservedasthecriteriaagainst These objectiveswere judgedtobethemostimportantaspectsofasustainable to as but alsooftenrely onother componentstodevelop.Thesecomponents,referred that cannotonlydevelopwithsomedegree ofindependencefrom othercomponents, independence. public information. "objectives" in theMSI,are asfollows: "system" characterized byinterrelated components 45 THE MSI–LESSONSLEARNEDAFTERFIVEYEARS and provides direction for itsfurtherimplementation,refinement, andexpansion. This provides abasisforunderstandingtheMSIand its strengths andweaknesses regions andhasrecently beencompleted intheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica. The MSIhasbeencompleted forfiveconsecutiveyearsintheEurope andEurasia system thattheyseeintheirwork. obstacles mediaprofessionals themselvesfacedaily, andthestrengths ofthe scores, providing examplesofeventsoverthepastyear, adescriptionofthe Country chaptersformakeyaspectoftheMSI.Theyadd substancetothe country chapter. the discussionwhichtogetherwithinputfrom IREXformsthecore ofeach specific eventsandincidents"behind"theirdata.Themoderatorwritesup convenes theparticipantsforadiscussionofscores andthe issues and individually according tothecriteriaprovided tothem,anIREX-trainedmoderator each countryasacore componentoftheprocess. Afterscoringtheindicators One oftheuniqueaspectsMSIliesinitsusemediaprofessionals in time invariousformats,asbelow. Additionally, onecanpulloutdateforspecificcountriesorshowchangesover as belowwhere onecancompare countriesandcompare countriesacross time. for eachobjectivetoobtainthescore. Thisallowsapresentation ofdata objectives has7to9indicatorsratedonascaleof0-4.Theare averaged according toastandard setofcriteriaappliedtoeachobjective.Eachthe where indicatorsforeachofthefiveobjectiveswere scored bymediaprofessionals The MSItherefore soughttoovercome thesedataweaknessesbyadoptingasystem by mediaassociations. theworthofaparticularlaw,quality ofjournalism, theessentialservicesprovided ship, etc.).Otherdatawere more likelytobequalitativebytheirverynature -the often thecase,notconsistentlyavailable(e.g.,revenue ofmediaoutlets,owner- quantitative datawere oftenunreliable (e.g.,circulation ofnewspapers)ormore 78 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 79 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact METHODOLOGIES MSI ASASSESSMENTANDEVALUATION TOOL THE DESIREFORADDITIONALDATA MODERATORS ANDPANELISTS by contacting of methodologyisavailable 46 More detaileddiscussion to www.irex.org/msi IREX or referring . stagnation, or declineincertainobjectives. Itcanalsopointtofactors outsidethe specific donorproject. Onecanhowevercorrelate donorworkwithimprovements, do orintendtodo.Itdoes not directly and absolutelymeasure theimpactofa At thesametime,itisequally importanttounderstandwhattheMSIdoesnot coursework MSI asatoolforevaluationandithasbeenintroduced invariousuniversities’ indicators.Manyotherimplementersusethe the MSIasoneoftheirgovernance into theirevaluationschemaforseveralcountriesandthe World Bankhasaccepted across time haveproven tobeextremely useful.USAIDhasincorporated theMSI media foreachcountry, and theabilitytocompare results across countriesand The combinationofreplicable data,thenarrativediscussionofstatus The MSIhasproven effective asanassessmenttoolfordonorsandimplementers. policy responses. right direction foracquiringadditionaldatatodevelopspecificprograms or an evaluativeprocess and points donors,implementers,andpolicymakersinthe circulation, etc.There isagrowing consensusthattheMSIisonecomponentof but room remains to systematicallycollectdataonratings,advertisingrevenue, There are projects toacquire andpresent suchdata(e.g.,WAN newspaperdata) indicated thatthere isadesire toobtainbasicdata,suchasmaybeavailable. incomplete orunreliable quantitativedata,policymakersanddonorshaveconsistently While theMSIwasconceivedasatooltomeasure mediasystemsinlightof underlying methodology. draft ofthecountrychaptermustbewell-versedinMSIandunderstand The moderator, whoconvenesandguidesthepaneldiscussionwrites anonymity topanelistsandconductedvirtualpanelswhencircumstances warrant. and ensuringthatthepanelisabletospeakfreely. IREXhasattimesgranted quality oftheproduct. Care mustbetakeninselectingarepresentative panel The qualityofthemoderatorandpanelistsforeachcountryaffects the market andotherswhere broadcast dominates. strong private mediamarket,oneswhere printmediadominatetheindependent It hassucceededincountrieswithdominantstatebroadcasters, oneswitha measure across allcountrieshasstoodthetestof5yearsapplication. astandard is gathered andtheMSIexpanded,butconceptofapplying The methodologyisflexibleandcanbeadjusted,onaglobal and theindicatorsthere isanappreciation thatonecancompar Middle Eastwhere theMSIhasbeenimplemented.Panelistsunderstandconcepts resilient andunderstandableacross the38countriesinEurope andEurasiathe and theirindicatorswouldnottravelwell.However, theyhaveproven remarkably bias initsconceptionofamediasystem,there thefiveobjectives were concerns or"American" While theMSIwasdevelopedwithoutanyintentfora"Western" basis, asmore data e acrosscountries. 46 CONCLUSION independence, andpluralityofsources. has proceeded -primarilyprofessionalism, from basicprinciplesofjournalism viewofmedia.Rather,a USviewofmediasystemnorgeneralWestern it data, andreview thosecontributing tothepublishedresults. Ithasnotimposed monitoring andevaluationwhilealsoallowingthemtochallengeresults, discuss development professionals, andpolicymakerstousetheresults inassessments, methodology, narrativediscussion,andannual applicationallowsdonors,media tobe anessentiallysubjectiveprocessbelieve -mediadevelopment.Itstransparent methodology anddatainapplyinggreater methodological rigortowhatmany does notclaimtobeaperfectmeasure butratherseekstobetransparent inits The MSIhasproven aremarkably resilient toolformeasuringmediasystems.It move intandem. supporting institutionsare beingpressured. Allcomponentsdonotnecessarily improved, evenasfree speechandpluralityisrapidlydeclininginthemedia business ofmediahasnotbeenslidingbackwards asawholeandhasinfact since ittreats mediaasasystemofinterrelated components–itshowshowthe TheMSIhasalsocaptured manyofthenuances inthisregressionjournalists. pressureseveral yearsduelargelytoincreasing government onmediaoutletsand and independentmediamarket.However, ithasslidbackwards overthepast years agoitseemedtobeonapath,ifattimeshalting,towards adeveloped considered. Asdiscussedabove,RussiahasseenadeclineinMSIscores. Yet, several The MSIalsoshowsthatthedurabilityofchangesinacountryneedstobe of improvement drivenfrom within. and developingaconstituencyformediafreedoms thatsetinmotionaprocess donors’ earlierworkinsupportingsustainableinstitutions,improving standards, even aftermostdonorassistanceended.TheMSIdoespointtothesuccessof Croatia haswitnessedimprovement overthelastseveralyearsinMSIscore, choices andbeyondthecontrol orscopeofmedia developmentprograms. yet haveseensteadydeclinesinMSIscores -theseare largelyduetogovernment Uzbekistan allhavehadexcellentdonor-supported mediadevelopmentprograms control ofdonorsthataffect themediaenvironment. Russia,Belarus,and 80 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 81 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact have tooffer? and integrativeapproaches What doavailableindicators Toolkit forMediaDevelopment: A Monitoring&Evaluation even establisheddemocracies “Press freedomisunderstood “Press differently inthevarious freedom inexactlythe do notinterpretpress parts oftheworld... Christina Holtz-Bacha same way.” directly assessthe effectiveness ofparticularmediaassistance activities(whichare these country-levelindicators donotprovide empiricaldatawithwhich we can number ofthosepubliclyare availablein AppendixA.Itisimportanttonotethat While indicatorsdirectly pertainingtomediadevelopment are relatively scarce, a subsequently usedascategories forourproposed M&Etoolkitformediadevelopment. reflecting the overarching goalsof thesector. Theseconceptual priorities were and scholars.Basedontheseindicators,weattemptedto extractconceptualpriorities that are eithercurrently availableorhave previously beenproposed bypractitioners In conceptualizingthistoolkit,wetookstockofmedia developmentindicators who willthendecide,inconsultationwithstakeholders,which toolstheywillacquire. should provide anassortmentofM&Eoptionstomediadevelopmentprofessionals needs ofaudiencesparticularM&Einitiatives.Thispaper arguesthatthesector opment reflecting broad prioritiesofthesectorasawhole,yetadaptableto one sizedoesnotfitall.Therefore, wepropose anM&Etoolkitformediadevel- not fitall.Afterall,inassessingtheeffectiveness ofmediadevelopmentinitiatives, The toolkitmetaphorcanbeextendedtomakeanadditionalpoint:onesizedoes of aparticularproject orprogram. array ofmethodsfrom whichselectionscanbemadebasedontherequirements sector shouldconceptualizeM&Eintermsofa programs andtomonitorevaluatetheirefficacy. According toPower, the considered astoolstoguidetheimplementationofmediaassistanceprojects and BBCWorld Service Trust,Learning, suggested thatresearch methods Amman, Jordan inOctober2005,Dr. Gerry 2005). DuringthefirstGlobalForumforMediaDevelopment(GFMD)heldin frameworks forwidedisseminationanduseontheground (Davis&Campbell, within themediaassistancecommunityhaveadvocateddevelopmentofM&E (M&E) initiativestogaugethesector’s effectiveness. Inresponse, practitioners institutions haveincreasingly emphasizedthe needforMonitoringandEvaluation donor As themediadevelopmentsectorcontinuestoprofessionalize, international and University ofPennsylvania University ofPennsylvaniaLawSchool, Annenberg SchoolforCommunication, A n n t t o o S S n n a a i i r r o o a a

h h L L

a a B B m m u u b b z z b b i i n n y y o ,

I I I I , A A l l e e x x a a n n d d r r a a

T T e e b b a a y y Power, Director, Research and "toolkit" consisting ofabroad should be THREE PROPOSEDCATEGORIES FORTHEM&ETOOLKIT JOURNALISTIC PRACTICEANDMANAGEMENT See Appendices B charts ofavailableandproposed 47 See indicators organizedunder Appendix A and of thesesources these categories C for summary for afulllist between factandopinion, among others(ibid.). diversity ofactorsandviewpoints; neutralityoflanguage;andseparation terms ofthefollowingcomponents: numberandtransparency ofsources; (measure)thefulfillmentof... qualitystandards" can observe Communication, November 22,2005)arguesthatthrough contentanalysis, content analysisofthemediaforqualitycomparisons. Christoph Spurk(Personal workconditions,genderissuesinthenewsroom, and investigative journalism, USAID (1999)arguesthatmeasures bedevelopedinorder toassessthestateof carried outbythestate,armedmilitias,orunderground organizations. and mediaoutlets;thelatterincludesinformationonwhether theseattacksare Reporters SansFrontières (RSF)provide informationonviolenceagainst journalists website.CentreCentre and fortheProtection For Journalists’ ofJournalists viewpoints inthemedia.ACodesofEthicsdatabaseis availableonInternational business management.IREXandFreedom House(FH)bothassessdiversityof based onthefollowingcomponents:free and speech;professional journalism; of violenceagainstthepress. quality IREXassessesthestandards ofjournalistic unions.Lastly,as press councilsandjournalists’ thiscategoryincludesassessments such It alsoincludesthequalityofinstitutionsthatprovide supporttojournalists, independence. andthedegree ofeditorialandjournalistic and trainingofjournalists, education This categoryincludesindicatorsrelated tothequalityofjournalism, the preceding indicators. exhaustive. However, theyreflect prioritiesofthesectorbasedonourstudy The categoriesproposed are notmutuallyexclusivenorare theycompletely and programs, whileaccountingforoverarching self-determinedgoalsofthesector. facilitate assessmentoftheeffectiveness ofspecificmediadevelopmentprojects Developing M&Eapproaches undertherubricofthisthree-category toolkit can first-hand experienceincarryingoutparticularmediaassistanceM&Einterventions. propose particularmeasures oroperationalizations,avitaltaskbestlefttothosewith framework forthesector’s furtherconsideration.Inaddition,itisnotourintentto stakeholders, thisthree-category M&Etoolkitismeanttoserveasatentativeorganizing more importantly, furtherdeliberation amongthesector’s professionals andexternal Cognizant oftheneedforacomprehensive review ofavailableindicatorsand, community’s consideration: we propose thefollowingthree M&Ecategoriesforthemediadevelopment publications relevant toamacro perspectiveofM&Einmediadevelopment, Based onourreview oftheindicatorsfrom alistoforganizations,authors,and sector-level priorities trends. Giventheirscope,theyareand international wellsuitedtoward identifying provide are cross-country levelcomparisonsusefulfortrackingnational,regional, usually targetedtonarrowly definedpopulations).Whatthesedatasources do (3) (2) (1) Legal and Regulatory Environment Legal andRegulatory StructureandAccesstoMedia Industry Journalistic PracticesandManagement; of thesematerialsin 47 "we 82 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 83 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact CRITICAL PERSPECTIVESINMONITORING&EVALUATION LEGAL ANDREGULATORY ENVIRONMENT INDUSTRY STRUCTUREANDACCESSTOMEDIA requirements havebrought about development work,ThomasCarothers (1996)cautionsthatinsomecases,reporting As thedonorcommunitycontinuestoemphasizeevidence-based approaches to owners asregards theirlegalrightsand responsibilities. US DOSarguesformeasurement andmedia oftheawareness levelsofjournalists Southeast Asia,andalongsideIREX,assessestheavailabilityofpublicinformation. and/or interventioninthemediasector. Coronel compares typesofpress lawsin punishment forpress offences. RSFandFHassessthelevelsofstateinvolvement RSF provides informationonfreedom ofinformationlaws,censorship,and based onfreedom ofthepress, treatment oflibel,andfreedom ofinformation. A databaseofMediaLawsisavailableonICJF’s website.FHrankscountries arrangements andstateregulatory bodies. press offenses. Inaddition,thiscategoryincludesassessmentsofmonopolistic andpunishmentfor and libellaws;legalrightsresponsibilities ofjournalists; freedom ofthepress, speech,andinformation;criteriaforlicenses;censorship The componentsofthelegalandregulatory environment includethefollowing: of independentmediaoutletsandoppositionparties’accesstostate-runmedia. TheUSDepartmentofState(DOS)proposes trackingtheestablishment patterns. argues fortheneedtodetermineconcentrationofownershipandmediaconsumption given political,economic,andsecuritycontextsofvariouscountries.USAID(1999) (i.e. public/privatepartnerships)andthesuitabilitydurationoffundingassistance USAID (2002)proposes systematicevaluationofmediaassistancefundingmixes and broadcasters inBosnia-Herzegovina. Accounting Office report discussesaudienceshares ofindependentpublications Institute assessestheeconomichealthofmediaandUSGovernment vides informationonstateinvolvementandintervention.TheMediaMatters Sheila Coronel, RSF, andFHaccountfortypesofmediaownership.alsopro- geographic location,andliteracyrates. broken downbydemographicfactors,suchassocioeconomicstatus,race,ethnicity, of mediaaudiencesbasedonratingsorsubscriptions.Audiencescanbefurther proprietors. Mediaaccessincludescostoftoconsumersaswellthe also incorporatethepoliticalandeconomicinterests andculturalbackgrounds of of ownership,andthedegree ofdiversityamongtheowners.Thiscategorycan relationship thelevelofconcentration betweenproprietors andthegovernment, Media industrystructure includesstateversusprivatemediaownership,the • • impacts ofanoveremphasis onreporting quantifiableresults: Romania, Carothers (ibid.,pp.114-115)enumeratesthefollowingnegative on theground. Forexample,inassessingUSAIDdemocracyassistance impressive reports versus advancingsubstantive goals; reporting requirements haveresulted inproject planninggeared towards subtle, substantialfeatures; reductive outputreports focusonquantifiable aspectsratherthanmore " teaching tothetest" attitudes andbehaviors size P R R O O P P O O S S E E D D

I I N N T T E E G G R R A A T T I I V V E E

S S O O L L U U T T I I O O N N rigorously assessmedia developmentinitiatives,eitherindividuallyorwhen used The broad range ofmeasures thatcanbeincludedintheM&Etoolkithelp (e.g. Bamberger, 2000). weaknesses ofquantitative, qualitative,andmixed-modelmethodsofevaluation 2005). TheWorld Bankhasalsopublished literature thatexplores strengths and Communication forDevelopment(ICD)Programmes (Myers,Woods, &Odugbemi, research approaches, seeDFID’s MonitoringandEvaluating Informationand effectively organizedanddeployed.Forapracticalaccessible guidetovarious There are manywaysinwhichquantitativeandqualitative research toolscanbe with relevant expertise. from withinthe sector, socialscientistsandpolicyscholars,otherstakeholders development interventionsrequire increased collaborationamongprofessionals research methodsandtakingaccountofthestructure andcontentofmedia Assessing therelative strengths andweaknessesofqualitativequantitative representativesand inputfrom bothlocalandinternational canbesolicited. revisiting inforthcomingbroad-based gatheringsofthesectorwhere feedback project-specific M&Einitiativescanbesubsumed. Certainly, thesepriorities require using sector-wide indicatorstodrawoutconceptualprioritiesunderwhich The M&Etoolkitproposed earlierresponds toDavis’lastrecommendation by a frameworkthataccountsforlinkagesbetweenproject andsector-wide interventions. methods; takingstockofbothstructure andcontentofinitiatives;constructing of indicators;usinganappropriate mixofqualitative andquantitativeresearch monitoring andevaluationprocess; ongoinggrassroots participationinreformulation by offering thefollowingfiveM&Eprinciples:cultivatinglocalownership ofthe Alan Davis(2005)addresses theseconceptualizationandmethodologicalconcerns and choosingappropriate research methods. of carefully deliberatingsectoralpriorities,conceptualizingindicatorsofsuccess, positions andtheircorresponding policypreferences underscore theimportance The dangersof support ofdiverseprogramming (ibid.). European countries’provision ofstatefinancingtopublicservicebroadcasters in freedom istheU.S.preference forfree marketsafeguards versusmost Western freedom. Anotherexampleofdisagreement regarding thedefinitionofpress and statesupporttomediaoutlets(i.e.France)are necessarilyopposedtopress Bacha questionstheargumentthatpoliticalpartyownership(i.e.Scandinavia) of thePress andU.S.biases,Holtz- asanexampleofindicatorwithWestern press freedominexactlythesameway" in thevariouspartsofworld…evenestablisheddemocraciesdonotinterpret Christina Holtz-Bacha(2005)writesthat largest organizationswhichgeneratetheseindicatorsare basedintheWest. unrepresentativerisk ofadvocatinginternationally standards, especiallysincethe broad-based agreementWithout onthesector’s indicatorsofsuccess,werunthe Another criticalissueinvolvestheideologicalbasesofcompetingapproaches. • • S S requirements, resulting inself-doubt. perception thatthedonordoesn’t trustlocalpartnersgivenoverly-detailed misstatement ofactualresults toconformdonorexpectations; "teaching tothetest" and overrepresenting particularideological (p. 2).CitingFreedom House’s Freedom "press freedomisunderstooddifferently 84 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 85 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact CONCLUSION freedoms ofspeechand media development require revisiting.” interpretations of of thepressin “Contending “Contending Categorizing thetoolkitinterms ofthethree areas discussedabovecanfacilitate priorities, weproposed three categories foranM&Etoolkitmediadevelopment. After reviewing availablemacro-indicators andidentifyingatentative setofsectoral at timeswhentheyare mostlikelytobeusefulindecision-makingcycles(ibid.). no more" (Grasso,2003,p.512).Moreover, M&Ereports shouldbemadeavailable should include"justenoughevidencetodemonstrate the pointsbeingmade,but evaluators’ reports beasclearpossibletopre-identified primaryaudiences,and studies and/orwishtobuildin-houseexpertiseinthisarea shouldinsistthat OrganizationsthatcommissionM&E (ibid.,p.8). those interested intheevaluation" "conclusions inaformthatmakesthemmostunderstandable andusefulto IfM&Ereports are& Freeman,1987, tobetakenseriously, p.7). theymustcommunicate essential tokeepinmind Lastly, efforts should bemadetoward effectively communicatingM&Eresults. Itis the other. of themediadevelopment one hand,andtotheunderlyingobjectives Whenever possible,indicatorsofsuccessshouldberelevant toparticularprojects, on media developmentprofessionals cancreate M&Emodelsforvarioustypesofstudies. Through partnershipwithsocialscientistsandothergroups withrelevant expertise, exposure tocommunityradioandvotinglevelsinruralareas. different from thoseusedinacountry-levelstudy of therelationship between newsroom capacity-buildingintervention,will employaresearch frameworkvery and cross-country comparisonscanbemore useful.Asingleproject, suchasa particular country. Insomecases,broader indicatorssuchasnationaltrend data different approach togaugingtheeffectiveness ofthesectorasawholein agenda. Forexample,measuringthepossibleeffects ofasingleproject requires a The questionsunderpinningM&Eefforts, therefore, determinetheresearch data thatpertaindirectly toindividualmediaassistanceprojects andprograms. Sustainability IndexandFreedom House’s Freedom ofthePress donotprovide development initiatives.Asmentionedearlier, measures suchasIREX’s Media in termsoftheirusefulnessmeasuringoutputsandoutcomesmedia Second, varioustheoretical frameworksandresearch methodsshouldbeevaluated to accommodatedivergentpositions. is notpossible,perhapsthesectorcanadoptanM&Eframeworkflexibleenough to reach someformofagreement through broad-based deliberation.Ifagreement not universal(Holtz-Bacha,2005),weneedtoaskwhetherthesectorshouldattempt of clarifyingthesector’s M&Epriorities.Sincedefinitionsofthesefreedoms are of speechandthepress inmediadevelopmentrequire revisiting forthepurposes by dialogueonatleasttwolevels.First,contendinginterpretations offreedoms the applicabilityofanalyticalframeworksandresearch methodsshouldbeinformed Increased cooperationamongpractitioners,academics,andotherexpertsregarding used are considered andacknowledgedinreports. essential, therefore, thatthestrengths andweaknessesofeachM&Emethod methods showdivergentresults, wemustaccountfortheseinconsistencies.Itis does notnecessarilyreduce uncertainty(ibid.).Second,whenuseofmultiple Corollary tothispoint,useoftwoormore methodsthatresult insimilarfindings issues. First,biasesskewingtheresults ofonemethodmayalsoaffect othermethods. Shotland, 1987,p.2).However, weshouldalsobecognizantofthefollowing questions…" mentary because theyprovide thebenefitsofbeingableto in conjunctionwithothermethods.Useofmultiplemethodscanbeemployed and reduce uncertaintyregarding M&Eresults (Mark& "who needstoknowwhatandwhen?" " address differentbutcomple- (Morris, Fitz-Gibbon, sector, on REFERENCES Communication Research,Porto Alegre,Brazi International Associationfor Mediaand the pressworldwide.Paper presentedatthe freedom? Thedifficultyofmeasuring freedomof Holtz-Bacha, C.(2004,July).Whatis"good"press 507-514. 4, 24, American JournalofEvaluation, Reflections fromexperienceinlargeorganizations. Grasso, P. (2004).Whatmakesanevaluationuseful? =16&year=2005 http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page to 2006.RetrievedAugust30,2006,from Freedom House(FH):ofthePress1980 (pp.141-165). Washington, DC: World BankInstitute. The RoleofMassMediainEconomicDevelopment prosperity. InR.Islametal.(Eds.),TheRighttoTell: Djankov, S.etal.(2002).Mediaownershipand Forum forMediaDevelopment,Amman,Jordan. Discussion Paper. PaperpresentedattheGlobal in MediaDevelopment:A Davis, A.(2005,October).Monitoring&Evaluation Philippine CenterforInvestigativeJournalism Access toInformationinSoutheastAsia.Manila: Coronel, Sheila(2001).TheRighttoKnow: http://www.cpj.org/index.html Retrieved August30,2006,from of AttacksonthePressfrom2003to2005. 2005; JournalistsMissing1982topresent,Cases Killed from1992to2005;JournalistsinPrison Committee toProtectJournalists(CPJ): Washington, DC:World BankInstitute. Media inEconomicDevelopment(pp.225-245). et al.(Eds.),TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMass transition: Thehegemonyofeconomics.InR.Islam Carrington, T. &Nelson,M.(2002).Mediain Endowment forInternationalPeace Washington, DC:Carnegie The LearningCurve. Carothers, T. (1996).AidingDemocracyAbroad: (pp. 1-36).Washington, DC:TheWorld Bank. and QualitativeResearchinDevelopmentProjects In M.Bamberger(Ed.),IntegratingQuantitative for integratingquantitativeandqualitativeresearch. Bamberger, M. (2000).Opportunitiesandchallenges make thesethebasisfordeterminingefficacy ofmediadevelopmentefforts. toolkit approach, thesectorcantakeleadinarticulatingitsownprioritiesand and accesstomedia,legalregulatory frameworks.ByadoptingtheM&E practicesandmanagement,industrystructure of mediaassistanceonjournalistic tial inmakingvalidandreliable evidence-basedclaimswithregard totheimpact Bridging thepracticalandtheoretical dimensionsofmediadevelopmentisessen- implementation, andevaluationstagesofmediadevelopmentinitiatives. the waysinwhichM&Ecanbeeffectively incorporatedintheplanning, Partnerships withsocialscientistsandotherexpertscanhelpthesectoridentify stakeholders. broad-based deliberationamongmembersofthesectorandexternal http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05803.pdf State). RetrievedNovember 20,2005,from measures proposedbythe US Departmentof Measuring Results,July2005 (thisreportincludes Challenges ExistinImplementingU.S.Effortsand Independent MediaDevelopmentAbroad: US GovernmentAccountingOffice(USGAO): docs/hume_report.doc http://www.dec.org/partners/evalweb/topics/media/ 2002. RetrievedNovember20,2005,from Media Assistance:BestPracticesandPriorities,July US AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID): overnance/publications/pdfs/pnace630.pdf http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_g June 1999.RetrievedNovember20,2005,from The RoleofMediainDemocracy:AStrategicApproach, US AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID): http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554 Press FreedomIndex.RetrievedAugust30,2006,from Borders(RSF):2005WorldwideReporters Without International Development. Programmes. London,U.K.:Departmentfor Communication forDevelopment(ICD) Monitoring andEvaluatingInformation Myers, M.,Woods, N.,&Odugbemi, S.(2005). Park,CA:Sage. Newbury (1987). HowtoCommunicateEvaluationFindings. Morris, L.L.,Fitz-Gibbon,C.T., &Freeman,M.E. http://www.ghfund.com/WNIOverview.php Nations Index.RetrievedAugust30,2006,from Money MattersInstitute(MMI):2005Wealth of Jossey-Bass Inc. Methods inProgramEvaluation.SanFrancisco,CA: Mark, M.M.,Shotland,R.L.(1987).Multiple http://www.irex.org/msi/index.asp August 30,2006,from 2001 to2005MediaSustainabilityIndex.Retrieved International ResearchandExchangesBoard(IREX): http://www.ijnet.org/FE_Article/home.asp August 30,2006,from of MediaLawsandCodesEthics.Retrieved International Journalists’Networkonlinedatabases International CenterforJournalists(ICFJ): 86 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact APPENDIX A: SOURCES FOR REVIEW OF INDICATORS

• Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ): Journalists Killed from 1992 to 2005; Journalists in Prison 2005; Journalists Missing 1982 to present; Cases of Attacks on the Press from 2003 to 2005. Accessible online at http://www.cpj.org/index.html • Coronel, Sheila (2001). The Right to Know: Access to Information in Southeast Asia. Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism • Freedom House (FH): Freedom of the Press from 1980 to 2006. Accessible online at http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=16&year=2005 • International Center for Journalists (ICFJ): International Journalists’ Network online databases of Media Laws and Codes of Ethics. Accessible online at http://www.ijnet.org/FE_Article/home.asp • International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX): Media Sustainability Index from 2001 to 2005. Accessible online at http://www.irex.org/msi/index.asp • Islam, Roumeen, et al. (2002). The Right to Tell: The Role of Mass Media in Economic Development. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Institute. • Money Matters Institute (MMI): Wealth of Nations Index 2005. Accessible online at http://www.ghfund.com/WNIOverview.php • Reporters Without Borders (RSF): Worldwide Press Freedom Index from 2002 to 2005. Accessible online at http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554 • US Agency for International Development (USAID): The Role of Media in Democracy: A Strategic Approach, June 1999. Accessible online at http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance /publications/pdfs/pnace630.pdf • US Agency for International Development (USAID): Media Assistance: Best Practices and Priorities, July 2002. Accessible online at http://www.dec.org/partners/evalweb/topics/media/docs/hume_report.doc • US Government Accounting Office (US GAO): Independent Media Development Abroad: Challenges Exist in Implementing U.S. Efforts and Measuring Results, July 2005 (this report includes measures proposed by the US Department of State). Accessible online at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05803.pdf

APPENDIX B: PROPOSED MEASURES IN MEDIA DEVELOPMENT (BY ORGANISATION OR BY AUTHOR) MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS

87 APPENDIX C:AVAILABLE MEASURESINMEDIADEVELOPMENT (BY ORGANISATION ORBYAUTHOR) 88 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 89 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact Development Sector & EvaluationintheMedia A RoadMapforMonitoring the kindofunconditional authoritarian regimes, remains verymucha it nolongergenerates rallying cryforthose Tdy whereasthe “Today, support itoncedid.” right tofreespeech democracy anda working under litmus testfor Institute ofWar andPeaceReporting(IWPR) Alan Davis, macro project withalogicalframeworkwhichshowsgoalofgood governance the sakeofclarity, wemightimagineourselvescollectively engagedupononebig It makesmostsensetobegin withthecollectivegoalandthenworkback:For development tothe‘world outside’. the clearinterest ofthesectortobeableprove thecriticalvalueofmedia individual project andthecollectivesector level.Ultimatelyitis,ofcourse,in that helpsguide,informandimprove theimpactofourwork at boththe The response should,therefore, beto launchanoverdue process oflearning supporting itaswellquestionsoveritsactualrelevance andimpact. is therefore facingadoublewhammyofsorts:confusionoverthewisdom incite andinflameastheymightsupportdemocracyor theruleoflaw. Thesector mayjustas easily ambivalence toward themediaandargumentthatjournalists societies isnotthesameasproving it.Thisissueisfurthercomplicatedbyagrowing Believing thatthemedia’s functionandrole iscrucialintermsofbuildingsustainable needs oftheworld’s poorandchronically ill. commitment towards addressing theimmediate,overwhelmingandtangible moreover, awareness inconcertwithanincreasing ofandpublic international same timetoimprove andmeasure effectiveness. Thesechangeshappened, humanitarian aidsector, whichunderwentitsownrationalisationprocess atthe donors beganfocusingonthoseabletodemonstrateimpact,thetraditional Driven bypoliticalandpublicdemandsforgreater effectiveness andaccountability, regimes, itnolongergeneratesthekindofunconditionalsupportoncedid. a litmustestfordemocracyandrallyingcrythoseworkingunderauthoritarian the Communistbloc.Today, whereas therighttofree speechremains verymuch ago whenitwasidentifiedwiththestruggleforindividualandpoliticalrightsin outofthesamizdat eraofageneration The mediadevelopmentsectorwasborn irrelevancy inanincreasingly competitiveworld. or simplyunabletodemonstratebenefitwillfindthemselvesconsigned wherever possible;Fourthly,learning ifitis notalready happening,thoseunwilling others; Thirdly, if it isseriousaboutitsworkneedstodevelopandapplynew responsibleextends tothoseitaskstrustandfundwhoare to inturn to help,andinwhosenameitseekssecures support;Secondly, thisduty of itswork:Firstlyandmostobviously, ithasadutytodeliverthoseprofesses start prioritisingmonitoringandevaluationrooting itasacore competency There are atleastfoursolidreasons whythemediadevelopmentsectorneedsto Director ofStrategy&Assessment, and democratic development (see figure 1). If we were to continue the logical framework analogy, our project purpose would therefore be to develop media that is more effective in its support of that goal. Outputs would include building the skills and capacity of the media itself; ensuring the media is fully working to exploit the skills and capacity we provide –and finally, improving the media’s ability to impact and effect the governance and development sectors in their widest meaning.

Developing Figure 1 into a full log-frame may provide us with a useful debating and reference point for the sector, as well as prove helpful in testing the validity of large-scale projects before they move off the drawing board. It should even prove helpful to individual groups to locate, develop and justify their own work. Completing the log-frames would naturally require us to identify appropriate indicators and monitoring processes for each stage, as it would design three separate strands of activities to feed into and deliver the three separate outcomes. The activities themselves would comprise our individual projects that contribute to the whole. Unfortunately, log-frames are traditionally seen as external imposi- tions and hurdles to be overcome at the project submission stage: The level of discipline required usually results in us regarding them as inconveniences rather than as the critical planning mechanisms they really are. And yet, if we are really serious about assessment, we need to rehabilitate the log-frame and acknowl- edge it is as much an integral part of our toolkit as a spirit -level is to a builder.

ESSENTIAL M&E INTERVENTIONS

Having defined the area of our interest - from the project level through up to the collective impact we seek to have at the level of governance and democratic development - we can then determine three primary areas of activity to focus on in terms of measuring our effect (see Fig 2). M&E Interventions 1: The Benefit Transferred M&E interventions at point 1 in Figure 2 are among the easi- est to measure since they focus upon the straight-forward provision of skills, equipment, content or regulation at a project level. The transfer either happens or it does not. Skills can be measured, equipment tested, information produced and disseminated and regulation developed. Of course, even at this most basic of levels, the M&E challenge may require serious baseline research to ensure what is being proposed is

wholly relevant –be it training, equipment or regulation. SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS 90 91 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact OBJECTIVE MEASURING facing adoublewhammy the wisdomofsupporting over itsactualrelevance “The sectoristherefore “The fsrs confusionover of sorts: it aswellquestions and impact.” guide theplanningstagesof manyindividualprojects inthefuture. Insodoing,thistopdownapproachgreater couldhelp civic-drivengovernance. and economic strategies inM&E3-onemeasuring therole media playsinimproving political We mightthusconsider tryingtodeveloptwinandcomplimentary governance. empowered ordinary citizensare, thegreater theirabilitytohelpdetermine and militaryagencies,orbusiness.Thestronger civilsocietyandthemore thejudiciary,overall behaviourofauthority-beitthegovernment, lawenforcement forms partofgreater attemptstoimprove accountability, transparency andthe hasbeendefinedverybroadly inFigureGovernance 2,toincludecivilsocietyasit and democracy,governance thegreater thepositionoursector willfinditselfin. greater thebenefitwecandeliverintermsofsupportingand facilitatingbetter This istheconfluencewhere theinterests ofmanydonorsstartto appear. The M&Eintervention3,welookattheinfluencehave ontheworldoutside. With M&E Interventions3 to itssuitabilityandtestimonialsfrom allthoseaffected andinterested parties. regulation, ourfocusmaybeonhowitisenforced, independentassessmentsas by thosetrainedandpossiblytheeffect ithasontheirnon-trainedcolleagues.With of training,thismightseeusmeasuringtheoverallqualitymaterialproduced the effect theyare having intermsofdeliveringbenefitsoroutcomes.Inthecase unionorthecomplaints’ commission,weneedindicatorsmeasuring the journalists’ order tomaximizebenefits.Whentheissueistraining,regulation, thepress centre, everything savetheuseofequipment.Eventhenithastobeusedcorrectly in degree towhichnew-foundskillsorcapacityisactuallyapplied, problematic in area covered byM&E1isessentiallyclear, itislesssoinM&E2:Measuringthe If thestrategytodeveloppracticalwaysofassessingachievementswithin M&E Interventions2 as isthevalueofinformationgeneratedandsuitabilityregulatory supportgiven. sector provides. Measuringthecapacityoforganizationsestablishedisalsocrucial acknowledging thatskillsprovision isonlyoneaspectofthedirect supportour managerial sideofthebusinessasitdoeseditorialsector. Similarly, weneed The needformore systematicandqualifiableskillstrainingappliesequallytothe to measure progress inskillstrainingawhollyeffective andobjectivemanner. culturally andregionally sensitive,thisshouldnotultimatelydetractfrom ourability ing according todisciplineandlevels.Whilecoursetestingmaterialswillbe abilities. We shouldthenconsiderdevelopingandharmonizingcoursesgrad- also valuableasadiagnostictoolinhelpingusdeterminedifferent needsand recipient andnottheprovider. Thecomparativenature ofobjectivemeasuringis which measure theimpactoftrainingprovided from thepointofview dardized andinter-linked trainingmodulesandobjectivemethodsofassessment of trainingprovided. There istherefore astrong casetoarguedevelopstan- without clearindicatorsrelating toeitherthelevelofskillsachievedorquality Subjective assessmentinareas where overallstandards are lackingmeansweare dependent uponsuccessintheNationalCouncilforTraining exams. ofJournalists In theUK,career progress withinlocalandregional printmediahaslongbeen As proficiency inlanguagescanbetested,sotooproficiency inmediaskills: ‘governance’, : TheBenefitApplied : : The BenefitBeyond and theotherthatlooksat media’s abilitytosupport A PRACTICAL ROUTE FORWARD

Developing proper assessment systems, standards and mechanisms and ensuring they are rooted properly and adopted as best practice, will be a sustained process requiring proper research, consultation, debate and learning across the sector. It will also require the appropriate resources. With the parameters of the challenge and interest now broadly defined, practical work needs to start as a matter of urgency: Results will neither be immediate, nor will they be the product of any single organi- zation. Rather, the greater the process of collaboration and consultation, the more legitimate and relevant the process of developing new measures and systems will be. The next step is to identify and enable key drivers of this process to focus joint energies upon developing ways to monitor and evaluate work at both the micro and macro level. Given the urgent need for tools and mechanisms to measure each, there is no reason why work should not begin simultaneously upon both. These twin pillars are envisaged as a media and governance index designed to support and inform our work as a group and the development of a wholly practical guidebook aimed at individual organisations and practitioners working at the micro level. Other key pillars for future focus may include curriculum development and a training of trainers (TOT) institute to foster quality-controlled international standards in journalism teaching and development. The employees of separate organizations representative of the sector and comprising serious representation from Southern-based organisations should be the key drivers of this project. They should work jointly upon both pillars and in concert with steering/advisory groups comprised of nominated representatives from all other interested parties quite possibly including those beyond our sector.

MEDIA & GOVERNANCE INDEX

“The need for more The concept of an index which measures media’s ability to impact governance was developed by IWPR and floated as an idea at the Global Forum for Media systematic and qualifiable Development meeting in Amman in October 2005, as part of a possible strategy skills training applies to improve the collective impact of the media development sector. Whilst there equally to the managerial are existing excellent indices which measure media freedoms and sustainability (Freedom House and IREX respectively), we are presently unable to measure and side of the business as it determine objectively media’s influence within societies –and specifically its does to the editorial sector.” relationship to governance and overall development, country to country. The basic concept of a Media-Governance Index envisages a scale of influence that directly relates and feeds into each of the six dimensions of governance as identified by the World Bank: i) Voice and Accountability; ii) Political Instability and Violence; iii) Government Effectiveness; iv) Regulatory Quality; v) Rule of Law, and, vi) Control of Corruption. Given our stated belief that stronger civil society and individual empowerment are key aspects of ensuring good governance, it remains to be seen whether it can be fully incorporated under ‘voice’ or whether a seventh dimension of governance may be necessary. Scoring may be developed and delivered through a full range of aggregate indicators that would themselves be based upon a wide range of data sources and variables. These indicators will draw off existing and new data sources as well as results of substantial, wide-ranging and fully-weighted perception-based analysis. It is foreseen that such an index will look at the media as a whole – and might also break down scoring between state and non-state media. The index will need to be capable of measuring negative as well as positive impacts of media activity in the target country – producing a negative score where overall media behaviour is found to be working against governance and possibly even promoting conflict. SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS 92 93 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact RISKS PRACTICAL MONITORINGANDEVALUATION HANDBOOK sector needstomoveforward ontheseorsimilarprojects asamatterofurgency. greatest riskisignoringtheclearandpressing factthatthemediadevelopment tools willthemselvesevolve andchangeovertime.Ultimatelyhowever, byfarthe the opposite.Creativity, andparticipationwilldrivethisprocess andthe learning The intentionbehindthisproposal anddeveloping M&Eknow-howisprecisely prescriptive approach thatthreatens allinnovationandcreativity withinthesector. regard totheopinionsofthose whomayfearsuchastrategywillleadtowholly fully withthedonorcommunity. Mostimportantly, itwillalsohavetopay due account oftheinterests andopinionsofstakeholders,project leaderswillconsult outside successesandexpertisewherever relevant. Aswellashavingtotakefull build thesetwinpillarswillconsequentlyincorporateknow-how andbuildupon Anyproject to ability toincorporatefullconsultation,participationand learning. The successofbothinitiativesdetailedabovewillbeheavily dependentupontheir in year2,andwillprovide abasisforseriousM&Etrainingacross thesector. impact measurement systemswherever relevant. Thebookwillbefurtherexpanded all relevant stakeholders–includingtheuseofparticipatoryapproaches andaudience practise. Fullregard willbepaidtoward ensuringassessmentmechanismsinvolving into aconciseyetcomprehensive bookthatprovides athorough grounding inbest evaluation andproject developmentexperience,willbelookingtodistilfindings of consultationandtesting.Theauthorswhothemselvesoffer substantialwriting, organizations–andwillinvolveafullparticipatoryprocessfrom Southern-based proposed bookwillbeguidedbyasteeringcommitteewithsubstantialrepresentation standards andindicatorsinthehumanitariansector1990s.Theauthorsof the GFMD,itwilltakeasitsmodelSphere project whichdevelopedbestpractice the collaborationinvolvedinproduction process. at Aspresented byInternews The successofthebookwillinverylargepartbedeterminedbyitsrelevance and those involvingregulatory andlegalsystems. ways ofmeasuringtheeffect ofcontentandproduction-based projects aswell have actuallybeenapplied.Thefocuswillnotsimplybeontraining,butalso skills transference, skills anditwillalsoassistmeasurement ofhownewly-learned benefit tothoseinterested indeterminingthevalueofprojects focusingupon provide practitionerswithmuchneededadviceandpracticalsupport.Itwillbeof an interlinkedandcomprehensive toolkitofactivitiesandindicatorsdesignedto the mostrelevant andbeneficialprojects possible.Itsultimateaimistoprovide development practitionerstheworldover, tohelpensure theydesignand deliver This isenvisagedasthefirst-everattempttoprovide apracticalguideformedia needed todeterminethedegree towhichthisisactuallypossible. the IREXMediaSustainabilityIndex.Aprocess ofdevelopmentanddiscussionis index couldcomplementandperhapsevenbebuiltontoexistingindices,suchas work already inprogress inrelated areas, itwouldbepreferable iftheresulting Given thatthisproject isdesignedasasectoralinitiative,andtakingintoaccount anddevelopment. institutionsworkinginthefieldofgovernance international community–particularlythose it isanimportanttoolforagentsoftheinternational cation andlogicinfuture project proposals. Theindexwillalsobedesignedtoensure effectiveness andchallenges,itwillpromote agreater degree ofdiscipline,appli- if so,inwhatwaysandwhichareas. Aswellashighlightingstrategicareas of and alike, demonstratingwhetherthemediaisfoundtobeimpactinggovernance Equally, theindexwillactasavaluablediagnostictoolfordonorsandpractitioners sector willapplyitself–seekingtocollectivelyimprove countryscores overtime. Most importantly, theindexwillactasanobjectivebenchmarkagainstwhichour How Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 95 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences and IndependentMedia Environment ForFree The Enabling Section 3:ChallengesinMediaMatters:PractitionerExperiences THE LINKBETWEENFREEANDINDEPENDENTMEDIADEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS COLLEGE LAW claim -certainlythegeopolitical claim-forunencumbered mediato their role in Some maywishfree andindependentmediafortheirownsake.Butmost tiethe are supported bywhatsources ofpowerormoneyandwith whatobjectives. whom. Putdifferently, whatnew oradditionalsuppliersinthemarketforloyalties public marketplaceofideas.Thequestionthenishowthe marketisopenedandto ensuring thatthere is accessforagroup ofvoicesnotpreviously includedinthe as acriticalelementofthemonopolyoverpower. Inmanysocieties, reform means previous monopolyoroligopolyofpower, includingthemonopolyoverinformation essence oftransitionstogreater democracyisthefragmentation ordestructionofa (or evenprivatetosomeextent),intheproduction ofcontent.Frequently, the degree ofeditorialdiscretion, notsubjecttooutside interference whether public ship bythestate.Media‘independence’goesbeyondthis, toindicateanoptimal The notionof enables mediatoadvancedemocraticgoals. It issignificant,then,toidentifycomponentsofthecomplexlegalprocess that environment") Media canonlymatter–wewouldargueinanenvironment (an the environment inwhichtheyoperate. the role ofmediaand,asaresult, forthinkingaboutthedesignandstructure of at different stagesofdevelopment,require different strategiesforthinking about in whichtheyexist,thatmakethoselawsmore orlesseffective. Different states, of However, eachsocietyhasaclusterofactivities,interactions also oftenanalyzedanddiscussedwithattentionpaidmerely totheirwording. advanced forthecreation ofeffective anddemocracy-promoting media.Theyare are frequently lookedatinisolationandasinterchangeable partsthatare separately formation ofmedialawandinstitutionsisonethemostimportant.Laws the mediaexist.Shapinganeffective democraticsocietyrequires manysteps.The depends onthemodeofoperationpress andtheparticularcontextinwhich This volumeseekstoshowwhymediamatters.Butunderstandingmatters Peter KrugProfessorofLaw, UniversityofOklahoma Annenberg School,UniversityofPennsylvaniaand Project forGlobalCommunicationStudies, Monroe Price, ‘free’ that allowsforavigorous, demandingandinformativepress. Director, media relates toownership:somethingotherthantotalowner- laws andthesetting "enabling group ofvoicesnotprevi- that thereisaccessfora da.Thequestionthen ideas. reform meansensuring opened andtowhom.” public marketplaceof ously includedinthe is howthemarket “In manysocieties,“In are free andindependentmediatodevelopinspire publicopinion. societies willcomefasterand withgreater publicsupportandinvolvement ifthere Finally, onemightarguethattheemergence ofdemocraticinstitutionsintransition democracy, butartificialstepsare necessaryinmanytransition contexts. more prepared. Free andindependentmediamayorganicallyarisein amature that whenthewatchdogandotherfunctionsare necessary, themediawillbe because oflackexperience.Startingthemediaearly ontherightroad means mation-providing andvalue-transmittingfunctionsintheearlydays,thatmaybe media donotperformthefunctionofeffective watchdog,ofengagingininfor- a buildingblockforthefuture stableset ofdemocraticinstitutions.Evenifthe free andindependent mediaearlyintheprocess oftransitionmayalsoprovide public supportthatare not whollydependentonthestate.Movingtowards in themarketplaceofideas,instrumentsforarticulating valuesandsummoning Assuring theexistenceoffree andindependent mediamayrequire providing, inculcating andtransmitting watchdog function.Insomemodels,themediahasaresponsibility toassistin participate inthepublicsphere tofunctionrationally, and,ofcourse,performa requires principallythatthemedia provide sufficient information forthosewho for struggleandbargaining." media that,asBakerputsit, that emphasizecitizenparticipation,forexample,wouldunderscore theneedfor demand somewhatdifferent functionsofthepress. of ademocraticsociety Visions As Professor C.EdwinBakerhaswritten,different conceptionsofdemocracy the societyasensethattheyare represented inthepublicsphere. an additionalfunctionofthepress, namelytoprovide tovarioussegmentsof Itmightbe saidthatthere isoften and toserveasawatchdogongovernment. political role: toenlightenthepublicsothatitiscapableofself-government, The Commissionalsoidentifiedsummarytasksthatare centraltothepress’s considered different profiles ofthemedia,nospecificmatrixpress developmentcanbe reinforcing orfosteringdemocracy. Becausethere are democraticsocietieswith • • • • • performance. Thepress coulddooneormore ofthefollowing: Press," The Studyofthelate1940sHutchinsCommission, of buildingdemocraticinstitutionstoproceed healthily. press inwhatkindofsocietywillperformthefunctionsnecessaryforprocess independence canhavemanygradations.Itisimportanttoknowwhatkindof "free andindependent" right tobeinformed. part thatpapersshouldbe Provide "Present andclarifythegoalsvaluesofsociety"; Project in thelimitedsenseofcarryingviewscontrarytotheirown; Be in partbyobjectivereporting; events inacontextwhichgivesthemmeaning," Provide "a forumfortheexchangeofcommentandcriticism," identified fivepossiblefunctionsascriteriafortheassessmentofpress "a representativepictureoftheconstituentgroupsinsociety"; "full accesstotheday’s intelligence," "a truthful,comprehensive,andintelligentaccountoftheday’s "essential" as partoftheproject ofdemocratization.Development media canitselftakemanyforms,andfreedom and "proper values." "aid groupsinpursuingtheiragendasandmobilizing On theotherhand,amore elitistversionofdemocracy "common carriers" thereby servingthepublic’s of publicdiscussion,atleast a commitmentevidenced "A FreeandResponsible and meaning in 96 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 97 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE LIMITSOFFORMALLAW THE IMPORTANCE OFTHEENABLINGENVIRONMENT mental sectorthatisvital: Perhaps itisthe existence estv,atanymoment, sensitive, contribute most-oreven of avibrantnon-govern- “It may neverbeknown may “It creation ofaculture organizations thatare what elementsexactly journalistic rights.” democratic values. to infringementsof essentially -tothe media willfunction.Forfree andindependentmediato sary forthedevelopmentofcivilsociety, buttheyalonedonotguaranteehow Laws thatcreate thestructuralunderpinningsforindependentmediaare neces- than anotherinparticularcircumstances andataspecific momentintime. democratic institutions.Itiseasier tosuggestwhatrangeofefforts ismore appropriate designed torender themediamore vibrantcontributors toatransitiontoward It isdifficult, ifnotimpossible,tomeasure the effectiveness ofaspecificintervention that themediabeindigenous, forthedevelopmentofdemocraticinstitutions. necessity ofacertainkindmediastructure, sometimesincludingaprerequisite of particularformslawforfree andindependentmedia.Italsopresumes the The veryideaofanenablingenvironment formediareform assumestheimportance about thevalueandfunctioningoffree speechanditsoperationinthesociety. the role that the mediacanplay. Theprocess mustencourageariseinconsciousness laws mustbeenactedasadrama,teachingdramathat educatesthecitizenryin will certainly, alone,beinsufficient. Thepublicactsofdraftinganddebatingmedia the shelfofanothersocietyandpluggingtheminto processes oftransition society andevaluatedinthewaytheycontributetothis process. Taking lawsoff way. Theyshouldbeviewedsubstantiallyashelpingtoconstituteamedia–sensitive Media lawreform andotherstepsthatare takenmustbeevaluatedinaspecific rights. that are sensitive,atanymoment,toinfringementsofjournalistic sectorthatisvital:organizations it istheexistenceofavibrantnon-governmental most -orevenessentiallytothecreation ofaculture ofdemocraticvalues.Perhaps the languageofopenness.Itmayneverbeknownwhatelementsexactlycontribute legal frameworkmaybehelpful.Manyare theauthoritarianregimes thatmastered mation. Goodmedialawsalonedonotmakeacivilsocietyhappen,though are easiertoidentifythanthosethatencouragetheproductivity anduseofinfor- society from allowingsuchaculture to develop. Thetoolsofspeechrepression avails itselfofthem?Itiseasierandclearer toseewhatnegativestepspreclude produces acitizenrythatnotonlyhasthe sources tobeinformedbutalso,infact, What isitthatmakesonesocietyopenandtolerantnot? print media,haddeclined. euphoria, insomesocieties,thezestfornewsaboutpublicevents,atleast increases atthenewsstand,asocio-culturalfactorofnoteisthatafterperiod enjoyed greater freedoms. press declinedprecipitously inpost-SovietRussia, eventhoughnewspapers environment istheresponse of thecitizenry. Forexample,readership oftheserious respected andreceived. Inthissense,anotherimportant factorfortheenabling the interactionbetweenlawandhowitisinterpreted andimplemented,howitis action betweenwhatmightbecalledthelegal-institutionalandsocio-cultural, Whatareimportant). aspects is true acr free, pluralistic,andindependentthemediacanbe(thoughallofthesestructural newsprint, orcontrol overthemeansofdistribution)rarely everdeterminehow alone(bysubsidy,givers alone,orefforts bythehostgovernment deliveryof in questionmustvaluetherole thatthemediaplay. Lawalone,efforts ofaid- Though thishappenedinlargepartbecauseofprice oss theboard isthatthere isacloseinter- "work," the community vehicle bywhichgovernment simply provideyetonemore ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESS:FAIRNESS, IMPARTIALITY, ANDOBJECTIVITY RULE OFLAW “The ruleoflawdoesnot “The the powerofgovernment, principles thatconstrain oblige ittoconductitself can wieldandabuseits prescribed andpublicly according toaseriesof wsm oe;tothe awesome power; otay itestablishes contrary, known rules.” Neil Kritz fundamental principleof achievement oflegislativeobjectives.Therefore itmustoperatepursuanttothis grounded inalegalbasis.Thepurposeofpublicadministrationistofacilitatethe under theirauthority. Theadministrativeactsofpublicinstitutionsmustbe Furthermore, publicadministration mustconformtolegalnormsandactonly are unclear, confusing,orcontradictory. media independencemayhinderitbyincreasing thepossibilityofabuseifthey simplicity andclarity, dissemination,andaccessibilitylawsdesignedtofoster the languageandcontextofmedia-related statutesintermsoftherulelaw: legislative draftingexpertise.There are three mainbenchmarks forevaluating clear legalrules.Thus,great attentionshould bedevotedtothedevelopmentof must beequippedwiththenecessaryassistanceandskillstodevelopcoherent, parent. Thosepublicbodiestowhichlegislativepowershavebeendelegated the conductofpublicauthoritiesandprivatepersonsmustbeaccessibletrans- In anenablingenvironment, thegenerallyapplicablenormativeactsthatgovern impartialityandobjectivity,administrative process offairness, andjudicialsupport. the ruleoflaw, ataminimum,incorporatesclarityandaccessibility, legalnorms,an ated withdemocracyandlegality, anditsfocusisverymuchonprocess. As Ruleoflawisthereforefundamental fairness. intrinsicallylinkedtovaluesassoci- The goalsofalegalsystemcommittedtotherulelaware predictability and according toaseriesofprescribedandpubliclyknownrules." principles thatconstrainthepowerofgovernment,obligeittoconductitself ernment canwieldandabuseitsawesomepower;tothecontrary, itestablishes ten, the statetoolstopursuelegitimatepublicobjectives.AsNeilKritzhaswrit- that impedesthefree exercise ofarbitraryrulewhileatthesametimeproviding Law canbeeitheraninstrumentofunbridledpublicauthority, oramechanism restricted Theprocess for licensingnewsmedia alongbasictenetsoffairness. making thatitinvolvesthe exercise of discretion However, thisfreedom mustbe decision making.Itisofcourse inherent inthenature ofadministrative decision participants. Ruleoflawprecepts shouldpermeatethefabricofgovernmental The administrativeprocess forall mustbegrounded in acommitmenttofairness that thepartieswithwhomtheydealare proper financialpartners. development ofcredit, andthecapacitytohavesecured interests ortoinsure entities dependonlawsrelating totheissuanceofownershipshares, the ownership andcontrol. And,ofcourse,astheybecomemore successful,these Broadcasters andpress property enterprisesdependonreliable rulesconcerning denied basedontheapplicationoftransparent andconsistentcriteria. opening ofaforeign bank account,thensuchalicenseshouldbeissuedor must operateassmoothlypossible.Ifaspeciallicenseisnecessaryforthe which itisimpossibletooperateasanenterprise.Allthelawsregulating business often quitesubstantialbusinesses.Theycannotfunctioninanenvironment in Effective mediaenterprisesare businessesaswellinstruments ofspeech,and apply thelawsarbitrarilyorare completelyoutsidetheboundariesoflaws. media freedoms comesnotfrom badlaws,butfrom administrative actsthat "The ruleoflawdoesnotsimplyprovideyetonemorevehiclebywhichgov- "legality." Perhaps thegravestthreat to theexercise of such, 98 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 99 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE LEGALENVIRONMENTFORNEWSMEDIAACTIVITY (1) effectiveness warrantattention: law isafactoreitherpromoting orimpedingnews mediaindependenceand Four aspectsofthelegalenvironment inwhichnewsmediaoperateandwhere under theruleoflaw. And anindependent,effective judiciaryisessentialfortheoversightrequired substantive criteriathatare appliedimpartiallytoallparticipantsintheprocess. with theauthoritiesactingaccording toprescribed legalprocedural standards and outlets suchasradioortelevisionbroadcasters mustbeopen,objective,andfair, that hasthepotentialtoinfluencecontentindirectly; and vention bythepublicauthorities,eitherthrough Another setoflawsdealswithcontent-basedregulation, whichweviewasinter- alsorelatelicensing andaccreditation tothisquestionofeffectiveness. of journalists of personalprivacy, crimeprevention, andothergoals. information andinstitutions,withlimitedexceptionsfornationalsecurity, protection -controlledthose thatrecognize andguaranteepublicaccesstogovernment newsgatheringinclude condition ofnewsmediaeffectiveness. Lawsconcerning Newsgathering, akeyfunctionofthepress inademocraticsociety, isanessential nalists intheirprofessional activity, includingprotection againstphysicalattacks. press freedom" jobsecurity,first relates tothematterofjournalists’ andfocuses on their professional activity. There are atleasttwocomponentsofthiscategory. The Finally, there isanexaminationofissuesrelated in toprotection ofjournalists laws thatare influence. intendedtoshieldmediafrom external and therefore manipulation intheirapplication,orelse create theriskofexternal (that is,are content-neutralontheirface),butwhichhaveanincidentalimpact The third categorycompriseslawsthatare nottargeteddirectly ateditorialcontent whether anenablingenvironment exists. their methodsofenforcement represent ausefulyardstick bywhichtomeasure freedoms. and Thescopeofsuchcontent-relatedabuses ofjournalistic concerns conditions ofmarketentry, andregimes ofsubsequentpunishmentforperceived social, andindividualinterests, operatethrough formsofpriorreview censorship, directly targetedatcontent).Theselaws,whichseektoadvancearangeofstate, actsthatare notgroundedmeans (governmental inlegislativeorjudicialnorms basis oflegislativeactsorjudicially-created norms)orthrough use of access to the Internet bythepress, aswellbycitizensat large. use ofaccess to theInternet approval foruseofsuchfacilities.Anenabling environment wouldpromote the ServiceProviders, orspecific high transmissionfees,limited licensesforInternet through Restrictive stateshavesought waystorationaccesstheInternet, attractive toreaders. Thisisaquestionoftraining,availability, andcost. editors havesufficient accesstoinformtheirpublicationsandmakethemmore of theopennessasociety. and Onequestioniswhetherdomesticjournalists Increasingly, isamajorindicator accesstotheinformationbasesofInternet also akeyelementinanenablingenvironment. or privatepersons,andtheextenttowhichlegalsystem protects themis endure thethreat orthereality ofphysicalattacksupon themfrom eitherpublic oftenmust thematterofphysicalsecurity:journalists The secondconcerns newsgathering; or the relationship between journalists andmediaowners. or therelationship betweenjournalists (2) content-based regulation; "legal" (3) content-neutral regulation Laws concerning the Laws concerning means (thatis,onthe (4) protection ofjour- "extra -legal" "internal subsidy orindustry sectorsthatbiasoutput. them tobepotentialsubscribers –mediamaybecomedependentongovernment economy oravigorous economythatprovides workerswith salaries thatallow aviableadvertising struggling mediahavemarked transitionsworldwide.Without support, thestateofeconomy ingeneralisalsosignificant.Financially To theextentthatindependence ofmediadependsonadvertisingorsubscriber interpret, andapplyinformationaspartofacivilsociety. in theconventionalsense,butliteracythatencompasses adesire toacquire, from it.There isaspecialkindofliteracythatmightbedemanded, notjustliteracy of theaudiencetotreat informationwiselyandcriticallydrawinferences enabling environment. Indeed,mediaindependencemaydependonthecapacity that are availableare important whendiscussingthebroader elementsofan The characterofthecitizenryanditscapacitytousesuch elementsofthepress democratization process. a systemoflawsthatfacilitatethecontributionmedia canmaketothe citizen preferences are akeytothelong-termoperabilityofrulelawand This isanoutermostcircle oftheenablingenvironment: acircle inwhich living inafree society. foster tolerance,acceptance,andcomprehension ofthecomplexities broadcasters, andmotionpicture companiesinvestincampaignstoeducateand attitudes regarding free speechprinciples.Segmentsofthepress, large newspapers, organizations acceptance speech normsare fragileeveninthemoststableordemocraticsystems,their rule oflawinthemediafieldhasitsowneducationalbenefits.Butasfree society hospitabletofree andindependentmedia.Theveryfunctioningofthe public understanding,perceptions, andpublicdemandthatundergirds a One importantelementoftheenablingenvironment iscontinuingattentionto unengaged inpubliclife,andwidespreadcorruption." unenforced orunjustlegalsystems,theabuseofexecutivepower, acivilsociety policymaking,unaccountablebureaucracies, nance ischaracterizedbyarbitrary processes, andastrongcivilsocietyparticipatinginpublicaffairs.Poorgover- ethos actinginfurtheranceofthepublicgood,rulelaw, transparent open andenlightenedpolicymaking,abureaucracyimbuedwithprofessional According totheWorld Bank, nance," The increased role ofcivilsocietymarksashiftfrom oversees legalconstraintsonstatepowerandtheaccountabilityofactors. Astrongthat are civilsocietyalsodemandsand independentofgovernment. appropriate andstableinstitutionsincreasingly relies onassociationsandgroups democraticsocieties,theprocess ofdeveloping sirable channels.Inmodern dishes thatare pointedtoprohibited satellitesorasatellitethatiscarryingunde- to democracy. Theserulesincludeprohibitions onsatellitedishesorpolicingof satellites, isanother The regulation ofaccesstosignalsfrom satellites,includingdirect broadcast highly censored seriesofwebsitesandservers. restricted toparticularphysicallocations,andthecomputershave accesstoa other hand,theycan,andinsomesocietiesdo,maskapolicywhichaccessis cafescanbecomethenewcoffeehouses ofpoliticaldiscourse.Onthe Internet means ofgainingawidevarietyviewswithouttheintermediationstate. appears,atleastfortheelite,tobeoneofexpensive The Internet with governance involvingafarlargergroup ofparticipantsandplayers. with governance cannot be taken for granted. In the United States, non - governmental - cannot betakenforgranted.IntheUnitedStates,non like theFreedom Forumare constantlytestingthepublicpulseon "new technology" "Good governanceisepitomizedbypredictable, set ofruleswithimplicationsfortransitions "government" to "gover- 100 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 101 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences CONCLUSION environment isindigenous aetbcue ultimately, talent because, the answersmustalmost “The majorresourcefor “The enhancing theenabling always belocal.”always will lookforways tofurthertheprocess ofincipient change.Theywillseek Many personswithinandwithout thestatewhofavordevelopmentofcivilsociety oppose thepublicpolicyassumptions thatunderliethiseffort executive branch.Inanysociety, there willbethosewhosupport andthosewho from aparliament,butotherformsas well,includingorders oractionsofthe What wemeanby"law"maytaketheformnotjustof legislationemanating culture ofcensorship oritsabsence.Insomesocietiesthere islittleeffective law. which administersthoselaws,includingthecourts,regulatory agencies,andthe particular lawsthemselvesthatmustbeaddressed, buttheinstitutionalstructure In thisprocess, theconcept oftheenablingenvironment iscentral.Itnotonly media structures mayalsopromote theachievementofbroader politicalgoals. an enablingenvironment forindependentmedia.Atthesametimethose development. Eachstepinpoliticalandlegaltransitions contributestothestateof some substantialandreciprocal waytothenature oftherelevant society’s political Thus, weassumethatthestepstoward anenablingenvironment are related in context inwhichtheselawsare developed. specific elementsofmedialawthatare partofmediareform andthelarger between mediareform andthegrowth ofdemocraticsocieties,examiningthe free andindependentmedia.We havesoughttoidentifytherelationship reform. Theobjectivehasbeentoaskwhichstepsassistinthedevelopmentof for medialawreform, focusingontheenablingenvironment formedialaw Our effort hasbeentoidentifycertainkeyelementsofanenablingenvironment wouldordinarily becondemnedwithathome. for whichagovernment station, itmaybechargedwithprecisely thekindofcontent–baseddistinction makes contributionsbasedonthepoliticalapproach oftheprintmediaortelevision stations ratherthaninvestingininfrastructure. Ifadonorcountryorfoundation because ofsometheobvioushazards inherent inmakingdirect paymentsto such aidintermsofapoliticalprofessional needs. projects). Thoseprograms providing greater direct materialassistanceusuallyarticulate instead providing mostlynon–materialassistance(training,advice,andcooperative Media programs financedbyUSAIDordinarily avoiddirect paymentstomediaoutlets, skills, andaddressing thelawandpolicyenvironments inwhichthemediafunction. building associations,givingattentiontomediainfrastructure, buildingbusiness and theformerSovietUnion,techniquesemployedincludetrainingjournalists, Europe objective voiceisneeded.Inanumberofcountriesincentralandeastern establishing emergencyradiostationsinconflictzoneswhere aneutraland There are entitiesthatspecialize,aswell,byregion. OneNGOspecializesin with newspapersandotherprintpublications. tions foster To some of organizationshavedevelopedthatspecializeinproviding technicalassistance. effective isthatanumber mediareform. Oneconsequenceoftheaidpattern and, followingthat,whattoolsexisttofacilitateanenablingenvironment for to askwhatformsofassistanceare mostusefulinstrengthening localmedia because, ultimately, theanswersmustalmostalwaysbelocal.Oneapproach is The majorresource forenhancingtheenablingenvironment isindigenous talent demand are allelementsthatcombinetobringaboutsuchasituation. output. Education,literacy, tradition,desire, financialcapacity, andpublic media withoutapublicthathascontinuousappreciation oftheneedforits important, andtrustworthy. It is dif isavailable, a generalnotioninthesocietythatinformationaboutgovernment At itsbroadest, ofcourse,whatcountsisthedevelopment ofacustomorattitude, extent, thisspecializationhasbeenalongindustriallines.Someorganiza- independent broadcasters whileothersare more expertindealing ficult tosustainexcellentfree andindependent These precautions are taken REFERENCES eds., Routledge,2001). Rozumilowicz, andS.Verhulst State (M.Price,B. Media. Democratizingthe Reform, Democratizingthe by K.JakubowiczinMedia Brzezinski’s analysisissetforth TYKA, Oct.29,1994. Polska scenaobrotowa,POLI- See ZbigniewBrzezinski, Europe (JohnsHopkins,1996). America, andPost-Communist Southern Europe,South Transition andConsolidation: Problems ofDemocratic Juan J.LinzandAlfredStepan, more democraticforms.Developmentofonewillhavetowait day. related tothestagesofasocietyasitpasses,forexample,from statecontrol to Stone thatdecodeshowdistinctelementsoftheenablingenvironment canbe nature oftherelevant society’s politicaldevelopment.There isnotyetaRosetta steps toward changecanbespecificallyrelated in somesubstantialwaytothe Those committedtodevelopingfree andindependent mediahaveexplored how attention tothedevelopinginstitutionalstructure inorder tounderstandhowitfunctions. effectively fordesiredin lobbyinggovernment legislativesolutions;andongoing specialists from countriesthathaveundertakensimilarefforts; developmentofskills assistance ofmedialawspecialistsinthedraftinglegislation;consultationwith of howemergingeconomiclegislationwillaffect thedevelopmentofmedia; consideration include:theanalysisofcompetinglegislativemediamodels; In thespecificarea oflegalnormsandinstitutions,strategiesortoolswhichdeserve more comprehensively theneedforlegalstructures thatenable mediareform. havealsoencouragedasmallbutsignificanteffort toaddress governments Western Institute, directly fostered thedevelopmentofindependentmedia.More generally, andtheOpenSociety established traininginstitutes.OtherNGOs,likeInternews Foundationhave these transitions.InstitutionsliketheIndependentJournalism in NGOs haveemployedavarietyoftechniquestoassistwillinggovernments means ofcommunicationinorder todisseminateinformation,opinions,andviews. They willalsoseekwaystoaugmentapluralisticsociety’s accesstoadditional ways tobolsterthoseinpowerthatare inclinedtofosteropennessandreform. Review 1335,1384(1999). University InternationalLaw Society, 14American Promise ofTransnational Civil Justice: HumanRightsandthe Transplants toTransformative Julie Mertus,FromLegal (1995). Texas LawReview259,297 Professionalism Crusade,74 onthe Commentary Rob Atkinson,ADissenter’s 1, No.October13,1999. Transition: ANewsletter, vol. Communications Lawin that CitizensNeed," C. EdwinBaker, "TheMedia Justice", supranote2,Chap.1 Transplants toTransformative Mertus, "FromLegal on 9September1999). by theCommitteeofMinisters (Adopted Information Services Communication and ConcerningNew Service "On UniversalCommunity Ministers, CouncilofEurope, 99(14), Committeeof Recommendation No.R 102 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 103 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Development Strategies forMedia and governancefieldhas been seenincreasinglyas “Following theeventsof “Following promoting democracy hnee,democracy than ever, errs.Nowmore terrorism. /1 thedemocracy 9/11, the assumptionthat a counterbalanceto abroad iscrucialto of IllinoisPress, 2003);andMonroe Priceand Journalistic Excellence Journalistic Promoting IndependentMedia: assistance restson interests athome.” 2 served asconsultantstoUSAIDandassisted Media PowerinCentralAmerica(University Publishers, 2006);EllenHume’s strategic framework.Their2003bookisan ensuring security Peter Krug’s Notable amongthesenewercontributions and governance with theresearch thatinformedthe1999 2004); RickRockwellandNoreene Janus’ for DemocracyAssistance(Lynne Rienner 2002).Rick RockwellandNoreene Janus Missionaries: AmericanSupportfor (Washington, DC:USAID,1999).P. 2. Accountable Governance” outgrowth ofthat workwithUSAID. for Free andIndependentMedia: Contribution toTransparent and to thefieldincludeKrishnaKumar’s “The EnablingEnvironment 1 of MediainDemocracy” Hudock, Ann, (Knight Foundation, The Media “The Role Strategies (USAID, help shapemediasectorsupport: The frameworksuggestedthatanswerstothree keyquestionscouldbeusedto • • program were outlined: USAID’s ownengagementinthatarea, keyelementsofamediasectorsupport ing After reviewing therangeofglobalexperiences inmediaassistance,andconsider- goodpractice. on international from experiencesacrossthat allowedpractitionerstolearn regions ortoreflect supported democracy. There were fewpublishedstudiesorcaseswithinUSAID that analyzedhowtheseefforts addeduptoanationalmediasectorthat experience ofproviding mediaassistancewithin USAID,butlittlewrittenwork At thetimedocumentwaspublished,there were pocketsofoperational of USAIDstaff anditsimplementing partners. field missionsaround theworld,andbenefitedconsiderablyfrom theexpertise media sectorsupport.Theframeworkdrew ontheoperationalexperiences of development partnerswhowere thinkingaboutinvestinginandcarryingout "The RoleofMediainDemocracy". In 1999,USAIDpublishedastrategicframeworkwiththeambitioustitle The AsiaFoundation,Vietnam Ann Hudock, • • • • • • to complement thestrategicframework. Almost 10yearsonthere isawealthofliterature basedon current programs Who iscommunicatedto? Who hasaccesstothemeans ofcommunication? Who holdspowertocommunicateinasociety? Supporting capitalizationofmedia Training andmediamanagers) (journalists Removing barrierstoaccess vibrant media) professional associations,andaneducatedreadership thatvalues and policyorganizations,mediawatchdogs,research institutes, Strengthening constituenciesformediasectorreform (includingmedialaw Shaping thelegalenablingenvironment DPhil, AssistantRepresentative, 1 It wasintendedtoguideitsfieldstaff and 2 While research andpublications have the subsequentbookbasedonthatmaterial Mass MediainEconomicDevelopment, “Building InstitutionsforMarkets” entitled dtdb ome sa andpublished edited byRoumeenIslam contributions includeChapter10ofthe World DevelopmentReport2002, The RighttoTell: TheRoleof 3 Some ofthemostimportant by theWorld Bankin2002. and Times suggested thatblogsmightbemore powerfulinrestrictedTimes societiessuch whole tendstorepresent abroader viewpoint.A recent articleintheFinancial lution maybelimitedbytheir fragmentation.Bycontrastmainstream mediaasa are notconnectedtooneanother, sotheirability tousherinaninformationrevo- courage peoplefrom trawlingthrough to findwhatisrelevant tothem.Bloggers interest. Thesheernumbersofblogscreates a glutofinformationthatmaydis- but notallare responsible, reliable sources ofinformation,orservingthepublic Blogs maybemore democraticinthattheyinvitefluidandopencommunication, stream media,eveniftheyhavechallengedorchangedthe wayitoperates. Global ForumforMediaDevelopment(GFMD). momentum tomediasectorassistanceasevidencedbytheconveningof fair elections,anti-corruptionandeveneconomicdevelopment.There isnowa goalsincludingfreehealthy mediasectorsupportsbroader and goodgovernance the sidelinesofacivilsocietysupportprogram oradvocacyefforts. Avibrantand Media assistancehascomeofageandisnolongerseensolelyasasub-setoron sector developmenthasemergedasacategoryofassistanceinitsownright. But expression are essentialforstabilityandtheoverallhealthofexistingdemocracies. - someauthoritarian,otherssupposedlydemocraticoutlets forpeople’s non-violent concentration ofmediaownershipandinsidiouscontrols ofmediabygovernments report newsandexertpoliticalpressure. Inthewake of9/11,andintheface point forblogs’role alongsidethemainstream mediaandtheirpotentialabilityto was forced toapologizeforinadequatereporting. produced evidenceandargumentsthatthedocumentswere forgeriesandCBS question President Bush’s militaryservice.Conservativebloggers, however, power ofblogswhenhepresented documentson60Minutesthatcalledinto mass mediatoconsideritsownrole andoperations.DanRatherdiscovered the popular andinfluentialmeansofshapingpublicopiniontheyhaveforced democratic development.Forexample,sinceearly2001blogginghasbecomea sectors andchallengethepreeminence oftraditionaloutletsasinstruments the mediaandforsectorsupport. and civilliberties.Thesemore recent developmentscreate newchallengesfor and provide politicalcoverforfurtherrestrictions onbothaccesstoinformation maytrumpfreeIn suchanenvironment, expression globalsecurity concerns publicdiplomacy,for governments’ ratherthananindependentinstitution. The dangerthough,isthatmediaassistancewillfocusontheasatool is crucialtoensuringsecurityinterests athome. governance increasingly asacounterbalancetoterrorism. Nowmore thanever, democracyand field has beenseen Following theeventsof9/11,democracyandgovernance become more established,more hasbeenaskedoftheworkcarriedout. providing mediasectorsupporthasshifted. There arethreefundamentalandsignificantwaysinwhichtheoverallcontextfor the originalframeworkwascrafted,however, haschangeddramatically. strategic frameworkin1999remain relevant. sharpened programs ontheground, thekeyquestionsposedinUSAID contributed tothedevelopmentoffieldmediaassistanceandhopefully Third Second First " , the democracy and governance fieldhasmatured, andpromoting, thedemocracyandgovernance media citizen journalists" , newandemergingtechnologiesbreak theboundariesoftraditional media , and perhaps related, as the democracy and governance fieldhas , andperhapsrelated, asthedemocracyandgovernance assistance rests ontheassumptionthatpromoting democracyabroad as bloggershavebeencalled,willnotreplace themain- The broader contextwithinwhich 3 This scandalmarkedaturning 104 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 105 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences CONCLUSION: DEMOCRATIZING MEDIA effective way toapproach effective way democracy istoconsider can accessthemeansof how todemocratizethe disenfranchised groups media assistanceasa peaceful expression.” communications for “Perhaps themost means ofsecuring prepared forthe here, andsectionsofthistext,were initially their financialsupportandcomments Aspen Institute Project. Theauthorisgratefulto bothfor media sothat 5 Research onthecasestudiespresented The EnablingEnvironment forFree (Washington, DC:USAID,2000). “Blogged Off” February 18/19,2006,W1-W2. 6 Monroe PriceandPeterKrug, Ford Foundationandthe and IndependentMedia for the2003StoneSoup on theoriginaldraft. 4 Trevor Butterworth, Financial Times, now issomeconsiderationofthelimitations level of oversight the media can have over government functions. level ofoversight themediacanhaveover government discourse inthemedia, degree ofaccesspeoplehave toinformation,andthe media cancontributetodemocracy, considerationmustbegiventothe quality of not supportdemocracy. Inorder totrulyunderstandandappreciate how the public mediaandhowitinteracted withindependentmediaorhowitdid nology, locallanguages,etc.).Theframeworkdeliberatelyleftasidetheissuesof channels thatare accessible tothegreatest numbersofpeople(appropriate tech- and urban-basedmediaconsumers,reflect abroad rangeofviews,using deliberately reach outtothe pooranddisenfranchised,movebeyondtheelite Absent from the1999 frameworkofmediasupportactivities,are programs that democratic institutionstoproceedhealthily." fortheprocessofbuilding of societywillperformthefunctionsnecessary and PeterKrugassert, may havemaximumimpactintermsofdemocratizing the media.Monroe Price support media landscape.Theysuggeststrategicopportunities where external The answerstothesequestionscanserveassignpostsonaroadmap ofthe • • • mate goalwastocreate and recommendations forstrategicsupportrested onthenotionthatulti- be revisited andupdated.Namely, themappingofmedia assistanceprograms assistance, theframeworkitselfalsorested onsomeassumptionsthatshould While thecontexthaschangedsinceoriginalUSAIDframeworkformedia information notavailablethrough official channels. as IranorChinawhere theyallowpeopletopresent theirviewsandaccess requires explorationofthree interrelated andfundamentalquestions: to account.Assessinghowdemocraticamediasystemisinparticularcountry views, supplyrelevant andtimelyinformationtocitizens,holdgovernments Democratic mediasystemsare onesthatprovide spaceforexpression ofdiverse possible todevelopmore targeted andmeaningfulprograms. drama andsong.Byspecifyingwhatkindofmediaadvancesdemocracy, itis and givevoicetothevoicelessthrough traditionalformsofexpression suchas Community radioforinstancewouldoffer localizedcontentand programming "Independent" citizens withinformativeprogramming (ratherthansolelyentertainment). toaccount,fostersdebate,andprovidesfulfill itsrole inkeepinggovernments for peacefulexpression. Additionalfocusisneededtoensure thatthe mediadoes the mediasothatdisenfranchisedgroups canaccessthemeansofcommunications assistance asameansofsecuringdemocracyistoconsiderhowdemocratize in supportingdemocracy. Perhapsthemosteffective waytoapproach media "mediation" New approaches are required thatlookbeyondthemediasectortosupport revenues whiledoinglittletoservethepublicinterest. on entertainmentprogramming todrawlargeaudiencesandadvertising suffers from corporateinfluence.Financiallysustainablemediamayrely heavily contribute todemocracy. control often Mediathatisindependentofgovernment Who isleftoutofthemediationprocess? Who ismediatinginformation? How isinformationmediatedinsociety? between citizens and government through alternative channels. through alternative between citizensandgovernment and "sustainable" "It isimportanttoknowwhatkindofpressin "independent" media doesnotnecessarilyorbydefinition and "sustainable" 6 "free" and media. Whatisneeded "independent" 4 media 5 C C Such supportcanpromote “Democratizing themedia “Democratizing A A A A takes onrealurgencyas disenfranchised groups. S S S S it givesgreatervoiceto peace andstabilityas E E E E

S S S Bridge Mercy CorpsCivilSocietyNewsletter well asvibrant T T T T Mali U U U U Partnership Breeds Partnership,” democracy.” forefront ofcommunityradioin and 7 D D D D Asia 10 The followingsectionisadaptedfrom atnCot “OasisintheDesert: Layton Croft, research assistanceofCalvertJones. Alfonso GumucioDagron, interview and Y Y Y Y Sri Lanka 8 11 with theauthor, August4,2003. E-GOVERNANCE ININDIA : : COMMUNITY RADIO: has notseensuchaproliferation radio stationsin of communityradios,but This informationon South Africa This sectionbenefitedfrom the independent mediaconsultant. 9 3 (SecondQuarter, 2001):7. There are 4,000community programming isadapted have beenthepioneers. from BillSiemering, have beenatthe Latin America Gobi Wave Africa Nepal The . . in partnershipwithLandO’LakesandPACT. economic developmentproject fundedby USAIDandmanagedbyMercy Corps was partoftheGobiRegionalEconomicGrowth Initiative,afive-yearrural lations torelevant economicinformation.GobiWave, asthestationisknown, enterprise, demonstratesthepowerofconnectingpreviously unreachable popu- The GobiWave InformationCenter, Mongolia’s firstindependentregional media media, newrealms ofpossibilitiesare openinguptofosterdemocraticmedia. entertaining programming, allforanannualbudgetof$8,000. a day, GobiWave serveslocal needsthrough acombinationofinformativeand andsolicitedsupportfrom thesepartners.Onair12hours and localgovernment) institutions(includinglocalNGOs,businesses, tionships withlocalandinternational and technicalassistancetohelpthestationgetunderway. forged rela- Journalists with criticalinformationtoimprove theirlives.TheGobiInitiativeprovided training sustainable mediaenterprisethatcouldprovide herders andotherGobipeople theradiowascreatedgroup asanindependent,financially ofGobijournalists, focus ofmediaassistancefrom supportingonly contribute todemocracymore sothanthemainstream media.Bybroadening the to accomplishoutsidethemainstream media,andinsomecases,howthesecan community radio.Someoftheseprovide powerfulindicationofwhatispossible Already examplesexistofdonorssupportingnon-traditionalmechanismssuchas media sectorsupport. Assistance fortheseoutletsormodesofexpression shouldbeseenasintegralto forms ofmediationandcommunicationthatpromote andsustaindemocracy. cratic society, more attentionneedstobegivenuncoveringandfosteringother Just asbloggershaveproven tobeanadditionalsource ofmediationinademo- is aninstrumentthateasilyadapted. offers localizedprograms inlocallanguages,usesinexpensivetechnology, and Community radiooftenworkswhere other radioormediadonot,becauseit it broadcasts. Wave hasprogramming thattouchesoneveryaspectoflifeintheregion where with acomputer, modem, andsomebackuppower, intheDharvillages. initiallyestablishedtwenty informationkiosks,eachequipped The government Dhar villagers,about60percent ofwhomliveunderthepovertyline. totheisolated the aimtobringinvaluable information, andimproved governance team calledtheGyandootSamiti, theproject launchedaregional Intranetwith inlate1999.Managedbyanoperational by theMadhyaPradeshgovernment project commissioned Gyandoot isacommunity-based,government-to-citizen ness. information toimprove responsive- theirlivesbyensuring greater government populations, providing themwithinformation,andenabling themtousethis The Gyandootproject offers anothermodelofconnectingpreviously underserved community airwaves. in LatinAmericaandotherregions where privatizationthreatens spacefor challenges nowforcommunityradioisthelegislativeenvironment, particularly complementary localformofpublicservicebroadcasting. Oneofthemain 11 Established intherural,impoverishedDharregion ofcentralIndia, 10 9 As such,communityradiocanbea 7 Established ontheinitiativeofa "independent" 8 and In short,Gobi "sustainable" 106 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 107 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences INDEPENDENT COMMERCIALMEDIA the lackofpublicawareness aboutGyandoot www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/bnpp reprint ofthePhiladelphiaInquirer’s civicdia- Philadelphia Inquirer “CitizenVoices ‘99” public opinion.Theconclusionsinthestudy 17 study forinformationabouthowtheproject limited. Atthestart,Centeradmitsthat look.html. Formanypersonalexamples,see the villagescouldbesurveyedtodetermine relying onjustthosesurveys,therefore, are logue onthe1999mayoralelection,spon- The World BankGroup pointstothis2002 Details ofthisproject were takenfrom the http://www.gyandoot.nic.in/gyandoot/out- meant thataverysmallsampleofusersin is faring,butthestudyitselfsomewhat Indian InstituteofManagement,“An not statisticallyvalid,andshouldonlybe 16 14 District ofMadhyaPradesh,India.” See http: The GyandootExperimentinDhar tions/working_papers/wp160.pdf. considered ausefulglimpseintohow Center forElectronic Governance, Center forElectronic Governance, sored bytheEditorialBoard andthe Indian InstituteofManagement, Development Institute,2002),20. Gyandoot isgenerallyviewed.See Technologies andGovernance: (Ahmedabad, India:2002),8-10. “An EvaluationofGyandoot” “Information Communication http://www.gyandoot.nic.in. (Ahmedabad, India:2002),7-8. Seeds ofE-Volution” //www.odi.org.uk/publica- Evaluation ofGyandoot” “Digital Empowerment: Gyandoot’s homepage, Philadelphia Compact. 15 (London: Overseas Anwar Jafri,etal., /Gyandoot.PDF. 12 Soutik Biswas, (2000), 13 Ibid. a week,and10percent within15days. responses toservicesrequested,government 25percent received responses within dents whohadusedthekioskfrom three villagesinDhar, received immediate Development Institute(ODI)inmid-2001foundthat40percent of481respon- respond effectively totheGyandootsystem.AstudyconductedbyOverseas attempted tosolvethetrickierproblems relating tothegovernment’s inabilityto Having addressed powerfailures andconnectivity, theproject designershavealso power outages,connectivity, response. andgovernment themainproblemsCenter forElectronic forGyandootincluded Governance, a World Bank-commissionedstudyconductedinthesummerof2002by encountered severaldifficulties thattheSamitiiscurrently tackling.According to projects usingIT,Like manypioneeringgovernment-to-citizen Gyandoothas response. village hadwaitedsixmonthswithoutagovernment pump mechanicpromptly arrivedtoremedy theproblem. Before Gyandoot,the village’s aresponse lack ofdrinkingwatergarnered withintwodays,ahand thirty-nine households,acomplaintfiledthrough thecyberkioskregarding the increasing thetransparency Inonevillageof andresponsiveness ofgovernment. but alsoopportunitiesforfilingpublicgrievances,registering applications,and cyber kioskstoinclude,notonlyinformationaboutthemarketandjobavailability, local needs.Usingthatinput,theSamitiexpandedservicesoffered atthe public opinionabouttheviabilityandusefulnessofcyberkiosks,totrack communities itserves.To thatend,villagemeetingswere heldregularly togauge As Gyandootgrew inpopularity, itevolvedtomeetthechangingneedsof responses toemails. disappear intoinefficient bureaucratic channelsnowseeimmediategovernment Underserved villagerswhosecomplaintsaboutdeliveryofpublicservicesusedto armed withup-todateknowledgeofprevailing marketpricesfortheircrops. As aresult ofitsefforts, previously uninformedfarmersnowcometomarkets designed tocaterlocalneedsandbecost-effective andlocallysustainable. Covering nearlyhalfthepopulationofdistrict,informationkioskswere The PhiladelphiaInquirer EditorialBoard’s providing more thanentertainment,andbyreflecting abroad rangeofviews. Commercial mediaalsooffer examplesofhowtoservedemocraticinterests by by thenumberofrequests forservicesflowinginfrom Gyandoot’s intranet. departments were oftendisorganized,inadequatelyequipped,andoverwhelmed revealedinto thestateofaffairs thattherelevant onthesideofgovernment (though generallysuperiortowhatitwasbefore Gyandoottookoff). Enquiries andlocalDharcommunities,government’sgovernment response wasstillslow while Gyandoothadsubstantiallyimproved theflowofinformationbetween conducteditsstudyayearlater,Electronic Governance thestudiesshowedthat, The PhiladelphiaInquirer presented education, jobs,neighborhood quality, safety, andbettergovernment. discuss theissuesthatinitial forumsrevealed tobemostonpeople’s minds: project gathered hundreds ofcitizensinfollow-upforumsthroughout theyearto a civicdialogueonthe1999Philadelphiamayoralelection. 12 "choice frameworks" 15 But bythetimeCenterfor "Citizens Voices ‘99’" 14 on theseissues,modeled 17 The CitizensVoices 13 project promoted 16 18 frameworks seehttp: For more informationontheseissue //www.nifi.org. represent arangeofvoicesandprovide platformsfor free expression. As aresult, there isagreater needfordynamic,democratic information islimited. as itfacespressure messagesoritfindsthataccessto topromote government as vibrantdemocracy. Democratizingthemediaisbecomingevermore pressing disenfranchised groups. Suchsupportcanpromote peaceandstabilityaswell Democratizing themediatakesonreal urgency asitgivesgreater voiceto pages andthewebsiteofPhiladelphiaInquirer. Thebroadened dialoguewascapturedconcerns. inavarietyofwaysthe required thecandidatestoreframe theircampaignstorespond tocitizens’ Citizen forumssuchasthesechangedthediscourseofmayoralraceand Citizen Voice’s participantsquizzedthemayoralcandidatesinatelevisedforum. compare theirviewswithwhatthemayoralcandidateswere saying.Agroup of deliberate onwhatshouldbedoneaboutthefiveissuesinPhiladelphiaandto At anIssuesConvention,CitizensVoices participantsusedtheseframeworksto benefits, costs,andcore values. Each issueispresented asasetofdistinctchoices,eachwithitsownlogic, on theguidesusedbyNationalIssuesForums. 18 media thatcan 108 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 109 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Heroes intoEntrepreneurs Turning PressFreedom Affordable Capital: M E E D D I I A A self-sustainability “I deliberatelydo “I context achieving rftbe inthis profitable; not say thatthey not say is alreadygood

I I S S have tobe

A A enough.”

B B U U S S I I N N E E S S S S a business. sake ofregaining balanceinthisarticle-torepeat thefirstsentence:mediais But, justafterputtingonpaper theprevious paragraph,Ifeltanurge- for the environment. They participate insettinganddefiningthenationalagenda. economic development,treatment ofminorities,distributionwealthand the corruption anddealwiththeissuescriticaltocountries intransition:health, and theeconomicaffairs ofanationtopublicscrutinyanddebate.Theyexpose economies. Theygiveavoicetotheotherwiseunheard andopenthegovernment process andthepoliticallifeofnation,forfunctioning ofmarket They provide theinformationneededforcitizenparticipationindemocratic professional mediacompanyisaprerequisite foranyfunctioningdemocracy. and developovertimeintoaninstitutionalculture. Theexistenceofthistype -thatstartwiththeirowners,leadersandcore journalists, and ethicaljournalism social institutions,withasetofprofessional values -acommitmenttotruthful are commercial enterprises, theyare muchmore thanthat:theythemselvesare for thesocietiesinwhichtheyoperate.Whileindependentnewsorganisations I assumethatnoonewilldisputemediacompaniescarryspecialimportance the transitionfrom newsoutlettobusiness. companies whichhaveshonebrightlyforashorttimebutfailedtomake foundingexcellentnewspapers,radiostationsandTV of great journalists outlet orguaranteethesuccessofamediabusiness.There are countlessexamples Unfortunately, couragealoneisnotenoughtoensure thesurvivalofanymedia one’s lifeforone’s fellowcitizens’ righttoknow. abuses ofpowerandsuppression ofhumanrights;and,aboveall,couragetorisk Courage totellthetruthinhostileenvironments; couragetoreport objectivelyon always bethegreatest qualityshared byleadingindependentjournalists. the developingworldinromantic andheroic terms,toimaginethatcouragewill Personally, likeeveryoneelse,Iprefer tothinkabouttheindependentmediain sports stadium,thefundamentalandplainfactisjustthat:mediaabusiness. different typeofbusinesstoproducing shoes,runningabankorbuilding While everyonerecognizes and agrees thatproducing newspapers isavery S a a s s a a

V V u u c c i i n n i i c c , Director, MediaDevelopmentLoanFund THE ANSWER,INMYMIND, ISSIMPLE:BYPROVIDINGABUSINESSSOLUTION -AFFORDABLECAPITAL. ACHIEVING THEHOLY GRAILOFSELF-SUFFICIENCY and togrow. An undercapitalised company hasminimalchances ofsurvival.Inthis panies inemergingdemocracies needcapitaltobeproperly launched,todevelop Like businessesofanykind in theNorth-from FinlandtoCanada-mediacom- solid businessesaround thecore valuesofindependent journalism? the mostoftheirdedicationtoobjectivityandaccuracy byassistingthemtobuild mediasupportcommunityhelpnewsoutletsmake be: howcantheinternational sine quanon-thatithastobeself-sustainablethenext logicalquestionwould So, ifweagree ontheimportanceandrole ofthemediaenterpriseandcondition achieving self-sustainabilityisalready goodenough. meet. Ideliberatelydonotsaythattheyhavetobeprofitable; inthiscontext be abletoachievetheholygrailoftheirmarketYang nature andmaketheends to successfullyresist unduepoliticalandotherinfluences,mediacompaniesmust an independentmediacompanymustbeself-sustainable.To besociallyrelevant, editorial independenceand,therefore, theproper socialrole ofamediacompany: Given thisbackground, wisdomwouldclaim,there isonlyonewaytoensure and otherinterests orvestedpolitical war isbeingwagedagainstindependentmediabygovernments operate" are simplyassassinated.Inother, muchmore fortunatecountries,asilent and"notwillingtoco- whoare seenas"stubborn" In somecountries,journalists – thatspecialrole themediacanplayinasociety-bringswithitevengreater challenges. that influenceto adecentwage,orevennotatall,whichmeans may beunabletopayjournalists tolosehisorherobjectivity.journalist Insomecases,strugglingmediacompanies objectivity from theinside.Itisnotsimplya lackofmoralstrength thatleadsa ultimate goal-bankruptcyatall.Itisenoughifitunderminesamediacompany’s pressure doesnotevenneedtobethateffective; itdoesnotneedtoachieveits Severe financialpressure canpushthecompanyintobankruptcy. But,inreality, this mediacompany."financial strangulationstrategies"whichcanbethrown atastubborn punitive lawsuitsforallegeddefamation,there isawiderangeofwelldeveloped advertising from acriticalnewsoutlet,tobusinessmen orpoliticiansbringing just aseffective. bigbusinessoradvertiserswithdrawing Rangingfrom governments, and mediabusinesses-theyare alsocertainlymore difficult totraceandperhaps These dayseconomicassaultsare farmore commonthanviolentattacksonjournalists As ifthisdualnature were not already difficult enoughtomanage,their and marketYang, allpackedintooneinstitution. same timetheyhavetorunthemarketrace,justasanyotherplayer. SocialYing on onesidetheyhavetomeetthedemandsoftheirsocialrole, whileatthe enterprise, thedualnature ofmediacompaniesforces themtofaceahugechallenge: By virtueofsuchanimportantsocialrole beingplacedinthebodyofacommercial lead tothemclosingtheirdoorsnomatterhowimportant,uniqueandbravetheyare. of themarketand,ifnotsuccessfulinfacecompetition,ruleswillinevitably totherules bytherulesofmarket,havetoliveandcompeteaccording are born to playbut,nevertheless,attheendofday, mediaisabusiness.Mediacompanies True, itisaveryspecifictypeofbusinesswithanenormouslyimportantsocialrole "just bend" (or both) seeking tocontrol theflowanddistributionofinformation. the editorialcoveragecanbecome-tosomeirresistible. " social Ying" 110 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 111 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences A RESPONSETOTHESHORTAGE OFAFFORDABLECAPITAL likely tobethesortthat I otcss theonly mostcases, “In available financingis comes withstrings attached.” led to a significant circulation decline. With thecompanyfacing bankruptcy,led toasignificantcirculation decline.With be finalisedby4pmeveryday, which madeitlesscompetitiveand,asaresult, capital bycarfordistribution. To meetthedistributiondeadlinepaperhadto printed thedailyinatown 100 kilometres awayand delivered thepaperto gulation. Forsixmonths,the newspaper’s publishingcompany -PetitPress - In doingso,itprovided oneoftheclassicexamplesattemptedfinancialstran- printing houseinBratislavarefused toprinttheindependent dailynewspaper In 1995,underpressure ofSlovakia,every from thethenauthoritariangovernment it isamazinghowmuchcanbeachievedwithevenasmall loanorinvestment. building adamorhighway, and $50 millioncangetyoualongway. Infact, Financing thedevelopmentofamediacompanyisnot ascapitalintensive safest areas ofcredit provision. can claimontheircredit card business,whichisconsidered tobeoneofthe losses - to the surprise of of surprise the to - losses opera and about$4.5millionininterest anddividends.Duringthewholedecadeof equity investments),collectingmore than$20millioninprincipalrepayments has provided $50millioninlow-costfinancing(intheformofloans, leaseand companies in17countrieshavebeenfinancedthedevelopingworld.MDLF Since MDLFwasestablished,more thana100projects for54independentmedia allow themtoreally servetheirsocialrole. enterprises from makingthe of theindependentmediasector. Thisshortageofcapitalis preventing media affordable capitalisthecore problem andthemainobstacletodevelopment The MediaDevelopmentLoanFundsubscribestothephilosophythatalackof only stopbeingpartofthesolution,theybecomeproblem. positive socialchangebecomealliesofvestedinterests. Andindoingso,theynot and lackofaffordable capital,independentnewsoutletsthatwere aforce for orinterests. Everyday,concerns duetonothingmore thanfinancialpressures financing onoffer willbedependentontheeditoriallinesupportingfinancier’s a contract,orpoliticianlookingforsupportivemouthpiece.Eitherway, the might beoffered towin byabusinesstryingtocurryfavour withthegovernment available financingislikelytobethesortthatcomeswithstringsattached.Funds financial institutioniswillingtoprovide affordable credit? Inmostcases, theonly So whatoptionsremain foraradiostationthatneedsnewtransmittersifnoregular or conditionloansonprohibitive interest rates. not surprisingthatcommercial lenderseitherrefuse toprovide financingoutright and withmanycompetitorsunderlittlepressure toprovide itis genuinereturns, from ayoungbusinessinsectorwithpoorrecord ofeconomicperformance, companies haveeverbecomeviable.Whenpresented withaloanapplication provide investmentorcredit. Inmanycountriesfew, ifany, independentmedia Or there maybelesssinister, perfectlylegitimatebusinessreasons forrefusing to funds toanewsbusinesswhoseobjectivitytheauthoritiesviewashostile. byprovidingLocal financialinstitutionsoftenwillnotriskprovoking agovernment capital issimplynotavailabletomediabusinesses.There are manyreasons forthis. are thesame.Butfactisthatinalmostalltransitionalcountries,affordable respect, thebusinessofproducing sausagesandthebusinessofproducing news tions, only3%ofthetotalamountloanedandinvestedwere writtenoff as "real bankers". "quantum leap" This isabetterresult thansomebanks to self-sustainabilitywhichwould SME. US$50 MILLION:ADROPINTHEOCEANOFDEMAND access tothe wide rangeofaffordable loans, equityfinancing,angelandventure Try toimaginehow theindependentmediasectorwouldlooklikehad it opened to makeitavailablemedia companies. in thedevelopingworld: determinationofthosewhocontrol affordable capital the successofAirbusand stillstruggling-for-survival independent mediasector So, itishard toresist theconclusionthatthere isoneobviousdifference between more visible: halfoftheworldnowfliesAirbus. (and grants)ahostofconcessionaryloans.Adecadelater, results couldnotbe wants toassistthedevelopmentofastrong aeronautical industry, itsetsaside newly establishedandprofitable smallbusinesses.WhentheEUdecidesthatit later theresults ofthisinvestment becomeobviousintheformofhundreds of to localentrepreneurs viaalocalbankactingasanintermediary. Severalyears small andmediumsizeenterprisesinanyonecountry, itprovides low-costcapital private sectorarmoftheWorld BankGroup wantstoassistthedevelopmentof FinanceCorporation(IFC),the agencies, knowthiswell.WhentheInternational new discovery. financialanddevelopment aswellinternational Governments, would contributetoitsrapiddevelopment,onecanhardly claimtohavemadea By sayingthatproviding low-costcapitaltoanysector, includingthemedia, assistance, itsuddenlymakeslooklikeadrop ofwaterinanoceandemand. countries inwhichtheindependentmediasectorwouldbenefitfrom thiskindof the biggerpicture anddividethissamenumberofdollarsbythe media sector. Itmightappearsignificantatfirstglance.Butifyoutakealook of $50millioninaffordable capitalwhichMDLFhasprovided totheindependent underestimate theglobalneedforthesefunds. Analyseforasecondthefigure media companytoachieveself-sustainability, weshouldnotbedeceivedand But, nomatterhowsmallthecapitalneedsmightbetoassistoneindividual advice, MDLF’s equityinvestmentinthisproject was$400,000. 14 millionlistenersalloverIndonesia.Inadditiontospecialisedtechnology radio networkhasgrown tolinkmore than450radiostations,withmore than a day-from newsandinformation,toeducation andentertainment-whilethe Today, radionewsagencyKBR68Hproduces more than18hoursof programming generated inthiswayare splitbetweenthenewsagencyandmemberstations. advertising timetothenewsagency, whichitsellstoadvertisers.Revenues only thosepartsoftheprogramming theylike,allforfree. theyprovide Inreturn, created inJakarta.Eachmemberstationisfree topick,choose andbroadcast radio networkwhichtheywouldfeedwithnewsandinformationprogramming vative ideawastolinktheexistinglocalradiostationsalloverarchipelago intoa KBR 68H,thenation'sonlyindependentradionewsagency. Theirbrilliantlyinno- formed the opening-upofmediainIndonesia,asmallgroup ofjournalists lasting impactcomesfrom Indonesia.AfterPresident Suharto’s resignation and Another exampleofhowarelatively smallinvestmentcancreate hugeandlong- Petit Press nowpublishesmore than30publicationsandemploysover550staff. the authorities,from largefinesandcourtcasestoattacksbytheintelligenceservices. found financialstrength, SMEwasabletosurviveawholerangeofintimidationby reinstated, itsnew- SMEwascompetitiveagainandthecirculation shotup.With theusualdeadlineof10pm to normal–infact,evenbetterthannormal.With refurbished printingmachineandinstalleditinBratislava. Suddenlythingswentback Petit Press tookaloanfrom MDLFof$350,000topurchase asmallsecond-hand 112 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 113 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences NEEDED: NEWFINANCIALINSTRUMENTSANDSERVICES GOING BEYONDDUEDILIGENCE Investment Notes"intheUnited States.AnyUScitizencannowpurchase this Earlier thisyear, MediaDevelopmentLoanFundissuedtwo typesof"Free Press may indicateawayforfinancial marketstoprovide the capitalthatisneeded. good newsisthatthefirst financial instrumentswere recently introduced that news isthatthere is no marketwillingtoprovide thistypeoffinancing.Yet the The simpleanswertothisquestioncontainsbothgood andbadnews.The eventually beableandwillingtofulfilit(ifbusinessprospects really exist). that marketsshouldbeabletorecognise thisneed(ifitreally isthere) andshould tothemarketprovide uswiththeneededcapital?Generalwisdomsays turn simple -accesstoaffordable capital-andifitissomarket-driven,whydon’t we If theanswertoproblem ofthedevelopmentindependent mediaisso relationship hasended. most outofthefinancing,italsoleavesalastinglegacyoncefinancing support withtheborrower. Notonlydoesthishelpmedia companiesgetthe tance organisationsandthedevelopmentofacloserelationship ofadviceand Thisrequiresplatform fortheirjournalism. long-termcommitmentbymediaassis- press freedom heroes intoentrepreneurs, enablingthemtoestablishanenduring to helpthemediacompanymakemostofitsloan.Thechallengeisturn specialized consultingandeventechnologyassistance-shouldbemadeavailable building inbusinessdevelopment,generalandfinancialmanagement,butalso monitored andothertypesofsupportassistance-inparticular capacity But providing affordable financingaloneisnotenough.Anyloanmustbeclosely lasting viabilityoftheoutlet. provides forrepayments throughout theloanperiodand,ultimately, forthe plan willproject future businessperformance,settingoutaroadmap that lender’s support-mustalsodevelopadetailedandrealistic businessplan.This management. Before anyfinancingisprovided, the mediacompany-withthe well asthecompany’s financialpositionandthevisioncapacityof qualityofanewspaperorbroadcaster,nity tocloselyexaminethejournalistic as A detailedinvestmentprocedure andextensiveduediligenceafford anopportu- media companyandwhichcanevencontributetoitsclosure. a loanthatcannotberepaid, onethatbecomesanunbearableburden fora is notfollowedinidentifyingaborrower, there isalwaysthedangerofproviding carefully examinedbefore embarkingonlendingand,ifaproper vettingprocedure When itcomestoimplementation,politicalandeconomicconsiderationsmustbe problems ofallmediacompanies. However, itcanbeaharshmedicationandisnotthesolutiontosustainability forinterestsdiscipline inorder andloanrepayments. togenerateadequateearnings focus onmeetingtheneedsandinterests oftheiraudiences,andenforces fiscal strategy forlong-termmediaassistance.Itencouragescompaniesto When theconditionsare right,loan-makingandequityfinancingisanideal an additionalbenefit. success story. Andthe capital. There wouldbenoreason foritnottobecome anAirbus-typemarket "social Ying" of amediacompany’s nature wouldcomeas press freedomheroesinto “The challengeistoturn “The nrpeer,enabling entrepreneurs, enduring platformfor them toestablishan their journalism.” its future withoptimism. become atrend thattheindependentmedia sectorwillhaveareason tolookat affordable capitaltoindependentmedia. Itisonlywhenattemptslikethese tion, andtheyhavethepotentialtosignalawholenewapproach toproviding But eveniftheseare justthefirstsmallsteps,theyare madeintherightdirec- left tostandalone,are notlikelytobringabouttheradicalchangethatisneeded. early tosay. Forthetimebeing,theseare justthefirstisolatedattemptswhich,if media inthedevelopingworld?Couldthisbeabeginningoftrend? Itistoo markets are warmingtotheideaofproviding affordable capitaltoindependent Could thesefinancialproducts beunderstoodasthefirstsignthatfinancial and sellitanydayoftheweekonZurichstockexchange. Francs, butthemostappealingcharacteristicofthisproduct isthatyoucanbuyit pendent mediathrough MDLF. TheminimuminvestmentinVoncert is100Swiss social component,as20percentoftheinvestmentwillbereinvested ininde- resultThe fortheinvestorisasimplebond-likeproduct thatincludesasubstantial ment amount)withaninvestment(theremaining 80%)inaVontobel swapnote. combines aloantoMDLFataninterest rateof1%peryear(20%theinvest- responsAbility MediaDevelopment", this unusualpartnershipisthestructured financialproduct provider responsAbility andtheSwissDevelopmentAgency(SDC).Theresult of partners: SwissprivatebankVontobel, Zurich-basedsocialinvestmentservices cial instrument,which-inadditiontoMDLFbrought togetherthree additional In Europe, MDLFhasbeeninvolvedintheissuingofamuchmore complexfinan- proceeds canbeusedforinvestmentsinnewspapersonly. note wasissuedincooperationwiththeWorld AssociationofNewspapers,and can beusedforinvestmentsinanytypeofmedia,whilethesecondinvestment and 10years.ThefirstinvestmentnotewasissuedbyMDLFaloneproceeds of 3percentyear;theterminvestmentcanbeanythingbetween1 MDLF willpayoneachnoteisdeterminedbytheinvestor, limitedtoamaximum bond-like investmentproduct. Theminimuminvestmentis$1,000;theinterest listed ontheZurichstockexchange.Voncert "VONCERT 114 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 115 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Development inAfrica Professional ObstaclestoMedia Ideological, Legal,Economicand where countryconstitutions rs,butatthesame time press, that fundamentallybreach and/or thefreedomof recognise eithertherights frameworks andpolicies, retain andexerciselaws of freedomexpression quagmire offragmented constantly trappedina and contradictorylegal “The practiceofmedia “The in Africa istherefore these rights.” International FreedomofExpressionandMediaConsultant Jeanette Minnie, party -afew months aheadofthecountry’s nationalelection in2004. They exposedhowfundsfor astateoildeallandedupinthecoffers oftheruling instance ofpre-publication censorshipoftheirnewspapersincetheapartheid era. walking around, buthavebeenembroiled incourtbattles,includingthefirst walking around. intheSouthAfricanentryare Thethree alsostill journalists forachange,isstillfree, aliveand of cleaningupcorruption-andthejournalist, first cabinetministerinMalawitosuffer thisfateunderanewpresidential policy to payforhiswedding.Hewassubsequentlycharged, convictedandjailed-the funds ministerwhousedgovernment the corruptionandfraudofagovernment August byentriesfrom MalawiandSouthAfrica.TheMalawianstoryexposed Award in11African countrieswasjointlywonin forInvestigativeJournalism But there islightattheendoftunnel. The2006MISAJohnManyarara new andslightlylessconvenientwayofstayinginpower. in practice.Insomeinstancesthese‘smokescreen’ democraciesare simplythe multiparty democraticsystemsinvariouscountriesexistname,butare subverted breach theserights.Inabroader contextitispartofthesamemalaiseinwhich of thepress, butatthesametimeretain andexercise lawsthatfundamentally constitutions recognise eithertherightsoffreedom ofexpression thefreedom and/or fragmented andcontradictorylegalframeworkspolicies,where country The practiceofmediainAfricaistherefore constantlytrappedinaquagmire of the mediaare settled. these basicideologicalcontestationsaboutthedemocraticrightsandrole of freedom anddevelopmentofthemediainAfricawillnevertruly flourishuntil checks andbalancestosafeguard thepublicagainstabusesofpower. Media executive, parliamentandjudiciary, playanimportantoversightrole inproviding the opposition"andnotasanindependent"fourthestate",thatalongwith the media.Privatelyownedmediaisfrequently as" perceived bygovernments resources aswellcontestationabouttherole andprofessional standards of problems existisnotindispute,fuelledbothbyalackoftechnicalandfinancial Conditions forthepracticeofmediavarywidelyinAfrica.Thataplethora Zambezi Fox: ONE AFRICA,DIFFERENTMEDIALANDSCAPES 1990’s thatwouldimposea state-controlled mediacouncil whowouldmakethe ofBotswanahasnot withdrawndraftlegislationfrom thelate the government state control ofthemediaalwayslooms in thebackground, becausetothisday, competition betweenthestate andtheprivatesector. Furthermore, thespectre of in economictermsthere definitelyis.Thisisastraightforward exampleofunfair In legaltermsthere maynotbeastatemonopolyofthemediainBotswana, but margin, andtherefore alsoattractsthebiggestsliceofadvertisingcake. Unsurprisingly, itisthebiggestcirculating newspaperinthecountry byabig Botswana, however, hasnocoverpriceandisdistributedfree ofcharge. therefore havetobesustainedbyadvertisingincome.Thestate daily in is ahard reality intermsofconsumerismmanyAfrican countries.Newspapers very low. Buyinganewspaperversusbuyingfood,orpayingforpublictransport, Cover pricesofprivatenewspapersinBotswana-dictated bymarketrealities are distributes throughout the country. circulation tooutlyingtownsandruralareas. Thestateowneddaily, bycontrast, financial limitations,alsodistributemainlyinsidethecapitaldistrictwithverylimited only, andoneprivatetelevisionstation.Thenewspapers, becauseof There are two privatelyownedratiostationsthatbroadcast inthecapitaldistrict wanes according tothewhimsofcabinetministersandseniorstateofficials. controlled. Theextentofitseditorialindependencewaxesand government media. Thestate-ownednationaltelevisionandradioservicesare nevertheless it enjoysavibranteconomy(butunderpressure currently), andarelatively free a countrywithpopulationofonlyhalfmillionpeople.ByAfricanstandards, and pluralmedia.There are anestimated13newspapersand4broadcasters in threat becauseofeconomicpracticesthatthreaten thesustainabilityofadiverse In neighbouringBotswana,itisatotallydifferent story. Mediadiversityisunder views. and thecapacityofpublictoexpress alternative should VOPlosethecase,thiswouldhaveseriousimplicationsforallthree stations based outsidethecountryonshortwaveormediumsignals.Nevertheless, Zimbabweans), allbroadcast programmes intothecountryfrom transmitters Voice ofthePeople,Voice ofAmericaandSWRadioAfricaintheUK(staffed by signals intothecountryfrom transmittersbasedoutsideofZimbabwe’s borders. But three broadcasters foundaloopholeinthelaw. Itisnotillegaltotransmit and radio)are licensed. applications from suchstations,onlythestatebroadcasting stations(television to communityorprivatelyownedradiostationsinthecountry. Despitenumerous hassteadfastlyrefused tomakeanybroadcastinggovernment licensesavailable In theiropinion,theywere notbreaking anylaws,althoughZimbabwe’s broadcasting illegallyinthecountryandare nowfightingforsurvivalinthecourts. andtheboard -10peopleinallhavebeenchargedfor of thejournalists which hedid,spendingfivedaysindetention.Masuku,nowoutonbail,some held indetentionashostagestoforce theDirector togivehimselfupthepolice, staff andmembersoftheboard were laterarrested. Administrativestaff wasinitially months later. Theywere raidedagainin2005andJohnMasuku, theDirector, some for thisoffence. Despitesuchmassiveintimidation,VOPwasbackonthe in early2002andthenbombedAugust2002.Noonehasbeenarrested orcharged People (VOP)communityradiostationinZimbabwewasraidedbytheauthorities well known.Itisequallyoppressive inrelation tobroadcasting. TheVoice ofthe The suppression andstateclosure ofprivatelyownedprintmediainZimbabweis air three 116 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 117 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE REALITIESFORCOMMUNITYMEDIA hipro,Botswana Chairperson, confused aboutwhata public broadcasteris.” “Our politiciansare “Our Press Council Pemal Dube, programmes onaprivately ownedorpublicbroadcaster assistedbylistenersgroups?" Do allthesecommunitiesreally need aradiostation-orperhapsonlyfew development is90%about acommunityandonly10%aboutradio. whether communityradios play asignificantrole indevelopment."Community because exploited." of unpaidvolunteers-whoareoften of full-timestaffthatusetheservices own orcontrolthesestations.Theyareoperatedandcontrolled byasmallnumber Africa arenothingmorethanmusicjukeboxes.It’s rubbishthatcommunities is verycriticalofmanystationsinthissector. Veteran SouthAfricancommunityradiopioneerandconsultant,ZaneAbraham, to meetingthedevelopmentneedsofthese80ormore stations. national mainstream privatemediacompanies.ButtheMDDAisnowhere close print mediaprojects) towhichvariousforeign donoragenciescontribute,andby Development Agencyassiststhemtosomedegree withfunding(includingsmall depend onforeign donoraid.InSouthAfrica,astateMediaDiversityand Unlike privatecommercial radios,thesestationsfaceabattleof survival and The sustainabilityofcommunityradiosinAfricaisgenerallyanissueconcern. from thestatebybecomingfinanciallydependentonstate. community radiosinSouthAfricawill,oralready are, losingtheirindependence state forbroadcasting equipmentandtechnology. Itisfeared thatincrementally by fundingcertainformsofprogramming. They alsoreceive subsidies from the The stateinSouthAfricaisalsowadingheavilyintothearea ofcommunity radios from bigchainsofretailers, whichindividuallytheywouldnotbeabletowin. this associationnegotiatecollectivelyforbigadvertisingcontracts,instance historically dominantprivatesectormediacompaniesinthecountry. Membersof newspapers toprevent them from beingswallowedupbythefourlargeand association istoprotect pluralismanddiversitybyproviding capacitytosmall media competitionbetweenthestateandprivatesector. Anotheraimofthe u of state ownershipoftheprintmedianeverexisted.Thisisanotherexample media. ThisisaveryworryingdevelopmentinSouthAfrica,where, untilr (municipalities),claimingtheyare aformofpublic owned bylocalgovernments this country. One oftheiraimsistoopposesmalllocalnewspapersthatare small independentlocalandcommunitynewspaperswasrecently establishedin emerging. Forsimilarpurposestothatproposed forBotswanaanassociationof its peacefultransitiontomultiracialdemocraticrulein1994,worryingtrends are regardedIn SouthAfrica,internationally asabastionofdemocracyinAfricasince the statenewspaperismajormarketcompetitor. they don’t, manyofthemmaynotsurviveinasmallmarketcountrywhere of theirnewspapers,aswellcollectivelynegotiateforadvertisingcontracts.If the purchase ofpaper, theprintingcostsoftheirnewspapersanddistribution houses toestablishconsortiums.Inthesetheycouldpoolresources inrelation to One strategytocountertheproblem wouldbeforsmallerprivatesectormedia public broadcasteris". Botswana’s (non-state)Press Council, public broadcasters. Butaccording toPamelaDube,thechairpersonof has beenenactedtotransformthestatebroadcasters (televisionandradio)into retained andthemediainline.Legislation inastateoflimbotokeepjournalists rules forprofessional mediapracticeinthecountry. Thislegislationisdeliberately "the communityradioisthe warmestplacetheyknow". Many poverty-strickenvolunteers agree toprovide theseunpaidservices "our politiciansareconfusedaboutwhata "Many communityradiosinSouth He alsoquestions ecently, nfair In relation to ownership he recommends a hybrid model that combines ownership by a private business investor/manager with substantial community involvement in the choice of programmes and voices of the station. Such models have existed for some time in West Africa and have emerged in countries such as Zambia (Breeze FM) and in Malawi (Capital Radio which broadcasts in 3 regions of the country). The latter two stations are owned and managed by small business entre- preneurs, but provide extensive programming aimed at rural and poor communi- ties and co-produce and broadcast cross border programming that saves on costs, for instance in relation to HIV and AIDS. Other financial obstacles to media development in Africa include the high import duties payable on equipment, onerous limitations on foreign ownership in many countries, which inhibit investment in the media, and the absence of media development funds to assist media entrepreneurs in Africa. Media owners and journalists however, warn that such funds should not fall under the control of governments, because of the danger of political control. Two such models exist in the sub-region of Southern Africa. Zambia benefits from a Media Trust Fund for development of media houses and the Southern African Media Development Fund (SAMDEF) provides assistance to privately owned media houses in any of the 14-member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). It makes use of a revolving loan fund to finance media development on favourable loan terms and has invested US$30 - million in media enterprises over the last 10 years. Some of these include joint ventures such as a number of newspapers purchasing and sharing a printing press (Angola and Mozambique). In many instances SAMDEF also provides - tailor made in-house training for its clients to address weaknesses in the development of business and management systems. A number of other training institutions in Southern Africa also provide training in media management. These forms of training are essential with respect to journalists and others who start newspapers without any media business skills and in harsh economic environments with limit- ed advertising markets. These are limited even more in instances where the state applies pressure to businesses not to place advertising in the privately owned press, but in their own state-owned newspapers and broadcasters.

IF IT’S NOT OF THE STATE, IT WILL BE OF THE POLITICIANS

A plethora of laws constrain media from holding governments and other powerful interest groups accountable in Africa. These include a swathe of criminal defama- tion and so-called "insult" laws under which a large proportion of journalists are prosecuted. The litany of such detentions and prosecutions from the Africa Office of the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) and the Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) cross my desk at least twice a week. Below is a standard example:

"The IFJ today called for the immediate and unconditional release of Maman Abou and Oumarou Kéïta, editor and editor-in-chief of the independent weekly newspaper Le Républicain. The two journalists, who are accused of publishing false news and slandering the State of Niger, have been in detention since Friday August 4. They were arrested in relation to an article published on July 28 and written by Oumarou. The Prime Minister, Hama Hamadou, was said to be ‘courting’ the Iranians intensively at a point when the Western chancelleries and companies are likely to be shut down. On June 21 the private newspaper, L’Opinion, was banned from appearing on the newsstands, following the publication on June 21 of an article considered to be defamatory and injurious to the Head of the State and his family. On July 5 the editor MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences6 MEDIA MATTERS of L’Opinion, Zakari Alzouma, was arrested after publishing another weekly magazine 118 119 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences SKILLS ANDTRAINING of instances. have beenestablishedbyquantitative andqualitativemonitoringinanumber do. Substantialimprovements tothenumberofwomenvoicesin themedia toapplytheirskillsafterwards andcheckthat they They expecttheirjournalists quently takeadirect interest in,observeandevenparticipate inthetraining. to thetrainingthatwilltake placeandhaveasayinthecontent.Theyconse- last foronehour. Butinbothinstanceseditorialexecutivesfirsthavetoagree Insmallernewsrooms theymayonly such coursescanlastforawholemorning. newsrooms, withdramaticresults. Inbigmediahousessuchasstatebroadcasters, have startedpioneeringtheconceptoftrainingthattakes placedirectly inside AfricanEditorsForum(SAEF), Africa(MISA)andtheSouthern of Southern spanning 14countriesknownasGEMSA,whichalsoincludes theMediaInstitute Africa,knownasGenderLinks,andanalliedsub-regional network in Southern sceptical attitudesofeditorstothese,anetworkgender andmediaactivists Cognisant oftheproblems andthe associatedwithoff sitetrainingofjournalists limelightafewyearsago-comestomind. in theinternational of training ‘hotspot’status,extremely little "North" orwhodonotenjoyinternational media houses.Inothercountriesthatlacknaturalresources interesting tothe them. Butthisattitudetakesplaceatthetopendofmore strongly resourced andtryingtoimpartadvancedbeatspecificknowledge educated journalists insteadofhiringuntrainedorpoorly and trainingthemtobecomejournalists, hire subjectexpertssuchasuniversityeducatedeconomistsandenvironmentalists, ofstaff intheirnewsrooms.turnover Insomecountriesthemediaisbeginningto skillstrainingtoaddressthey really thehigh needisongoingbasicjournalism offer andlocalNGOs,whileeditorsoftensaywhat byagreat manyinternational or ‘HIVandAIDS’.Insomecountriesthere are agreat manysuchcourseson course takesplaceabout‘theenvironment’ or‘elections’‘changemanagement’ Some alsobecomeirritablewhenthelatest won’t release staff togooncourses,becausethesedisrupttheirworkschedules. totheirjobs.Manyeditors return implement newskillsoncethesejournalists but takelittleinterest inthecontentandmakefewattemptstoassessor onshortcourses, make profits. Editorsinmanycountriessendtheirjournalists aboutstandards,Many ownersare aslongtheircompanies nottooconcerned incremental trainingandlackofqualitycontrol withinthemediabothplayarole. development seminarsandworkshopstestifytothisperception. amounts ofdonoraidoverthelastdecade.Discussionsatmanymedia low, bythemselvesandoutsideobservers,despitetheinjectionofsubstantial The professional inAfricaare standards generallyregarded ofjournalists as political spectrumintheirpersonalcapacities. private media.Manymediahousesare ownedbypoliticiansfrom across the more sophisticatedmeasures. InMalawithisincludespoliticalownershipof censorship practicessuchasclosingdownnewspaperandradiostationsto andpoliticianshavemovedawayfrom crude Some Africangovernments to thelegalcustomsandtraditionsthatprotected monarchs inmedievalEurope. ministers andforeign dignitaries.Theirlegaloriginswindthrough colonialismback ‘Insult’ lawsprevent themediafrom criticisingheadsofstate,othergovernment press conference,tojailjournalists". called L’Opinions. LastMay, thePrimeMinister, HamaAmadou,threatenedduringa journalists orotherdevelopmentstakesplace.SierraLeone-briefly journalists ‘flavour ofthemonth’ Lack ofstructured theme specific HIGH STAFF TURNOVERANDLOWPAY CURRENT INITIATIVES oa Gs whileeditors local NGOs, courses onofferbyagreat often say whattheyreally often say journalism skillstraining “In somecountriesthere “In many internationaland turnover ofstaffintheir are agreatmanysuch need isongoingbasic to addressthehigh media training:Report newsrooms.” and Gender Link’s AnnualReport (March 2004–February2005). Gender electionsandthe 19 February 2005 Gender Links. training tookplace6-8weeksbefore nationalelections,butnotinall. (but notinall)countrieswhere engendered media,electionsanddemocracy The representation increased in2004/5some ofwomeningovernment of tacklingthe continent’s challengesand who are increasingly developingcross - organisations whohaveor are growing significantinstitutionalcapacityinterms rich andlargetapestryofindigenous Africanmediafreedom anddevelopment existsasurprisingly approaches,there Whatever theoutcomesofthese international they are communicating witheachothertoexplore mutualsynergies. and policyinAfrica.Althoughtheseinitiativesare takingplaceindependently, the transformationofstatebroadcasters intopublicbroadcasters andmedialaw through anumberof Africanuniversitiesintoissuessuchasmediaownership, A third initiative isthatoftheBBCWorld ServiceTrust whichisconductingresearch the mediadevelopmentandassistancesector. Development (GFMD)thatseekstogiveorganisedrepresentation andvoice to one constituentregional legofthenewandemergingGlobalForumforMedia A separateinitiativeistoestablishanAfricanForumfor MediaDevelopmentas develop aframeworkofstrategiesforstrengthening Africa’s media(STREAM). the UNEconomicCommissionforAfrica,supportedbyDFID,inaproject to practitioners, owners,trainersandindigenousmediaassistanceorganisationsby for mediadevelopmentinAfrica.Oneisacontinent-wideconsultationof Four significantdevelopmentsare currently takingplacetoimprove theprospects owners inthisregard. associationsneedtobestrengthened significantly totacklemedia Journalists’ leave indroves topursue more lucrativecareers aspublic relations officers. regardjournalists theirjobsasonlytemporaryandmore experiencedpractitioners overofstaff translatedintomoneydownthedrain.Many because thehighturn become ratherscepticalaboutinvestingmoneyinthetrainingofjournalists, inAfrica.RecentlyaWorld Bankofficialgranted tojournalists saidtheyhad One ofthereasons innewsrooms forhighstaff isthelowlevelsofpay turnover the the 366newsrooms oftheSADCregion bytheendof2007inaproject knownas for.These organisationsnowintendtoconductnewsroom traininginnolessthan venue andnooverheadsare involved.Onlythetrainershavetobepaid toone the costoftransportingandaccommodatinglargegroups ofjournalists and inthemedia.Onsitetrainingisverycosteffective becauseitdoesnotinvolve entitled toequitablerepresentation asmuchanyothergroups ingovernment more thanhalfthepopulationinAfricancountriesanddemocraticallyare Such developmentsare worthnotinganddebatingbecausewomenconstitute in SouthAfricaandfrom 17%to25%inMauritiusandSwazilandoverthisperiod. another level,womensources inelectioncoverageincreased from 13%to22% At and SouthAfricasignificantlyincreasing thenumberofwomeningovernment. or notsignificantly. Outcriesinthemediaresulted inthepresidents ofBotswana courses occurred incountrieswhere thenumberofwomenMPsdid not increase subjected tofurtherstudy. Otherpositiveoutcomes inrelation to these training early todrawanyconclusions,butsuchcourseswillbereplicated infuture andbe "Media ActionPlanonGenderandHIVAIDS" (MAP) ledbySAEF. 19 It istoo 120 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 121 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences organisations ingeneral: Association ofNewspapers,K.Prescott Low, oncesaidaboutpress freedom improve Africancooperationinthisrespect. AsaformerPresident oftheWorld African Freedom ofExpression Organisations(NAFEO)wasrecently establishedto few quickresults. Sustainedsupporttothissectoriscrucial.TheNetworkof attempting medialegalreforms. Theseare essentialandlong-termstrategieswith of speech,tofightforthesefreedoms through public awareness campaignsand still largelyrests onAfricanmediapractitionersandcitizenswhosupportfreedom In relation tomediafreedom andtheaccountabilityrole ofthemedia,burden identity andownership. initiatives,toenforce theidealsofAfrican over theseandotherinternational border, linkages.Theyare sub-regional castingajealouseye andinternational "They aredoingGod’s work". America Media DevelopmentinLatin Challenges andAdvancesin A RichComplexLandscape: KEY CHALLENGES:MEDIA CONCENTRATION, INFORMATION CONTROLANDPRESSURES ONJOURNALISTS and willbuyanewspaper a maximumoftentimes. the regiondoesnotreach Access totheInternetin CD inthelegalmarket Latin American citizen Latin American citizen isdailyexposed than onebook,seesless than onemovieatthe more thantenpercent to opentelevisionand oee,theaverage However, O erybss a ayearlybasis, “On naeae buysless on average, iea buyshalfa cinema, of thepopulation. radio services.” Mastrini andBecerra will buyanewspaper amaximumoften times. AccesstotheInternet inthe sees lessthanonemovieat thecinema,buyshalfaCDinlegalmarketand "On ayearlybasis,Latin American citizenonaverage,buyslessthanonebook, the artofstorytellingfortheircommunities. whilst dedicatingthemselveswithgrowing investigationand interest tojournalistic forpublicinterest, whoare keen onethicsandjournalism of editorsandjournalists, ofmediacompaniesandthepersonalcommitmentanewgeneration ernization mediamovement,thegrowing signalsofrenewalcommunity alternative andmod- Hope resides intheprogressive strengthening ofcivilsociety, theriseofavigorous andsustainabledevelopmentinLatin America. to contributegoodgovernance There isbadnewsandgoodwhentalkingaboutmediatheirpotential poorest communities. mass mediainbigcities,andofveryweakthecountryside of commoncharacteristics,suchastheexistencesophisticatedandprofitable itsdiversity,the mediasectoritself.Within mediain the region showanumber The unevendevelopmentofLatinAmericansocietiesisclearlyreflected in times greater thanthatof20%thepoorest. income inequalityworldwide:20%oftherichestpopulationhasan20 line. Asadreality isthatLatinAmerica,considered asawhole,hasthehighest alleviated poverty. Onaverageover40%ofthepopulationlivebelowpoverty citizenship, through participationinpoliticalprocesses. Norhasitsignificantly has notyetempowered vastsectorsofthepopulationinfullexercise of corruption, impunityandviolence.Unfortunately, thedemocratizationprocess andinclusion,thefightagainst achievement ofhigherlevelssocialfairness growth andintegrationintocompetitiveglobalmarkets,povertyeradication,the enforcement ofhumanrights,economic consolidation ofdemocraticgovernance, Latin Americansocietiescontinuetofacenumerous challenges.Theseincludethe Since theoverthrow ofthemilitaryregimes oftheSeventiesandEighties, with theparticipationofcompetingpoliticalparties. languages andcommonculturalroots, havebeenelectedinregular elections, Americas, withtheexceptionofCuba,thatshare theSpanishandPortuguese At thestartof21stcentury, ofthetwentycountries thegovernments Fundación NuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano Jaime AbelloBanfi, Executive Director, 122 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 123 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences “According todatafrom support fordemocracy fluctuating over50%. aioaóer,the Latinobarómetro, decade 1995-2005, and aminimumof A greatpartofthe indicator ismostly maximum of63% democracy bythe stagnation ofthis ranges betweena representation of attributed tothe with mostyears 48% duringthe 20 cultural industriesinLatinAmerica” Guillermo MastriniandMartinBecerra, media.” “Structure andconcentrationof (Prometeo, BuenosAires, 2006) Journalists andTycoons.Journalists media to undermine the reputation of journalists, as wellasjudicialharassment. media tounderminethereputation ofjournalists, sources giftstoreporters, andaccess to difficult creation journalists, of trash conditional allocationofpublicity contractstiedtopublicbudgets,withdrawalof position ofthebiggernetworks, pressures from majorcommercial advertisers, the allocationofradioand TV broadcasting licenses,protection ofthedominant fashion, notonlywiththreats andviolence,butwithsuchtacticsasfavoritismin In manypartsofthecontinentitisstillsometimesexerted inapre –modern or newsmanagementisanelegantwaytocallthiskind ofinformationcontrol. teams topersuadeorimposetheirsideofthestory. Strategiccommunication but direct producers ofinformationthemselves,usingtheir web pagesandPR business, andpressuregovernments, groups are not justsources forreporters, control information.Asinotherparts of theworld,politicalparties, Latin Americaisalsothestageforareal battlebetweenmediainterests to Colombia, Peru,Brazil,ParaguayandsomeCentralAmerican countries. media inLatinAmerica,especiallytheperipheralandborder regions ofMexico, forces promote crimes,assaultsandthreats againstcriticalandindependent war ofoldauthoritarianregimes. Liketheir autocraticpredecessors, thesenew gangs, drugtrafficking andillegalmafiashavereplaced theferocity ofthedirty and judges.Corruptpoliticianspolicemen,armedillegalgroups, urban censorship are frequent, facilitatedbytheoccasionalcomplicityoflocalauthorities crimes remain unsolved,andactsofaggression, intimidationanddefacto America. Fivemore havelosttheirlivesto profession in2006.Mostofthe werewithout Borders, killedin2005CentralandSouth sevenjournalists side theprotective umbrella ofbigmediaenterprises.According toReporters provinces farfrom thepolitical andeconomiccapitals,where theyoperateout- workinginthe of theprofession. Thisisespeciallytrueinthecaseofjournalists whodotrytowork undertheethicalprinciples dangers facedbythosejournalists come from concentrationandtheensuinglackofpluralism,butalsofrom the speech are guaranteedintheconstitutionsofregion, difficulties notonly Even thoughstatecensorshipisathingofthepast,andpress andfreedom of and diverseeconomicinterests ofthemediaowners. has beencausedbypossibleconflictsbetweenthenewsagenda,andwide gathering anddistribution.Thelatter - with alossofindependenceininformation topics andinterests ofcivilsocietygroups, regional andethnicminorities,along sity incontentandpointsofview, theexclusionfrom thenewsagendaofvoices, The structuralconcentrationofmediainLatinAmericahasledtoalackdiver- 90% oftheaudienceandpotentialadvertisingmarket42millionindividuals. instance, twonetworkscontrol theTVmarketbetweenthemselves,accessing (Argentina) -are theleadingplayersofregional market.InColombia,for conglomerates -Televisa (Mexico),Cisneros (Venezuela), Globo(Brazil)andClarin the continuouserosion ofstateinterventioninthecontrol oftheseactivities.Four investors,themigrationofcapitalfrom oneindustrytoanother,international and deregulation andprivatizationofthesector, whichallowedtheincorporationof concentration ofthemediawasconsolidatedaftertwodecadesliberalisation, Mastrini andBecerra,theauthorsofaboveanalysis,alsohighlightthat more thanseventypercentofthemarketandaudience" that thefourtopcompaniesineachmarketdominate(asaregionalaverage) the phenomenonofahighlyconcentratedownershipstructurewhichmeans Furthermore, lowlevelsofaccesstomediainLatinAmericaareaccompaniedby average citizenisdailyexposedtoopentelevisionandradioservices. region doesnotreachmorethantenpercentofthepopulation.However, the . 20 amendments totheCriminalCodecameinto Venezuela’s establishes detailedregulations forthecon- 21 For example,stationsdeemedto“condone desacato provisions, Venezuela ignored the nation” are subjecttoheavyfinesandcan and buckedacontinentwidetrend toward Commission onHumanRights(IACHR) they mayforfeittheirbroadcasting license media. TheLawofSocialResponsibilityin messages “contrarytothesecurityof "Laws passedsincelate2004haveintro- increased penaltiesfordesacato,criminal recommendations ofthe National Assembly defamation, andlibel.Bybroadening its seventy-two hours;onasecondoffense or incite”publicdisturbancespublish be ordered tosuspendbroadcasting for Human RightsWatch, World Report duced onerous newrestrictions onthe for uptofiveyears….InMarch 2005, Radio andTelevision, approved bythe tent oftelevisionandradioprograms. http://www.latinobarometro.org/ force whichextendedthescopeof 2006, page213;www.hrw.org desacato Latinobarometro the repeal ofthistypelaw." 22 23 Publisher by More informationonthe (disrespect) laws,and in December2004, InterAmerican UNDP available on: , 2004 According todatafrom Latinobarómetro, sacrifice democracyforreal economic progress surpasses50%. roots are notdeep;tothepointthatproportion ofLatinAmericanswillingto report states that,althoughdemocracyhasextendedwidelyinLatinAmerica,its themost.Thesame determine surveys,andconsequentlyinfluencegovernance group surveyedsaidthatthemediashapepublicopinion,disqualifypeople, which servesparticularinterests andhasreplaced judgesandpoliticalparties.The are frequently perceived asanuncontrolled powerthatgoesbeyondnewsgathering, while recognition forthepowerofpublicinstitutionsdidnotreach 50%.Media the mediaasseconddefactopowerbehindprivateeconomic power(at79.7%), in thesecountries,65.2%ofatransnationalgroup ofopinion leadersidentified (2004), containsrevealing data.Whenansweringaquestiononwhoexertspower 1995-2005, withmostyears fluctuatingover50%.Agreat part of thestagnation between amaximumof63% andaminimumof48%duringthedecade Venezuela. threaten freedom ofthepress, asisthecaseoflawoncontentsadopted in as anexcusetojustifyhostileregulatory initiativesonthepartofStatethat demands forgreater haveserved socialresponsibility formediaandjournalists andthemedia.And cases ofabusethatmaybecommittedbyjournalists effective andreliable judiciarysystemstotimelyandappropriately punishthe Mostofthesecountriessimplydonothavesufficiently media andjournalists. solidarity with,andrespect (beingeroded alittlemore everyday)towards the intolerance are notenoughfortheLatinAmericandemocraciestoretain the initsfightagainstcorruptionand achievements ofinvestigativejournalism Nevertheless, risksfaceddailyintheexercise ofpress freedom, orthe Ecuador, CalderónandRodríguezinCostaRica. Argentina, AlemáninNicaragua,SalinasdeGortariMexico,Gutiérrez in denouncing thecorruptionofPresidents suchasFujimoriinPeru,Menem American mediainrecent timeshavebeenwrittenbyinvestigativejournalists the electedandtheircronies. SomeofthebestachievementsLatin In thecapitalcities,asource ofpermanenttensionistherelationship between A UNDPreport, perceived more aspower-players thanasservicestotheircitizens. This hashighlightedatypicalLatinAmericanproblem: traditionalmass mediaare arrogance, partialityorhumanmistakes,thatare journalism. sofrequent inmodern comparison ofversions,theaudienceisbecomingmore demandingonidentifying the possibilitiesofdirect accesstodiverseflowsofinformation, that allowthe all contentisbeingunderminedbyalackoftrust.With credibility ofjournalistic radio andtelevisionnetworks,whichare stillveryprofitable businesses,the Although thepopulationremains connectedtomedia,especiallythebig was oncetheprideofmetropolitan newspapers. traditional logicofproduction andtheeconomicmodelofquality mediathat practices andfinancialmanagementofmedia,byprogressively underminingthe America hasbeguntoupsettherulesofgame,byaffecting professional inLatin audiences. Asinotherpartsoftheworld,sprouting oftheInternet way intheregion: theprogressive reframing oftherelation betweenmediaand The eroding legitimacyofthemediaisonedimensionatransformationunder education ofthepublicontheirrightsascitizensandconsumers. ethics,self-regulation ofthemediaand establishment oftraininginjournalism are theworstsolutionforLatinAmericancontext,incomparisonwith 21 Legal efforts toenforce principlesofsocialresponsibility inthemedia " Democracy inLatinAmerica:Towards ademocracyofcitizens" 23 the supportfordemocracy ranges 22 124 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 125 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences PATHWAYS TOPROGRESS:COMMUNITYRADIO,NEWMEDIAANDJOURNALISMSUPPORT INITIATIVES communication collectives,17communication collectivesdealingwith sexualand most conflictedareas, theMagdalenaMedio,AREMAGNet has22youngpeople flict, publicservicesprovision andothertopicsofcommunityinterest. Inoneofthe radio stationswithanagenda centered armedcon- ontheeffects of theinternal and otherethnicalminorities. traditionally marginalisedcommunities,suchasruralworkers, indigenousgroups radio provides channels forculturalrecognition anddemocraticparticipationfor the hostilityofbigcommercial broadcasting enterprisestoit.Community the restraints onitimposedbyformerstatecontrol have beenreplaced by medium,although America. Communityradiohasbecomeavibrantalternative An interesting dynamiccanbeobservedin themediasectorsofmostLatin to compensateforthenarrow remit of themarket. To ensure this,weneedinstitutionsandprojects supportingmediaandjournalists well-managedmediaenterprisesfacilitatingeditorialindependence. turn, Thisrequires, in ralistic environment withavarietyofmedia acting independently. practices,inanopenandplu- possibility ofattainingprofessionalism injournalism constitutional guaranteesoffreedom ofexpression intheregion, butalsoonthe Attaining theseobjectivesdependsnotonlyonthetotalenforcement oflegaland tion ofcitizenshipandseesaccesstoinformationasarightthepopulation. system isneeded,onethatabletocontributeinasignificantwaytheforma- thiscontext,theexistenceofahealthymedia Within democratic governance. Latin Americaislookingforawaytoattainsustainabledevelopmentand responsibility ofthemediaisopeninglittlebylittle. communication mediaandsociety. Debatearound transparency and social and executiveslackanadequateunderstandingoftheresponsibility between transparency, clearguidelinesandnorms.Manyexpertspointoutthatowners a professional core ethicsandstandards withinmediabusinesscharacterizedby needtobesupportedby has alotofweight.Theethicsindividualjournalists panies andnarrow advertisingmarketsinwhichbypublicinstitutions These issuesare associatedwithalowlevelofmanagementwithinmediacom- nology andequipmentthanonsupportingimproving humanresources. until now. ItistruethatmediacompaniesinLatinAmericainvestmore ontech- investing intrainingprograms promoting qualityinnewsprocesses hasbeenminimal informationtosociety.journalist Thepercentage ofmediaenterprisessystematically to facethedemandsofthisprofession andthechallengeofproviding quality difficult workingconditions,onehastoaddthelackofsufficient trainingforjournalists istoselladvertisingalongwiththeirsearch fornews.Ontopofthe only alternative withoutworkcontracts,whose it isfrequent tofindradioandtelevisionjournalists or servingastransmittersforprintingwhateverbenefitstheirsources. Inprovinces, pressures andotherrisks,self-censorshipcorruptionsuchasavoidingdenunciations from lackofproper workingconditions,whichreinforces theirvulnerabilityto are badlypaidwithtemporaryornon-existentworkcontractsandsufferjournalists Another problem affecting mediaperformanceinLatinAmericaisthatmost the credibility formerlyenjoyedbytelevisionnetworks. "caudillos". Butmediahavealsopaidtheprice,ascanbeseeninerosion of of theparties,massnon-involvementinpoliticsandtoascentpopulist media. of thisindicatorismostlyattributedtotherepresentation ofdemocracybythe These havecontributedtothetrivializationofpolitics,lossprestige For example,Colombiahas around 460community ANDI -AGÊNCIADENOTÍCIASDOSDIREITOSDAINFÂNCIA(NEWSAGENCYFORCHILDRENRIGHTS),BRASILIA, BRAZIL. states throughout Brazil,andisalsobeing replicated in otherLatinAmericancountries. influence onpublicpolicyformulation. Thisexperienceisbeingextendedtoallthe topic, andsupportingsocial actors inorder tobeableactandacquire theproper solutions. Inthisway, ANDIcontributestoformingBrazilianpublicopinion onthe way, withanincrease of45%inthenumberarticlesfocusedon search for 161,807 articlesin2004.Thequalityofcoveragealso increased inasignificant adolescence inBrazil:from 10,700articles publishedinnewspapers1996to has contributedtotheriseincoverageoftopicsrelated tochildhoodand andthepromotion ofincreased,journalists diversesources ofinformation,ANDI and change.Through themonitoringofmedia,mobilizationandqualification culture where communicationisconsidered astrategictool forsocialmobilization which childhoodandadolescencerightsare considered apriority, andaninstitutional ANDI’s culture in missionistocontributethedevelopmentofajournalistic America are thefollowing: inLatin Among themostinteresting experiencestosupportmediaandjournalism development exceptforthoseinterested indefendingfreedom ofspeech. Latin Americahasnotbeenapriorityforthemaindonorsfocusingonmedia and fundsprovided byinter-governmental organisationsoperatingintheregion. other areas ofmediadevelopmenthavebeenfinancedthrough localresources Most oftheprojects undertakeninjournalist’s education andtrainingin operating attheregional level alongwithtraditionalownersandworkersunions. the promotion Someofthemare ofqualityandsociallyresponsible journalism. organizationsdedicatedto almost allcountrieshavecreated newjournalists’ commit themselvestoinvestingineditorsandreporters. Inthelast fifteenyears, enterprises experiencing democratictransitionprocesses. Step-by-stepjournalism There training,especiallyinthosecountries isagreat demandforjournalism among theleadersinthiscampaign. have adoptednewlawsforcitizens’accesstoinformation.Mediabeen in PeruandtheObservatoriodaImprensa inBrazil.Agreat numberofcountries monitoring observatoriesandcritiquenetworkshaveappeared, suchasCalandria therighttoinformationandcitizens’participationinmedia.Media journalists, throughout thepoliticalperformanceofmedia and theregion concerning During thelastdecadeastrikingacademicandpoliticaldebatehasbeengenerated generate conceptualorinformativevalue,togainoutreach andcredibility. taking advantageofthefactthatnocorporateconnectionisneededinorder to andnewinitiativesdare tosearchjournalists fornewnarrativeandbusinessmodels, reportages. isaterrainforglobalexperimentationwhere LatinAmerican TheInternet have limitedcoverageandare devotedtoinvestigativeandnarrativejournalism As aresult, magazinesandothernewmediahaveappeared inprintmedia.Theystill through thecreation ofpublicforumsandthemonitoringelectedofficials. conflict victims)tobecomeoneofthemechanismsforcitizenparticipation its role as amediatorforresolving dailyproblems (suchasgettingwheelchairsfor public opinionawareness intheregion. Communityradiohasinthesecasessurpassed of seen theinaugurationofseven(7)localnewsreports whichstrengthen theprocess It accounts in80%ofthemunicipalitieslocateditsarea ofinfluence. radio broadcasts. Asaresult, thenetworkhasmanagedtoaccessfinancialpublic reproductive health,8collectivesoncitizens'communicationandschoolsfor has also 126 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 127 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences CONCLUSION KNIGHT CENTERFORJOURNALISMINTHEAMERICAS,UNIVERSITYOFTEXASAT AUSTIN,USA. PYS -INSTITUTOPRENSAYSOCIEDAD(PRESSANDSOCIETYINSTITUTE),LIMAPERU. CARTAGENA, COLOMBIA. FNPI -FUNDACIÓNNUEVOPERIODISMOIBEROAMERICANO(IBERIANAMERICANNEWJOURNALISMFOUNDATION), Millennium Development Goals that guide the international developmentagenda. Millennium DevelopmentGoalsthatguidetheinternational accountability,governance, sustainabledevelopment,povertyeradicationandtheother and strengthen theirabilitiestofulfilarelevant role inthequesttoachievegood enterprises andcivilsocietyorganisationsalike.Theyshare adeterminationtoenhance field showstheexistenceofagreat interest andresponse, comingfrom practitioners, quality.journalistic Whathasbeendoneinrecent yearsinthemediadevelopment transformation ofprofessional andentrepreneurial practicesinthesearch for results from theiractionsonmediadevelopment,focusedgenerating apositive and partnerwithregional andlocalLatinAmericanorganizations,toobtain tangible improving. Thistrend funderswith the opportunitytosupport provides international However itssocietiesare opening,civilsocietyisgrowing is stronger andgovernance Latin Americaisavibrantcontinentjugglingbothproblems andopportunities. trainingwiththeacquisitionoforganizationalcompetences. combining journalist withasupport cated tofightforfreedom ofspeechand totrainjournalists organizations, indifferent LatinAmerican countries.Theseorganizationsare dedi- sustainable - The Centerhasbeensupportingthecreation oflocal,independentandself inLatinAmerica. supporting program toinvestigativejournalism a monitoring networkinseveralLatinAmericancountriesanddevelops studies, andpromotes debateontherole ofthemedia. It carriesoutsituationreports inseveralLatinAmericancountries,develops IPPYS isanassociationpromoting freedom ofinformationandindependentjournalism. andcoverageofsocialpoliticalissues. investigation, narrativejournalism fortopicssuchasethics,journalistic demand from LatinAmericajournalists experiences andknowledgeexchange.FNPIhasfoundthatthere existsabig organized byFNPI,in38citiesofthecontinent,generatingabignetwork all overLatinAmericanhaveparticipatedinnearly200workshopsandseminars its annualawards. SinceApril1995,more than4,000reporters andeditorsfrom Spanish andPortuguese,FNPIoperatesitsprograms ataregional level,including the possibilitiesoffered bythelinguisticcommunityofregional languages, reporters, through extendedconversationsofveryhandsonnature. Thanksto ethics andthenutsboltsoftheircraftwithLatinAmericaneditors or more andeditorsfrom where all over theworlddiscuss leadingjournalists and president, GabrielGarcia Marquez. FNPIorganizesworkshopslastingaweek practices,withapedagogicalmodelinspired byitsfounder quality injournalistic andthesearchFNPI worksfortheprofessional for developmentofjournalists The institutedirects a vigorous specialized model Independent Media Credibility, andtheRiseof Freedom ofExpression,Lost Arab MediaLaggingBehind: DEMOCRACY, FREEDOMOFEXPRESSIONSANDMEDIASYSTEMSINTHEARABWORLD democracy whencitizens are deniedtheirrightto nonsense totalkabout Arab worldshouldgo political reforminthe speak withoutfear.” “Media reformand adi ad Itis hand inhand. in region: semi-open,semi-closed,and fullyclosed. Arab world.Loosely, wecandefinethree categoriesofinformation environment The statusoffreedom ofexpression andqualitymediaisnotevenacross the organizations. and others),NGOsinternational should begivenalotofattention bymediapractitioners,donors(governments development intheArabworldbasedonfreedom ofexpression isapriorityand in allcountries,withoutexceptionalbeittodifferent degrees. Theneedformedia professional accordingly standards mirror andethicsofjournalism thesedeficits In allfourareas, the22countriesofArabworldsuffer seriousdeficits.The and professional organizations;andafairindependentjudiciary. access tocommunication;freedom ofassociation intheformoftradeunions Freedom rests ofexpression onfourfoundations:accesstoinformation; inturn without fear. Democracycannotbeestablishedwithoutfreedom ofspeech. nonsense totalkaboutdemocracywhencitizensare deniedtheirrighttospeak Media reform andpoliticalreform in the Arabworldshouldgohandinhand.Itis media world. will arguethere isadangertheycreate an unrealistic rosy imageoftheArab change, muchofitpositiveintheinformationlandscaperegion, thispaper havebroughtthere isnoquestionthesechannels,andthearrivalofInternet, TV channelsthathaveappeared intheArabWorld inthelastdecade.Butwhile then bombedbytheUnitedStates,issimplybestknownofover100satellite 21st centurybelongstotheArabWorld. AlJazeera,firstpraised,thenlambasted, The mostsinglefamoustelevisionoutletintheworldfirstfewyearsof Ibrahim Nawar, Chief Executive,ArabPressfreedomWatch (APFW) 128 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 129 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE QUANDARY AROUNDMEDIATRAININGPROGRAMMES about deepculturalnorms fractured andantagonistic ii oit,bothofwhich civil society, diversity athigherlevels.” prospects ofthegrowth democratic politiesand eae,dfeec,and difference, debates, oilsae damaging social space, base levelofconsensus at somelevelrelyona to underlieandframe “Media reflectthis “Media tool inthehandsofpolitical power. positioned tofightforfreedom hasalwaysbeena ofthepress. Badjournalism experiences inEgypt,Morocco isbest andJordan showthatgood journalism The to embarkonseriousplans tobuildagoodbaseofprofessional journalists. wait fordemocracytoarrive andfreedom ofspeechto beimplementedinorder because ofrestrictions. But thecounterargumentexiststhatdonorsshouldnot from training cannotbeusedintheworkplace plain thatwhattheyhavelearnt whoreceive oftencom- training inareasJournalists suchasinvestigativejournalism media systemsuchasEgyptorMorocco. question willarisefrom timetotime,evenincountriesthatenjoyasemi-open ment assistancetoSyrianstatecontrolled newspapers,radioandTVstations.The Trust andtheThomsonFoundationthathaveprovided mediatraining anddevelop- examined againsttheexperienceoforganizationssuch astheBBCWorld Service organizations inclosedmediasystems,suchastheoneSyria.Thisneedstobe One questionthatisoftenaskedwhethertoprovide assistancetomedia great courageindoingtheirwork. very poor. andtheir Thisisnoreflection onthequalityofindividualjournalists dards, ethicsandindustrialrelations ofthemediain bothIraqandSomaliaare duemostlytothelackofsafety.journalism, Consequently, theprofessional stan- central statehasleftthecountrywithadiminishedcapacitytoproduce good with regard tothefragmentationofbroadcast media,asthedestructionof count asoneofthemore successfulinAfrica.ThesituationIraqisverysimilar chiefs, aswellanentirely deregulated telecommunicationsindustrywhichhasto dozens ofnewmediaoutletsprotected bywarlords, religious groups andtribal inSomaliahasresulted intheemergenceof collapse ofthecentralgovernment Somalia andIraqcannotbejudgedeasilybecauseofthechaoswar. The entirely closedsystemsincludes Syria,LibyaandSudan. Oman, aswellYemen, Tunisia, AlgeriaandMauritania.Thelastgroup of Arab Gulf-SaudiArabia,Kuwait,Bahrain,Qatar, theUnitedArabEmiratesand Lebanon andPalestine.Thesemi-closedgroup includesthesixcountriesof Among countrieswithsemi-openmediasystemswecancountEgypt,Morocco, delivered bythemedia. the expenseofpeople’s, whoinmostcasesfallvictimstothepoliticaldiscourse The mediadiscourseinmostArabcountriesmirrors theaspirationsofrulerat policy dedicatedtoglorifyingthecountry’s rulers. monopoly oroligopoly, adegree ofrestrictive medialawsandadegree ofmedia case scenario,themediasystemisrestricted byadegree ofstateorprivatesector No Arabcountrycanclaimtohaveafullyopenmediasystem.Eveninthebest policies transpar the integrationofICTs intoproduction, thedegree ofcompetition,market other factorsmore directly related totheactivitiesofmediasector, suchas professional organizationsandanindependentfairjudiciary. Then,there are such astheavailabledegree ofaccesstoinformation,communication, externals We candothisconsideringanumberoffactors.First,there are themajor and ownershipconcentration. ency, modelsofownershipandadministration,training,medialaws MEDIA CONCENTRATION DEFINING ‘DEVELOPMENT’OFTHEARABMEDIA NEW TECHNOLOGIES,MESSAGES? PRINT ANDBROADCASTMEDIA:TWOLEVELSOFREGULATION The Lebanesecivilwarfrom 1975 to1990andthecollapseofnationalmedia of state-controlled mediahaveopenedthewayfornew mediaconglomerates. monopoly. Oilmoney, privatization programs, satellite technologyandthedecay Media concentrationinthe Arabworldisslowlyreplacing theagingstate the potentialtoreach themasses. traditional policy, asbothcross sovereign boundarieseasilywithmediathathas cafes isposingaseriousthreatThe spread tothis ofsatellitedishesandInternet potential, suchasradio. time asdoingeverythingtoprevent thespread oftechnologies withpopulist magazines forexamplewhichbydefinitionengageonly theliterate,atsame less concern aboutwhatcan be describedas less concern intheirpolicyofregulating themediashowfar By contrast,Arabgovernments state radioandtelevision(examplesfoundinEgypt,Morocco, Tunisia andJordan). and politicalprograms are prohibited unlessnewsare boughtorborrowed from the under statecontrol. EvenincasesthatallowedprivateradioorTVstations,news main powerwithinthemedia,andare accordingly heavilyregulated andmainly in theregion. Becauseofthehighilliteracyrate,radioandTVstationshold andhasadeepimpactonmediapolicy fact wellunderstoodbyArabgovernments One ofthemainfeatures oftheArabworldishighrateilliteracy. Thisisa because ofbudgetconstraints. from lowITandtechnologicalstandards, asthestateisnotspendingmuch Ailing mediaorganizationsincountriessuchasSyriaorLibya,bycontrast,suffer political reform ordemocraticchange. technology andmachinerypaytheirstaff well.Butnoneofthatisrelated to followed thesuperficialinterpretation. Theyprovide theirmediawiththelatest Rich ArabGulfstates,loadedwithmoneytospendonmediadevelopment,have national dialogueaboutdemocracy, socialandculturalchange. of engaging media developmentcreates free, independent,plural andefficient mediacapable meaningful social, economicandculturalenvironment. Thesecondisdeeperandmore of technology, machineryandsalaries,inisolationofthesurrounding political, superficialsense ofproviding bettermaterialcircumstancesa modernist interms Media developmentintheArabworldcanbeinterpreted intwoways.Thefirstis by extremists asmuchliberals. and regressive thinking.Inthesamemanner, is used asavibranttool theInternet has brought tothefore someliberalthinking–justasithasrevived conservative be usedforprogressive orregressive ends.ThenewageofsatelliteTVstations Technology andsatellitetechnologiesmay isneutral.NewandadvancedInternet and looksatthewiderprocess around media,tryingtoensure that the generalpublicinpoliticalreform andproviding asolidbasefor " elite media", newspapers and 130 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 131 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE IMPACT OFSATELLITE MEDIA:ATALE OFTWOFORCES 1991 brought withittheideaofestablishing ideEs racsigCnr (MBC) Middle EastBroadcasting Centre International (UPI) International ailing Americannewsagency the firstSaudisatellitetelevisionstation, London 1978markedthebeginning Saudi Research andMarketing Then, thetelevisedwarofIraqin of thenewSaudimediaempire.. The Saudisalsoboughtthe 24 The establishmentofthe around the sametime. United Press in . currently failtofulfiltheir socialandpoliticalremit. combination ofallthese and otherinitiativesbesides,mediaintheArabworld up involvement,genuineand honestcompetitioninthecommercial space,ora grate different strandsofsociety, community-levelmediatoencouragebottom- Public ServiceBroadcasting, builtcarefully outofstatecontrol toreflect andinte- frame debates,difference, anddiversityathigherlevels.Whetheritisgenuine rely onabase levelofconsensusaboutdeepculturalnormstounderlieand the growth ofdemocraticpolitiesandcivilsociety, bothofwhichatsomelevel Media reflect thisfractured andantagonisticsocialspace,damagingprospects of and reading gossipsabout pop stars. popmusic while theotherisfondofwatchingvideoclips,listening toWestern dedicated tolisteningtapesoftheHolyQuran,religious speechesandfatwas, -styleclothes.Onegroup Western is fashioned hairstylesandwearmodern dress thatisostentatiouslyIslamic,incontrasttothesecondgroup whosport reveal thisstrikingdivide.Onegroup self-consciouslygrows beards andadopts countryside inTunisia, Egypt,Morocco, Jordan orevenintheGulfregion, will a veryparticularinterpretation ofwhattraditionalvaluesare. Anytriptothe andanotherisbeingdrivenaggressively towardsone isbeinglargelywesternized The result isthecreation ofadeepdividebetweentwolargegroups ofaudience, (amongst youthhungryforsex),gayculture, music. danceandWestern opposite sideotherradioandTVchannelsare promoting sexualisedvideoclips serious efforts tore-establish aculture ofauthorityandobscurantism.Onthe the mindsofviewerstowards socialandpoliticalconservatism.Theyare making Al -Majdnetwork,Haqiqa,Iqra’aandAnwarare drivingtheheartsand Arab world. A deepculture dividehasemergedfrom thespread ofsatellite mediainthe Saudi’s mediaempire hasbeenbuilttobuypoliticalinfluenceintheArabworld. opposition andlaunchingattacksoncountrieshostiletoSaudipolicy. Inshort, foreign policyandSaudiculture, protecting theSaudiroyal familyandregime from The SaudiexpansionintheArabmediaisgeared forthepromotion ofSaudi launched thefirstArabiclanguagedailyonlinepaper Moroccan OthmanbinJellountobuyMarroc SoirGroup). TheSaudiOmeiralso specialised satelliteTVchannels)andMorocco (OthmanOmeir’s dealwiththe dealwithstate-ownedtelevisiontobuyout They alsoboughtintoEgypt(anART agreements andstocks(Al-MustaqbalTV, LBC,Al-Naharnewspaper). the overseasSaudimediaexpansionreached outtoLebanonthrough partnership AdvertisingAgencyandadistributionnetwork.Inaddition, and Marketing,Tihama and Television MBCNetwork,al-ArabiyaNewsChannel,SaudiResearch (ART), people andcompanieshadgainedcontrol ofOrbitNewsNetwork,ArabRadio By thestartof21stcentury, theSaudiroyal family, theiraffiliates andfront news agencyandhugeproduction anddistributionfacilitiesacross theworld. than adozenofnewspapers,satelliteradioandTVstations,aninternational control ofanoverseasandtransnationalmediaempire thatconsistedofmore Arab world.Inamatterofjustoverdecade,theSaudisfoundthemselvesin encouraged theSaudistostartahugemediadrivebasedphysicallyoutside structure, inwhathadbeentheArabWorld’s mostadvancedmedialandscape, 24 On theonehand,conservativeandreligious TVchannelssuchas "elaph.com" in 2001. NEW MONEY, NEWMEDIAANDOLDSYSTEMS GROWING FREEDOMOFEXPRESSION,BUTJUSTNOT AT HOME foreign policy, whichisoftencontroversial withintheArabWorld. with regard tocorruption,power struggleswithintherulingfamily, orQatari will keepablindeyeonwhat maybehappeninginsideQatar, itssponsor state, public opinion.Butit Palestine, where Israelstandsinthecourt ofinternational For example,AlJazeerawill dealboldlywiththesituationinLebanonor people athome. relating to freedom of speechismainlydedicatedtodealingwithpan–Arabissuesor in publishedoraired materials.Onehastorealise, however, thatthisdegree of double challenge:theadvancedtechnologyanddegree offreedom exhibited newspapers andmagazineshavepresented theoldlocalArabmediawitha Satellite radioandtelevisionstationsoverseas-based Arabiclanguage prohibiting monopolyandencouragingcompetition. of creating ahealthypublicsphere. TheArabworldneedsanti-trustlaws against diversityinthemedia,faircompetitionanddistortprocess monopolies ofmedia–buttheyshouldbothbefoughtagainst.Theyplay This newkindofmediaconcentrationhasstartedtosupercede theoldstate influence ontheLebanesemedia,ashaveSyrians. media hasfallenvictimtopoliticalinfluenceandoilmoney. Saudishavealotof Al -Alamtelevisionstation.Oncethereal mirror oftheArabworld,Lebanese aggressively challengedbyALJazeera,ManarandtheIranianArabic language Saudi Arabiaisbyfartheleaderwithitsmediaempire. Buttheyare being as amarketleaderinthemediacompetition. and afacilitieshouse(OctoberMediaCity),ratherthanexercising direct control softer positionofcontrol overitsmedia,asaserviceprovider (theNilesatsatellite) two countries,inbothprintandbroadcast. TheEgyptianstateoccupiesaslightly tarian regimes inSyriaandLibyaare stillincontrol ofmostthemediainthese Meanwhile, runninginparalleltothemediacontrolled byoilmoney, thetotali- building itsownmediaempire. Arab Gulfstatesthathasnotjoinedthedrivetobuypoliticalinfluencethrough real force behindtheeditorialteam.Infact,Kuwaitisaloneamongoil-rich the is Sheikh Youssef al-Qaradhawi,generallythoughtofasaconservativecleric, Sheikh HamadBinThameristheChiefExecutiveofAlJazeeraandhisold in1996,controlled financiallybytheEmirofQatar.was born Hisentrustedman (BBC -Orbit)satelliteTVstation.Itwasagainstthisbackground thatalJazeera project tobuyouttheBBCteamthatpreviously workedinthejointventure the BBCArabiclanguagemagazineintoaweeklyedition,partofbigger of thestocksmonthly"Almushahed"magazine.Theaimwastodevelop 1990s, theywentintopartnershipwiththeBBCWorld Serviceandboughthalf enough moneytocompeteregionally, theQatarisfollowedsuit.Inmid - Dubai) andhugemediaprojects (DubaiMediaCity).Oncetheyfelthad players. Thisdesire waslatertranslatedintosatelliteTVnetworks(AbuDhabiand Maktoum showedstrong desire duringthe1980stobecomeregional media media power. TheEmiratesmostinfluentialrulingfamilies,AlNahiyanand Saudi oilmoneywasnotaloneinseekingpoliticalinfluencethrough acquiring "other" Arab countries rather than dealing with issues of concern to the to Arab countriesratherthandealingwithissuesofconcern teacher issues 132 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 133 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences SO WHAT DOESTHISMEAN? objectives offoreign donors. expression puts donorforeign policyinquestion andcastsdoubtsaboutthereal reform. supportofregimes knownfortheirviolationsoffreedom International of the mediahandinwith thebroader process ofencouragingpolitical objective andmanageriallyefficient. Foreign donorsshouldlookatdeveloping Independent mediaorganizationsshouldbefinancially transparent, editorially agencies toadvertisewithindependentradioandTVstations. prohibited. Thisrestriction shouldberemoved inorder toencourageadvertising Arab countriesviatheso-calledfree mediacitiesbutterrestrial transmissionis an unfairlicensingsystem.Atthemomentsatelliteuplinks are allowedinsome The righttobroadcast should notberestricted bylawtobigcompaniesor istoopenthebroadcast sectortofaircompetition. possible. Thealternative willresist control, aslong noteasysincesomegovernments of government the Arabworld.Thefirstandmosturgentreform istotakethis sectorout are manyreforms thatneedtobeintroduced todevelopthebroadcast sectorin performance, theystillsuffer from genuineinabilitytowinpublicsupport.There of themhaveundergonesomerelatively drasticoperationstodevelop their officials.are Althoughsome runonpoliciesandbasisdrawnupbygovernment andtheirservices Arab radioandTVstationsare mostlyownedbygovernments to sustainsuccess andfightingthrough toughmarketconditionsinorder ment andadministration, such aseditorialmanagement,modelsofmanage- many otherareas ofconcern There are Marketingstaff needtodeveloptheirprofessionaljournalism. skills. the skills ofobjectivereporting andinvestigative needtolearn Journalists skills, andtraintheireditorialstaff toaccessdifferent sources ofinformation. subscription businessmodels,ontheeditorialsidedevelopforeign language Theyneedtodeveloptheiradvertisingand a listofprioritiesandurgentneeds. To andmediamanagementshouldprovide developthesenewspapers,journalists Sharq al–Awsat. to beablecompetewithcross-border printtitles,suchasal-Hayatandal- daily Assabah,andmanyothertitlesintheprintsectorneedtobedeveloped the AlgeriandailyElkhabar, theEgyptiandailyAlmasryal-Youm, theMoroccan Print outletsatthenationallevelwhichare genuinelyindependent,suchas mirrored inthemedia. in Egypt,Morocco andLebanoneveninSaudiArabia,whichisinevitably also thesocialandpoliticalstrugglethathaspushedlineformore freedom independent mediawithanewspirit.So,itisnotonlythetechnology, but forces opposingArabregimes hasencouragedlocalforces toprovide the but toputthisrole intherightcontext.Furthermore, theriseofdemocraticpolitical to denythepositiverole ofthecross-border Arabmedia,bothprintandbroadcast, old barriersandtoopenanewhorizonforfreedom ofspeech.Thatisnot of freedom ofexpression andmediaprofessionals alikewithtoolstobreak the technologieshaveprovidedbefore advocates thesatelliteage.SatelliteandInternet The marginoffreedom ofexpression couldneverhavestayedaslowitwas streams that appearonsatelliteTVscreens. compensated forbytheuseofchatrooms anddebatingsaloonswhichtext In caseslikethis,wecanseethatthedeficitinfreedoms inmainstream mediais on theregulationofeconomic Soviet Union:AJobWell Done? Media AssistanceintheFormer THE EMERGENCEOFANINDIGENOUSNGOSECTOR NEW MEDIALEGISLATION FORANEWERA from theeconomictoolsthat could notprotectthemedia nuty Thereforethelaw industry. relations withinthemedia were subsequentlyusedto needne ratherthan independence, oee itconcentrated However , “The Russianmedialaw, journalistic andeditorial consolidate statecontrol: oooiain taxes, monopolisation, was oneofthebest. on theregulationof and buy-outs.” required tenyearsinthe future. Therefore thelawcouldnotprotect themedia procedures andprotections ofeconomicrelationships ofthemediamightbe period oftransition(1990– 1991),theauthorscouldnotforesee whatkindof economic relations withinthemediaindustry. Written right atthestartof andeditorialindependence, ratherthanontheregulation of of journalistic However, likethelaws inothercountries,itconcentratedontheregulation Fedotov, Yuri BaturinandYuri Entin-wasoneofthebest. create themselves.The Russianmedialaw, written bythree legalexperts-Mikhail necessary togivepermissionfornewmediasystems ariseandtheywould which hadneverexistedduringthedaysofUSSR. It seemedthatitwasonly legislation. Thisprovided thebasisforappearanceofnew, privatemedia, At thebeginningof1990s,allFSUcountriessponsored newmedia laws ofdevelopmentindifferent countriesoftheformerSovietempire? point ofviewhistory-relatively shortperiod?Isitpossibletoidentifyparticular and disappointment.Whatwere theachievementsandfailures ofthis-from the ed inalltheseprocesses are, 15years later, boundbyfeelingsofdissatisfaction Can weconsiderthejobconcluded,awelldone?Manyofuswhoparticipat- of freedom ofspeechanddemocracy. standards andpromoting journalistic industries, introducing ideas international support themthrough transferofknowledgeandexperiencetheirownmedia donorswerebuilding ofthesenewlyindependentstates.Western willingto have apassionatedesire tochangesocietyandhelptheirfellow citizensinthe few staff educatedinmediadisciplines,noexperience,andmoney, butdid media monopolieswere thousandsofsmalllocalmediacompanies,whichhad these wasstrivingtocreate itsownnewmedia system.Replacingtheoldstate empire wasaccompanied by theconstructionofnewstates,andeachone these countriesfrom thebeginningof 1990s.Thecollapseofthegreat the countriesofFSU.Hundreds ofAmericansandEuropeans haveworkedin implemented byforeign NGOswhichopenedtheirownrepresentative offices in at profits – non former SovietUnion(FSU)forthelast15years.Duetoabsenceofindigenous Media developmentactivitieshavebeencarriedoutontheterritoryof Manana Aslamazyan Internews Russia the outsetofthisprocess, theseprojects were largelycreated and , Director General, 134 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 135 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences enthusiastically accepted of thetransitiontoward culture intheplaceof into thesenewmedia a totalentertainment “The globaltendency “The balanced newswas immediately and communities.” very weakinTajikistan, Azerbaijan,Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,BelarusandMoldova. However, they are almost non-existentorelse Armenia, KyrgyzstanandKazakhstan. to speakofthedevelopment ofasystemmediaNGOsinRussia,Ukraine,Georgia, Yet these processes tookplaceslowlyand unevenly. Today, after15yearsitispossible good practiceinitiativesandgainedgreater financialsupport. did provide assistancetosuchorganisations. Theygrew inexperience, ideas, were nolongerheadedbyforeigners foundations butbylocalactivists.Western a fewyearsofgreater numbersoflocalnon-commercial organisations-which many domesticspecialistsinthearea ofmediaassistanceledtothecreation after Western donors.LocallegislationonNGOsandthegrowing professionalism of andseveralUkrainianassociations,butthey,(MART), too,were largelyfundedby AssociationofRadioandTelevisionBroadcasters (RANV),theInternational and thefirstRussianassociations-AssociationofIndependent Foundation, foundedontheinitiativeofRussiancinematographersin1991, beginning ofthe90s.Theobviousexceptionswere theGlasnostDefence Very fewlocalNGOswere independentlycarryingoutmediaassistanceatthe (Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan,Tajikistan) thelegislativeprocess movedfarmore slowly. developed almostparalleltothedevelopmentofnewmediasystems,inothers organisations incertaincountries(likeRussia,Ukraine,Georgia,Armenia) sector wascompletelyundeveloped.Althoughthelegislationonnon-commercial At thattimeintheFSUthere were notonlynoindependentmedia,buttheNGO help overcomeingrainedhabitsofsevendecadesstate-controlledmedia." USAID Russiafocusedonjournalismtraining,theclearest,mostobviousneedto centralized economiestowardmarket-democraticsystems.Intheearliestyears, any experiencewiththetransitionsofsuchlarge,entrenchedpost-totalitarian unique challenges.NeithertheRussiansnorWestern donorcommunityhad Soviet RussiaandtheCommonwealthofIndependentStates(CIS)presented (including east-centralEuropeafter1989)providedsomesharedlessons,post- conditions andexperimentation.Whileotherpost-authoritarianmediatransitions "USAID mediaassistancestrategiesinRussiaevolvedresponsetorapidlychanging experience ofmediaassistance.AsUSAIDanalystKrishnaKumarwrote later the donors,norimplementers,thoseonreceiving end,hadany thirsty forinformationandadvice.Oneshouldalsonotethatatthistime,neither andmanagerswhowere useful totheyounggenerationofnewjournalists transfer theirexperiencewasgenuine,andpracticalindeed were documentarymakersandmanagers.Theirdesire foreign to journalists, at thattimeconsistedchieflyoftheorganisationseminars,where thetrainers a genuinedesire tohelpsociety, andalittleexperienceinmanagement.Projects by youngforeign enthusiasts,withsomeknowledgeoftheRussianlanguage, contract competitions.Therepresentative offices oftheseNGOswere usuallyrun resources donors’grantand tosubmitproposals to,andwin,theinternational by existingAmericanandEuropean NGOswhichhadtheknow-howand McArthur Foundation,financedsuchaidwork.Theseprojects were carriedout foundations suchastheOpenSocietyInstitute,Ford Foundationandthe institutionssuchasUSAIDandTacis1990s. Government-financed aswellprivate inexperienced mediacompaniesforwhichassistancewasdesignedintheearly The newlawsservedthecreation ofnewmediaandparticularlythosesmall, andbuy-outs. taxes, control: monopolisation, from theeconomictoolsthatwere subsequentlyusedtoconsolidatestate LESSONS FROMTHEFSUEXPERIENCE JOURNALISM ETHICSINTHEFACE OFBIGBUSINESS exacerbates problematic financialassistanceand attitudestoward international initiatives. Theabsenceofself-regulatory institutionsinthemediasphere further owners, makingthemexcessively conservativewithregard tojournalistic Fear oflosingtheirprofitable businessesdictates thebehaviourofnewmedia was immediatelyandenthusiasticallyacceptedintothese newmediacommunities. transition toward atotalentertainmentculture intheplaceofbalancednews have beensacrificedonthealtarofaquietlife.Theglobal tendencyofthe ethicalstandards andresponsibilitymoney" -thehighestjournalistic tothepublic Unfortunately, communityhasnotbeenable to standup"big thejournalistic information broadcasting andtothefastexpansionofentertainmentcontent. also theexplanationwhytougheningofregimes intheFSUledtocuts communityandmediaowners.This is of manyconflictsbetweenthejournalistic of thelawwithregard totheloyalanddisloyal.Thesereasons lieattheroot all themajorelementsinsociety, through corruptionand theselectiveapplication What holdsthemediacommunitybackisstrengthening ofstate control over and films. channels are appearing,alongsideanavalancheofnewlocalTVprogrammes mechanisms forthedistributionoftelevision.Theindustryisonrise-new of theaudience.Newtelevisionprojects are appearing,asare newtechnical with itagrowth incompetition, alltakingplacealongsideanaturalfragmentation On theotherhand,advertisingvolumeisundergoingradicalgrowth, bringing a share, thenonlywithpermissionfrom theauthorities. especially televisionchannels,are nowappointed-andifforeign companiesgain in commercial mediacompanies.Loyalownersofthemajorcompanies, state -capitalisteliteshavecarriedouttake-oversandboughtcontrolling stakes small numberoftalkshowshavingtobeapproved inadvance.Thenew with informationflowsstrictlycontrolled, thethemesandparticipantsof the authoritarianmodelofinformationmanagementhasbeenre-established - hand, allofthenationalchannelsare under direct orindirect statecontrol, and more-developed Russian,UkrainianandKazakhtelevisionmarkets.Ontheone beginning ofthe21stcentury, there are severaltendenciesnoticeableinthe countries differ from eachother, themediaindustriesare alsodifferent. Atthe of thesocietiesinwhichtheyoperate.Naturally, justastheeconomiesofthese separated from thesocial,political,economic,culturalandtechnologicaltrends highly criticalofmanytheirlocalmedia.Thedevelopmentmediacannotbe Nevertheless, democraticmovementsindifferent countriesoftheFSUare projects are takingplace,conferences organised,andsoon. been founded,documentaryfilmscontinuetobeproduced, variousexchange havebeentrained,hundreds ofassociationshave tens ofthousandsjournalists donors. Itis,therefore, supportthat thanksalmostexclusively tointernational extremely slowlyandveryfewmediaassistanceprojects are financedbylocal European NGOastheleadimplementer. Domesticphilanthropy isdeveloping cautious aboutdirectly financinglocalorganisations,preferring tohavea institutionssuchasTacis,intergovernmental whicheventodayremains deeply foundationswere morePrivate international helpfultolocalNGOsthanthemajor 136 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 137 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE RESURGENCEOFAUTHORITARIAN INFORMATION MODEL has beenaccompaniedby rapid economicgrowth democratic changesin “After thetremendous post -Sovietsocieties, freedom ofspeech.” a steadydeclinein growth andrisein personal freedoms, including thatof here are somesuggestionsforfuture mediaproject implementers: What couldhavebeendonedifferently? Thisisnotanexhaustiveanalysis,but propaganda. whole instrumentsforgovernment advances andcontinuetoreach thebiggestaudiences-buttheyremain onthe supported statebroadcasters -asaconsequencetheymadeterrifictechnical to thestateduringwhole15yearperiod.TheFSUstatesprotected and processes andrelationshipconsequently changedlittleintermsoftheirinternal for new, independentmediameantthatthestatewere leftoutand untrustworthy intheeyesofpublic.Inaddition,focusonassistanceonly makesthem are finance,whichinturn madedependentonforeign government cannot beprotected from localpoliticalandeconomicdevelopments,unlessthey are partandparcel ofthesocietiesthey existtoinformandentertain-they simply byassistingitsmediaindustry. Themediadonotsurviveinavacuum:they to believethatitispossibleradicallychangethesituationinanothercountry Union. Howeverlikeanynewprocess, this one alsohaditsfailings.Itisfoolish a decidedlypositiveinfluenceonthedevelopmentofmediainformerSoviet experienceandprofessionalism assistance,Western had assistance. International inthefieldofmediadevelopment This isoneofthelessonswhichmustbelearned personal freedoms, includingthatoffreedom ofspeech. societies, rapideconomicgrowth hasbeenaccompaniedbyasteadydeclinein After thetremendous growth andriseindemocraticchangespost-Soviet independent NGOs. which are loyaltoorevencreated bythestate,tocompeteagainst"disloyal" the appearanceofquasiNGOs-includinginmediaassistancefielditself tion between"us"and"them"isbecomingstronger. Manycountriesare seeing according totherelative successofrecent "revolutions"). Thexenophobicsepara- Georgia andKyrgyzstan,where thesetendenciesexist,butproceed more slowly are apparent throughout theFSU(withpossibleexceptionsofUkraine, The mediaandtheNGOcommunitycandolittletobattlethesetrends, which or asmoneylaunderingfronts. NGOs existonlytopromote theinterests offoreign statestoundermineRussia, spokesmencultivatedtheviewinsocietythat andpro-government government further controls ontheactivitiesofsector. Atthetimeoflaw’s passing, a newlawonnon-commercial organisationshasbeenintroduced toplace closed downoneaftertheotheroverpastyear, butinRussiaalso,where anddomesticNGOshavebeen Belarus andUzbekistan,where international the non-commercial sector. Isolationismisnowevidentnotonlyincountrieslike • • • More emphasisshouldbeplaced on providing assistancetodevelop themselves withafoothold intheirsocieties; carrying outsignificantprojects, local NGOscannotmature andestablish media inaneffective wayisessential,andwithoutgainingexperience in creation oflegitimatelocalorganisationscapable ofreaching outtolocal priority forcarryingoutmediaassistanceprojects rightfrom thestart- Financing -andifnecessarystrengthening -localNGOsshouldbea activities andcooperatemore effectively; that are more flexible, anddonorsshouldbebetterinformedofeachother’s media assistanceshouldoperateunderprinciplesandstrategies International operating indifficult, oftenauthoritarian,andsensitiveenvironments. problems inthesecountriesorder todevelopnewwaysofassistingmedia lessons oftheseearlyassistanceinitiatives,takingintoaccountthecurrent the Nevertheless,itisnecessarytolearn media managers,editorsandjournalists. providing ongoingtrainingandsupportfortheevergrowing numberofnew positive impactonthenascentindependentmediacommunitiesinthesecountries, In conclusion,mediaassistanceprogrammes intheFSUhavehadatremendously • • • • • improved mutualunderstandingandprogress. that couldbeexchangedbetweenbroadcasters, andleadtogenuinely production, withreal televisionandradioproducts asanendresult, projects havebeentheoneswhichcontainedelementsofactual seminars andtraining,whereas someofthe bestandmostpopular and regions. Mediaassistanceprogrammes haveoftenfocusedon order tofostergoodpracticetransferbetweenneighbouringcountries More inter-regional andcross-boarder projects needtobedevelopedin Greater attentionshouldbepaidtoculturaldifferences andtraditions; atwell-knowngloballyrecognised mediacompanies; management internships The numberofforeign exchangeprojects shouldbeincreased, with idealistic ratherthanpracticalinnature; major mediabusiness,withtheconsequencethatprojects were sometimes have beensometimestoodivorced from thereal economicaspectsof NGOs assistance. Partoftheproblem intheFSUwas thatinternational foreign NGOstohelp,shouldbebrought intotheprocess ofmedia and Western mediacompaniesandassociations-aswellinternational media companies,networkingandproduction exchangeprogrammes; common goalsforeditorialindependence,greater cooperationbetween ones too,inorder toensure thecreation ofamore evenplayingfield, Support shouldbegivennotjusttonewmediacompanies,butstate own environments; leadership andleaderscapableofinfluencingthesituationintheir 138 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 139 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences civil defamationsuitsagainst in SoutheastAsia Media Independence Staying Alive: regularly filedcriminaland Thaksin's governmenthave I h atyas cabinet thepastyears, “In and newspapersfree a numberof Thai editors business partnersofthe members andaffiliated media advocates.” Kavi Chongkittavorn needed assurancethatthe paper wouldcontinuetooperateasfreely asbefore. that thecompanywouldreduce itsshares to22.43percent andgavemuch announced thatGrammyhad already struckacompromise withMathichonand game wasover. Atapress conference, Paiboon’s brother, SumethDamrongchaitham, Mathichon operatefreely withoutanyinterference. By5.00pm thesameday, the Dr. DaruneeHirunrak, made apersonalappealtoPaiboonpullbackandlet for thepublishertofighttakeover. Even Paiboon’s respected universitylecturer, holders cameforward andpledgedtoprovide loansandmaketheirshares available questioning Paiboon’s motiveinthishostilebid.BankersandMathichon’s share- steppedupthepressureintelligentsia andjournalists byjointlyissuing statements to flowers organizations and Grammybeganamidgrowing publicresentments. Mediaprofessional By Tuesday noon,hecticrenegotiations betweenrepresentatives ofMathichon controversy asGrammyhadahugeinvestmentinthepaper. motivated. Onenewspaperthough,theDailyNews,wascompletelyblindto editorials universallycondemningthehostiletakeoverasimmoralandpolitically- allprintmedia,bothEnglishandThai,published building. Thenextmorning, show support.Otherswearingblackt-shirtslaidwrathsinfront ofGrammy’s organizations andconsumergroups marched toMathichon’s headquartersto hours,civilsociety its artistsifthecompanydidnotpulloutfrom thedeal.Within students were packedwiththreatening words toboycottGrammy products and bulletin boards were jammedwithcondemnations and SMSamonguniversity public outrageandgeneratedinstantsupportforthebeleaguered daily. Internet language newspaperinafewdays.Hisannouncementimmediatelycaused and wasplanningtotakeoverthecountry’s mostrespected 27-yearoldThai Grammy Plc,announcedthathehadacquired 32.43percentof Machichon press. HomeentertainmenttycoonPaiboonDamrongchaitham, CEOofGMM At 9.40amonMonday12September2005,anearthquakeshooktheThai Chairperson, SoutheastAsianPressAlliance Mathichon’s editorialstaffers. media activists, ByWednesday morning, held discussiongroups andendedtheirmeetingswithbouquetsof , Editor, TheNation, 19 September2006coupbytheThaiMilitary. author is still very muchvalidasananalysisof author isstillvery and ofthedominanttrendsinThailanditself. the overallmediasituationinSouthEastAsia after thecoup,situationformedia At thetimeofgoingtopresstwoweeks We havedecided,therefore,tokeepthe However, theoverallcontributionby This articlewaswrittenpriortothe author's contributionintact. in Thailandremainsunclear. Editor's Note STRUGGLE FORANINDEPENDENTPRESS as gullibleandignorant “The “The Thai publicwasnot one wouldhavethought. and responsiblepress.” It didcareaboutgood Corp Group, whichbelongedtotheThaksin family, sued SupinyaKlangnarong, Post foranotherstoryrelated totheairport’s construction.InJune2004,theShin Shinwatra, Thaksin’s youngsister, filedcriminaland civil lawsuitsagainsttheThai condition ofthenewSuvannabhum Airport.Inthesamemonth,Yaowaret defamation foronebillionbaht orUS$25millionforfalselyreported aboutthe agenciessuedtheBangkokPostforcriminal August 2005,twogovernment against anumberofThaieditorsandnewspapers free mediaadvocates.In Thaksin’s haveregularly filedcriminalandcivildefamationsuits government In thepastyears,cabinetmembersandaffiliated businesspartnersofthe speech urginghimtobemore opentocriticism. in Decembercitingtherecommendations byHMtheKingduringhisbirthday’s Severalweekslater,lawsuit againstajournalist. hesubsequentlywithdrew thecase monarchy intheirTVcurrent affair program. ItwasthefirsttimeThaksinfiled a becausetheyrepeatedly accusedhimofbeingdisloyaltothe Porn-udomsak that hefiledcriminalandcivillawsuitsagainstSondhihisco-hostSarocha demanded 500millionbahtorUS$12.5indamages.Thaksinpointedout andThaiDay, SondhiLimthongkul,publisherofPhujadkarn journalist, and Prime MinisterThaksinShinawatrafiledtwodefamationsuitsagainstaveteran continues tofacemountingpressure On3October2005, from thegovernment. But thestruggleforindependentpress inThailandhasjustbegun.TheThaipress political uncertaintiesandincreased statecontrol. free mediathatrepresents especiallyatatimeof theirvoicesandconcerns, showed thatausuallybenignpublicwaswillingtofightforindependentand people hadneverfoughtforpress freedom before. Suchunpredictable outbursts would havethought.Itdidcare aboutgoodandresponsible press. Afterall, catalyst tohaltahostilebid.TheThaipublicwasnotgullibleandignorantasone Itwasthefirsttimepublicsupportservedas benchmark forThaijournalism. blocked Grammy’s purchase andsavedthepaper. Assuch,itsetforthanew support from thegeneralpublic andcivilsocietyorganizationshasliterally event thathasunitedthepress andpublicsectors.Combinedpressure andsolid Albeit abrieftussle,theattemptedhostiletakeoverofMathichonwashistoric ofPrimeMinisterThaksinShinawatraandhisoverallpolicies. government integrity. Heremoved twoeditorsin2004and2005,whowere criticalofthe Post’s executivedirector, notrenowned forpromoting press freedom andmedia rather conservativeoutlookaswelltheattitudeofSuthikiartChirathiwat, independence. Thisdevelopmentisextremely remarkable consideringthePost’s pledge inapress conference thattheeditorialstaff wouldbeallowedfull top editorialstaff. Inresponse, thePost’s publisherandCEOsmadeapublic House tostageademonstrationanddemandedsayintheappointmentof an openmanner. ThePost’s alsowent toGovernment editorsandjournalists independence. Itwasaratherunusualstepthatsuchguaranteebeaskedin Post,abouttheneedtoreaffirmof HongKongbasedSouthChinaMorning editorial staff decided towritetheirmanagementboards, includingRobertKwok,owner Post’s strong independentreporting. outsidesupport,thePost’s With editorial advocacy groups thatthetakeoverwouldaffect expressed the seriousconcerns and commotionthanMathichon’s share acquisitions,thepublicandfree media country’s oldestEnglishlanguagenewspaper. Althoughitcausedlessresentment 23.4 percentshares oftheBangkokPostPlc,publisherPost, On thedaytakeoverofMathichonwasannounced,Paiboonhadalsobought 140 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 141 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences FREE MEDIAINSOUTHEASTASIA Freedom HouselastMay Asia didnothaveany showed thatSoutheast “A surveydoneby remda except free media, in 194countries New York-based ‘partly free’and ‘not freemedia’ categories.” most interactive butcouldbedangerous anddefamatory. Finally, withnearly50 rumors forfactsandother forms ofsensationalism.Electronic mediaisoneofthe encompassing, althoughnot perfectasmanyFilipinotabloidscontinuetoprint The Filipinomediaremains theregion’s freest andmostversatileaswellall enjoyed free media--Indonesiasince 1998andCambodiasince1992. region asnew comersjoiningthefree mediaworld.Onlyrecently havethey Indonesia andCambodia.Thelattertworepresent thebiggestchangein grouped intofourgroups: Firstis thefree mediacountrysuchasthePhilippines, Using localandregional valuesandnorms, theSoutheastAsianmediacanbe 2005 and107thin2006.In2000,Thailandwasranked 29thinasimilarsurvey. for thepoorscoring.Thailand’s press freedom fellfrom 90thin2004to95th killedwere responsiblemedia ownershipandthehighnumbersofFilipinojournalists former’ rapiddeteriorationofpress freedom andthelatter’s tightercontrol of in ThailandandthePhilippineswere included inthe"partlyfree" category. The and"notfree media"categories.Theregion’s freest media except "partlyfree" last Mayin194countriesshowedthatSoutheastAsiadidnothaveanyfree media, independence ineachcountry. AsurveydonebyNewYork-based Freedom House vately-run. Regionalmediaalsovariesgreatly dependingonmediaqualityand orpri- media anditsindependence.Theisusuallygovernment-controlled Christian countryinAsia.Thesediversitiesare reflected intheregion’s qualityof combining Thailand,Laos,CambodiaandBurma.ThePhilippineisalsoamajor Islamic country-Indonesiaaswelltheworld’s largestBuddhistcommunities socialism tocapitalistautocracies.Theregion alsohousestheworld’s largest from guidedandhighlyregulated tofree foralldemocraciesandfrom despotic It isaminiature ofglobalpolitics-from absolutetoconstitutionalmonarchies, Southeast Asiaisaverydiverseregion intermsofpolitics,economic andreligion. ridiculously highamountoffinancialpayouts. demanding media, aswellfilingdefamationlawsuitsagainstjournalists financial measures tocontrol mediaownership,anti-press legislationstocow skillful inmuzzlingfreedom ofexpression usingsophisticatedmeansincluding semi -free media,press freedom is atrisk.Nowadayspowerwieldersare very Throughout SoutheastAsia,especiallyinthecountrieswhichhavefree or not bethelasttofaceanewformofmediaintimidationandcontrol. prey onMathichonagainorpurchase othermediaoutlets.Indeed,thedailywill will usethetyrannyofmarketmechanismandexcesscapitalsinfuture, to against thehostilebidcouldbeshort-livedbecauseGrammyGroup canand that thesedevelopmentsandtheirsignificancebeunderstood.Thepaper’s triumph reporting officials andthecountry’s ongovernment press freedom. Itisimperative favourable rulingforthePrimeMinistercouldhavedire consequencesforfuture on freedom ofexpression inthecountry. InthecaseofThaksin’s lawsuits,any have toconfront inthefuture. Eachlegaloutcomewillhavedirect bearing defamation casesinThailandreveal thekindofchallengesThaimediawill Mathichon’s dramaticstruggleforsurvivalandtheincreased numberof sister business,thebusinessdailyPrachachatTurakij. against Mathichonandafive-billionbahtorUS$225millionsuitits family membersofformerdeputycommerce ministerSuriyaLapwisuthisin, the 10billionbahtorUS$450millionfiledbyPicnicCorporation,owned by Singapore’s Temasak Holdings.Otherhigh-profile defamationsuitsincluding interesting tonotethatShinCorpGroup waspurchased on27January2006 a free mediaadvocate,for400millionbahtorUS$10indamages.Itis PARTLY FREEMEDIAINSOUTHEASTASIA delay informationdisclosure instead ofencouragingit. though theaccesstoinformation lawisabusedandusedasaninstrumentto country’s decisionmakingprocess andpromote civilparticipation.Currently communities. Theywanted to beinformedcitizensandparticipateinthe offices throughout thecountry toobtaininformationrelated totheirvillagesor to informationlaw. TheThaiswere overwhelmedandpoured intogovernment In 1997ThailandwasthefirstcountryinSoutheastAsia toenacttheaccess which willstartinlater2006,needtamedandcontrolled mediatosucceed. populist policiesincludingtheimplementationof41-billion-dollar megaprojects, These strategiesensure thatdissentingviewsare systematicallymuffled. Thaksin’s newsandinformation. and othereconomicincentivesaccesstogovernment the mediacommunitythrough stockacquisitions,targetadvertisingallocations hasefficiently divided watchdog. Inthepastfiveyears,Thaksingovernment On thewholeThaimediaisstillfree butit nolongeractsasaneffective freest press ofPrimeMinisterThaksinShinawatra. before thegovernment Thailand, nowratedasa"partlyfree media"countryusedtoboast theregion’s corruption etc. to fightagainstanti-free medialegislations,promote theircampaignagainst hasweakenedtheirbargainingpower and solidarityamongCambodianjournalists in total,are tryingtoprotect andpromote freedom ofexpression. Lackoffunding quite frequently especiallyduringelectiontime.Professional mediaassociations,six haveoccurred opted mediaandtamedthem.Intimidationkillingofjournalists which hasbeenunderPrimeMinisterHunSensince1992,successfullyco- well asinstitutions.Cambodianmediaisgenerallyveryfierce butthegovernment, role inadministratingtheoncewar-torn countryandinstilleddemocraticvalueas They havebeeneagerandveryseriouswithmediafreedom. TheUNplayedakey havegonethrough trialsanderrorsjournalists inexercising freedom of expression. The Cambodianpress hascomealongway. Overthepastdecade,Cambodian country andtheASEANregion. his government’s policytopromote free press anddemocratizationbothinhis Assembly. IndonesianPresident SusiloBambangYudhoyono hasalsoreaffirmed The drafthasbeencompletedandiscurrently upforthevoteinNational the secondcountryinSoutheastAsiatoadoptanaccessinformationlaw. ethical trainingtoimprove qualityandprofessionalism. SoonIndonesiawillbe stillneedfundamentalmediaand Despite theirgoodworkthough,journalists has nothappenedthankstotheconductofIndonesianjournalists. disenchantments withpolitics,democracyandeconomichardship. Sofar, this the mediaandsubsequentlypolarizesocietybyreporting onissuesrelated to There were fearsoriginallythatfundamentalIslamicpoliticalgroups woulduse play inpromoting andraiseawareness ofmoderateIslamanddemocracy. As theworld’s largestIslamiccountry, Indonesia’s free mediahasacrucialrole to increased publicawareness aboutnationalpoliticalandeconomicconditions. free toproduce almostanykindofpoliticalinformation.Suchmediafreedom has workingtoday.journalists Inthepastfiveyears,Indonesianmediahasbeen since 1998afterthedeparture ofPresident Suhartowithatotalof35,000 estimated thatnearly2,000newdailiesand900radiostationsemerged In Indonesia,independentmediaisboomingbutqualityremains anissue.Itis most dangerous placetoworkforjournalists. killedinthepasttenyears,Philippinesremains oneoftheworld’sjournalists 142 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 143 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences REFERENCES FORCONCLUSION THE HAVES ANDHAVE NOTS and wisdomsare imperativetoensure relevancy andacceptability. each individualcountry, mustbecarefully mappedout.Using local mediaresources environments, long-termoutreach programs, specific totheuniqueconditionsof press intheblinkofaneye.To promote freedom ofexpression incontrolled media takeovers byvestedinterest groups, whichcanusurpadecade oldhistoryoffree is aprerequisite. Ways must befoundtoprevent independentmediafrom corporate press inThailandandthePhilippines,economicviabilitybettermanagement standard ofprofessionalism inthesecountries.To sustainthelevelofindependent independent mediaorganizationscouldstrengthen mediasolidarityandraisethe understand mediaethicsandgoodwritingare muchneeded.Betterorganized press who proliferates inIndonesiaandCambodia,bettertrainedjournalists Quality andindependenceinSoutheastAsianmediais highlyuneven.Asfree mediaadvocacygroups.in undisclosedlocationsfundedbyWestern insideBurmareceive mediatrainingclandestinely dozens ofBurmesejournalists others intheregion foralert,informationexchange andsolidarity. Eachyearseveral inexile needtonetworkwith knowledge ofworldaffairs. Burmesejournalists aswell donors andfoundations.Theyare beingtaughtaboutjournalism inexilehavebeenreceiving on-thejobtrainingfromof Burma,journalists various such asBBC,CNNandRadioFree Asia.To prepare forthefuture democratization from insidetheborder. newsagencies Someofthemfindjobswithinternational for variousnewsoutletsandliveinThailand.TheyfollowBurmesedevelopments scattered alongtheThai-BurmeseborderBurmese journalists andChiang Mai,work to writingorbroadcasting. Onlystatemediacarriesdaytonews.About90 Burma isthemostextreme enjoynofreedom casewhere withregards journalists pivotal aspartofthenational-buildingprocess. local mediathatisquitetamedandpassive.Sotheinthesecountries departments. Brunei,withitspoliticalsystemofabsolutemonarchy possessesa orpropaganda guidelines.Allviewsare sanctionedbythegovernment government writeandpresent newsfollowing Journalists Brunei, Burma,LaosandVietnam. The fourthgroup isthemediaservingas government’s mouthpiecein Malaysiakini planstolaunchabroadband regional TVcalled247News. repeatedly pledgednottocensorinformationincyberspace.In2006, to lure foreign has investorsinthishighlycompetitivearea, thegovernment loopholes inthegovernment’s informationandcommunicationtechnologypolicies: country. region’s firstonlinenewspaper, itistheonlyindependentnewssource inthe withtheexceptionofMalaysiakiniinKualaLumpur.by thegovernment, Asthe In Malaysiaforinstance,mostofwhatispublishedorbroadcasted issanctioned someone closedtotheleadersinpower. tries are well-paidandtheireditorsare appointedeitherbytherulingpartiesor ruling party’s inbothcoun- mustbeavoided.Journalists reputation andgovernance party andstrengthens sectors.Anynewsthatincreases thelegitimacyofruling ance bygovernment trade canbereported quitefreely, especiallyifpositiveontheeconomicperform- Self -censorshipisthenorm. mustbetreatedIssues considered carefully. sensitivetothegovernment The third group is"controlled media"asinSingapore andMalaysia. Set upin1999Malaysiakinihassuccessfullyusedandexploitedexisting its gripsiswelcome. Other non-politicalissuessuchaseconomicand Any newsdeemeddetrimentaltothe Uzbekistan afterAndijan Challenging Environments: Media Developmentin or Londonwaslittlevalue to apersonuponreturn free societiesofNew York authoritarian Tashkent.” article forapaperinthe “Knowing howtogather “Knowing information andwritea good English-language http://www.rferl.org/specials/uzbek_unres http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/c A chronology ofharassmentoatRFE/RLisat: http://www.iwpr.net/index.pl?archive/rca See “Uzbek Government ExertingPressureSee “UzbekGovernment Also, “Hard Times forUzbekCharities”, Also, “Hard Times http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacif- 26 25 ivilsociety/articles/eav100405.shtml. on LocalNGOstoClose‘Voluntarily’“ “‘Harassed’ BBCshutsUzbekoffice”, The regime’s campaignagainstNGOs media developmentNGOsaswell. EurasiaNet, 4October2005at: Reporting CentralAsia(IWPR), post-Andijan extendsbeyond t/Uzbek-harass-chron.pdf 2/rca2_413_2_eng.txt 1 October2005,at: ic/4380166.stm continued persecution ofitsemployeesby theauthorities. news gatheringoperations in Uzbekistanandwithdrawingalllocalstaff after amongst many, theBBCannouncedon26 October2005itwassuspendingits and Ferghana.ru,aswell localstaff ofNGOs,suchasIWPR. CNN, RadioFree Europe/Radio Liberty(RFE/RL),AssociatedPress, DeutscheWelle, international both development inparticularexpandedintoopendenunciations ofjournalists, After that,astheregime’s ongoingparanoiaaboutthemedia, unarmed civiliandemonstratorskillinghundreds, perhapsevenonethousand. Andijan massacre of13May2005,whenstatesecurityforces fired onmostly This dangerous extremely anddifficult toxicfollowingthe mixturned UN SpecialRapporteuronTorture. copiously documentedbyhumanrightsgroups andlabeled risk ofbeingtakenintocustodybythesecurityservices, where torture hasbeen development efforts inthecountry. Andneverfarfrom anyone’s mindwasthe by securityservicesagainstlocalNGOstaff were aregular feature ofmedia that theregime putontheseorganizations.Indirect andnotsoindirect threats state registration andre -registration were onlyonesmallpartofthepressure their localrepresentatives were findingitincreasingly tough.Requirements for Uzbekistan wasnevereasy:overthelastfiveyearsinparticular, theseNGOsand strong sources. donorsupportfrom Working awidevarietyofinternational inside andothersinvolvedintheregion formanyyearsthanksto (IWPR), Internews mediaNGOssuchastheInstituteforWarwith international and PeaceReporting training,havebothreceived someattentioninUzbekistanthepast, journalism The twokeyaspectsofmediadevelopment,infrastructure improvement and deteriorating situation communitymakesawell-fundedandconcertedresponse to a if theinternational A closelookattheopportunitiesthere demonstrates justwhatmightbeachievable and freedom ofinformationprojects are stillpossiblefortheCentralAsianstate. Though increasingly difficult toimplementontheground, mediadevelopment and democracyinthecountry. require asetofspecificstrategies tohelpsupportthefuture developmentofmedia forgotten. OnesuchspecificchallengeistheRepublicofUzbekistan,whichwill media assistance.However, thesecountries andtheirpopulationsshouldnotbe Korea, althoughallpresenting different scenarios,posetoughchallengesregarding severely restricted. AuthoritariancountriessuchasUzbekistan, BurmaandNorth In theharshestauthoritarianstates,scopeformediadevelopmentworkis Andrew Stroehlein, correspondents andlocalstaff ofmajoroutlets suchasARD,BBC, Media Director, theInternationalCrisisGroup 26 "systematic" 25 NGOs andmedia As anexample by the 144 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 145 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences BOOSTING JOURNALISMTRAININGBYANDFORCENTRALASIANS CREATING STAND-BY NEWSPAPER INFRASTRUCTURE prospects arenotas obstacles aremany and thedangersto hopeless asitmay tf r ra,the staff aregreat, “But althoughthe “But independent printingpress, set upinBishkek first appear.” Freedom House The USEmbassyinBishkekalsoprovided the U.S.StateDepartment’s Bureau of in November2003withfundingfrom Democracy, HumanRights &Labor. 27 generators whenpublicelectricity The democracy-promotion supplies proved inconsistent. was responsible forthe NGO Kyrgyzstan evenwhenofficial channelswere blocked, independent printingpress, whichproved effective indisseminatinginformation lishing anddistributioncapacityseemsimpossibleatthistime.Thefundingofan Developing mediatechnologyontheground toupdatethecountry’s decrepit pub- information needsofatransformingcountry. andeffective mediainfrastructurejournalists canrespond quicklytomeetthe to bemadenow, sothatwhensocietydoesopenupagain,skilled,responsible gone tocreate professional institutionsinstantlyfrom scratch.Preparations need and thenbeexpectedtosomehowresurrect themselveswhentheregime is As withothersectorsoftheeconomy, mediacannotbelefttowitheranddie the country-inexpectationoffuture changetoamore reasonable government. integrity-nottomentionprovide independentinformationtoandabout journalistic implement, are creative solutionsmustbefound.Whatisneeded,andwhatstillpossible to impossible insidethecountry, andyettheneedhasclearlyneverbeengreater, so In suchanatmosphere, conventionalmediadevelopmentprojects are verynearly This is no longer the case. After many years of training journalists and This isnolongerthecase.Aftermanyyearsoftraining journalists region made itnecessary. trainersinthe andjournalism problems, butadearthofhigh-qualityjournalists T Tashkent. York toauthoritarian orLondonwaslittlevaluetoapersonuponreturn and writeagoodEnglishlanguagearticleforpaperinthefree societiesofNew and inapplicableintheCentralAsiancontext.Knowinghowtogatherinformation importantly, bythefactthatitrelated experiencesthatwere whollyinappropriate Training intheWest wasalwayscomplicatedbylanguageissues,and,more Both haveseentheirday. journalists. workshops intheregion ledbywestern has focusedonclassworkand-thejobtraininginWest as welltraining but newapproaches traininginCentralAsia are needed.Inthepast,journalism Lifeboat strategiesforUzbekmediacanincludetrainingjournalists, time possiblegiventechnicalconstraints. advantage ofanynewpoliticalfluxtoestablishasmalldailypaperintheshortest to roll capability – to – quickly aspossible.Thegoalshouldbetohaveaready create newnewsgatheringanddistributionnetworksthroughout thecountryas to break undertheregime. lishment ofsuchaprintingpress forimmediatedeploymentwhentheicestarts Uzbekistan today. Butpreparations canandshouldbemadefortherapidestab- to imagine. The exchange of experiences between journalists from differentto imagine.The exchangeofexperiences betweenjournalists in theregion finddifficult –oftentimesproblems even journalists thatWestern face these experiencedCentralAsians havedealtwiththeproblems journalists muchmore fromlearn because themthantheywouldfrom journalist, aWestern can they canprovide instructioninlocallanguages.Ingeneral, youngjournalists trainers,bothforon- the-jobtrainingandclassroom training,and journalism Uzbekistan), whohaveyearsofreporting behindthemandexperienceas Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan andUzbekistan(mostlynowlivingoutside training.There from aredomestic capacityforjournalism talentedjournalists the trainers" raining by Westerners inCentralAsiancapitalsalsosufferedraining byWesterners from similar projects NGOs,theregion byWestern hasareasonably strong " lifeboat strategies", Hand inhandwiththis,aplanshouldbedevelopedto projects thatcanmaintainmediaskillsand 27 sceryntfail in is clearlynotfeasible " training take countries in the region is particularly useful: learning how to handle political 28 pressure or obstructive officials, for example. International donors should support the establishment of an independent journalism training centre for the region. The trainers and lecturers should be experienced Central Asian journalists who ideally teach only part-time so their practical skills aren’t dulled. The centre should develop special efforts to reach out to Uzbekistan’s journalists with both short-term training programs and longer term in-residence possibilities for teachers and students to improve their skills outside of the country.

FREEDOM OF INFORMATION PROJECTS AND A CENTRAL ASIAN NEWS AGENCY

After the Andijan massacre and the crackdown on journalists and media support NGOs that followed, news gathering and reporting went from extremely difficult to nearly impossible. About the only independent sources of news Uzbekistan’s citizens can access are via the Internet and by shortwave radio broadcast. These outlets need to carry on their work, but more avenues to information need to be opened up. The case for a new Central Asian news agency is strong. As of early 2006, there were only two US-funded projects to establish regional news agencies, one with IWPR and one with Internews. The latter project, called "Newsfactory", is more agency - like in its extensive reach to small media outlets in towns throughout Kazakhstan. It should be expanded to take in other countries in the region, especially Uzbekistan, though not by working with existing Uzbek media outlets, as it does in Kazakhstan. The Uzbek outlets are simply too closely controlled by the regime to provide objective reporting or any potential for publishing outside material. A network of anonymous correspondents across Uzbekistan should be created, with editors in Almaty or Bishkek coordinating their reports and protecting their identity. These reports can be entered into the agency system and thus offer regional media access to independent daily reports from across Uzbekistan. Getting the reports back into Uzbekistan will be difficult. They could enter existing systems online, on shortwave radio, and on broadcast outlets in neighbouring countries, which many Uzbekistan citizens can easily access. But more distribution routes are needed. NEW FM RADIO STATIONS

FM broadcasts in Uzbek from radio stations just over the border in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan would reach the largest number of Uzbekistan’s citizens. Although it may increase friction between Tashkent and its neighbours, if political reluctance in Astana and Bishkek can be overcome, the potential for large audiences and real-time reporting makes FM radio the most effective medium.

SMALL-SCALE NEWSPAPERS FOR UZBEKISTAN’S MIGRANTS AND TRADERS

Newspapers printed abroad and distributed to shuttle traders on the borders and to migrant workers, in neighbouring countries (Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan) and in Russia, would reach important audiences with information not tightly controlled by Tashkent. People may find them too dangerous to bring into Uzbekistan, but they would be passed around in border towns outside Uzbekistan, and the stories will be carried into 28 For further discussion of the benefits of involving locals as journalism trainers Uzbekistan in the memories of the readers. The target audiences will come to rely in the region see Kuban Mambetaliev, “Donor Policies in Support of the Mass on these new newspapers more quickly if they report not only news items but also Media in Central Asia”, a paper delivered business information professionally useful for these economically active groups. at the International Donors Policy Forum on

Media Development in London, UK, SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences MEDIA MATTERS 13-14 October 2005. There is certainly more scope for online news aimed at Uzbekistan. True, Internet 146 147 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences JOURNALIST PROTECTIONFUND UNDERGROUND NEWSGATHERING PROJECTS EXPANDING ONLINENEWS soon completeitsextensivereport onthe 29 The openNetInitiativeshould Internet inUzbekistan Internet course, would be of little value for journalists whocross theauthoritiesin course, wouldbeoflittlevalue forjournalists freedom worldwide.Fundingforlegal defenceitselfinthestrictestsense,of into theestablishmentofa legal defencefundforlitigationinsupportofmedia support inothercrucialways. TheOpenSocietyInstitute(OSI)hasbeenlooking communitycanprovidedevelopment oftheseother projects, theinternational Apart from helpingtofinance theexpansionofnewsagencyandfurther workingfrom safetyabroadso journalists canthenaskcontroversial questions. fixers whoidentifypotentialsources andpassphonenumberstotheireditors, some casesandforstories,correspondents ontheground mayonlyactas can beundertakenbyotherwriters,whoare locatedoutsidethecountry. In Questioning ofofficial sources asaway oftryingtoensure balanceandobjectivity indeed, inmanyinstances,withinterviewees. notevenwithcolleaguesor can neverbeopenabouttheirworkasjournalists, appropriate cover-jobsthathelpthemgainaccesstousefulsources, andthey legal registration andnoaccreditation. Anonymouscorrespondents musthave their correspondents, whoessentiallyworkunderground withnoopenoffice, no irreplaceable. Editorsmusttakeallmeasures possibletoprotect theidentityof and activistswhoare willingtotakethatrisk,andthevalueoftheirreports is and ethicalproblems. Therisksare great, butthere are numerous journalists tocollectinformationinsideUzbekistanpresents seriouspractical Asking journalists advice onavoidingthecensorsinChinatoaddUzbekistanasafocuscountry. China’s, itwouldbebeneficialforgroups thathavetakenaninterest inproviding their abilitytoblockoutsidewebsitesdoesn’t seemtobenearlyascomprehensive as sites.Though down andthreatening localwebsitesandblockingcertainexternal censorship, closing The Uzbekregime hasbeenveryactivelyengagedin Internet donors. by havingthatparticularmaterialunderwritteninternational project, asproposed above,couldoffer itsUzbekmaterialonlineforfree, possibly - TASS andRIANovosti)onKyrgyzstan’s AKIPress. Anexpandednewsagency sources, withaheavyreliance onstatenewsagencies(especiallythe Russian ITAR correspondents, ittakesmuchofitsinformationonUzbekistanfrom other providing adailyservice,butwithoutresources foranexpandednetworkof service aboutUzbekistanforUzbekcitizens.Ferghana.ruhascomeclosestto None oftheaboveprovide adedicateddailynews of independentjournalism. Uzbekistan more thanreport from withinthecountryitself,anditisnotasource Uzbek andRussian,butittendstocoverwhattheoutsideworldissayingabout but again,harassmentofbothhasbeenfierce. Tribune -uz.infohasmaterialin websites ofRFE/RLandBBCWorld ServicedelivernewsinUzbek, each canonlyproduce ahandfulofstoriesaboutUzbekistaneverymonth.The first twowithsignificantRussian-languageoutput),buttheyhavelimitedcapacity: IWPR, Transitions Onlineandotherspublishexcellentweb-basedmaterial(the anyone likelytoplayadecision-makingrole EurasiaNet, in afuture government. influential access islimitedwithinthecountry, butonlinereports are read bythemost and besteducated-boththoseinthecurrent regime and,presumably, 29 SATELLITE TV LOWER THELIFEBOATS details oftheAndijanmassacre from first-handaccounts.Ifnoonemaintains the thattheworldlearned if from exile.Infact,itisthankstothese journalists whoareproduced nowprepared ablejournalists tocarryonthattradition,even late 1990sandearlyyearsof thisdecade,whichhavelaidthegroundwork and country hasbenefitedfrom asmallwave ofmediadevelopmentprojects inthe the world,andUzbekistandoeshavesomethingofan advantagebecausethe Of course,notalloftheseprojects wouldbepossibleforallsuch statesaround professionalism andfreedom ofinformation. state, andthere are anumberofveryreal opportunitiestopromote journalistic from acareful analysisisthatlimitedopeningsdoexisteveninahighly authoritarian are great, theprospects are notashopelessitmayfirstappear. Whatemerges support projects. Butalthoughtheobstaclesare manyandthedangerstostaff be bettertowaituntilpoliticalchangespresent widerscopefordemocracy Uzbekistan couldalltooeasilyleadtodespairandafeeling thatitmightsimply As withtoomanyrepressive regimes around theworld,situationin small-scale grants. donor withbothexcellentregional knowledgeandanabilitytohandlenumerous require additional finances,whichwouldbebestdispersedthrough a middle-man come from activistsorproduction freelance companies,butthiswill journalists, Kyrgyzstan, andperhapselsewhere outsideUzbekistan.Suchmaterialcould independent TVcontentinthefreer CentralAsianstatesofKazakhstan and more of exchange. Whatisneededfundingforthedevelopmentandproduction material, there isadangerthenewsatellite stationwilllookmore likeapropaganda are controlled bystateorstate-friendlyowners,sowithoutindependentlyproduced face asevere shortageofindependentcontent.Thepartnerstationsintheregion Unfortunately, whilethetechnicalaspectsare comingtogether, thestationwill potential forthespread ofinformation. the region. Itisanambitiousandsomewhatcostlyproject, butithasimpressive project, actasacontentexchangehubbetweendifferent existingTVoutletsin via satellitedirect toCentralAsianhomes,thisnewstationwould,liketheagency station tobroadcast primarilyinRussiantoCentralAsia.Inadditionbroadcasting ishatchinganewsatellite fundingfrom USAID,Internews to Uzbekistan.With that wouldbenefitfrom expansion,additionaloutsidesupportandextraattention A region-wide satellitetelevisionstationisanotherproject already inthepipeline be, donorswillhavetohelpboostresources protection. forjournalist emergency fundstodoso.Ifunderground reporting isexpandedasitshould inexile,butithadtodedicateasubstantialportionofitsglobal journalists financial resources are extremely limited.In2005,CPJworkedwitheightUzbek (CPJ),areto Protect tryingtomeettheseneeds,buttheirhumanand Journalists groups, suchastheCommittee journalism an Uzbekprison.Someinternational undercover newsgatheringproject hasaretirement optionotherthantorture in runningintotrouble asaresultessential thatanyjournalist ofworkingwithan protectionWhat isalsosorely fund.Itis neededforUzbekistanisa journalist Human RightsCommissioninvolvingtheclosure ofmediaoutletsinUzbekistan. of repressive regimes. There are, forexample,afewcasespendingbefore theUN attentiontothecrimes fora,whichcanbringinternational cases ininternational Uzbekistan. ButpartofOSI’s project wouldinvolvesupportingmediafreedom 148 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 149 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences inevitably headed. that willhelpsocietiesrideouttherough waterstoward whichtheyseem policy makersoughttoactivelyandgenerously pursuethelifeboatstrategies respond torapidlychangingevents.Ratherthanlamentalackof opportunities, communityastheyattemptto decision -makingamongtheinternational both forheightenedchaosandviolencedomestically, andforill-informed quick -responding, experienced,balancedreporting ontheground isarecipe when adespoticsystemfinallyunravels.Adramaticpoliticalupheavalwithout of informationandskilledmediaprofessionals can alsohelpcushiontheblow Apart from maintainingatleastsomecheckontheexercise ofpower, freedom to report thenextmassacre. these mediadevelopmentefforts, there isunlikelytobeanyoneontheground esgs Avacuumhasbeen messages. this vacuumwillbecaptured voices ofreligiousintolerance the proliferationofmoderate that theabruptphase-outof ulcshr.Theplatforms public sphere. r olne ucinn.It are nolongerfunctioning. that werebalancingoutthe remains tobeseenwhether broadcast sectorislimiting emergence ofacommercial EARTHQUAKE ZONES. LESSONS FROMPAKISTAN’S IN THEPUBLICSPHERE: CRISIS ANDOPPORTUNITY THE INFORMATION GAP eetmnh,hwvr is however, recent months, created insidetheregion's “Our mostvividlessonof “Our the absenceofaparallel emergency stationsin by extremistvoices.” of radiosetsand virtuallyallTVsetswere destroyed bytheearthquake. households hadaradioand 52%hadtelevisionsets.Ofthese,three -quarters worst-hit cities.According tothesurvey, before theearthquakeabout81%of Muzaffarabad, BaghandRawalakotinKashmir. Thesewere generallythe weeks aftertheearthquake inBatagram,BalakotandMansehraNWFP, and conductedasnapshotsurveytwo media assistanceorganization,Internews, To gaugethestateofinformationaccess, thePakistanoffice oftheinternational was going,whattodoorhowgethelp. those affected -atleast3.5millionpeoplehadnomeansoffindingoutwhat news aboutthecalamityanditsimpactwasgoingout totheworldatlarge,but local newsgenerationcametoahalt.Thedisasterpresented theclassicparadox: quake: 40ofits160staff were killed,anditsbuildingswrecked. Thebusinessof information -thestate-runKashmirRadioandTVwassilencedbyearth- and newspaperoffices andpress clubswere destroyed. Theonlysource ofmass trolled mediainaffected were areas. killedorwentmissing, Dozensofjournalists Nevertheless, theearthquakehadadevastatingimpactonlocalstate-con- instituted byIslamabadinlate2002,hadlargelybypassedKashmir. open mediapolicyallowingforprivateownershipoftheairwavesinPakistan, and stillare, printedoutsidethestate,mostlyinRawalpindiandIslamabad.An through thestate-ownedAJKRadioandTV. Even"local"newspaperswere, independent localbroadcast mediawere bannedandinformationtightlycontrolled One oftheuntoldstoriesdisasteristhatquakehitaregion inwhich of Pakistan-administered KashmirandNorthWest Frontier Province (NWFP) The earthquakeof7.2magnitudeontheRichterScaledevastatedlargeswathes injuries and3.5millionwere displaced,according toofficial estimates. died -including30,000children inclassrooms -more than100,000sustained When Pakistan'sworstnaturaldisasterstruckonOctober8,2005,over80,000 Adnan Rehmat, Chairman, Intermedia 150 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 151 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE EMERGENCEOFEMERGENCYBROADCASTMEDIA http://www.reliefmedia.org.pk 30 For more informationsee The follow-upsurveyalsorevealed thatmore peoplewere consumingmore media. stations onairatthetimeof thesurveyastheirstationofchoice. up to70%,andrespondents mentioned atleastoneofthesevenemergencyradio one oftheirprimarysources ofinformation.Inthefollow-upsurvey, thishadgone initial become amajorsource ofindependent,reliable andusefulinformation. Inthe follow -up.Thisshowedthatthenewcommunityradio regime hadrapidly Four monthsaftertheinitialinformationaccesssurvey, conducteda Internews FM broadcasters across theentire disasterzone. authorities. Theradioprogramme itselfwasbroadcast bythesevenemergency andlocalhumanitariancommunitygovernment populations, theinternational earthquake region toreport onrelief efforts, includingfeedbackfrom affected students.Theyoungreportersa group traveleddailyacross oftenjournalism the ‘Jazba -eTameer’ (‘TheDesire toRebuild’).Theprogramme wasproduced by daily one-hournewsandinformationprogramme onhumanitarian issues,called inhumanitarianreporting andtheproductionjournalists anddistributionofa facilities, providing smallequipmentgrantstoemergencyFMstations,training included developingtheemergencybroadcast sector, buildingradioproduction media capacitiesaffected bythedisasterinKashmirandNWFP. Thisworkprimarily governments, launchedthePakistanEmergencyInformationProject governments, withfundingfrom theUKandSwiss weeksoftheearthquake, Internews, Within volunteer broadcasters committed tohelpingpeople. since thelicenceswere non-commercial, theywouldbetakenuponlyby‘serious’ made availablefrequencies usuallycontrolled bythemilitary. Theideawasthat, operators (toclearthemoflinkswithIndiaorjihadi/militantgroups), and Authority bypassedtheusuallylengthyprocess ofsecurityvettingwould-be emergency licencestoprivateFMstationsoutsideoftheaffected area. The Regulatory Authority(PEMRA)hadissuedtentemporarynon-commercial of IndependentRadio(AIR),withinamonththePakistanElectronic Media andtheAssociation had tobecalledon.AccedinglobbyingbyInternews the lackoflocalequipmentandexpertise,operatorselsewhere inthecountry in locallanguages,andbroadcasts couldreach largenumbersofpeople.Given Radio wastheobviousanswer:setswere cheap,informationcouldbeprovided cheap andpracticalmeansofinformationaccesswasestablished. hand-washing, notdrinking.Againstthisbackground, itwasimperativethata would getridofmosquitoes,orthatbottledwaterwasmedicinalandonlyfitfor when thenextearthquakewasdue,orthatdaubingkerosene onyourtent In theabsenceofconventionalsources ofinformation,rumoursabounded:about religious leadersasasource ofgeneralinformation. not gettinganyinformationfrom anywhere. Noonementionedthemosqueor 15% onTVand11%thelocaladministration.Atleast8%saidtheywere were dependentonword ofmouth,28%ontheradio,21%newspapers, When askedabouttheirsources ofinformation,68%respondents saidthey survey, inlateOctober2005,28%ofrespondents hadcitedradioas 30 to rebuild NEW CHALLENGESTOMEDIAGAINS A TRANSFORMEDPUBLICSPHERE? received aseriesofthreatening callsfrom religious groups to stopairing In July2006,emergencyFM radiobroadcasters in AbbotabadandMuzaffarabad limited solelytotheemergency response periodhadexpired. NWFP fortheservicetocontinue. Thebroadcasts were curtailedasdonorgrants at theendofJune2006,despite requests from communitiesacross Kashmirand information anddebateontherelief and reconstruction effort -wentoff theair daily radioprogramme, Jazba-eTameer -theonlyregion -wideplatformfor space thathasopenedupintheearthquakezonesisalready underthreat. The In recent months,however, there havebeen signsthattheunprecedented media talk ofatransformedmedialandscapeforKashmirand NWFP. that hadbeentightlyrestricted bythestatepriortoearthquake.There was the groundwork foramore pluralisticmediaregime inaninformationenvironment for localterrestrial televisionchannels. issued asetoffullpermanentcommercial radiolicencesandinvitedapplications important contributiontotherelief operation.FourmonthslatertheAuthority beyond aninitialtwomonthsafterthequake,inacknowledgementoftheir Early in2006PEMRAextendedtheemergencylicencesfortenFMradiostations their femaleemployees,inparticular-theearthquakezones. religious viewsregarding relief thepresence agencies-andof ofinternational the affected communities,diluting,forexample,manyoftheleasttolerant Tameer programme wasplayinganimportantrole inmediatingopinionswithin Furthermore, there were indicationsthattheplatformcreated bytheJazba-e- • relief operation.Examplesincluded: clear evidenceofapositiveimpactontheeffectivesandaccountability By theSpringof2006dailybroadcastsJazba-eTameer wereproviding • • • goods earmarkedfordistribution. police chiefandcheckpointswere establishedtoensure accountabilityof hired byrelief agencies.Reportersraisedthisissuewiththedistrict keepers whoadmittedthattheirmainsupplierswere driversand staff and fooditemswasdiscontinuedafterJazba-e-Tameer interviewedshop Mansehra: illegalsaleofrelief goods,suchastents,medication,blankets them onairtotelecomofficials andalllineswere repaired withintendays. authorities. Jazba-e-Tameer gathered thesecomplaintsandpresented inhabitants. Largegroups mademore thanadozencomplaintstothelocal months afterthequakeinJijialvillage,whichhasmore than10,000 Jijial, Kohistan:landtelephonelineswere stilldisconnectedfornearlyfour about thisissue,electricitywasrestored withinaweek. electricity fornearlytwomonths.AfterJazba-e-Tameer produced afeature Tariqabad, Muzaffarabad: atentvillagewith10,000peoplewaswithout evacuation byairingassurancesthatnosuchhadbeenplanned. relief coordinatorthe localgovernment thatendedspeculationaboutthe throughout thedisasterzone.Jazba-e-Tameer broadcast aninterviewwith Balakot cityintheearlyweeksafterearthquakequicklyspread Balakot: arumouraboutthepotentialevacuationof60,000peoplefrom These developmentsappeared tobelaying 152 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 153 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences LESSONS FROMPAKISTAN It remainstobeseenwhether thisvacuumwillbecapturedbyextremistvoices. balancing outthevoicesof religiousintolerancearenolongerfunctioning. has beencreatedinsidethe region’s publicsphere.Theplatformsthat were broadcast sectorislimiting the proliferationofmoderatemessages.Avacuum of emergencystationsinthe absenceofaparallelemergencecommercial Our mostvividlessonofrecentmonths,however, isthattheabruptphase-out • • • • A yearaftertheearthquakeseveralkeylessonsare becomingapparent: been licensedtosetupintheearthquakeszones. cannot yetbebridgedbythefledglingcommercial radiobroadcasters thathave programme, andbytheclosure oftheemergencyradioFMstations.Thegap process hasbeencreated bythedisappearanceofJazba-eTameer A largeinformationgapatacrucialstageofthereconstruction andrehabilitation NWFP towards ahealthierpublicsphere. quietly havehadthecombinedeffect ofstallingprogress inKashmirand decisiontoencouragetheemergencyFMbroadcasters togo government to pressurise thebroadcasters andaidcommunity, alongwiththeill-timed The re-emergence ofreligious intoleranceinPakistan’s disaster-affected areas which NGOsshouldclosetheiroperations. September deadlineforNGOstodismissalllocalfemalestaff from thecity, failing In tions bymid-October. quietlyorderedThe government allemergencyFMradiostationstocease opera- official planstorelocate thecity, manyofthem critical, wasforced off theair. In August2006anFMbroadcaster inBalakot,thataired adiversityofviewson broadcasts were forcibly disruptedbycuttingoff cables. valuesbeingspread""Western byaidagencies.Inatleasttwoinstances,their • zations isprovided onacontinuousbasisintheopeningfragilephases. mediaassistanceorgani- supportthrough localandinternational external may prove tobeshort-lived,however. Theyare more likelytotakeholdif debate keyissuescentraltotherecovery ofcommunities.Theseopenings for theopeningupofpublicarena thatallowadiversityofvoicesto Crises incontrolled information environments oftenpresent opportunities organizations toaffected populations; andreliefin aideffectiveness andintheaccountabilityofgovernments Allocating financialsupporttolocalmediageneratesconcrete improvements reconstruction period; immediate emergencyresponse phaseandcontinuewellintothe Media supportmeasures indisasterzonesneedtogowellbeyondthe stream mechanismsoftheirrelief efforts; and needtoembedstrategiesforlocalmediasupportintothemain lack apolicyframeworkfortherole oflocalmediaindisasterzones, developmentcommunity authoritiesandtheinternational Government information thatisneeded,outsidehelpmustbeprovided, andswiftly; by acrisisorlacksthecapacitytoprovide thekindofspecialised survival andrecovery indisasterregions; and,ifthelocalmediaisdisabled Information aboutrelief, reconstruction andrehabilitation iscriticalfor the samemonth,religious leadersinBaghgavea Analysis ofInternationalIssues Governance: FacilitatingLocal Media, Developmentand ENABLING ENGAGEMENT–THEPANOS EXPERIENCE and toreadbeyondtheface “I learneditisimportantto “I value astheconfusionover world leadersorpoliticians question everystatement and pronouncementby the dealatGleneagles exemplified.” John Kamau, Panos Institute,London international dimension.Distinctionsmadebetween international from Panosillustratetheconnectionbetweenlocalstoriesandeventstheir withsupport These twoexamples,bothreported onin2005byjournalists livelihoods andlocaltourisminislandsacrosstheregion". contributes togreaterimpactofhurricanesintheCaribbeanaffectinghomes, numbers fromover250twodecadesagotojust20today’….."Climatechange with morecompetition.Theresult-closureofZambiantextilefactoriesreducing Zambia givingwiderchoiceforconsumersbutpresentingZambianproducers ‘World Trade OrganizationdecisionsaffecttradeintextilesbetweenChinaand By crucial elementindevelopment andnotalwayssubjecttoagovernment’s control. is into thecountry, manyfrom dimension Singapore. Thus,theexternal borders were forced toopenbyprivate broadcasters whobeamedtheirprogrammes of changeincludingthemedia: forexample,inthe1990sIndia’s broadcasting institutionsandprocesses ofcoursecanplayimportantrolesinternational asdrivers Other issues suchasagriculturalchoices,wateravailabilityand landusepatterns. to manageitsdevelopment-aphenomenonbeyond control butaffecting crucial Climate change,forinstance,affects theenvironment withinwhichastatemusttry process of‘globalisation’. countries more easilythankstotechnologicalchangeandtheuneven,contested intertwined aspeople,finance,informationandideas are saidtoflowbetween spheres in development iscomplexandincreasinglynational andinternational eventsandprocesses.affected Therelationship byinternational between individual butalsonationallevel.Bothandlocal developmentisfurther influenced bythestageofastate’s developmentandchoicesmadeatboth the the quality, security, wealthandlifechoicesopentoanindividual.These are Development isadynamicexperiencedatthemostpersonallevel-affecting and viceversa. media’ Teresa Hanley are increasingly blurred aslocaleventsare processes affected byinternational , Jon Barnes and Murali Shanmugavelan ‘local’ media and , ‘international always a 154 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 155 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences DEFINING GOODGOVERNANCE essential componentofgood “A plurialisticmediaisan stable andstrongenough media willcontributeto governance Conversely aweak poor governance.” making governance workforthepoor,making governance p.20 to bechallenged. 34 Development, StMartin’s Press, NewYork March 2006,Paris France,Summarynote Stiglitz, J.,(2002),TheRighttoTell –The of communicationimplementers”30-31 33 DFID (2006)Eliminatingworldpoverty “Deepening voiceandaccountability 32 Role ofMassMediainEconomic empirical evidencefrom sixteen World Bank,DFIDandOECD Making sense of governance: Making senseofgovernance: – to fightpoverty:Adialogue developing countries,p16 one thatis and Mease,K.s(2004), 31 Hyden, G.,Court,J., national publicsphere are increasingly complexandlinkedinmanywaysto beyond stateboundariesastherangeofactorsandinfluencesinteractingin asitincludesconceptsofinclusionandparticipation.Italsotakes government asbeingaboutgood This definitiongoesbeyondtheviewofgovernance be theyindividuals,groups orinstitutions,aspart ofthedecision-makingprocess. inclusive andenablesinformeddialoguedebatebetweenarangeofactors, isonethatseesthispublicspaceorsphere asonethatis good governance economic andotherpoliticalactorsinteracttomakedecisions. and informal, canbedefinedasthesetofrulesandnorms,formal et al(2004),governance problems havenotachievedtheirfullpotential.BuildingontheworkofHyden explanation forwhytechnological,socialandeconomicsolutionstodevelopment whileahighlycontestedconcept,isoftencitedaspartofan Poor governance, isathemevery much invoguecurrent donordevelopmentparlance. Governance ‘voice’ Two aspectswhichincreasingly are feature thoseof indiscussionsongovernance society networksandbusinesses. organisations,donors,civil national publicsphere. Thisincludesinternational located geographicallyoutsidestateboundariesbutwhichhaveanimpactonthe international’ and sustainablestrategiestoaddress poverty. need forinclusionofthevoice‘unorganisedpoor’inestablishingrealistic Bank/DFID onpovertyreduction strategiesandcommunication,discussedthe with storageregulations. Electricity SupplyCorporation tocourtwhere theywere fined fornon-compliance contributed totheEnvironmental Council ofZambiadecisiontotakethe work resulted inmediainterest inpotentiallyharmfultransmitter leakagesand to developenvironmental storiesprovided anexampleofthis.Onejournalist’s inZambia2004 trade rules.APanosfellowshipforjournalists international levelandprocessesaddress ofdeciding climate changeattheinternational aid,todecision-making to thespendingofnationalandinternational levels, from theuseofhealthcareat thelocal,nationalandinternational fees, be shoneonarangeofinstitutionsandprocesses toensure ‘goodgovernance’ thisscrutinisinglightcan Whilst thisisoftendiscussedinrelation togovernment, Stiglitz noteshowthe‘light’ofmediacanlimitcorruption through arangeofroles,governance moststrikingisthe Other observershavenotedthepotentialofmedia tocontributegood challenged. Conversely, aweakmediawillcontributetopoorgovernance. -onethatisstableandstrong enoughtobe component ofgoodgovernance levels.Apluralisticmediaisanessential sphere atnationalandinternational include orexcludevoicesandperspectivesmakesitakeyelementinthepublic The media’s potentialtoinform,question,enableandstimulatedebate and institutions. and thisincludestheaccountabilityofinternational is agreater rangeofaccountabilitiesthatare neededforgoodgovernance .Othersarguethatthere a countryasanessentialelementofgoodgovernance andpublicinstitutionstocitizensof and othersseeaccountabilityofgovernment and ‘accountability’. – i.e. actors, processes and international organisationswhichare– i.e.actors,processes andinternational which regulate thepublicarena inwhichthestate,aswellsocial, A March 2006meetingorganisedbyOECD/World 32 With regardWith toaccountability, DFID "watchdog role". 31 . 34 eiiinof A definition . 33 ‘ the ENABLING ENGAGEMENT – THE PANOS EXPERIENCE

The media can play a major role in facilitating voice and participation. One Panos experience of this was when it supported the production of a radio programme on education in Ghana and its coverage in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). The broadcast led to a vigorous radio debate with many young people becoming involved - young people who had never contributed before to the radio programme and had limited involvement in development decision - making in their country. The debate eventually led to questions being raised in parliament on education expenditure as part of the PRSP process. However, the media in many developing countries face a number of constraints in playing this facilitating role to the full. Panos aims to respond to this, working with journalists across all sectors - state, private, community and mainstream. In 2005 - an exceptional year for international development - there were many opportunities for southern media to engage in policy processes, especially processes at the international level that would have an impact on local situations. This included major international summits and decision-making processes on the Information Society, trade and climate change as well as a key focus of G8 discussions being on Africa and aid. The question was - could the opportunities be seized? Panos launched a number of initiatives in response to these opportu- nities. One aspect was to review current media coverage and journalists’ experi- ence. Panos reviewed the contemporary media coverage on processes relating to trade, environment, the information society and broader aid agendas by analysing, for example, aid and trade coverage in Mozambique and Zambia, and in another review considered who had the opportunity to contribute to discus- sions around poverty reduction strategies in Pakistan and Zambia. “Time and time again the In these areas of trade, aid, poverty reduction and sustainable agriculture, the journalists have critiqued reviews found that even independent media tended to follow the official agenda and often reported press releases without scrutiny. Journalists had difficulty with government sources, donors, the terminology of debates - for instance in coming to grips with the notoriously development agencies and complex language used in trade negotiations. They did not feel confident with civil society for their use much of the technical language and in general felt they were often not able to scrutinise decisions, announcements and research presented in press conferences. of jargon and technical The media reviews also found a dominance of ‘experts’ quoted along with language ...which the government figures. For instance in relation to new technology of genetically modified crops, the reviews found donors were quoted more frequently than journalists say has limited farmers and their associations, despite the fact that farmers would be amongst their deeper engagement in the most affected by decisions the government was taking. These findings reporting issues highly indicate a lack of confidence amongst the journalists in dealing with these subjects and a lack of journalistic skills to pursue the story. revelant to development.” Similarly, in relation to climate change, Panos has heard from journalists that they feel challenged due to lack of information, training and support. In inter- views with 47 journalists from Honduras, Jamaica, Sri Lanka and Zambia in 2005 journalists questioned said that the media had poor understanding of the climate change debate and little interest in it. An online discussion amongst journalists in the run up to the World Summit for the Information Society (WSIS) in November 2005 highlighted that many of the journalists covering issues of new information and communication technology were often not specialists. Time and again the journalists have critiqued government sources, donors, development agencies and civil society for their use of jargon and technical language on a whole range of issues which the journalists say has limited their deeper engagement in reporting issues highly relevant to development. SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences6 MEDIA MATTERS 156 157 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences FACING UPTOTHECHALLENGES journalists -somedonotsee issue isofparticularinterest readers arenotinterestedin some it'sjustacomplicated be morecoverageofglobal unfortunately thereisstill Inmyopinionthetrade “ Mozambique andalotof climate changeissuesbut most editorsdonotthink lo Ithinkthereshould also, how itaffectsusandfor little awarenessaboutit for Mozambiquebut issue tounderstand, these issuesconcern amongst mostlocal reading aboutit.” Maura Quatorze,journalist. id, trade,environment andtheinformation society pleasesee on andaccesstotheseresources ona 35 For furtherinformation www.panos.org.uk Gleneagles G8summitinJuly2005. summitssuchasWSISandthe toattendinternational support forjournalists issues, settinguponlineaccesstoexpertsanddiscussionfora,providing tradeandinformationsociety resources oncomplexinternational forjournalists Other initiativeshaveincludedproduction ofaccessibleandpoliticallybalanced development, particularlyaround accesstotelephonesforruralpopulations. to increased andmore informedandin-depthreporting ontelephonepolicy and Industry)cametogethertodiscusscommunicationspolicy. Thelinkshaveled Uganda CommunicationCommissionandtheParliamentaryCommitteeonTrade (UgandaTelecoms,isations, themedia,privatesectorandgovernment the ate benefits.InUganda,forexample,seniorrepresentatives ofcivilsocietyorgan- policies inUganda(in2004)andIndia(2005).Participantshavereported immedi- representativesconversations betweenmediaandgovernment oncommunication academics inPakistan,ZambiaandGhana.‘Mediadialogues’havefacilitated representatives,drew togetherdonors,government media,civilsocietyand the nationallevel,formulti-stakeholdermeetingsonPRSPs.These initiated arangeofactivities.Thesehaveincludedbringingpeopletogetherat issueswiththeeffects ata localandnationallevel,Panoshas of international To supportengagementintheseandotherareas andtoencouragethelinking - ifwearetolocateglobaltradenegotiationsandcommunicatethegrassroots.’ -Uganda catching! Thisisthekindofinformationwedesiretohaveinourcountry commented response toaPanosprintfeature illustratesthispointwhere acivilsociety were notnecessarilymade.A in whichthelinkstonationalandlocalconcerns and confined tothebusinessorforeign affairs pages,read byalimitedreadership interests involvedortheimpactofpoliciesonreal people.Thecoveragewasoften level discussionswithoutanalysingtheunderlyingsocial, level,wasoftenfoundtoexaminefluctuatingtrends intop at theinternational Furthermore, coverageofsometheseissues,suchastrade,whenconsidered can be due to a lack of conviction at government levelofthebenefitsharing can beduetoalackofconviction atgovernment no culture toshare information.Thisisnotalwaysanunwillingness todoso,but information from donoragencyoffices inthecountry. Inmany countriesthere is attimesevenfinding iteasiertoaccess extract informationfrom governments, reportedstrategy processes, thedifficulties journalists they faceintryingto and moneyplayarole in this.Butinroundtable discussionsonpovertyreduction report thataccesstoinformationisamajorissue.Again, time Second, journalists mediasources.becomes entirely dependentonexternal processescircumstances andeventsoutsidethecountry coverageofinternational domestic storyfindingandfewfundstotraveloutside ofthecapitalcity. Insuch littletimeallocatedfor face. Manyhavenoorlimitedaccesstotheinternet, andtheireditors emphasisetheresourceFirst, journalists challengesthatthey dimensionofdevelopment. and inparticularengagingtheinternational incoveringrelevant storiesintheircountries major challengesfacingjournalists From thisworkandfrom otherexperiencesPanosisabletoidentifysomeofthe representative from theircountry’s media. attendingwithsupportfrom Panosweresome ofthejournalists thesole supported sevenofthem.AttheWTOsummitinHongKongDecember2005, were fromAfrica focus,only20outofatotal2,000journalists Africa;Panos ‘I amgladtohaveread"NextstepsfortheWTO"inourlocaldaily. It’s 35 At Gleneagles,asummitwithspecific economic orpolitical observer - ifwearetolocateglobal ‘Next stepsforthe WTO’ “I amgladtohaveread “I It's catching! This isthe kind ofinformationwe trade negotiationsand desire tohaveinour communicate tothe country -Uganda in ourlocaldaily. Americas onthetopicof“Partnershipand Civil societyobserver The international Economic Forum ofthe The international grassroots.” 36 Quoted inMontreal, 5June2006, Global Prosperity” fuelling activists’ campaigns...Constantexposure totelevisioncameras isunlikely business, plasteredacrosstelevision screens,newspapersandwebsites between afewconsenting adults behindcloseddoors.Today theyare everyone’s from itsrole, hewrote... demands ontheWTOtoaccommodate agrowing rangeofpublicexpectations statement reached atthe2005HongKongworldtradesummit,andrising reaching agreement intheDohatradenegotiations. Referringtothenegotiation demands forpublictransparency, hasitselfbeenabarriertoprogress in in theUK’s has arguedthattheworld’s Financial Times, media,whileserving see astheneedforeffective globaldecision-making.GuydeJonquieres, columnist the media’s role, whilepositiveforpublictransparency, ishelpfultowhatthey From anotherperspective, however, havequestionedwhether somejournalists over thedealatGleneaglesexemplified.’ world leadersorpoliticiansandtoreadbeyondtheface valueastheconfusion statement andpronouncementby ‘I learneditisimportanttoquestionevery JohnKamau,saidoftheG8discussions, between thelines.AsKenyanjournalist, necessarily bespecialistsinsuchsubjects,thechallengeisevengreater toread coveringtheseissueswillnot As manyofthedevelopingcountryjournalists skills toworkthrough thebarrageof public relations needfinelyhoned battlesare foughtinthemedia,journalists They provided theirownpress releases view. toprovide analternative When into acceptanceofwhattheyclaimtobeabaddealfordevelopment. pressure orchestrated bymajorpowersintheWTOtorushdevelopingcountries against beingswayedbysupposed developingcountrygovernments NGOswarned Meanwhile, someinternational said, to enablethis.’ invaluable toputahumanfaceontechnology…indeedthebriefings whose workdayroutineislargelyabouthardcoreITdevelopments, events ontheother. said After attendanceatWSISonejournalist decision-makingtolocal tional contextontheonehandandtolinkinternational By thistheymeantheassistancewere giventomakethelinkinterna- commissions. and briefingmaterials,trainingopportunitiesinternational view isthemostimportantbenefittheyhavederivedfrom fellowships,resources supportedbyPanosacknowledgethatthedevelopmentofabroader journalists andagainthe Time are akeyweaknessidentifiedbyPanosandjournalists. context Third, analyticalskillsandthemeanstolocateeventsinaninternational the fullstory. political environments, anelementofself-censorshipmayconstrainpursuit abilitytopursuestories andattimes,indifficult skills mayhinderjournalists’ resource officials themselves.Weak constraintsfacedbygovernment journalism information withthepubliconissuessuchastradeoratothertimes,dueto liberalisation andnotcovered sufficiently itspurportedpositivebenefits. complained thatthemediahasconcentratedonnegativeeffects oftrade On oneside,forexample,theWTOdirector-general, PascalLamy, has coverage. TheWTO’s Dohatradenegotiationshavereflected thesepressures. independence from thevariousactorsandlobbiesattemptingtoinfluencemedia istounderstandandmaintaincritical The nextchallengefacingjournalists international politics.’ perspective andhowtorelateday-to-dayissuesthatconcernAfricanswith ways ofwritingthatareinterest….Ilearnedtolookatmattersinabroader ‘I think I have improved my capacity of writingand ‘I thinkIhaveimprovedmycapacity Another, havingundertakenaPanos ‘Once uponatime,tradenegotiations wereconducted ‘media spin’ ‘information’ said tobepartofpolitical they receive. fellowship atthe idn themes finding ‘... Forsomeone the WSISwas were critical G8 summit 36 and 158 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 159 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences WHAT DOESTHISALLMEAN? 38 intercultural toleranceinnation-bulding” Tharoor, S.,“Integratingapproaches to good governance ,press freedomgood governance and Financial Times, 10January2006 Financial Times, 37 Guy deJonquieres – Public Information rightly points to the need for journalism tobelocallydriven Public Informationrightlypointstotheneedforjournalism Shashi Tharoor, UnitedNationsUnder-Secretary GeneralforCommunicationand dimensionisaslimiteddescribedabove. international for policymakersifthemedia’s engagementindevelopmentissuesand their There anddevelopment are anumberofseriousimplicationsforgovernance professional dynamics. nurtured inawaythattakesintoaccountandrespects themedia’s own media’s publicservicerole shouldnotbetreated inamechanisticway, butbe and theinterests oftheirreaders, listenersandviewers.Thissuggeststhatthe to according itself. development needstobecarriedoutinthecontextofrealities ofthemedia This highlightsthechallengeanymediadevelopmentinitiativefacesthat Mozambique andalotofreadersarenotinterestedinreadingaboutit.’ global climatechangeissuesbutmosteditorsdonotthinktheseconcern complicated issuetounderstand.Also,Ithinkthereshouldbemorecoverageof most localjournalists-somedonotseehowitaffectsusandforit’s justa Mozambique butunfortunatelythereisstilllittleawarenessaboutitamongst G8 talkssaid non - implementation of agreements made at national and international levels. non -implementationofagreements madeatnationalandinternational on progress, commitmentsandplansisreduced. Thisincreases thelikelihoodof media doesnotengageinthese issues,thepressure toreport onagovernment others’ decisions.Panosreview ofPRSPprocesses hasshownthatwhenthe and Limited mediaengagementleadstoalackofscrutiny in government situation where developmentmaybehindered. adaptation toclimatechange-butare crucialinthelongterm,settingupa be widelybeneficialintheshortterm-suchasallocation offundstoenable to reduced publicsupportforpolicydecisionswhichatfirstsightdonotseemto known orunderstoodbythepeople.Limitedmediaengagement maycontribute pressures, isunderwillnotbe opportunitiesorconstraintsthatthegovernment context inwhichitismakingdecisions.Thismeansthatany international a situationatnationallevelinwhichtheirpublichaslimited informationonthe willbein limited engagementbycitizensinthepublicsphere, thengovernments If itfollowsthatlimitedmediaengagementindevelopmentdebatesleadsto in developmentdiscussions.Bydefinition,thisisnotgoodgovernance. limitspublicengagementandpeople’sLimited mediaengagementinturn voices the mediainadevelopingcountrytoplayitsfullrole ingoodgovernance. reporting oftheseissues.Thisseverelydependent onexternal limitstheabilityof world butare primarilylocatedoutsideoftheircountry, developingcountriesare access topeople,placesandprocesses whichare havingadirect impactonthat local face,voiceandtoreflect localunderstandingoftheworld.Without He pointstothefactthatmanycountriesare strugglingtobuildamediawith their ownmedia’s demands.MauraQuatorze,aPanos in thesecontexts,asanycountry, isidentifyingandcraftingstorieswhichwillmeet negotiations. Finally, butmostimportantly, amajorchallengefacingjournalists Such aviewmayincrease policy-makers’reluctance tobetransparent intheir to makepoliticiansreadieroverrulerecalcitrantconstituenciesathome.’ Editors andownerswillmakedecisionsaboutwhattocoverinclude ...‘In myopinionthetradeissueisofparticularinterestfor their ownconstraints.Asaprioritytheseincludecommercial aspects - sponsored journalist at the at sponsored journalist 37 . 38 decision-making processes whichaffect them. development andthepotentialforgreater participationbycitizensinthe media canplay. Failure totakethisonboard willlimitthesuccessofmedia skills andthegreater thespacetoemploythese,more productive arole the initself.Thestronger thejournalist is anessentialcomponentofgoodgovernance a toolforpassingonmessage.Apluralisticmediapresenting arangeofviews enable theengagementofmediaasasectorandpartnerinitself,notonly The mediaisacrucialpartnerinthedevelopmentprocess. Donorsmustseekto development andgovernance. effectively. Greater supportforthiswillbuildthemedia’s positiveimpacton aspectsoflocalstories skillstoengagewithinternational build journalism need forobjectivity. TheexperienceofPanoshasshownthatitispossibleto the mediainapositiveandconstructivewaythatdoesnotcompromise their in Ugandatodiscusscommunicationspolicyshowsthatitispossibleinvolve The experiencealready mentionedofdifferent interested partiescomingtogether 160 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 161 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences and AudienceAccess Perspectives onMediaReach Community Radio: MEDIA LANDSCAPES,INFORMATION SOCIETY&COMMUNITY RADIO and Freedom ofExpression inNepal www.nepal.asiapacific.amarc.org 39 See: International Mission See: International on Press Freedom specific radio sector. increasing recognition oftheimportancetoincludecommunity radioasa had toadvocatestrongly inthepast for aplaceintheradiospectrumbutthere is the voicelessandaddressing thedevelopmentagenda of voices.Thisisevenmore importantwhenitisaquestion ofgivingvoiceto conflict orpost-conflictsituations themedialandscapeneedstobuildaplurality in thestruggleforpress freedom, freedom ofexpression anddemocracy. Independent RadioMovement(SIRM)showsthatbothcan effectively worktogether the alliancebetweencommunityandindependentradios intheSave to reflect thediversityandneedsoftheirsocieties.InNepalforinstance, societies needpublic(notstate),commercial andcommunityradiosiftheywant of society’s communicationneeds.IntheNorthaswellinSouth,democratic The idealmodelforsharingtheradiospectrumisonethat reflects thediversity radio stationcanserveacommunityof100,000people ormore. population. Forjustafewthousanddollarsworthofequipment, acommunity one thatislowcostandalready receivable by90percentoftheworld’s widespread andaccessiblecommunicationtechnology. Itisanoralmedium; In spiteofrecent technologicaldevelopments,radioremains themost who receive andthosewhoimpartinformation. is closertowhatcalled"newmedia",asiterasestheboundarybetweenthose communities, inclusiveness,andculturaldiversity. Inthatsense,communityradio The specificityofcommunityradioisthatitfacilitatestheempowermentlocal cultural expression, newsandinformation,dialoguedevelopment. in particularputsthetoolsofcommunicationsintohandscommunitiesfor a uniquemeanofreaching theworld’s poorest communities.Communityradio Radio isthemostwidespread electronic communicationdeviceintheworldand and thebreakthroughs incommunicationstechnologies. of new radiosectorworldwide,asanaturalresult, bothoftheevolution Inthelastdecades, communityradiohasevolvedintoa racy andgoodgovernance. an importantrole accountable,thussupportingdemoc- inrendering governments consider thatthetwodominantformsofradio,publicandcommercial, also public serviceandentertainingaudiences.Some,withasomewhatwiderperspective, Traditionally therole ofthemediaisperceived asoneofinforming,providing a By World AssociationofCommunityRadioBroadcasters(AMARC) Marcelo Solervicens , General Secretary, . 39 Community radiohas civil societies Also in play owned byandbeaccountable its aimshouldnotencompass aaeet andsupporta management, objective andbybenefiting encourage participationin MASS MEDIA:ADECLINEINCREDIBILITYANDDIVERSITY characterized byitssocial Community radioshould the communityitserves; wealth anditshouldbe the creationoffinancial strong democraticand dynamic civilsociety.” “Community radiois “Community its programmingand to thecommunity. Bertelsmann, GeneralElectric,Microsoft, Disney, and NewsCorporation,Viacom 40 Vivendi Universal,AOLTimeWarner,Vivendi Telefonica, FranceTélécom. leading toasmallnumberofmajorgroups owningmostoftheworld’s media conglomerates havereshaped theglobal commercial massmediaenvironment, In thecontextofdominantneo-liberalglobalization,asmall numberofmultimedia however, theyhavebeenabsorbedbylargeforeign conglomerates. In someplaces,theseprocesses haveincreased mediaplurality. Inmostcases Europe, AfricaandAsia. airwaves andtheendofstatemonopoliesinEastern In theeightiesandnineties,there wasalsoaprocess ofliberalizationthe development work. becoming themediaofpoorandanidealcommunicationtoolfor and "newcitizenmedia".Communitymediahasbeenreinforced bythistrend, that haverecently beenrevived withtheinteractivecapacityemergingfrom ICTs are notsocialagents"are"journalists attheheartofoldacademicdiscussions of traditionalmediaoutletsthatconsiderthemselvesneutralor need forcommunityempowermentinanonpartisanmanner. Theshortcomings Media control bycivilsocietyandnotonlythemediaindustryis linkedtothe angered bytraditionalmediacoverage. radio, knownas showed anincreased interest inthem.Thistrend startedwiththefirstcommunity as theyabandonedtheminorityandlocalissueswhilstglobalsocialtrends There hasbeenalegitimacycrisisofthetraditionalmassmediasince1970s access tothemedia. linked totechnologicalbreakthroughs andtothedemandsbyaudiencesfor in theAmericasandEurope andinthelasttwentyyearsAfricaAsia,are The birthandexpansionofcommunityradiointhefifties,sixtiesseventies dynamic civilsociety. in itsprogramming andmanagement,supportastrong democraticand accountable tothecommunity. Communityradioshouldencourage participation encompass thecreation offinancialwealthanditshouldbeownedby social objectiveandbybenefitingthecommunityitserves;itsaimshouldnot its by outreach oraudienceaccesstothemedia.Communityradioischaracterized communities thatwere notbeingaddressed bytraditionalmediaintermsof The developmentofcommunityradioiscloselylinkedtotheneedslocal the grassroots -up. but thisispublicservicebroadcasting notfrom thetop-down,butratherfrom society organizations.Itcanbeconsidered aformofpublicservicebroadcasting, participatory attitudetodemocracyandthegrowth ofstrong anddynamiccivil The existenceandthepracticeofcommunitybroadcasting are anexpression ofa fomented thedevelopment ofcommunitymedia. the absenceofanyregulatory role bythestate,are allfactorsthathave,ironically, ensuing globalimbalancein informationflows,thelackofculturaldiversity, and number ofmediaoutletswith areduced diversityofsources ofinformation.The a fewdominatingmediaconglomeratesresults intheparadoxofhavingagr themarketofsupplyanddemand.Theestablishment with therulesgoverning isjustanotherpieceofmerchandise, whichcirculatesor Internet, inaccordance informationinradio, television,press "digital" In thiscontextwhathasbecome "people’s radio", built inthe1950sbyBoliviancoalminers eater . 40 162 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 163 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences COMMUNITY RADIOANDTHEMILLENNIUMDEVELOPMENTGOALS Oxford UniversityPress http://www.i4donline.net/july05/right- (World SummitontheInformationSociety, 2000/2001, AttackingPoverty, NewYork: 48 Communities. CRandrelated policies 46 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals Declaration oftheNinthUnitedNations Responses* economía, sociedadycultura, From theSummittoPeople,I4d,in Development (2004) Chapter 6,World DevelopmentReport Steve Buckley, 45 Round Table onCommunicationsfor The onetowatch: and interactivity(2003)FAO, Roma. See millenniumDevelopmentGoals 49 Opportunities, Challenges,and Women andCommunityRadio: AMARC Women’s International 12 December2003,Geneva.) 44 43 Agriculture Organization La eradelainformación, Declaration ofPrinciples Alfonso Gumucio-Dragón, By MavicCabrera-Balleza, Right toCommunicate. Giving Voice toLocal UNESCO. March, 2006 http://www.world- 47 42 México, SigloXXI. Rome: Foodand See, forexample, Manuel Castells, Radio, newICTs bank.org/wdr 41 Vice PresidentVice Bruce Girard, comm.asp 1999, , transistors, FMtransmitters,satellitetechnologyandfinallytheInternet sector isthetechnologicalbreakthroughs inthecommunicationsfield,suchas The secondaspectinvolvedinthedevelopmentofcommunityradioasaglobal nication the so-called benefits toagreat manypeople.Butitalsothreatens toamplifyagross asymmetry, contributed toeconomicgrowth andhavebrought social,culturaland political The emergenceofthesenewinformationandcommunicationtechnologieshave such astheWorld AssociationofCommunityRadioBroadcasters, AMARC. media outletsandcreated networks national,regional, andfinallyinternational community radiostations,forexampleinruralareas programmes andinteractivesocialcommunicationrunbycommunitiesfrom the majormeansofcommunication.Theyinspired counter-information that useappropriate to technologiestoshare knowledge,developingalternatives Community radiohasemergedconnectedtopeople-centered socialmovements the mediafacilitatingproximity radio. All thesedevelopmentshavereduced costsandincreased inter-activenessof the radio time like farmers television do;meaning,women whomustworkcontinuouslyatonegiven require thefull,undivided attentionofitsaudiencethewaynewspapersor countries. Radioisalsoconsidered a"women’s medium"because itdoesn’t Radio alsotranscendstheliteracybarrier, whichis aproblem inmanysouthern grassroots participationinpolicy-makingand democracy. communication suchasstorytelling,group discussionandtheatre andcanenable to achievingtheMDGs.Communityradiocanalsoreinforce traditional formsof order languages,communityradiocontributes tobeheard eveninvernacular poverty, exclusionandmarginalisation;byencouragingthemtoaccessmediain promoting andimproving theirqualityoflife enabling individuals,communitiesandpeopletoachievetheirfullpotentialin where everyonecancreate, access,utilizeandshare informationandknowledge, "Information Society"thatispeople-centred, inclusiveanddevelopmentoriented; the defenceofculturalandlinguisticdiversity in dialogueabouttheirconditionsandlivelihoods.Andithascontributedto means ofempowermentandself-reliance. Ithasenabledpeopletoengage to speakoutandbeheard. Communityradiohasprovided manywitha The growth ofcommunityradioisastory ofpeopleandcommunitiesstriving of thepoorandmarginalized First, communityradioisgainingrecognition asthenewinformationtechnology radio isanimportantfactorinachievingtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals. well beingandopportunity Democracy, equityandcivilrightscontributedirectly tohumansecurity, voicelessness andpowerlessnessare considered keydimensions of poverty. Second, communitymediaisakeyelementneededforsustainabledevelopment: sustainability andtheenlargementofservicesprovided. opportunities andapproaches tocommunitymediathathavecontributed to broadcasting accesshasbrought withdigitalproduction new andInternet . 43 . 49 Therefore communityradioisattheheartofpossibilitiesan "digital divide", and labourers, canperformtheirtasksevenastheylistento . 48 . in poorpeople’s accesstoinformationandcommu- By reaching outtolocalcommunitiesfacing 47 Furthermore, thecombination ofcommunity 45 (MDGS) . 44 . 46 In thatperspective,community . 42 These newplayersmultiplied . 41 COMMUNITY RADIO:THECHALLENGES munities withproper assistance. including anominallevelfor licencefees,encouragingsupportfrom theircom- framework shouldconsidersustainabilityandresourcing ofcommunityradio, inissuesrelated todevelopmentgoals.Furthermore,for journalists theregulatory and economicwell-beingofcommunities.Thisshould include capacitybuilding to developsustainablemodelsofcommunitymediathat contributetothesocial casting, there isaneedtobuildcapacity among community-basedorganisations Finally, alongsidethelawsandregulations thatcanhelpbuildcommunitybroad- community broadcasters withoutpoliticalinterference. and straightforward process fortheallocationofradiospectrumandlicensing of communitybroadcasting asadistinctsector. Thisshouldresult inatransparent and encouragecommunitybroadcasting. There needstobeformalrecognition done inmanycountriestoestablishpolicies,lawsandregulations thatenable right toownandoperatetheircommunitymedia.There isstill muchtobe There remains aneedtoraiseawareness onthefactthatcommunitieshave pendence, itsrighttochallengethoseinauthorityandholdleadersaccount. into aninstrumentofpublicservicedelivery. Itmustvigorously defend itsinde- of time.Inresponding tothischallenge,however, simply itmust avoidbeingturned development processes whenthelattercanonlybemeasured overlongerperiods and education, goodgovernance demonstrate itsimmediatesocialimpactandsignificance-contributiontoculture, broadcasting gainsmainstream recognition, itsgreatest challengewill be to voice tothevoicelessandbeaforce forsocialandeconomicgood.Ascommunity hindering theirabilitytoempowercommunitiesspeakforthemselves,givea There are barriersthatdistractcommunitybroadcasters from theirsocialpurpose agendasorassimilatedintothemarketplace? not beco-optedbygovernment strated? forms andtechnologies?Howcanitscontributiontothepublicgoodbedemon- economic sustainabilitybeassured? Howcanitinterfacewiththenewmediaplat- further recognized inlawandcountryregulations? Howcanitssocialand challenges. Howcanitsspecificcontributiontoapluralisticmedialandscapebe Even ascommunitybroadcasting isgaininglegitimacyitalsofacingnew only totheirprivateownersandthemarketplace. ofthepoorer sectionsofsocietyandremainthe needsandconcerns accountable also contributetothepluralityofvoicesbuttheytendpaylittleattention they maintainaone-waymodeofcommunication.Privatecommercial mediacan inpower.instrument ofthegovernment Insteadofdialoguewiththeiraudience information dissemination.Otherstateownedpublicmediatendtoremain the often failtoensure audienceaccessbecauseofatop-downapproach to editorial arrangementsandarangeofpublicinterest programming. Butthey and goals. Somepublicownedbroadcasters haveindependentgovernance Fourth, communityradioisthemediasectorthatbetterplacedfordevelopment violence andstigmatisedhealthissuesamongothers. listener, communityradiocanaddress particularlydifficult themessuchasgender Moreover asaproximity mediumthataddresses andisreceived byeachindividual How can it provide a voice for critical and alternative perspectivesand How canitprovide avoiceforcriticalandalternative citizens’ participation-itsinfluenceinfacilitating 164 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 165 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Health Agenda Journalism intothePublic The NeedtoBuildIndependent Global Health-LocalNews: THE GROWTHOFHEALTH SECTORGLOBALLY ANDITSIMPACT ONMEDIA journalists whowillcriti- aec,governanceand parency, cally analyzethetrans- health partnershipsare health policiesorissues impact ofcountrylevel reporting typicallyfails I oecss global somecases, “In beginning toseekout to makethenational relevant toreaders “This event-driven “This health policies.” Ramesh Govindaraj,Yianni Konstantopoulos. Bank: TheWorld BankOperations Evaluation “Addressing ChallengesofGlobalization: An http://Inweb18.worldbank.org/oed/oed- 6a0046/7f80f1cf544bdf5185256f5e00799 doclib.nsf/24cc3bb1f94ae11c8525680800 Independent EvaluationoftheWorld Bank’s and viewers.” Approach toGlobalPrograms.” TheWorld 2a6/$FILE/gppp_hnp_wp.pdf#page=17 50 Department (OED).2004.URL: Lele, Uma and Naveen Sarna, Lele, UmaandNaveenSarna, partnerships intermsofresource mobilization. the healthsectorhasreplaced theenvironment sectorattheforefront ofglobal In its2004report, theWorld Bank’s IndependentEvaluation Group reported that owners) toreport onhealthinaninformedandappropriate manner. aswelltheir editorsand capacity ofthemediaprofessionals (journalists across. Little isdonewithinthepublichealthframeworktodevelopindigenous space andairtimeorissuestatementstogetquick,targeted healthmessages often asecondaryconsiderationtomassmediahealth campaigns thatbuyprint In developingcountrieswithacutehealthcrises,however, themedia’s role is are greatly influencedbylocalnewsmediacoverage. policies, publicattitudesondiseaseanddisability, andhealth-related behavior supported andimproved. Around theworld,wehaveseenthatpublichealth with thefree exchangeofideasonhealthissues,publicprograms are people abouthealthissues.Moreover, whenaccurateinformationiscombined component inreaching public healthgoalsistoinform,educateandempower It iscommonlyagreed amongpublichealthstrategistsgloballythatanessential been gettinglittleinstructiononhowtodothejob. their societyneeds.Theyhavebeengettinghandouts.Buttodate,they canbetaughttohaulinthehealthinformationthat getting food.Journalists That timelessadageholdsastrueforgettinghealthinformationitdoes woman tofish,theycanfeedthemselvesforalifetime." "Give apersonfishandyoufeedhimforday;butifteachmanor Health Journalism,InternewsNetwork Ron MacInnis, AIDS andMalaria, theGlobalAlliancefor Vaccines and Immunizations,tobilateral communicable diseases–range from themultilateralGlobalFundto FightTB, malaria,andother totalling multiplebillionsof dollarsfocusingonHIV/AIDS, Director, 50 These globalpartnerships http://www.uta.fi/laitokset/tsph/health/ Health Values, Media,PublicityandCitizens. “Health Journalism: AnIntroduction.” “Health Journalism: and Anna-MariaMaki-Kuutti. media/journalism.htm media/journalism.htm 451 Torkkola, Sinikka URL : "using themedia" audiences. Healthcommunicationstrategistsfrom thisrealm oftentalkabout that aimtosimplifycomplexpublichealthissuesglobalandcountry-level munication massmediacampaignsandglobalprogram messagingstrategies As theseglobalhealthpartnershipsgrow, thusdothenumbersofhealthcom- political institutions. donorsandfinancinginstitutions,UNAgencies,regional governments, footing" -withexpansionoftheseglobalpartnershipsgenerallyledbyWestern incr this why of example The report citestheeveradvancingpaceofHIV/AIDSpandemicasone AIDS Relief(PEPFAR). programs liketheUSGovernment’s $15billionPresident’s EmergencyPlanfor play acrucial role incountry healthpolicies. national agendas.Thenews mediaifeffectively supported andmobilized,could advocacy issuesatthecountry levelcankeephealthprioritiesontheforefront of level healthpolicies.Anddonor organizationsare beginning tolookathow who willcriticallyanalyzethe transparency, andimpactofcountry- governance In somecases,globalhealthpartnershipsare beginningtoseekoutjournalists (news/feature reporters,journalists editors,producers, managers,etc.). a growing understanding oftheneedtoprovide trainingprograms for seem tobeapositivetrend toward decentralizinghealthcommunications and allies tothesegrowing globalhealthpartnerships.Inrecent years,there does canbeseenasimportant worldwide mayoffer anewparadigminhowjournalists health communityandthemediaitself.Increased attentiontohealthjournalism The journalist’s role inpublichealthisstillbeingdiscovered byboththepublic economy andothersectors. discussion around theimpactthesehealth issues hasonthecommunity, the issues relevant toreaders andviewers.Italsodoesnotstimulatedialogueor This event-drivenreporting typicallyfailstomakethenationalhealthpoliciesor cover theeventsofgovernment’s healthleaders. the nationallevel,orreport onthelaunchofanewnationalhealthprogram, or press releases andannouncementsofhowglobalhealthpartnershipsare reaching indevelopingcountriestendtorespond to have foundthathealthjournalists are themediaportrayinghealthissuesaccuratelyandfrequently? Moststudies - areMainstream limitedandfocusoncontentanalysis studiesonhealthjournalism health storiesaffect theaudience. what kindsofhealthstoriesare published,ifhealthfactsare accurateandhow to areceiver. Thushealthcommunicationresearch isconcentratedonfinding out defines communicationasaninstrumenttoconveyinformationfrom asender at improving thehealthstatusoftargetedindividualsandpopulations. WHO health issuesonthepublicagenda.Healthcommunicationistherefore directed andtomaintainimportant strategy toinformthepublicabouthealthconcerns The World HealthOrganization(WHO)defineshealthcommunicationasakey from globalstandards. comprehensive inapproach -butthebasictenetsofmessagingare born New generationhealthcommunicationcampaignsare quitesophisticatedand may seemtobeanoversimplificationofthecomplexfieldhealthcommunication. or "accessing themedia" ease inhealthsectorspendinghastakenona"war 51 to getthesemessagesacross. This 166 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 167 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences GAPS ANDNEEDSINHEALTH JOURNALISMSUPPORT AT COUNTRY LEVEL WHAT SUPPORT ISAVAILABLE TOHELPJOURNALISTSPRODUCEANDREPORT EFFECTIVELY ON HEALTH ISSUES? Network, International CenterforJournalists, Network, International http://www.healthjournalism.net/analy- (Internews Network, International Centerfor Network,International (Internews 2006. URL Health Journalism Partnership(Internews Health Journalism 52 “Health Journalism Partnership.” “Health Journalism and PanosLondon).2006.URL: Journalists, andPanosLondon). Journalists, : http://www.healthjournal- Health Journalism Partnership Health Journalism 53 ism.net/index.aspx “Country Profiles.” sis/profiles.aspx public healthinformationforruralandilliteratepopulations. programs. Indevelopingcountries,broadcast mediaare themainsource of were citedastheprimarybeneficiariesofthesesupport by radiojournalists programs -onhealthandotherthemesdidnotexceed$20,000in2005. capacitybuilding organizations reported theirbudgetsforjournalism partnerships, andmostare smallorganizations.Sixty-onepercent ofthese perhaps followingglobaltrends inincreased attention toglobalhealth working foronlythepasttwotofiveyearsinsupportinghealthjournalism, 4 3 2 1 published reports. interviews withkeymediaand healthprofessionals atthecountry-leveland ineachcountry,from organizationsengagedinsupporting healthjournalism capacitybuilding inanumberofcountries.Theanalysistookresponses journalism Partnership (HJP)analysisalsoprofiled thestateofhealth The HealthJournalism organizations -71–hadnotengagedin anyformofevaluation. to measure change/impact.Asignificantnumberofmediasupport/development and/or theiremployers,fewerusedlocalmediacontent analysisofhealthissues Some organizationsconductedfollow-upinterviews/questionnaire withjournalists activities citedwere primarilyevaluatedthrough workshopevaluationforms. doctors, nursesandcaregivers. training programs. Othertrainershavebeenpublicrelations experts, medical public healthandcommunicationprofessionals forthesehealthjournalism reporting. Asignificantnumberoforganizationsalsotapintotheexpertise professionals aslead expertsfortrainingprogramsthey usejournalism inhealth a piecemealapproach withlittlefollowup journalists. onhealthissues.Theirworkhasbeendoneprimarilyin briefings forjournalists UN agenciesandregional organizations.Mostoftheseorganizationshaveheld department/organization, commercial organization/privatebusiness,government NGOs,professionalhealth informationNGOs,international/regional associations, national/local NGOs,mediahouses/businesses,academic/research institutions, responding tothesurveyincluded:mediadevelopment/supportNGOs, The followingwasfoundoutaboutorganizationssupportinghealthjournalism: toimprove coverageofhealthissuesin2005. journalists 422 organizationsaround theworldthatself-identified asproviding supportto support.Theglobalsurveyfound conducted aglobalsurveyonhealthjournalism - CenterforJournalists Network,PanosLondonandtheInternational Internews Partnership(HJP)-aconsortiumbetween In 2006,theHealthJournalism 5 . . . . .

Which journalists are being supported? Print media journalists, followed are beingsupported?Printmediajournalists, Which journalists How muchfunding/experiencedotheyhave?Mostorganizationshadbeen Is there ameasurement oftheevaluation/impact?Thecapacitybuilding Who’s trainingwho?Themajorityofmediasupportorganizationsreport that around theworld?Theorganizations Who issupportinghealthjournalists 53 52 WRITING ANDRESEARCHSKILLSFORINVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM TECHNOLOGICAL ANDFINANCIALRESOURCES UNDERSTANDING MEDICALINFORMATION ANDDATA HEALTH JOURNALISMANDNETWORKING STRONGER PARTNERSHIPS BETWEENMEDIAANDHEALTH ORGANIZATIONS science experts, aswellotherorganizations involvedinhealth. andhealth mistrust thatoftensoursthe relationship betweenjournalists can, intheopinionofmany intervieweesintheHJPsurvey, reduce themutual This was identifiedasbothmutually beneficialandcrucialtogoodjournalism. andprofessionalsBuilding relationships inthehealthsector betweenjournalists of healthissues,andtherefore refuse toworkwithjournalists. time, manyhealthprofessionals coverage havenotbeenimpressed withjournalistic ingeneral.Atthesame final newsproduct andby implication, healthjournalism just wantyoutocoveroneortwothingstheydo."This undeniablyimpactsthe either blockingefforts toobtainthemorhighlightingonlytheirsuccesses."They support organizationtoldHJPthathealthorganizations holdbackinformationby media Aseniorofficiala dauntingexercise withaninternational forjournalists. inmanycountriesgettinginformationforhealthstoriescanstillbe journalists, While institutionsengagedinpublichealthare graduallyopening doorsto information are thebiggestchallengescited. or simply"writingthewrong things."Gettingthestory, researching, finding vulnerabletopossiblemisinformationofthepublic the subjectmakesjournalists understanding andfamiliarityofthesubjectmatter. Thelackofafullgraspon depends notonlyon"whatistoldbythenewssource" butalsoon theactual Anintervieweenotedthathealthjournalism meaningful healthjournalism. trainingwasidentifiedbyallinterviewedascentralto Fundamental journalism hamper healthreporting. leads, engageinin-depthresearch andembarkonneededtravelfornewsgathering according tosomeinterviewees.Thelackoffinancialresources andtimetopursue complicated andexpensivethanstoriesonothersubjectssuchaspolitics, recorders andcamerastoconductfieldreporting. Healthstoriestendtobemore houses participatinginthesurveysaidthere are notenoughequipmentsuchas indevelopingcountries.Media among thesupportneedsofmanyjournalists Lack ofresources telephone,recorders suchasaccess tointernet, andstudioare and theartofinterviewing. countries haveaconsiderablylowlevelofprofessional skillsinwriting,research inmanydeveloping health issues.Thisiscompoundedbythefactthatjournalists coveringissuesrelated toHIV/AIDSandother is amajorchallengetojournalists The abilitytobreak through complexscientificandmedicalterminologydata 168 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 169 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS THE STATUS OFHEALTH JOURNALISTS INCENTIVES TOREPORTING ONHEALTH LONG TERMINVESTMENTSINJOURNALISMEDUCATION/TRAINING media businessesare increasingly privatelyownedincountries oncedominated with multiple,oftencommercial channelswhere oncethere wasonlyone.New connectivity.internet There istelevisioninplaceswhere there wasnonebefore, There are agrowing numbersoflocalradiostations,print publications, andwider spectives tobeaired andcreates spaceforpublicdiscussion,debateandanalysis. This informationrevolution increasingly provides opportunitiesformultipleper- have changedthemedialandscapeinmanycountries. andmobilecommunications community radio,andincreasing accesstointernet regulatory environment, consolidationoflargemediaholdings,thegrowth of rapidly changing.Privatizationofformerstate-owned broadcasters, achanging In countriesfacingthebiggestpublichealthchallenges, themedialandscapeis health andnewsmediasectors. understanding andstrengthened mutualrespect -atalllevelsbetweenthe Before anywide-scalechangecanhappenthere needstobeabroader psyche ofinfectedandaffected populationsislost. impact ofdiseasessuchasHIV/AIDS,malaria,tuberculosis onthesocioeconomic AIDS are mostlyinterested instraightforward hard newson"politicalaccountsabout space. In-depthhealthreporting isnotencouragedbecauseasanorm,editors because there are storiesonpoliticsorsportscompeting forthesameslotor broadcast media.Sometimestoo,healthstoriesare simplynotusedatall Most oftenhealthstoriesare relegated toanobscure placeinbothprintand other areas enjoyintermsofincomegeneration. will havethepotentialforself-sustenanceandsamecompetitivenessthat newsroom policy, healthprograms whichare accorded amplespaceandairtime believe thatoncetheculture ofhealthprioritizationhasbecomeapartcore a verylongtimehasnotbeenpriorityformediahouses."Someinterviewees "for noted thatrelative toreporting inareas suchaspoliticsandsports,health houses whohavelittleornointerest inhealthreporting. Abroadcast editor There istheneedtooffer trainingsupporttoeditorsandmanagersofmedia assignments asisoftenthecaseincountriesweanalyzed. encourage specializationattheworkplaceinlieuofcoveringhealthwithgeneral from amediasupportorganizationalsonoted that mediaestablishmentsmust tional graspofmedicalandscientificjargonsterminology. Aninterviewee obtainafounda- in school,according tointerviewees,willhelpyoungjournalists reporting schools. injournalism encourage curriculathatoffer specializationopportunitiesinhealthandscience Special mentionwasalsomadebysomeintervieweesoftheneedtodevelopand particularlyyoungprofessionals. skillsandcapacitybuildingofjournalists journalistic Long termon-thejobtrainingwasidentifiedasveryimportantfornurturing rather thanscientificones."Insuchsituations,theopportunitytoexplore the The opportunity to study health journalism while The opportunitytostudyhealthjournalism world willrequireconsiderable “To guaranteequalityhealth time andfinancialresources. discussions inthehandsof But thisisarevolutionary journalism inmuchofthe way toputpublichealth way those mostaffected.” Panos Institute,2003, 20 Years from HIV/AIDS. ofLearning 54 Scalway, T. Missing theMessage? www.panos.org.uk partnerships andmediadevelopmentpartnerships. a newglobalpriority. Thiswouldservetomeetthegoalsofglobalhealth feature storiesandtalkshowprograms intothemainstream mediashouldbe supporting public considerable timeandfinancialresources. Butthisisarevolutionary waytoput To inmuchoftheworldwillrequire guaranteequalityhealthjournalism and discussionontheseevolvinghealthissues. vernacular. More importantlytheyare goingtowantparticipateindialogue andcommunicationonhealththatbringglobalissuesintotheirlocal journalism to newandmore diverseinformation-theyare goingtowanthaveaccess Additional pressure comesasaudiencesbecomemore sophisticatedwithaccess campaigns isonlypartoftheequation. to beablerecognize thatprescriptive healthmessagingthatworkswellin prescribing themselvesneed tothemwhatwriteabout/broadcast. Journalists relevant knowledgefortheiraudiences,ratherthanglobalhealthpartnerships needtobeempowered tocreateLocal journalists theirownhealthprograms with resources andinformationtodeveloptheirpotential. relevant andreal fortheiraudience.To dothistheywillrequire theskills, with therightmixofskills,canmakeoftencomplexhealthissuesunderstandable, discussion anddebatearound publichealthandindividualhealth.Journalists, playakeyroleIn thischangingenvironment, instimulatingpublic journalists and fewersources are automaticallyacceptedasauthoritative. networked societies.Ithasbecomefarmore difficult totargetinformation between growing numbersofindividualsandorganizationsinincreasingly information comingfrom afewsources, manymessagesare nowpassed are alsochanginghowpeoplecommunicate.Where there wasoncelimited andmobilecellphones by thestatemedia,andnewtechnologiesofInternet health discussionsinthehandsofthosemostaffected. Promoting and the abilities of journalist toproduce localhealth-focusednews, the abilitiesofjournalist 54 170 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 171 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Eradication Press FreedomandPoverty Journalists’ Unions, The NexusbetweenIndependent threat tofreedomofthe their staff may receive their staffmay encourage corruption employers haverelied conditions arealsoa Paper: Media,DevelopmentandPoverty RL_ID=21468&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_ Lessons Learnt: AStrategicPolicyDiscussion Lessons Learnt: doubt thatinsome ned thereisno Indeed, “But bad pay and badpay “But press becausethey among themedia. on the'envelopes' http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php- from outsidersto Sri Lanka1-3May2006” onre,many countries, balance thelow employers pay.” published byUNESCO, salaries the of aBackground Paperoriginally Between DonorsandUNESCO) World Press Freedom Day 55 56 This isaneditedversion For more examplessee: SECTION=201.html “Presentation : Applyingthe Eradication. press freedom(andthereforepovertyeradication)infive ways: This paperarguesthatstrongandindependentjournalists’ unionsarecentralto existinconditionsofcorruption,povertyorfear". if journalists knows whatpress freedom isnot.We say:"There canbenopress freedom ourselves: Whatare theessential ingredients forpress freedom? TheIFJcertainly poverty eradication The argumentthatafree andindependentmediamustbeacentralcomponent of International FederationofJournalists(IFJ) Christopher Warren, If weacceptthesethoroughly discussed arguments corruption andpromoting goodgovernance. are focused,reflect localneedsandare widelyunderstood;and bycombating voice; byensuringtheefforts topromote sustainableeconomicdevelopment three ways:byempoweringthepooranddisadvantagedgiving thema argued thatafree andindependentmediaisessentialtopovertyeradicationin The Presentation PaperfortheUNESCO2006World Press Freedom Dayconference of journalists. eradication havetorecognise prioritiesthatsupportcollectiveorganisations and povertyeradication.Donorsinterested inmediadevelopmentandpoverty pressindependent, strong, freedom democraticandactiveunionsofjournalists, There isanindeliblenexusthatexistsbetweenthecreation andsupportfor unionsarethrough centraltoachievingpress independentjournalists’ freedom. workingtogether takes thisargumentastepfurtherandsuggeststhatjournalists October 2005andduringWorld Press Freedom DayinMay2006.Thispaper put inforasuchastheGlobalForumonMediaDevelopmentAmman 2 1 regulation, safety, criminaldefamation,confidentiality ofsources, freedom of isneededforpress freedomjournalists ethicsandself- topromote journalism andemployers. both governments haveacollectivevoice that canspeakforthem,independentof that journalists freedom because itisonlythrough anindependenttradeunionofjournalists . .

Promoting professionalism, safetyandethics:Anindependent collectiveof Collective Voice: unionsare necessaryforpress Independentjournalists’ 55 efforts hasbeen successfully andimproving goodgovernance President, 56 then weneedtoask THE NEXUSBETWEENJOURNALISTS’UNIONSANDPRESSFREEDOM that journalists’ economicandsocialrights are respected.that journalists’ broadcasting andpublicservicevalues,promoting professionalism and ensuring confidentiality ofsources, freedom ofinformation,promoting publicservice safety, ethicsandself-regulation, journalist journalism criminal defamation, isessentialinthedefenceofpress freedom:A collectivevoiceforjournalists canbeallofthem. but onlyademocraticcollectiveofjournalists groups makeavitalandimportantcontributiontothepushforpress freedom, freedom, including manyofmediaemployersandpress freedom NGOs.These Other organisationsrepresenting interests can speakforpress journalists’ Itisdemocratic,representativetive collectivevoiceforjournalists. andactive. oremployers.It provides theonlytrulyrepresenta-is independentofgovernment What are Atradeunionofjournalists thefeatures ofatradeunion ofjournalists? and povertyeradication. tradeunions,isessentialforpress freedomjournalists’ andtherefore development manifestedthrough independent The IFJarguesthatacollectivevoiceforjournalists, Five stepsmeasurethisnexus: achievable goal. And through strengthened press freedom, povertyeradication becomesamore tradeunions,pressThrough freedom supportinglocaljournalists’ isstrengthened. the police,militaryandbusiness,practisetruepublicservicejournalism. thebureaucracy,They demandtransparency andaccountabilityofgovernment, regulating defendingpress freedom, ethicaljournalism, rejecting corruption. defending theirsocialandeconomicrights,togetherwithpromoting andself- are and capableofreaching outandspeakingonbehalfoflocaljournalists theseorganisations As theonlytrueandindependentvoiceoflocaljournalists, It isthisthatgivesargumentitsgreatest power. part of,theimpoverishedcommunitiesthataidagenciesare seekingtoassist. whoare mostoftenclosestto,ifnotdirectlyindependent localworkingjournalists collectivesmadeupofgenuine This argumentisunderstoodbyjournalists’ since wewere foundedin1926. This approach isnotnew. Indeed,theIFJanditsaffiliates havebeensaying this are pressnecessary becauselabourrightsforjournalists freedom issues. inthefield. fair anddemocraticmeansofreaching journalists andreject corruption. practice ethicaljournalism can working conditions-achievableonlythrough thecollective-thatjournalists unions are necessaryforpress freedom becauseitisonlythrough fairwages and 3 rights are respected. promoting economicandsocial professionalism andensuringthatjournalists’ information, promoting publicservicebroadcasting andpublicservicevalues, 5 4 . . .

Labour rightsare press unionsare freedom issues:Independentjournalists’ unionistheonlyeffective, Anindependent journalists’ Reaching journalists: Combating corruptionanddemandingfairwages:Independentjournalists’ 172 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 173 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences JOURNALIST SAFETY ETHICS ANDSELFREGULATION for journalists’rights journalists thatcan be absolutelyrelied upon tocampaign only thecollective Utmtl,itis “Ultimately, “Coups, KingsandCensorship” organisation of Noonan 58 57 and safety.” Freedom inthePhilippines” For furtherdiscussiononthePhilippines For furtherdiscussiononNepalandthe role oftheFNJ,seeChristopherWarren and theworkofNUJP, seeGerard “A Dangerous Profession: Press and RosinaDiMarzo , IFJ(2005) , IFJ(2005) relied rights andsafety. upontocampaignforjournalists’ ultimately, thatcanbeabsolutely itisonly the collectiveorganisationofjournalists opi ea htocre nFbur 1, Coup inNepalthatoccurred onFebruary and localorganisationshavebeeninvolvedinthecondemnationofRoyal (FNJ)overthepast15months.Aplethoraofinternational Nepalese Journalists A recent dramaticexampleofthisinaction istheworkofFederation todotheirjobwithoutinjuryordeath. insurance andequipmentforjournalists togetheranddemandthatemployersprovide adequatepolicies,training, journalists thatisabletobring practices, butitisonlyacollectiveorganisationofjournalists other organisationscanprovide informationandtrainingaboutsafeworking relied upontoactwithoutpressure organisations. Additionally, from journalists’ Many employersare supportive,butthesadhistorythattoomanycannotbe precautions todotheirworkassafelypossible. are takenforjournalists thatcanberelied upontodemandthatallnecessary organisation ofjournalists mustensure thattheyworksafelyandwithoutthreat.Journalists Itisonlyan safetyandtherefore unionsare essentialtojournalists’ Journalists’ topress freedom. unions. many journalists’ isawarecards, ofthecode.Thisisstandard sothateachjournalist practicefor they jointheorganisation.Italsoreproduces itscodeofethicsonmembership Independenrequires tosignonthecodeas the AliansiJurnalis eachjournalist codes ofethicsandpromote themtotheirmembers.Forexample,inIndonesia, whoagree unionsadopt onandpromotejournalists anethicalcode.Journalists’ press freedom. Self-regulation isonlypossiblewhenthere isacollective of leadtoadeclinein sanction forethicalbreaches (iebygovernment) external regulation mustself-regulate:It iswidelyagreed and thatexternal thatjournalists Some examplesofhowjournalists’unionspromotepressfreedomare: the victims’families. underattack andsupporting setting upahotlineforjournalists the government, been there fortheir colleaguesanddemandingactionfrom thepolice,courtsand the Philippines(withsupportofIFJanditsmember organisations),has of inthePhilippines,NationalUnionofJournalists organisation ofjournalists financial supporthasbeenmadeavailabletodealwiththe crisis.Thecollective national organisationsonthisissuehasbeenlessthanenthusiastic andonlylimited since 1986,resulting murdered. inscores ofjournalists Theresponse from inter- there charge (alongwithlocalNGOs)againsttheappallingattacks onjournalists Similarly, ledthe inthePhilippines,collectiveorganisationofjournalists events inNepal. wouldnothavebeenabletoeffectively respondthe localjournalists torecent organisations involvedinthecampaign(asmostactuallywere), without theFNJ restoration ofpress press freedom. freedom Simplyput,evenwithallinternational safetythroughout thecrisisandledchargedemanding for journalists’ provided direct supporttotheirmemberswhowere attackedandjailed,ledthepush provided informationonpress community, freedom abusestotheinternational inNepal,theFNJ,that But itwasthekeycollectiveorganisationofjournalists and manyothershasbeeninvaluable. NewsSafetyInstitute,ReportersSansFrontiers as Article19,theInternational andrestrictions onpressjournalists freedoms. Thisworkfrom organisationssuch 57 58 There isnostarker demonstration ofourargument:that 2005 and theconsequentattackson CRIMINAL DEFAMATION their livesiftheyspeak “This isthecasein “This where journaliststake regional areasofthe local politiciansand Philippines andhas massive riskswith lead toasituation pnos usually sponsors, business people.” out againsttheir defeating criminaldefamation”,IFJ(2005) 59 Emma Walters andAlexJohnson “Decriminalising Defamation: an IFJcampaignresource for 60 Ibid campaign todefeatcriminaldefamation. organisationsandpress freedomof journalists’ advocatesledthe successful that countrytohavecriminaldefamationremoved. AndinSriLanka,acoalition Two examples laws from thepenalcodeintheircountry. in-country tions ofjournalists campaigning againstcriminaldefamation,ultimatelyitisthecollectiveorganisa- Article 19andtheWorld Press Freedom Committeehavedonemuchworkon anathema topress freedom. expression instrumentsandbodieswhichhavedeclared criminaldefamationan recogniseddefamation. There freedom isunanimityamonginternationally of unionsthroughout theworldareJournalists’ leadingthechargeagainstcriminal to 85 per cent of Indonesian journalists haveaccepted to 85percentofIndonesianjournalists world, particularlywhere povertyisendemic.InIndonesia,itestimatedthatup favorable, orindeed,anycoverage-isrifeinmanycountriesthroughout the receive envelopescontainingcashfromjournalists anewssource for inreturn Corruption inthemedia,through thepracticeof‘theenvelopetradition’-where receive from outsiderstobalancethelowsalariesemployerspay. some countries,manyemployershaverelied onthe‘envelopes’theirstaff may they encouragecorruptionamongthemedia.Indeed,there isno doubtthatin But badpayandconditionsare alsoathreat tofreedom ofthepress because to eatandfeedtheirfamilies. -likeeveryoneelseneed decent conditionsisimportantinitself.Journalists poverty. Ensuringpeoplewho workinthemediaare fairlypaidandworkunder The IFJfirmlybelievesthatpress freedom livein cannotexistwhere journalists thathasavestedinterest indefeatingcriminaldefamation. of journalists ones tobejailedundertheseretrograde laws,anditisthecollectiveorganisation safety,As withjournalist themselveswhoare the itisultimatelythejournalists freelancers, part-timers, ‘correspondents’ -ishavingadeleterious effect onpress oncontract,increasing useof these employmentpractices -puttingjournalists conducted research that confirmslong-heldsuspicionsthatthemovetowards toward contingent and atypicalemploymentpractices.TheIFJhasrecently Another related area isthechangingnature ofworkinthemedia-trend freedom and allocatedresources tosupportworkinthisarea. right todecentworkingconditionsaspartoftheenabling environment has beenrecognised byUNESCOwhichatitslastGeneralConference includedthe workandpressThis linkbetweenthesocialenvironment freedom inwhichjournalists politicians andbusinesspeople. massive riskswiththeirlivesiftheyspeakoutagainst sponsors,usuallylocal regional areas take ofthePhilippinesandhas ledtoasituationwhere journalists at allandinsteadworkoncommissionorsub-contract basis. Thisisthecasein the columncm,oronlyifstoryispublished.Insomecountries, theydon’t getpaid wagesare notoriouslylow.countries journalists’ are paidby Sometimes,journalists andwhilesomemediaemployerspayfairly,honesty from journalists indeveloping Eliminating corruptionrequires decentpayfrom employersasmuchitrequires related totheurgentneedraiseworkingstandards ofjournalists. andisclearly is amajorimpedimenttobuildingtheintegrityofjournalism, : In Ghana, the Ghana Journalists’ Associationledthefightin : InGhana,theGhanaJournalists’ 59 that musttakeupthefighttostrikethesedraconian Again, while international organisationssuchas Again, whileinternational 60 ‘envelopes’. This practice for press 174 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 175 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences UNION BUSTINGTACTICS when theyleavejour- But whathappens...? et,orloseinterest beats, HIV/Aids reporting. will hopefullyhave “After thetraining aim orchange nalism, these journalists improved their in HIV/Aids.” in themediaindustry” A globalsurveyofatypicalwork “The ChangingNature ofWork: 61 Emma Walters andMikeDobbie IFJ (inprint) ability tofreely express themselves.Thissortofunion-busting tacticcanrange withinacompany,collective voiceofindependent journalism underminingtheir independence oftheeditorial staff. Bybreaking theunion,employersbreak the Employers attempttobreak amediaunionbecause theywanttobreak the autonomy,that underminesjournalistic underminesfreedom ofexpression. integrityandautonomy.Itconditions onjournalistic followsfrom thisthatanything security. Theyare alwaysaboutfreedom ofexpression andtheimpactofworking are neveraboutratesofpayorjob andyou’llfindthatthe concerns journalists highly unionisedworkforce intheworld.Ifyougotoanyunionmeetingof knowthisalmostinstinctively.Journalists It’s isoneofthemost whyjournalism employer thanfrom governments. in envelopes.Thefearoflosingyourjobismore likelytocomefrom your legislation. Pressuregovernment from employers cancorruptasmuchmoney autonomyisattackedasmuchbypovertyemployersand Journalistic That’s whytheyinvolvefreedom ofexpression issues. are independenceorautonomy. almostalwaysaround thequestionofjournalistic The IFJanditsmemberunionsbelievethatseriouslabourdisputesinthemedia the materialsandtraining. isabletoensure thatthereorganisation ofjournalists isinstitutionalretention of orchangebeats,loseinterest inHIV/AIDS?Onlyacollective leave journalism, hopefully haveimproved their HIV/AIDSreporting. Butwhathappenswhen they will of thewidercollective.Aftertrainingiscomplete,thesejournalists whomaynotberepresentativethis trainingislimitedtohand-pickedjournalists organisationsare conductingsimilar training,butgenerally Other international (translated intolocallanguages)foruseafterthecompletionofproject. unionswillretain thematerialsandresourcesWhen complete,thejournalists’ are tions organisations inAfricaandAsiaonproviding thistraining.Thememberorganisa- throughout theworld,IFJisworkingwithitsrepresentative collective Unlike someotherHIV/AIDSreporting trainingprojects beingundertaken Journalists’ UnionsbyImprovingReportingofHIV/AIDSinAfricaandAsia". conducted bytheIFJandsupportedLOTCOSIDA: An exampleofthisisthecurrent reporting HIV/AIDS trainingproject being memory andresources. becomes partofthemediaculture bycreating organisational–notindividual media developmentworkisnotlimitedtoindividuals:thatthe the opportunitytoaccessdevelopmenttrainingandinformation.Itensures that However, have ensures thatalljournalists acollectiveorganisationofjournalists ways. Noneofthese,however, are trulyeffective, fairordemocratic. working withsinglemediaorganisations;andself-selectionare someofthe recommendations fromhand pickingjournalists; employersorgovernment; There are fortrainingandmediadevelopment: otherwaysofreaching journalists democratic meansofreachingjournalistsinthefield. The IFJbelievesanindependentjournalists’unionisthemosteffective,fairand economic andprofessional rightsofthesecontingentworkers. that canaddress thesealarmingtrends byunionizingandcampaigningforthe unionsare theonlyorganisations Journalists’ from employersandgovernment. collectives, leavingthemaloneandvulnerabletoincreased editorialinterference fromfreedom. their Theseemploymentpracticesdivideindividualjournalists democratically selectingparticipantsfrom across their organisations. "Strengthening 61 ILLEGAL ACTIVITYBYEMPLOYERS DISCRIMINATION WITHINTHEWORKPLACE ? CONTRACT ORCASUALEMPLOYMENT They are: interested insupportingmedia development. freedom andpovertyeradicationalsohavefiveparallelimplications fordonors unions,press These fivedemonstrationsofthenexusbetweenjournalists’ industrial views. from freely expressing themselvesforfearoftheiremployerfindingout uniontoactindependentlyandmuzzlesmembers the abilityofajournalists’ such aseavesdropping onunionmeetingsorphonehook-ups.Thisprevents unionthrough illegalactivity An employermayseektoundermineajournalist expression rights. is thatwomenare beingdeniedtheabilityto practice theirfreedom of to employment,particularassignmentsorhigherpaylevels.Thedirect result These practicesresult inwomenbeingdeniedaccess against womenjournalists. practices thatdiscriminateagainstparticulargroups, mostcommonly, campaignsoveremployment unionsare oftenengagedininternal Journalist and, thus,theirfreedom ofexpression. greater control overstaff, underminingtheirstaff’s autonomyandindependence employment. Asaresult ofthislosssecurity, employersare abletoexercise fixed –termcontracts,casualemploymentorsomeotherformofcontingent integritybydenyingjobsecurity.journalistic Staff, instead,are engagedon In manycountriesaround theworld,employersare seekingtoundermine entry tounionorganisers. from non-recognition, through cancellingcollectiveagreements torefusal of 1 3 2. active, representative organisations ofjournalists. already exist,andstrengthening existingandfledglingindependent,democratic, where theydonot the establishmentofcollectiveorganisationsjournalists Thismeanssupporting conducted through collectiveorganisationsofjournalists. Donors needtorecognise thatanyeffective mediadevelopmentworkshould be organisations ofjournalists. efforts. Butfar more sothan regular workers, tradeuniondevelopment organisations intheirtradeunioncapacity-building need tosupportjournalists’ eradicate poverty. Donorstherefore Ofcoursethisisalsothe caseforjournalists. Across society, trade uniondevelopmentworkisessentialforallworkers to information; supportforcampaignspublicservicebroadcasting. campaigns forauthors’rights,protection ofsources andfreedom of safety; supportforcampaignsagainstcriminaldefamation; supportfor ethics andself-regulation; supportforcampaigningandtrainingjournalist in theworkthattheydo.Thisincludessupportforestablishing andpromoting As capacity-buildingdemandsactivity, unions donorsshouldsupport journalists’ . . . .

Support isrequiredfortheformationandstrengtheningofcollective Trade uniondevelopment supportisrequiredforjournalists’collectives. Support isrequiredforcapacity-buildingofjournalists’ unions. 176 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 177 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences to povertyeradication. giving voicetothepoorandmostdisadvantagedgroups, whichisessential that reflects theinterests andaspirationsofallsectorssociety, including military/police andthebureaucracy. Itwillalsopracticepublicservicejournalism business,the media, capableofactingasawatchdogtogovernment, willleadtoaprofessional publicservice corruption inmedia,whichturn 5 4. Thirdly themselves. reproductive rights,HIV/AIDS,educationandsoon,tothemediaprofessionals efforts toreduce povertyasdonorsdobysupportinglocalNGOsonhealth, themselves.We shouldapplythesamepolicyofsupportinglocal of journalists groups isakeytopovertyeradication,thenwemustalsoacceptthisinthecase Second, First major ways. willfurtherassistinpovertyeradicationacross societyinthreefor journalists freedom isessentialforpovertyeradication. reduce povertyandmeettheMillenniumDevelopment Goals.Inshort,press supporting journalists’unionsisaneffectivemeantoreinforce globaleffortsto collective organisationsofjournalistsareessentialtopress freedomandthat tion, pressfreedomandcollectiveorganisationsofjournalists. Itsuggestedthat This paperhasarguedthatthereisadirectconnection betweenpovertyeradica- fall andpress freedom willbeatstake. Labourrightsare press freedom issues. can losesightoftheirrole inthepublicservicemediaframework,standards may rights. Wages inmediawillcontinuetofall,corruptionincrease, journalists cannoteffectively bargainfortheirsocial,economicandprofessionaljournalists policiesprohibit it,then toformatradeunion,orgovernment of journalists directly impingeonpress freedom. Ifanemployerrefuses torecognise theright freedom communityshouldrecognise thatlabourrightsissuesforjournalists press While notnecessarilyaspecificpriorityformostdonors,theinternational media aspressfreedomissues. country. - in toreach journalists work focusesonshoulduselocalcollectiveofjournalists reporting, genderinmediaandsoon.Indeed,anyissuethatdevelopment human rightsinstrumentsandtheworkofdefenders,election on childrights,HIV/AIDS,themillenniumdevelopmentgoals,international This couldbeusedformediadevelopmentactionsdesignedtoimprove reporting eradication across society. whichleadstopoverty shouldleadtoprofessional journalism, unions ofjournalists rights, genderequality, sanitation,health,educationandsoon).Effective trade flows ontoallfacetsofreporting (includingreporting onpoverty, HIV/AIDS,child aspirations, donorsare directly improving professionalism andethics,which . .

The internationalpressfreedomcommunityshouldembracelabourrightsin Donors shouldusegenuinelocalcollectivesofjournaliststoreachjournalists. , trade union work with journalists willleadtohigherwagesandreduced trade unionworkwithjournalists , by supporting collective organisations of journalists intheirtradeunion by supportingcollectiveorganisationsofjournalists if weacceptthatempowermentofmarginalisedanddisadvantaged Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys & Resources 179 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Semantic Confusion? Participatory Diffusion or Section 4: THE ENDLESSDEBATE ONTHE‘WHAT’ AND‘HOW’OFDEVELOPMENTCOMMUNICATION role thatthemediahave in facilitatingtheprocess “Less understoodisthe “Less of development.” Mapping theSector:Literature, SurveysandResources United NationsCapitalDevelopmentFund Adam Rogers, participatory developmentcommunication, communicationanddevelopment, and varied:developmentcommunication, developmentsupportcommunication, The terminologiesandmethodologies usedtodescribetheconceptare many divergent perspectives. well asatthelevelsofpolicy andplanning/implementation,there are many should beinterpreted andapplied.Bothatthetheoryresearch levels,as than 40years,there remains alackofconsensusoverwhattocallit,andhowit defined intheearly1960s.Thoughithasbeenstudied andpracticedformore attention ofmanyscholarsanddevelopmentprofessionals sinceitwasfirst The role ofcommunication indevelopmentprocesses hasattractedthe media indevelopingcountries. in efforts tosupportthedevelopmentofefficient, effective andsustainable compare thedifferences, anddrawssomeconclusions intermsoftheirrelevance to simplyas"participatorydiffusion." Thispaperalsoattemptstoclarifyand "participatory devcom."Asynchronic approach thatcombinesthetwoisreferred refers tothefirstapproach as"diffusion devcom,"andthesecondapproach as processes thataffect theirlivelihoods.Forpurposesofsimplification,thispaper those thatseektoengagethepopulationsmore fullyindecision-making persuade targetaudiencestoadoptcertainpracticesorchangesinattitudeand Many developmentprofessionals distinguishbetweenthoseefforts thatseekto best practices. influence policymakers,andbydisseminatingdiffusing knowledgeof development, bothbyproviding anopportunityforvulnerablepopulationsto Less understoodistherole thatthemediahaveinfacilitatingprocess of routinely includeitintheirdevelopmentbudgetsand/orplanningprocesses. understand therole ofcommunicationandappreciate ittothepointthatthey decision andpolicymakersinthedevelopmentcommunityatlargemaynot and research levels,aswellinpolicy, planningandimplementation.However, development,bothatthetheory strategic useofcommunicationininternational Extensive studiessincethemid-1960shavedemonstratedvalueof had anenormousimpactonefforts toreduce povertyindevelopingcountries. The scholarshipandpracticeoftherole ofcommunicationindevelopmenthas Chief, CommunicationsandPublicInformationUnit, TWO DOMINANTTHEORETICALFRAMEWORKS IN THEBEGINNING for thenext10to15years. (1964), andprovided thetheoretical foundationfordevelopmentcommunication of Schramm’s workwaspublished asMassMediaandNationalDevelopment agents tocommunicatemessages abouttechnologicalinnovations.Theresult in theconceptofanall-powerful mediathatcouldbeusedbydevelopment the precise role thatthemassmediaplayedindevelopment.Schrammbelieved Schrammtodetermine Cultural Organization(UNESCO)commissionedWilbur Drawing onLerner’s research, theUnitedNationsEducation,Scientificand by communicatingdevelopmentmessagestotheundeveloped. arguedthatthemediacouldserveasagreat multiplierofdevelopment Lerner urbanization, highliteracylevels,mediaconsumptionand politicaldevelopment. variablessuchas expanded economicactivityandothermodernization the MiddleEastandNorthAfrica,wasabletotrace correlations between book, ThePassingoftheTraditional conductedresearch Society(1958).Lerner in and communication)firstemergedwiththepublicationofDanielLerner’s classic The conceptofdevelopmentcommunication(orthelinkbetween beneficiaries aspartnersinthecommunicationanddecision-makingprocesses. others, whoadvocatedforamore participatoryapproach thatinvolvesdevelopment by Freire (1970,1973),Servaes (1997,2002)andMelkote&Steeves(2001),among (1958)andothers,thisapproach waslaterheavilycritcized Articulated byLearner to theirclientsasapanaceaforaddressing theinequitiesindeveloping countries. (diffusion) oftechnologicalandbehaviouralinnovationsfrom developmentagencies The earlyparadigmofdevelopmentcommunicationadvocatedforthetransfer them assuch. not mutuallyexclusive,thoughsomeacademicsandpractitionershavepresented model andtheParticipatory/Organicmodel.Thetwo"schoolsofthought"are two theoretical approaches couldbesummarizedastheDiffusion/Mechanistic will acceleratemore effective andsustainabledevelopment (Servaes,1999). the activeinvolvementofpopulationinprocess ofcommunicationitself and thosethatarguethediffusion modelistooverticalorone-wayandthat influenced bythediffusion theoryoftheAmericanscholarEverett Rogers(1962); discussions ontheconceptfitintooneoftwotheoretical frameworks:those approach orapplicationofcommunicationinsupportdevelopment,most Though there are amyriadoftermsinusetoday, eachdescribingadifferent security, advancetheireducationandimprove theirhealth. them toadoptnewpracticesthatwillenhancetheirlivelihood,increase their that affect theirlives,givingthema"voice"toinfluencepolicy, orpersuading of thepoor, beitthrough engagingthemmore fullyindecision-makingprocesses above -totheplanneduseofcommunicationinanyeffort toimprove thelives "development communication",orsimplydevcom,shouldrefer toallofthe distinct differences betweenthevariousterms.Of coursethere are, buttheterm Many academicanddevelopmentprofessionals wouldarguethatthere are preferred termattheUnitedNations:communicationfordevelopment. project supportcommunication,socialmarketing,andwhatcurrently isthe information-education-communication (IEC),communicationforempowerment, These 180 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 181 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources OPPOSING THEDIFFUSIONOFTHEORY “These scholarsarguedthat “These development effortstodate classes onthemajorityof development imposedthe ‘neo-colonialism’ …that were ideologicallyand uses ofmassmediain marginalised people.” interests ofdominant materially linkedto (Melkote &Steeves, 2002p.38).According to Melkote,such"persuasive and/or inculcatingcertainvalues, attitudes,andbehavioursinthepopulation" viathedeliveryandinsertionofnewtechnologies, process ofmodernization diffusion approach tobea"messagedelivery system"that"facilitatesthe world. Heconsidersthe as atooltoexpandthehegemony ofthewestern Srinivas MelkoteisanothercriticaltheoristwhoviewsRogers’ diffusion approaches in manydevelopmentprogrammes (Servaes,1997&1999). He hassaidthelackofattentiontohorizontaldimension hasledtofailure ordinary peopleasthekeyagentsofchange,orparticipants fordevelopment. at theUniversityofQueenslanddefinesparticipatory modelasthatwhichviews andCommunication Jan Servaes,professor andheadoftheSchoolJournalism methodologies emphasizingaccess,dialogueandparticipation (Beltran,1980). an abandonmentofthe"vertical"approach infavourofmore "horizontal" (Cardoso &Faletto,1979).Italsoresonated withmanyresearchers whocalledfor to explainunderdevelopment astheresult, orby-product, ofcapitalistexpansion tune withdependencytheory, popularatthetimeinLatinAmerica,whichsought dominant classesonthemajorityofmarginalizedpeople.Thisthinkingwasin concluding thatusesofmassmediaindevelopmentimposedtheinterests of deEstudiosSuperiores deComunicaciónparaAméricaLatina), Internacional Seminar onParticipatoryCommunication,sponsored in1978byCIESPAL (Centro A group ofscholarscoalescedaround thisthemeattheFirstLatin American and a"formofdominationmanipulationbytheelite"(Freire, 1973). "neo-colonialism" ment efforts todatewere ideologicallyandmateriallylinkedto ment decisionsandprocesses (Colle,1989).Thesescholarsarguedthatdevelop- concentration onadoptionandlackofemphasisrecipient inputintodevelop- "pro-innovation," "pro-persuasion," and"top-down" its development communication.Criticsofthediffusion modelwere unsettledby In theearly1970sanintellectualshiftoccurred inthebasicconceptof developed countries(Mwangi,2002). radio toexposefarmersnewinnovations–mostofwhichwere imported from developing countries,where trainedagriculturalofficers wouldusemediasuchas the theorywholeheartedlyandfundedthousandsofprojects inruralareas of Asia andAfricainthe1960s1970s.TheWorld BankandUNDPembraced In supportofthishypothesis,diffusion studiesproliferated inLatinAmerica, practice thatisassumedtoleadimproved livelihoods. through interest, evaluation,trialandfinallytoadoptionofthetechnologyor not –poor and interpersonalcommunicationstrategiescanmoveindividualsfrom poorto The diffusion modelassumesthataproper combinationofmass-mediated methods todevelopingsocieties. could introduce innovationssuchashighyieldseeds,fertilizersandnewfarming asserted that,usinghistheoretical model,developmentcommunicationscholars societies. Grounding muchofhisresearch inagriculturaldevelopment, inthewayinnovations were adoptedandacceptedin Rogers identifiedapattern landmark theoretical framework,whichhecalledDiffusion ofInnovations(1962). whom andwithwhateffect?" Ar communication withhis5-pointquestionof"Whosayswhatinchannelto Lasswell (1964)furtherdefinedthiscontextualframeworkfordevelopment via aprocess startingwithawareness (ofanewtechnologyorpractice) ound thesametime,Everett Rogersputforthhis nature -thatis,its Rogers IN DEFENCEOFDIFFUSION THE MIDDLEROADTOTIPPINGPOINT idea...How itisintroduced, oee,shouldbethrough however, atcptr hnes or participatory channels, it willneverbeaccepted, modified orembraced.” "A goodideaisa Rogers, 2001).Inthedecades thatfollowedthiscallformore popularparticipation people through theirgaininggreater control overtheirenvironment (Singhal & intended tobringaboutboth socialandmaterialadvancementforthemajorityof defined developmentasawidely participatoryprocess ofsocialchangethatis The thinkingadvancedbythe LatinAmericancriticsandthosethatfollowed be accepted,modifiedandembraced. introduced, however, shouldbethrough participatorychannels,oritwillnever emerges from anacademicproject ataEuropean university. Howitis it surfacesthrough a participatoryprocess inanunderdeveloped society, or come from thepeoplethemselves.However, agoodideaisidea,whether -theyoften public inapersuasionexercise donot always originateexternally lead users"(2003,p.375).Inotherwords, theconceptscommunicatedtoa up from theoperationallevelsofasystem,withinventingdonebycertain of comingoutformalR&Dnetworks,"hewrites,"innovationsoftenbubble local sources andthenevolveastheydiffuse viahorizontalnetworks."Instead Decentralized diffusion systemsare thoseinwhichinnovationsoriginatefrom differentiates between"centralized"and"decentralized"diffusion systems. In furtherclarifyingtherole ofdiffusion inparticipatoryplanning,Rogers ‘theirs,’ itwillnotbecontinuedoverthelongterm." "and unlessclientsfeelsoinvolvedwiththeinnovationthattheyregard itas an innovationishighlycompatiblewithclients’needsandresources," hewrites, in isdeterminedforthemostpartbyextentofparticipationinvolved."Unless in largemeasure bytheextentofbuy-inlocalpopulation,andthatbuy - acknowledged thatadevelopmentproject’s degree ofsustainabilityisdetermined In thefiftheditionofDiffusion ofInnovations,Rogers(2003,p. 376) of development(Rogers,1976). that engagedthelocalpopulationinplanning,implementationandexecution paradigm" oftop-downplanningwouldsignalashifttoward a form ofsupport As farbackas1976,Rogerssuggestedthatthepassingof"dominant participatory planningandtherole ofcommunicationstherein. (1983, 1995,2003),hebeganadvocatingfortheprinciplesof"bottom-up" top- emphasized the the faits accomplis, Unlike sometheoretical approaches todevcomthathavebeenpresented as of formalinfrastructure andtheacquisitionoftechnologies(Servaes,2002,p.4). urbanization, specialization,adoptionofacapitalisteconomicsystem,formation of development,"whichpromoted economicgrowth through industrialization, paradigm may havegottencaughtupinthebacklashagainst"modernization developing countries.However, therelevance ofRogers’theoretical framework believed thatwhatworkedfortheindustrializedcountrieswouldworkin the factthattheorywasaproduct ofatimewhendevelopmentprofessionals Much oftheearlycriticismdiffusion mayhavebeenwellplaced,considering tied upwithexpatriateextravaganceandpoliticalcorruption. campaigns" are "manipulativeandpotentially harmful" andare somehow days before hisdeathinOctober2004.Whileearliereditionsofwork Rogers continuouslyrevised andupdatedhisframeworkupuntil down diffusion oftechnology(1962,1971),inlatereditions 182 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 183 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources ready accesstoinformation to mobiliseactiontowards mass mediadiffusionand communication isneeded a developmentobjective.” IF EVERTHETWAIN SHALLMEET “Rogers maintainsthat “Rogers awareness ofanissue, while participatory are neededtoraise of researchers whoformaround refer toasan 47 A termRogers(2003)usesto to studyacommontopic.” an intellectualparadigm “informal network most importantisnotwhat anapproach iscalled,the originsofanideaor thebenefits ofbothapproaches.above inorder Forthem,whatis toharness Many developmentpractitioners are avoidingthe semantic debatesoutlined integrating upstream anddownstream communications. Cabañero-Verzosa refers tothisasa"dialogicalprocess" whichimplies interpersonal communicationsshouldplayacomplementary role intheprocess. interactive methodssuchastownhallmeetings.Both media plansand such asmassmediathrough newspaperortelevision,butalsobottom-up appr empowering paradigms. Shesaysthatinorder foracommunicationstrategytotakean in anapproach thatincorporatesbothdominantdevelopmentcommunication all developmentprojects are essentiallyaboutbehaviouralchange. Shealsobelieves author ofStrategicCommunicationforDevelopmentProjects (2003)believesthat Cecilia Cabañero-Verzosa, aseniorcommunicationsofficer attheWorld Bankand safe sextoavoidHIVtransmission,triggersabigchangeintherateofadoption. "tipping point":whenasmallchange,suchasfewmore individualspracticing diffusion ofaninnovationortowhatMalcolmGaldwell(2000)refers toasthe A combinationofthetwocanleadtowhatRogerscalls"criticalmass"in objective, beitHIVprevention orcommunity participationinlocalgovernment. participatory communicationisneededtomobilizeactiontowards adevelopment ready accesstoinformationare neededtoraiseawareness ofanissue,while that bothapproaches are necessary. Hemaintainsthatmassmediadiffusion and in more recent editionsofRogers’classic,Diffusion ofInnovations.Rogers argues An exampleofthissyncretic approach todevelopmentcommunicationisfound respecting thedifferences betweenperspectives. and critiquetheothers,questioningwhattheyderivefrom eachother, and sues vigour thatcanarisefrom hybridism." aries notasimpermeablewalls,butsitesforexchangeanddevelopingthe to theworld’s developmentchallengesmayindeed comefrom "viewingbound- there maysometimesbeaneedforbothapproaches. Themostviablesolutions what discursivepracticesare framed,"shesays.However, Einsiedelspeculates heard, whatvaluesare articulated,whatrepresentations are foregrounded, or of whosayswhattowhomwitheffects."We mightaskwhosevoicesare historical specificitiesthanthataddressed byLasswell’s (1964)linearquestioning when questionsondevelopmentissuesare muchmore complexandwithgreater Einsiedel (2000)notesthattheparticipatoryapproach isparticularlyimportant Not everyoneagreed withthisresistance totheharmonizationofapproaches. politicalhegemony."discourse, duetoitshistoricalassociationwith"Western an "insidiousdominationtactic"ifincorporated argued thatanyuseofparticipationbythose done onlytohelpadvanceapredetermined objective(Dudley, 1993).White(1994) or merge thetwoapproaches aspassivecollaboration, 2002). Somescholarsfrom the"participationasanend"group sawanyattemptto conceptualized eitherasameanstoanend,orendinandofitself(Huesca, patory developmentasautopianpanacea.Inotherwor end, scholarscriticaloftraditional development communicationembraced began toincorporateparticipatorydimensionsintotheir diffusionat oneendofthespectrum,scholarsfrom school the"modernistic", in developmentcommunication,awiderangeoftheoretical responses emerged, multiple approaches todevelopment,usingeachapproach tobothinform oach, oneshouldlooknotonlyatemployingtop-down methods 47 This approach toresearch, shesays,pur- espousing diffusion willevolveinto into thedominantdevelopment manipulative consultation ds, participationwas research. tteother At the partici- THE ROLEOFMEDIAINPARTICIPATION THE ROLEOFMEDIAINDIFFUSION THE ROLEOFMEDIA THE ROLEOFMEDIAINPARTICIPATORY DIFFUSION timely, relevant, andclearinformationaswellananalysisofpolitical and in regards citizensand theirrepresentatives todemocraticgovernance, need and thenvalidatedorimproved locally tomakethemmore relevant. Inaddition, that are eitherdiscovered withinthecommunityitself,orimportedfrom outside The logicalextensionofthe firsttwoareas involvesthe diffusion of bestpractices urban poor. Deane, 2003),oftenleavingoutanycoverageofissues affecting theruraland increasingly shaped bythedemandsofadvertisersandsponsors(UNDP, 2005; as competitionamongstvariousmediaoutletsintensifies, contentisbeing a needtoreport onnewswherever itbefound,there ismountingevidencethat, are represented accuratelyintheirreportage. However, feel whilemostjournalists sentatives candirectly contactvulnerablepopulationsandensure thattheirviews because ofissuesliteracyandaccesstotelephony, themediaandtheirrepre- Though noteveryoneinpoorsocietieswillhavedirect accesstothemedia (Deane, 2005),andiscriticalinproviding a"voicetothevoiceless"(Huddock,2003). media isconsidered anecessarydimensionof"communicationforempowerment" encourage peopletoparticipateandcontributetheirperspectives.Thisrole ofthe is needed,suchasthrough talkshows,discussionprogrammes andphone-insthat communicate needs,andinfluencepolicymakers.Inorder forthistohappen,access a valuablechannelthrough whichvulnerablepopulationscanshare experiences, Though themediaprimarilyengageindiffusion ofinformation,theyprovide coverage, availabilityandthepublic’s perception oftheirlegitimacy. and music,themediaoftenplayacentralcatalyticrole becauseoftheir channels through whichtodiffuse messages,suchasbillboards, street theatre that couldleadtothetransmissionofHIV/AIDS).Thoughthere are many or attitude(suchasadoptingsafesexpractices,abandoningriskybehaviour order toinformandpersuadeatargetaudienceadoptorabandonpractice As discussedabove,diffusion involvesthepracticeofdisseminatingmessages in participation, diffusion, orparticipatorydiffusion. could becentered onanyoralloftheconceptualapproaches outlinedabove: the realization oftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Theseareas ofsupport developing countriesandtoenhancetheirabilitiescontributeeffectively to however, tostrengthen andsupportthegrowth ofindependentmediain and accountabilityare paramount.Developmentagenciescoulddomuchmore, programming, where especiallyinthearea issuesoftransparency ofgovernance, As such,mediasupportisincreasingly becominganimportantpartofdevelopment The mediaplayacentralrole inpromoting andsupportingdevcomefforts. Declaration. efficient toolstoachievethenobleobjectivesoutlinedinMillennium how itiscommunicated.Whatcriticalthatwefindthemosteffective and 184 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 185 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources LOOKING AHEAD:DEVCOMEFFORTS AT THEUNITEDNATIONS • • • • conclusions andrecommendations: communications tobepresented everytwoyears,andsetoutalistoffour A/59/207 (UnitedNations,2004b)whichrequested areport ondevelopment In August2004,Mezzalama’s report provided thefoundationfor UNresolution specific provision forcommunicationactivities. be acriticalpartofanydevelopmentprogramme, withbudgetsthatcontaina report madeanumberofrecommendations. Foremost wasacallfordevcomto insufficient importancetocommunicationinoperationalactivities.Mezzalama’s with theevolutionofdiscipline,andthatmostUNorganizationsattach which concludedthatthelevelofinter-agency coordination wasnotkeepingup in theUNsystem(Mezzalama,1994;UnitedNations2004b,1995&1996), of communicationinthesuccessfulimplementationdevelopmentprogrammes dropped theballin1980s.In1994,UNcommissionedastudyonrole Though theUnitedNationswasactiveindevcom1960sand1970s,it (participation) (Huddock,2003). economic issues(diffusion) inorder toparticipateeffectively inpolicyformation and asitprepares toreport onitsdevcomactivities onabiennialbasis. ways tobecomemore efficient inaddressing theMillenniumDevelopmentGoals, change astheorganization and itsextendedfamilysearch fornewandinnovative after-thought, relations. This,however, oranadd-on totheworkofexternal may funds fordevelopmentcommunication,andhaveoften considered itasan As yet,however, mostdevelopmentprogrammes havenotallocatedsufficient for MediaDevelopment,heldinAmmanOctober2005. are efforts tosupportmediadevelopment,suchasthrough theGlobalForum Congress onCommunicationforDevelopment are twonotableexamples,as Roundtables onCommunicationforDevelopmentand theupcomingWorld they diffusion, participatory, orparticipatorydiffusion. Theannual Inter-Agency organized withintheUNsystemtopromote andsupportdevcomefforts, be In response toUNresolution A/59/207anumberofinitiativesare being initiatives and strategies. ownership andtheeffectiveness andsustainabilityoftherelated innovative andeffective way, basedontheenhancementofnational should intensifyefforts toaddress thecurrent digitaldivideinamore part ofthedevelopmentprocess. Developingcountriesandtheirpartners Information andcommunicationtechnologieshavebecomeanintegral the privatesectorandcommunityleaders; NGOs,donors, andcountrylevels,includinggovernments, international This successcallsforenhancedsynergyamongallpartners,atboththe certain degree ofcohesioninitsapproach andactioninthisfield. such ascommunicationfordevelopmentround tables,hasachieveda The UnitedNationssystem,workingthrough anumberofmechanisms, in capacity-building,trainingandresearch atthecountrylevel; effective communicationprogrammes, includingincreased investment callsforincreased resourcesThis, inturn, redirected towards more integration intheeconomicandsocialplanningprocess iscalledfor; endeavour toachievehumandevelopmentand,consequently, greater Communication fordevelopmentisinstrumentalinthesuccessofany REFERENCES Paris: UNESCO. Communication (pp.140-175). 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MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources REFERENCES CONTINUED REFERENCES resolution 50/130,includingthe mentation ofGeneralAssembly Cultural Organizationontheimple- Nations Educational,Scientificand the Director-General oftheUnited United Nations.(2004b).Reportof New York: United Nations. system. (UNresolutionA/50/130). programmes intheUnitedNations Communication fordevelopment United Nations.(1996). United Nations. tion A/50/126/Add.1).NewYork: General. Addendum.(UNresolu- system, NotebytheSecretary programmes intheUnitedNations Communication fordevelopment United Nations.(1995). Oslo GovernanceCentre. Guidance Note(Draft).Oslo:UNDP nerable groups.APractical the roleofmediainsupportingvul- Communication forEmpowerment: Programme (2005). United NationsDevelopment New Delhi:Sage/India. From BullockCartstoCyberMarts. India’s CommunicationRevolution: Singhal, A&Rogers,E.(2001). 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(UN resolutionA/59/207).New Communication forDevelopment Inter-Agency RoundTable on recommendations oftheeighth The CaseforResearch Media Development: SOME BASIC CONSIDERATIONS OF M OF SOME BASICCONSIDERATIONS Aiding DemocracyAbroad for International Peace,1999. for International Carnegie Endowment Carnegie 2 Thomas Carothers, , EDIA DEVELOPMENT programs of supportfordemocratization efforts aspartofoverallassistanceandoutreach developmentandtheroleushered inanewwayofthinkingaboutinternational process. AsThomasCarothers pointsoutinAidingDemocracyAbroad, the1990s initiatives whichwere regarded asbeingessentialtotheoveralldemocratization beginning ofthe1990s,thispavedwayforfunding mediadevelopmentrelated As aidtocivilsocietyanddemocracydevelopmentprograms increased atthe religious or ethnic barriersinthemedia(Price,NollandDeLuce2,2002). sustainability ofmediaoutlets,andinitiativesdesigned totranscendnational, andbroadcast associations,supportfordevelopingfinancial fessional journalism, support tonewsorganizations,efforts toaidmedialawreform, supportforpro- training,direct says mediaassistanceprimarilytakestheformofjournalism a more concrete definition,a2002report entitledMappingMediaAssistance, Japan asthetwoclassicexamples(MughanandGunther, 6).Intermsofoffering least theendofSecondWorld War, withthere-building ofGermanyand Media developmenthasbeenapartofdemocracyandstatebuildingsinceat primarily seekstopromote andenablesustainableindependentfree media. democratizationassistance,mediadevelopment In thecontextofinternational researchlong -standinginternational networksinthisprocess. areas ofdevelopment.Italsohighlightsthepotentialrole ofemerging and the mediadevelopmentfieldandtoreveal theimpactithashadonother programs, andadvocacywork.Thispaperargueswhyitisimportanttodocument evidence basethatillustratestheimpactandsignificanceofitsactivities,training sector ineconomicandculturalterms,themediadevelopmentfieldlacksaclear Despite therelentless riseinthe significanceofthemediaandcommunications of Pennsylvania Communication Studies,AnnenbergSchoolforCommunication,University Susan Abbott, assistance, of which democratizationassistance ispart.Mediaassistance ispart communist transitions.The end oftheColdWar sparkedanewerainforeign relations andforeign policythatoccurred after1989,in thewakeofpost- al 2 This stemmedinpartfrom ashiftinpoliticalthinkingaboutinternation- Senior ResearchCoordinator, ProjectforGlobal 188 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 189 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources independent mediawillfind without theproperenabling “Development effortsdon’t “Development MEDIA DEVELOPMENTINAWIDERCONTEX niomn,afreeand environment, exist inavacuumand it hardtosurvive.” 3 “The RoleofMediainaDemocracy: USAID, June1999,PN-ACE-630, pg.5. A StrategicApproach,” for Democracy and Governance, for DemocracyandGovernance, Center paid tothedraftingofnew medialawsthatwillinfluencetheshapeandpolicy To beginwith, inatransitionalorpost-conflictenvironment, attentionmust be order forreform efforts tohaveanychanceofsuccess. about amultitudeoffactors inputtingtogethertheirstrategiesofassistance are verymuchrelated to media.Consequently, mediadevelopersmustthink the transitionprocess, nottomentiontheculturalandsocialdimensions,which to democracy, there of isadualneed toaddress politicalandeconomicconcerns societies goingfrom socialismtocapitalismorfrom anauthoritarianstyleofrule assistanceinthemediasectortakesplacetransition As mostofinternational many levels,institutionsandstrandsofsociety. simple (ornotsosimple)reason thatademocracyisanintricateworkingof inter-working andinterrelated forces involvedintheprocess. Thisisforthe find ithard tosurvive.Aswithotheraspectsofdemocratization,there are many without theproper enablingenvironment, afree andindependentmediawill exists musthelpsupportit.Developmentefforts don’t existinavacuumand In order tohelpdevelopdemocraticmedia,theenvironment inwhichmedia such outlets". voices thatarecredible,andtocreatestrengthenasectorpromotes of mediaassistanceshouldbetodeveloparangediversemediumsand If themediaistohaveanymeaningfulroleindemocracy, thentheultimategoal thepublicinterest. open andhasadegreeofeditorialindependencethatserves or evenovertlycontrolledbygovernmentprivateintereststoonethatismore development generallyshouldbetomovethemediafromonethatisdirected thecontext ofsupportingdemocratictransitions,thegoalmedia "Within entails. InaninfluentialpolicydeclarationUSAIDstatedin1999that: descriptive andcontextualizedunderstandingofjustwhatmediadevelopment assistance isandwhere fundingcomesfrom, itmay alsobeusefultooffer a In additiontotheabovekindsofconsiderationsthathelpdefinewhatmedia support toabroad rangeofactivitiesor justafewselectitems. on whetherprintorbroadcast mediawillbetargeted,whetherthere willbe consist ofandwhatformitwilltake.Thishassignificantbearing,forinstance, a largedegree canactuallydefineorconstitutewhatmediadevelopmentwill strapped environments inwhichmostmediaassistancetakesplace,fundingto Certainly, acasecanbemadethat,givenfundingconstraintsandthecash media inatransitionorpost–conflictsocietydevelopsthewaythatitdoes. significant totheextentthatitoffers aclueto understandinghowandwhy Highlighting therelevance ofdonoragenciesandwhere theaidflowsfrom is intermediary agencies,contractorsandtolocalpartners( aidflowsfrom donors,toimplementers, The latterdescribesinternational organizationsandthedonors). and levelofparticipation(theinternational of participants(themediaoutletsorthosereceiving assistance)andthestructure Mapping MediaAssistancedifferentiates betweenmediadevelopmentinterms Going beyondbasicdefinitionsofwhatmediadevelopmentconsistsof, organizations (NGOs). including assistanceforlocalnon-governmental assistance thatcantakeonavarietyofformsandinstitutionalarrangements, programs andgeneralcivilsociety tostrengthen democraticgovernment, elections andthepoliticalprocess, aidtoassistruleoflawdevelopment, of acataloguedemocracysupportthatalsoincludesforreforming 3 Price, et al., 5, 2002) Price, etal.,5,2002) AN EMERGINGRESEARCHAGENDA lynchpin orconnective tissue ofdemocracy.” revered asapositivedimensionofdemocracy munication_and_the_mdgs_no_magic_inf media facilitateddemocratizationbyeroding media developmentandhowithasfactored change, whichaffects behavior. political attitudes,preferences, andpartisan tions/media_development/2006_3/com- http://www.wacc.org.uk/wacc/publica- “Media hasbeen “Media democratic regime; developedpluralismin skills andsocialnorms.Alsonoteworthyis In described asthe cites thatmassmediaare agentsofsocial in MediaDevelopment,WACC’s Media Asante’s largerdiscussionrelated tomass the credibility andlegitimacyofthenon- into the modernization literature, andis into themodernization Gunther andMughan’s building andsocietaltransformation. contention isthatmediacanchange Wilbur Schramm(1964),wherein he Wilbur behavior, changesattitudes,beliefs, “Communication andtheMDGs: alternatives; andre-socialized both alternatives; No MagicInformationBullets,” the massesandelitestonew 5 Asante citestheworkof Development, 2006/3 4 democratic regimes. See SilvioWaisbord, ormation_bullets study Schramm’s (2000) , debate. to thehealthofeconomy, polity, orsociety, hasbeenthefocusofconsiderable and whatitactuallydoes,inthecontextofdevelopment,whetherbycontributing That mediamatterisnotsuchahard casetosupport,butexactlyhowitmatters and independentmedia. relatedafter basiclegalandregulatory totheestablishmentoffree concerns Questions offinancialsurvivalare, itseems,themostimportanttoconsider, marketing strategiestohelpnewlyformedcommercial stationssurvive. of theHolyGrailPublicServiceBroadcasters, theBBC,orhowtodevelop and whethertoimposelicensefeesornot,i.e.followthemodel of media,beggingquestionssuchashowtopayforthepublicservicebroadcaster transition societycannotbeunderestimated.They affect thecommercial viability to thenewmarket-drivenforces ofaliberaleconomy. Economicconstraintsofa that isadequatelyfinancedandadministered, andhelpingmediaoutletsadapt re-structuring ofthestatebroadcaster intoaviablepublicservicebroadcaster Suchareas ofworkthatrequirenomic concerns. attentionincludeprivatization, state, partoftheprocess ofmediadevelopmentmustalsofactorinlocaleco- In additiontothelegalandregulatory frameworkofmediapolicyanew few ofthemore substantialsectors. freedom andnewmediatonamebuta ofexpression, privacylaws,Internet telecommunications, advertising,basicconstitutionalprovisions related to of thestateonpublicbroadcasting, publicinformation,accessto as an intermediary between the government andthepeople. as anintermediarybetween thegovernment i.e. electionsandlegislative actions.Mediahastheadditionalfunctionofserving andpoliticalprocesses, check andbalancefunction bymonitoringgovernments mediaservesa Mughan 2000).Astheso-called watchdogofthegovernment, change orafacilitatorofdemocratization (Asante1997andGunther would notbepossible.Inthislight,mediaisoftenregarded asanagentof to takeroot insocietieswithoutareal historyofanysortdemocraticgovernance systems the process offacilitatingdemocracyand tryingtogetbettergovernance Moreover, manywouldarguethatwithouta free andindependentmediasector, as welloffering asource forentertainmentandotherkindsofprogramming. It canhaveapublicservicefunction,impartsknowledge, newsandinformation, economic, socialandpolitical.Itisimportanttoacountry’s culture andidentity. The reasons forthisabound.First,mediacutsacross severalsectorsofsociety- regarded democraticstate. asapre-condition foramodern of views,andtheabilitytoconsumemediawithapublicinterest agendaare access totechnology, highratesofliteracy, accesstoawiderangeanddiversity and unobstructedway. Moreover, accesstoinformation,freedom ofexpression, and theabilityforpeopletoimpartreceive informationinanunhindered of thestatedependsinlargepartinformationflows,communicationsystems, or connectivetissueofdemocracy(GuntherandMughan2000),asthe‘health’ In statingthecaseforwhymediamatters,ithasbeendescribedaslynchpin media indevelopmentaswelldemocraticterms. many ofthedebatesthathavebeenwagedaboutvalueandimportance tion provides boththeprecursor andfoundationformuchofdevelopmentcommunica- advanced bysocialscientistsofthe1950sand1960s,forbetterorworse, and mediadevelopmentprograms thatare administered todayaswell 47 This debateisnothingnew, andarguably, theory modernization 5 190 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 191 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources why isthereanydiscussion apples fromthesametree, development aredifferent and communicationfor “If mediadevelopment “If of theirdifferences?” 6 Thomas Tufte (eds.), Communication forDevelopment: See forinstancetherecently released For SocialChangeConsortium. One World, MultipleCultures, Also noteworthyisJanServaes’s Change Anthology Alfonso Gumucio-Dagron and and ContemporaryReadings, Communication ForSocial Hampton Press, 1999. Communication : Historical from thesametree, whyisthere anydiscussionofthedifferences? Bothseekto If mediadevelopmentandcommunication fordevelopmentare different apples make useofmediaasameans ofchange. individuals tobringaboutpositive lifestylechoices.Theyboth,however, seeks tousemediareform specificaspects ofsocietyorthebehavior reform institutions, policyandsystemsthatcomprisemedia,whiletheother have notoverlapped.Theyverydifferent startingpoints-oneseeksto To date,thetwofieldshaveoftenbeen viewedquitedifferently, and oftentimes have survivedoverthelongrun. focus onchartingormappingwhere thefundinghasgoneandwhichprojects this effort, butamuchlargerundertakingcouldbeundertaken,withanadded Assistance andtheMediaMissionaries(Hume,2002)reports are goodstartsto amediaenvironment). MappingMedia and thelawspoliciesthatgovern channeled aspartofaidintendedtotransformmedia space (systems,institutions it wouldbeinteresting andinstructivetochartthehistoryofmediaassistance two separatefieldsisanothermatter. Asamatterforfuture research andinquiry, between thetwostarttoemerge.Whethertheyshouldcontinuebeviewed the reforms andresults thattheyintendtobringabout,somedifferences of theirprograms, thetypes of NGOsorgroups thatdirect theprograms, and If youconsiderthehistoriesoftwofields,theirstartingpoints,intentions analyze morecloselytherelationshipbetweentheselinkedfields. A questionresearchersandimplementersalikecouldlendtheirexpertiseto,isto and communicationsrelated lawandpolicymatters. research, whichwillalsoaidpolicymakersandadvocatesengagedwithmedia Development Communication.Efforts likethis willbebolstered byincreased which willbeamajorthemeoftheOctober2006World Congress for media andcommunicationsdevelopmentintheoverall taking comparativestudies.Moreover, there isincreasing interest inmainstreaming Frontières, offer usefultoolsandsnapshotsthataidresearchers and thoseunder- ResearchFreedom &ExchangesBoard, House,theInternational andReportersSans undermine theimportanceofconductingresearch onthistopic,andgroups like measure theimpactofmediaassistance.Thisdifficultly shouldnot,however, brought upinthecontextofmonitoringandevaluationhowtobest from atraditionalsocialscienceperspective.Thisisanissuethatcommonly research frameworkthatwouldqualitativelyorquantitatively lookattheseissues development. Partoftheproblem stemsfrom thedifficulty ofsettingupa social sciencedisciplinesthatinformandinstructthosewhoengageinmedia taking thatcomparativelyexaminesmediaassistanceagainstthebackdrop of the effects ofmediaassistance,buttodatethere hasyettobeaformalunder- There are somepolicystudiesandlooselyknitcommentariesabout policymakers thandoesmediadevelopment. this field,ithasconsiderablemore dataandanalysis availabletoresearchers and development communication. A briefscanofthedevelopmentliterature will reveal manytitlesdevotedto (economic, socialandpolitical). andoveralldevelopment a mediaenvironment hasonthestateofgovernment ripe forresearchers seekingtohaveabetterunderstandingoftherelationship that communication, theprocess andactivitiessponsored asmediadevelopment,are media developmentperse.Incontrasttoitscloselyrelated sister, development It is,therefore, somewhatsurprisinghowlittleresearch hasbeendoneon 6 While there isroom foraddingtotheliterature in agenda, RECOMMENDATIONS FORBUILDINGBRIDGESANDADVANCING NETWORKS educational opportunitiesin communications andmedia media andcommunications studies andtoofferfocused development areessential.” “Efforts tointernationalise “Efforts dialogue and exchange ofinformation. between researchers, practitionersandpolicymakers,sothatthere isimproved to fundresearch projects. Ofequalsignificance isthenecessitytobridgegap researchers leveragefunding supportinorder totakepartinthenetworksand What isneededare more effective waysofusingthesenetworks, helping MediaAction-havealotofpotential. organizations, theCenterforInternational media andcommunicationspolicy-aswellthework ofoneSSRC’s partner by theSocialScienceResearch Council(SSRC)toestablishadata-consortiumof knowledge thatisoutthere isalsoimportant, andinthisregard, efforts undertaken networksare essential.Havingaccessto oping collaborativeandinternational comparative andglobalcommunicationspolicyoffer mechanismsfordevel- iain and nications communication studiesandtooffer focusededucationalopportunities incommu- and mediadevelopmentfield.Furthermore, mediaand efforts tointernationalize provides animportantopportunityforadvanceandpromoting thecommunications high-level corporatedecisionmakers,policyconsultants,andmediaspecialistsalso and newresearch agendas.UNESCO’s networkofacademics, ORBICOMinternational forward originalresearch aswellfornetworkinganddevelopingpartnerships Researchers, already provide opportunitiesforscholarsandpractitioners toput AssociationofMediaandCommunication Association andtheInternational and development.Two Communication ofthesenetworks,theInternational that seektounderstandthemedia’s relationship todemocratization,governance WCCD willaddtotheexistingnetworksandplatformsforadvocacyresearch Global research networksare emerging.InitiativessuchastheGFMDand development dialogue. that wouldaidintheefforts tomainstream themediaandcommunications should serveasaleadershipcouncilfordevelopingthekindofdialogue academicadvisoryboard thatcouldcontributeitsexpertise An international a visionoftheimportancethatcommunicationplayswithinsociety. national interests, oramyriadofothersocio-politicalissues,the twofieldsshare health andmedicalissues,decreasing problems associatedwithethnicand of communicationtoimprove theenvironment, aidingintheunderstandingof Whether forpurposesoftransparency, reducing corruption,improving channels of development. which applyinsightsfrom standard communicationtheorytodealwithproblems tions fordevelopmentare basedondevelopmentcommunicationtheories,allof Thirdly, andperhapsmostimportantly, bothmediadevelopmentandcommunica- conduct programs, whichutilizecommunicationsfordevelopmenttechniques. Secondly, theNGOsimplementingmediadevelopmentprograms mayalso communication fordevelopmentstrategiesinvariousprojects. fundingmediadevelopmentoftenimplement The agenciesandgovernments The twofieldsdohaveconsiderableoverlap,however. Thefirstisshared donors. and notappropriate foralllocalaudiences. tooimposing, tooNorthern, criticize mediadevelopmentforbeingtooWestern, Additionally, somecommunicationfordevelopmentscholarsandpractitioners NGOs oftencompeteforresources: financialandstaff beingonlytwoofthem. stems inpartfrom twoofthesimilarities:fundingandimplementing reform through applicationormeansofcommunication.Perhapsthediscussion media developmentare essential.University programs thatlookat 192 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 193 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources

CONCLUSION BIBLOGRAPHY many ofthesamekindsquestionsthatare the development andpromotion, itseemsthat Chinese experience part oftheoveralldebateaboutmedia International Peace,2000. Promotion. CarnegieEndowment for Society AidandDemocracy Thomas (eds.),FundingVirtue: Civil Ottaway, MarinaandCarothers, cles/missionaries1_contents.html http://www.ellenhume.com/arti- Foundation, May2002. for theJohnS.andJamesL.Knight International Journalism,AReport Missionaries AmericanSupportfor Hume, Ellen.TheMedia and 402-447. University Press,UK:2000,pp.1-27 Comparative Perspective.Cambridge Democracy andtheMedia:A Media: AReassessment,"in and "ThePoliticalImpactofthe Regimes: AMultilevelPerspective," Democratic andNon Mughan (eds.)."TheMediain Gunther, RichardandAnthony 1999. Endowment forInternationalPeace, Democracy Abroad.Carnegie Carothers, Thomas,Aiding Connecticut, London,1997. Greenwood Press,Westport, and SelectedBibliography. and Development:AResearchGuide Asante, ClementE.,PressFreedom development anddemocratization. 7 While notoutrightarecipient of funds designatedfordemocracy is veryrelevant to advance thefieldforscholars,practitionersandpolicy-makersalike. to of theresearch networksshouldbeharnessed communityanditsinternational prominent role. Inmakingthecaseforwhymediamatters,growing interest health programs, therole ofmediaandcommunicationwillundoubtedlyplaya aid towards povertyrelief, democratization,disasterassistance,andlarge-scale theworld’sWith attentionincreasingly directed atunderstandinganddirecting change thatcontinuesinChina. ongoing reforms; andrelated tothis,somehow, isthepoliticalreform and and country-specificresearch thatcouldbeundertaken;LatinAmerica,withits the MiddleEast,SoutheastAsiaandAfrica,withimportantregional differences assistance tosurveyandassessinAfghanistanIraqaswellotherpartsof countries todrawupon,butwealsohaveimportantexamplesofmedia Not onlydowehavetherichexperienceofpost-communistEuropean research onmediaassistancefield,especiallyfrom acomparativeangle. There nowexistsanopportunitytoengagemore fullyinacademicstudy or pp. 9-26. Routledge, LondonandNY, 2002, and StefaanGVerhulst (eds), Monroe EPrice,BeataRuzumilowicz, Media, DemocratizingtheState. in MediaReform:Democratizingthe Change: ATheoreticalPerspective," Rozumilowicz, Beata,"Democratic ml http://pcmlp.socleg.ox.ac.uk/Map.ht 2002 USAID/World Bank. Media Assistance(draft),February and DeLuce,Daniel,Mapping Price, Monroe,DavisNoll,Bethany, pdf ocleg.ox.ac.uk/EnablingEnvironment. 2000. Available at:http://pcmlp.s Oxford University, December1, Comparative MediaLaw&Policy, Prepared byProgrammein for DemocracyandGovernance, International Development,Center United StatesAgencyfor Independent Media.Sponsoredby Enabling EnvironmentforFreeand Price, MonroeE.andPeterKrug, 7 Economic Development,2002. Tell: TheRoleofMassMedia in World BankInstitute,TheRightto 200sbc.pdf http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/ads/200/ online at: and GovernanceProgram.Available Series, partofUSAID’s Democracy June 1999,Technical Publication Democracy: AStrategicApproach, USAID, "TheRoleofMediain s/ddmedia_final.pdf http://www.usaid.gov/democracy/pdf 1998, availableonlineat: Democracy andGovernance,July USAID’s GlobalCenterfor Dialogue," Technical Notesfrom Democracies, inDemocracy USAID, "MediaLawReforminNew magic_information_bullets ommunication_and_the_mdgs_no_ cations/media_develoment/2006_3/c http://www.wacc.org.uk/wacc/publi- Development, 2006/3 Development, inWACC’s Media Information Bullets,"inMedia and theMDGs:NoMagic Waisbord, Silvio,‘Communication Assistance Sector Mapping theMedia Media Development: OVERVIEW AND ASSESSMENTS “The focusedefforttobuild “The journalism thatservesthe ulcitrs,hasfinally public interest, systematic assessment.” an independentmedia come intoitsownas neeyrgo,with in everyregion, academic studyand a subjectworthyof development around the world,whensuchdatawas notkeptmethodically, Due totheenormouscomplexity ofrecreating a historyandmapofmedia encyclopedia ofmediadevelopment practice. Divided intoregional sections,thereport becameessentiallyafirstdraftofan effortsanalysis ofWestern topromote independentmediaaround theworld. current overview oftheentire field,from anAmericanperspective,withsome (Ellen Hume,2004)whichwasthefirstattempttocreate anarrativehistoryand The KnightFoundationin2001commissionedareport, MediaMissionaries in thisfield. andprogressunderstand bestpracticestandards, lessonslearned, todate now are startingtoemergeashelpful resources foranyonewishingto Philliber Research Associates).Butmore publishedbooks,reports andarticles "Assessing theimpactofpress freedom seminars in2002,"(Washington, D.C.: ina2002report, CenterforJournalists Fellows program withtheInternational interested parties.Forexample, TheKnightFoundationassessedits available onanypublisher’s database,andsome havecirculated onlytothe Many informedevaluationsofmediadevelopmentare reports thatare not delineated records. at eachmediadeveloperandfundertocatchupwiththiskeepmore of academicstudyandsystematicassessment.Itistimeforthebudgetgnomes ism The focusedeffort tobuildanindependent mediaineveryregion, withjournal- edged thatthemediasectorhasemergedasadistinctarea ofdevelopment. Amman inOctober2005thefundinganddevelopmentcommunityacknowl- assess progress theGlobalForumonMediaDevelopmentin inthefield.With The failure toline-itemmediadevelopmentcontinueshobble anyeffort to publicity forspecificprojects. were incidentaltoadeveloper’sthe capacityoflocaljournalists drivetogain funding within"democracy-building"budgets.Insomecases,efforts tobuild distinct categoryofdevelopment.Themajordonorsgenerallyincludedsuch but neithertheynortheacademiccommunityhadidentifiedthisworkyetasa had engagedforyearsinhelpingcountriesdevelopanindependentmediasector, Danish andSwedishagencies,theWorld Bank,theFord Foundationandothers GeorgeSoros’ OpenSocietyInstitute,Germanfoundations, The U.S.government, media developmentlandscape,there wasscantliterature todrawon. When theKnightFoundationbeganin2001itseffort tosurveytheinternational University ofMassachusettsBoston Ellen Hume, that servesthepublicinterest, hasfinallycomeintoitsownasasubjectworthy Director, CenteronMediaandSociety, 194 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 195 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources hdwUS foreignpolicy.”shadow U.S. media developmentefforts, oenet continueto government, particularly bytheU.S. A eea ue U.S.“As ageneralrule, In additionto discussing theevolutionof themediadevelopmentsector, the Publishers, 2006),whichis an importantscholarlycontributiontothefield. Media: StrategiesforDemocracy Promotion. (Boulder, Co:Lynne Rienner USAID’s mediadevelopment projects, recently publishedPromoting Independent Krishna Kumar, a USAID official whohas personallyevaluatedmanyof http://pcmlp.socleg.ox.ac.uk/archive/MappingMediaAssistance.pdf It isavailableasaPDFat mediadevelopmentworkwasstructured. analyzed howinternational Comparative MediaLawandPolicy. Price’s report, MappingMedia Assistance, with variouscolleaguesatYeshiva Universityand theOxford Programme in Both KnightFoundationreports relied heavilyonworkbyMonroe Price,together It isIJNet.orgat development. journalism media trainingeventsandotheraspectsofinternational featuringbreaking newsabout CenterforJournalists, duced bytheInternational Another resource thatcontinuallyprovides newinformationisawebsitepro- projects andcontacts. and convertedintoanupdatableonlinedatabaseofcurrent development invaluable tothoseassessingthefield.MediaMissionariesshouldalsoberevised The Non-U.S.Fundersreport includedanupdatabledatabasethatshouldprove estimated $1billionannually. outside theUnitedStateswere involvedinmediaassistanceprojects totalingan This valuableroadmap foundthatatleast 70organizationsin25donorcountries http://www.grady.uga.edu/coxcenter/knight.htm. the UniversityofGeorgia(December, 2005).Thereport isavailableat andMassCommunicationat and Research attheGradyCollegeofJournalism at theJamesM.CoxJr. MassCommunicationTraining CenterforInternational Non-U.S. FundersofMediaAssistanceProjects byLeeB.BeckerandTudor Vlad Fortunately, theKnightFoundationfollowedwithacomplementarysurveyof development organizationsandindividuals,withcontactinformation. (www.ellenhume.com) andincludesanappendixofselectedmedia Media MissionariesisavailableasaPDFontheauthor’s website than there waswhenMediaMissionarieswritten. media developmentnowinthepost-9/11MiddleEastandAsia,forexample, fundingfor priorities. Thusthere andnon-governmental ismore U.S.government continue toshadowU.S.foreign policy particularly bytheU.S.government, ef actually besignificantlyhigher. Asageneralrule,U.S.mediadevelopment opment organizationsandfunders.TheU.S.developers’contributionstodatemay but thatestimatewasconservativeduetothelackofspecificdatafrom thedevel- Media Missionariestohavebeenabout$600millioncumulativelysince1989, contributionswere estimatedin The AmericanNGOsandUSgovernment andNGOmediadevelopers. convened atUSAIDofkeyU.S.government and Priorities(PN-ACR-754)(Washington, DC:Hume,E.)reflecting ameeting USAID alsocontributedarelated report in2003, MediaAssistance:BestPractices Fellowships, SEAPA, OSI,andothers. CenterforJournalists, theInternational IREX,theKnight the experienceofpractitionersfrom USAID,Internews, Commandments ofMediaDevelopment"bestpracticesectionwasbasedon Media Missionariesincludedadviceforwould-bemediadevelopers.The"Fifteen summaries ofmediadevelopmentinAsiaandtheMiddleEast. Boardcurrently ofBroadcasters. withtheInternational Thereport alsocontained the report waswrittenbyJoanMower, formerlyoftheFreedom Forumand the sameregions thatattractedU.S.foreign policyinterest. TheAfricasectionof then intheformerCommunistcountriesafter1989,movinggeographicallyto firstinLatinAmerica,and they supportedanddevelopedindependentjournalism and othernonprofits from theearly1980sto2001.Thereport analyzedhow agencies,newspaperandbroadcast groups,American governmental foundations Media Missionarieswaslimitedinscope.Itfocusedlargelyonefforts by http://www.ijnet.org/FE_Article/home.asp. forts, whether oneishelping discussions onmedia or seekingpublicity “Confusion about “Confusion raecpct - create capacity development.” is rampantin be seenonwww.developingradiopartners.org. Hiseffort to developcommunity Network MediaProgram website.Anupdateof hisradiodevelopmentworkcan in Tanzania, Zambia,MozambiqueandSouthAfrica fortheOpenSocietyinstitute writingupcasestudiesaboutradiodevelopment is currently withJean Fairborn Bill Siemering,akeyfigure inradiodevelopmentgloballyandU.S.public radio, development bytheOSCE’s membercountries. Thompson waspublishedinAmsterdam byPress Nowin2004.Itsurveysmedia Media DevelopmentbyOSCEFieldMissions http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/50/17/5037721.htm Statistics (IDS)onlinedatabase.Thatisavailableat Development the mediadevelopmentofitsmemberstatesinInternational The OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment (OECD)reports on & Ottaway, M.,eds,2005). Promoting DemocracyintheMiddleEast Uncharted journey: Critical Mission:EssaysonDemocracyPromotion Democracy Challenged:TheRiseofSemi-authoritarianism and Carothers, T. eds, 2000), CivilSocietyAidandDemocracy PromotionFunding Virtue: Curve Aiding DemocracyAbroad: TheLearning Assessing DemocracyAssistance:TheCaseofRomania for themore specificfieldofmediaassistance.Thereports include: published usefulassessmentsofdemocracyassistance,whichholdsomelessons PeaceinWashington, EndowmentforInternational The Carnegie D.C.alsohas McLear, S.&Graves,P., November2003,PNACT-553). and Media Assistance Promoting IndependentMedia inRussia:AnAssessmentofUSAID’s (Rockwell, R.&Kumar, K,August,2003,PN-ACR-755), TrainingJournalism andInstitutionBuildinginCentralAmericanCountries (September, 2003,PN-ACR-756), Assessment ofUSAIDMediaAssistanceinBosnia-Herzegovina1996-2002 2004, Kumar, K.PN-ACU-777), USAID’s Media Assistance:PolicyandProgrammatic Lessons Support andResearch), Bureau forGlobalPrograms,Center forDemocracyandGovernance, Field The RoleofMediainDemocracy:AStrategicApproach Those reports, availablethrough USAIDinWashington, D.C.,include: best andworstexperiencesofmediadevelopmentbytheAmericangovernment. reports ofthecenturywhichwere usefulbecausetheyilluminatedthe attheturn While Kumar’s bookhassummarizedmanyofthefindings,USAID issuedaseriesof and fundedit. andotherswhomayhavenurturedindependence from eventhegovernments media developmentbyrefusing torecognize good journalism’s necessary of mediadevelopment.Kumarcorrectly notesthatthisconfusioncancrippletrue one ishelpingcreate capacity-orseekingpublicityisrampantindiscussions media topublishfavorablearticlesaboutone’s policies.Confusionaboutwhether and theworkofpublicdiplomacy, whichusuallyismore focusedonpersuading Kumar makesthevitaldistinctionbetweendevelopmentofmediacapacity The bookincludesKumar’s fieldresearch andhisusefultheoretical overview. assistance toAfghanistanaftertheousterofTaliban in2001,and the failedOpenBroadcasting Networkcreated aftertheDaytonpeaceaccords), from in LatinAmerica,theformerUSSR,Serbia,Bosnia(includinglessonslearned intervention strategies,Kumar’s bookincludescasestudiesofmediadevelopment nature andsignificanceofmediaassistance,thepossibleimpactvarious U.S. MediaAssistanceinSerbia:July1997-June2002 (Kumar, K.&Cooper, L.R.,November2003,PN-ACR-757), , byY. Manro, P. PalmerandM. (Carothers, T., 1999), (Carothers, T., 2004),and (Carothers, T. 1996), (June, 1999,USAID (Ottaway, M.,2003), (McClear, R. , (January, (Ottaway, M. , (Carothers, T. Sierra Leone. 196 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 197 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources THE ENABLINGENVIRONMENTFORMEDIADEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS ANDMEDIADEVELOPMENT MAKING THECASEFORMEDIADEVELOPMENT Other Priceresources include: Organizations," publishedby UNESCOinMay2000. andNon-governmental Four Perspectives:TheExperience ofIntergovernmental Price alsoeditedthevaluable "RestructuringtheMediainPost-ConflictSocieties: conditions necessaryforindependentmediatosucceed inanycountry. Independent Media(USAID,2001)isaninfluentialbook whichilluminatesthe Monroe PriceandPeterKrug’s TheEnablingEnvironment foraFree and and policyintheformerCommunistcountries,India, Bosnia,andelsewhere. media policyandlaw.international Hehaspublishedstudiesofbroadcast reform Monroe Priceisoneofthemostprolific writersinthefieldofreforming which hasfedapandemicoffor-pay journalism." real problems) thanbythecash-strappedconditionof news organizations iscompromised lessbystatecontroljournalism andlowskills (thoughbothare As World Carringtonobservedrecently,"Increasingly Bankofficial Tim inAfrica, which illustratestheimportanceoffinancialviabilityfornewsorganizations. The World Bankalsopublished"BuildingInstitutionsforMarkets"in2001, Bangladesh, Cairo Zimbabwe,andPoland, andothertopics. CarringtonandMarkNelson; casestudiesofmediadevelopmentinThailand, Tim Joseph Stiglitz,theimportanceofeconomicsupportformediaintransition,by any democracy. Chaptersincludeanalysesof how themediasupportmarketsby independent mediadevelopmenttotheeconomicandpoliticaladvancementin by theWorld BankInstitutein2002.Thisbookoutlinestheimportanceof by RoumeenIslam,SimeonDjankovandCaraleeMcLeish,whichwaspublished in TheRighttoTell: The RoleofMassMediainEconomicDevelopment,edited and more transparent economies.Afullanalysisofthisphenomenoniscaptured owned, localindependentmediahadbettereducationandhealth,lesscorruption, The World Bankstudied97countriesandconcludedthatthosewithprivately New Orleans,andelsewhere. including China’s SARSepidemic,abankfailure inUruguay, Hurricane Katrinain connecting peoplewitheachotherincivilsociety. Thearticledrawsonexamples that needattention,educatingcitizenssotheycanmakeinformeddecisions,and leadersaccountabletothepeople,publicizingissues racy: holdinggovernment December 2005)outlinesfouressentialroles thatafree press servesinademoc- of Democracy( "Freedom ofthePress" byEllenHumeintheState Department’s Issues e-journal distinction betweenindependentmediadevelopmentandpublicrelations. 2002) entitled"BeyondPublicDiplomacy," whichalsomakesthecasefora in Foreign Affairs magazine(NewYork: CouncilonForeign Relations,March/April David Hoffman, wrote thefounderandpresident aninfluentialarticle ofInternews, individual mediadevelopmentorganizationsalsoare aninvaluableresource agencies,and IFEX,government CenterforJournalists, IREX, theInternational also appearintheKnightFoundation’s periodicals.ThewebsitesofInternews, servingasKnightFellowsaround theworld helpful essaysbyAmericanjournalists annual assessmentoftheworldmediaare mustread formediadevelopers.Other DangerousThe CommitteetoProtect Assignmentsmagazineand Journalists’ you typein"communityradioinitiative." radio inMongoliafortheWorld BankismentionedontheWorld Bankwebsiteif http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/journals.htm , vol.10no.2, MEDIA ANDCONFLICT REGIONAL ANALYSES 9 See 1552_trust_amdi/index.shtml worldservice/trust/specials/ http://www.dgroups.org/ 8 groups/AMDP/index.cfm http://www0.bbc.co.uk/ supported byDFIDandthe Open SocietyFoundation. (STREAM) process facilitatedbytheUNEconomic Commission forAfrica media developmentlandscapeaspartoftheStrengthening Africa’s Media owners andacademicstookpartin2006amajorassessment oftheAfrica unprecedented numberofmediapractitioners, mediaassistanceorganizations, A CommunicationsCornucopia leading Africanmediaandcommunicationsresearchers. atRhodesUniversity(SouthAfrica)andanetworkof17 School ofJournalism the BBCWorld ServiceTrust withtheAhmaduBelloUniversity(Nigeria),the sharing processes suchtheAfricaMediaDevelopmentInitiative, apartnershipof developing world.Theyare increasingly contributingtoregional knowledge– There are somestrong regional specialistsnowcoveringthekeyregions ofthe (Washington, D.C.,2005). Approaches toMediaCoverageofConflict, and EvaluatingAlternative Becker andVladalsowrote areport totheU.S.Institute ofPeace,Developing cusses howthissubsetofmediadevelopmentdiffers from othercapacity-building. Bureau forGlobalPrograms,and Governance, FieldSupportandResearch), dis- Democracy: AStrategicApproach handle conflictresolution. Kumar’s 1999USAIDreport, have extensiveinformationontheirwebsitesaboutefforts totrain media to NetworkandtheSearch forCommonGround,Internews two U.S.-basedNGOs, of MediaSpace Conflict:Peacekeeping,HumanRightsandtheManagement International A usefulresource isMonroe Price’s ForgingPeace: of Russia," wrote Europe andtheFormerSovietUnion." inEastern Role ofJournalists original chapterintheir1998editionwas (Graber, D.,Norris,P., andMcQuail,D.,eds,Congressional Quarterlypress). Her new editionofthe1998book, The ManyDimensionsoftheImpactandRolesJournalists," board ofIREX,currently iswritingachapteron Communist societiesisworthexamining.Mickiewicz,whohasservedonthe broadcasting policyreform andotheraspectsofmediadevelopmentinpost- Ellen MickiewiczofDukeUniversityisanotherexpertwhosewritingabout regulation intransitionalsocieties. Intermedia (1994);andnumerous otherscholarlyarticlesaboutbroadcasting and "The MarketforLoyaltiesandaGlobalCommunicationsCommission, the AgeofConvergence,1996. "Ownership inRussia," Memory andPower, CambridgeUniversityPress (2002), "Seizing Transmitters: NationalidentityinBosnia," to StatePower Media andSovereignty: GlobalInformation RevolutionandItsChallenge Rozumilowicz andStefanG.Verhulst, London;Routledge,2001); Democratizing Media,theState numerous articles inforeign Herecently affairs assessedthepresent journals. Association (SEAPA) whohasmonitored mediadevelopment in theregion with isafounderoftheSoutheastAsian Press KaviChongkittavorn Thai journalist "Media, Transition andDemocracy:Television andtheTransformation in A Communications Cornucopia, (Noll,R.andPrice,M.,1998.) in ACommunicationsCornucopia, (MIT Press, 2002); (edited withMarkThompson),EdinburghUniversityPress, 1992. (with P. Krug,)inIICMediaOwnershipandControl in The PoliticsofNews,theNews ( editedwithR.Noll,Brookings InstitutionPress, 1998); (June, 1999,USAIDCenterforDemocracy "Transition andDemocracy:The "Transition andDemocratization: , (editedwithBeata 9 The RoleofMediain 8 chapter inJ.Muller(ed), In additiontothis,an in aforthcoming She also " 198 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 199 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources of thedevelopingworld.” covering thekeyregions regional specialistsnow “There aresomestrong “There freshly post-Communist society. "objectivity"standardsCzechoslovakia whenthey tried toimposeWestern ona shortlyaftertheVelvetintentioned Americanjournalists Revolution in in thesameedition.Urban’s articlerecounts themisstepsmadebysome well– Kong. Hisvaluablemonographsandarticlesinclude: across Asia.Herecently becameeditorofTheStandard newspaperinHong andnewsorganizations he documentedthethreats andviolenceagainstjournalists Working inthe1990s, onbehalfoftheCommitteetoProtect Journalists Lin A.NeumannisanotherastuteobserverofAsianmediadevelopment. Linklater, (AxelandMargaret AxsonJohnsonFoundation,Sweden,2005.) chapter inMediaandPower, editedbyKurtAlmqvistandAlexander state ofAsianmediain:"Degree ofFreedom: theSoutheastAsianMedia,"a Jacobs, the FederalRepublicInfluencedEventsinEastGermany," Glasnost," fromPress, Suppression ALongJourney toFreedom viaSuppression and Birth ofaFree Press," Margueritte, (1997); Bernard "Spreading theWord: TheKGB’s Image-BuildingUnderGorbachev," HongKong’sConcerns: MediainanEraofTransition," State TVinEastCentralEurope," Press," Ziguang Li, Media ThirteenYears After: TheStoryoftheCzechRepublic," (2005); Tomas P. Lvana, American Efforts toCreate Free aVibrant Press inIraqandAfghanistan," include: DavidRhode, Aid–intheRoseRevolution Western wrote CenterforJournalists, International Most recently, David Anable,formerU.S.newspapereditorandheadofthe published anumberofhelpfulreports whichare availablethrough theirwebsite. Harvard University’s Shorenstein CenteronthePress, PoliticsandPublicPolicyhas OSCE,2000.) Assistance toMedia,(Vienna: Bosnia andHerzegovina,Macedonia(FYROM)KosovoInternational and CooperationinEurope (OSCE)intheformer Yugoslavia, inSlovenia,Croatia, British writerMarkThompsonevaluatedefforts bytheOrganizationforSecurity their website published reports onthestateofmediainhiscountryavailablethrough In Pakistan,OwaisAslamAli,headofthePakistanPress Foundation,has • • • • • issue. And the Mediafrom Foreign Aid," articles aboutongoingmediadevelopment.One,forexample, is Arlington, Va. magazine whichoffered publishedtheMediaStudiesJournal many Before itcancelledmostofitsforeign mediadevelopment,theFreedom Forumin Conflicts: From theIntifadato Gulf War andBackAgain." and GadiWolfsfeld, and elsewhere. freedom challengesinHongKong,China,Cambodia,thePhilippines, Numerous reports aboutpress fortheCommitteetoProtect Journalists 2002; Winter "The SurvivalofBurmeseJournalism," Forum booklet,2001); "Media andPoliticalChangeinThailand" Forum booklet,2000); "Press, PowerandPoliticsinIndonesia" A sectionofPrice’s UNESCOvolume(seeabove); "Tensions ofaFree Press: SouthAfricaAfterApartheid," (2000); AlinaMungui-Pippidi," "Great SoundMakesNoNoise–Creeping Freedoms inChinese "Until Old Cats Learn HowtoBark," "Until OldCatsLearn (1991); DieterBuhl, www.pakistanpressfoundation.org. "The RoleoftheNewsMediainUnequalPolitical "All SuccessfulDemocraciesNeedFreedom ofSpeech: "New Europe’s CivilSociety, Democracyandthe (1995); AlexanderMerkushev, "Post-Communist Eastern Europe: TheDifficult"Post-Communist Eastern "Window totheWest: HowTelevision from by JohnMaxwellHamilton, inthefall,1999 (2000); StephenJ.Hutcheon, State intoPublic:TheFailedReformof (December 2005).Otherreports "The RoleofGeorgia’s Media–and Harvard AsiaQuarterly, (Arlington, Va.: Freedom by Czech journalist JanUrban by Czechjournalist (Arlington, Va.: Freedom "The RussianandSoviet (1998); Jeff Trimble, (1990); Sean "Lessons for "Pressing (1993). (2004); (1999); CONCLUSION so that lessons can be learned andfundingcanbetargetedmosteffectively.so thatlessonscanbelearned activities. Itisimportantthatasystematicmethodofevaluationbeestablished this workcontinuetofoldmediadevelopmentinwithotherdemocracy-building its merits,isbasedondatathatnotbeingpreserved. Organizationsengagedin thehistoryofmediadevelopment,andevaluation Becker andVladwarned, Missionaries databaseshouldbemovedtoaneditableonlineformataswell.As report’s databasehasbeendesignedtoaccommodatethisgoal,theearlierMedia for eachcountrywhichmediaassistancespendingisavailable.TheCox should beincluded,asBeckerandVladsuggest,inanonlinedatabasecreated determine aconsistentindexthatwouldbecomethestandard forthefield.This capacity. Further, themeasures ofmediaperformanceneedto beexaminedto criterion thatfunderswillline-itemtheirspecificefforts todevelopjournalism Sans Frontières, andIREX.Afirststepwouldbetoestablisha"bestpractice" performance establishedbysuchorganizationsasFreedom House,Reporters Becker andVladpropose linkingtheinvestmentsmadetomeasures ofmedia about allourmediaprojects inthelast10years.’" one personworkingfulltimefor12monthstoputtogetherdetailedinformation organizations isgoingtobeneeded.Infact,UNESCOestimatedit’wouldneed funding organizationsisnoteasy. Lengthyvisitswithavarietyofpartieswithin cluded intheir2005KnightFoundationreport, "Gettingdetailedrecords from assessment ofmediadevelopmentefforts are lacking.AsBeckerandVladcon- The fieldisnowstartingtogettheliterature it deserves.Butconsistentdataand 200 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 201 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Myriam Horngren Laura Stein,KatyPearce and Selected Resources: SELECTED HIGHLIGHTSOFTHELITERATURE OFMEDIA DEVELOPMENT Princeton UniversityPress. Pye, Lucian.1963,CommunicationandPoliticalDevelopment, NewJersey: messages totheundeveloped. could serveasagreat multiplierofdevelopmentbycommunicating arguedthatthemedia media consumptionandpoliticaldevelopment.Lerner variablessuchasurbanization,highliteracylevels, and othermodernization Africa, andwasabletotracecorrelations betweenexpandedeconomicactivity conductedresearchof thisclassicbook.Lerner intheMiddleEastandNorth The conceptofdevelopmentcommunicationfirstemergedwiththepublication Middle East,NewYork: Free Press. Lerner, David.1958,ThePassingofTraditional the Society:Modernizing tive versionoftheoldAuthoritariantheory. paper town,etc.;(4)theSovietCommunisttheory, anexpandedandmore posi- evision timeforpoliticalcandidates,theobligationsofnewspaperinaone- day:equalradioandtel- rights; (3)theSocialResponsibilitytheoryofmodern and Jefferson andavowedthatthesearch fortruthisoneofman'snatural Libertarian theory, whicharose from the worksofmenlikeMilton,Locke,Mill, and wasbasedontheideathattruthisproduct ofafewwisemen;(2)the presses: (1)theAuthoritariantheory, whichdevelopedinthelateRenaissance Presented here are fourmajortheoriesbehindthefunctioningofworld's What thePress ShouldBeandDo,UniversityofIllinois,IlliniBooks. Libertarian, SocialResponsibility, andSovietCommunistConcepts of Siebert, Petersonetal.,1956,FourTheoriesofthePress: TheAuthoritarian, ful mediathat couldbeusedbydevelopment agentstocommunicate messages media playedindevelopment. Schrammbelievedintheconceptofanall-power- UNESCO commissionedSchramm todeterminetheprecise role thatthemass Information intheDeveloping Countries,Stanford: Stanford UniversityPress. Schramm, Wlbur. 1964,MassMediaandNationalDevelopment: TheRoleof unit ofthepolityshouldbenation-state. affairs, and,aboveallelse, on theacceptanceinpoliticalrealm thattheprime view oflife,asecularapproach tosocialrelations, afeelingforjusticeinpublic with: aworldculture basedontechnologyandthespiritofscience,arational ture," what wemighttodaycallglobalization.Heidentifiedpoliticaldevelopment and"thediffusion withWesternization ofaworldcul- Pye linkedmodernization Communication andSociety, London:TheOpenUniversity/Edward Arnold. ideology," inCurran,J.,Gurevitch M.andWoolacott J.(Eds.)1977,Mass Golding. "Mediaprofessionalism inthethird world:thetransferof for developmentcommunicationthenext10to15years. Mass MediaandNationalDevelopment,provided thetheoretical foundation about technologicalinnovations.Theresult ofSchramm'sworkwaspublishedas one thatismore openandhasadegree ofeditorialindependencethatservesthe that isdirected orprivateinterests oreven overtlycontrolled to bygovernment ment, according toUSAID,"generally shouldbetomovethemediafrom one training, andsupportingthe capitalizationofmedia.Thegoalmediadevelop- media law, strengthening constituenciesforreform, removing barriers toaccess, of mediasupportactivitiesthataddress weaknessesinmediasectors:reforming choices andservesasacheckonelectedrepresentatives. USAIDdefinesfivetypes mation isessentialtodemocracybecauseitensures thatcitizensmakeinformed freedom around theworld.USAIDworksfrom theprinciplethataccesstoinfor- This paperdevelopstherationalesUSAIDusestodetermine supportformedia Development. A StrategicApproach, Washington, D.C.:U.S.AgencyforInternational Field Support,andResearch. 1999,TheRoleofMediainDemocracy: Bureau forGlobalPrograms,The CenterforDemocracyandGovernance. for communicationanddevelopmentinAfrica. training, anddevelopment;methodologicalconsiderations;newdirections technologies fordevelopment;criticalareas ofdevelopment;planning,evaluation, role ofmediainAfrica;audienceusescommunicationchannels; considerations; developmentandcommunicationpolicies;history organized innineindividuallyintroduced sections:theoretical issuesandcritical years. The23essays,byAfricanandAfricanistscholarspractitioners,are the Africanexperienceincommunicationanddevelopmentoverlast50 A text-reference ondevelopment communicationingeneral,andparticularon Perspectives, Lanham,UniversityPress ofAmerica. Communication andtheTransformation ofSocietyADevelopingRegion's Nwoso, Peter, Onwumechili,ChuckaandM'Bayo,Ritchard (Eds.)1995, development andcommunication. important componentpartsandimplicationsofvariousnewparadigmson development. Thetablesprovided inthischapterservetoclearlyoutlinethe is acontributionbyJanServaesonnewperspectivesforcommunicationand Communication intheDevelopmentofNationsandStates.IncludedPartOne Minorities: CommunicationandDevelopmentwithinStates;TheRoleof Development andCommunicationPolicies;DealingwiththeneedofCultural in thedevelopmentofcontemporarystates;CentralandSouthAmerica:Regional conceptual basesfortheuseofcommunicationindevelopment; experiences around theworld.Thecontributionsare organisedinfiveparts: culture andhumanbeingsinculture. Itdocumentsdevelopmentcommunication The bookillustratesthewidevarietyofthinkingandpracticethatfocuseson Ablex Publishing. Casmir F.L. (Ed.)1991,CommunicationinDevelopment,Norwood: institutional transfer, educationandtraining,occupationalideologies. professionalization process haspointedoutthree mechanisms oftransfer: Golding, whoregards thetransferofamediaideologyasanaspect 202 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 203 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Monitoring andAdvocacy, London,ZedBooks Gallagher, Margaret, 2001,GenderSetting:NewAgendas forMedia tization inregard tothemedia. andexaminesthepursuitimpactofdemocra- authoritarian governments focuses onseveralcountriesthatare emerging from extendedperiodsunder tic mediaandthepublic,state,theircounterpartsabroad. Thisvolume transition toward democracydeeplyaffect therelationships betweenthedomes- Changes inthepoliticalandinstitutionalstructures incountries undergoing a Routledge. Media Reform:DemocratizingMedia,theState,London: Price, Monroe E,Rozumilowicz,Beata,andVerhulst, Stefaan(Eds.)2001, factors ineliminatingsystemiccorruptionpublicinstitutions." ages fraudandcorruption.Indeed,theyare arguablythetwomostimportant are crucialtocreating andmaintaininganatmosphere inpubliclifethatdiscour- Stapenhurst quotestheWorld Bankinstatingthat"civilsocietyandthemedia their work).Casestudiesfrom developedanddevelopingcountriesare included. of anti-corruptionbodies,themediamaintainspublicinterest andscrutinyof to revelations inthepress ofcorruption)andintangibly(byreporting onthework ruption, bothtangibly(headsofstateorotherpublicofficials brought downdue Stapenhurst illustratestheconnectionbetweenmediaandreduction incor- http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/wbi37158.pdf Washington D.C. World BankInstituteDepartmentalWorking Paper. World Bank, Stapenhurst, Frederick. 2000,TheMedia'sRoleinCurbingCorruption, the state. where vulnerablepopulations,inabsenceofmarketopportunities,rely heavilyon responsiveness isparticularlyrelevantGovernment inlow-incomecountries, torespondparticular cancreate tocitizens’needs. incentivesforgovernments responsiveness,important toincreasing andthatthemassmediain government The authorsconcludethatinformationflowsaboutpolicyactionsare particularly Suntory Centre, LondonSchoolofEconomics. Responsiveness:TheoryandEvidencefrom India,The Government Besley, TimothyandBurgess,Robin.2000, ThePoliticalEconomyof strengthen asectorthatpromotes suchoutlets"(5). a rangeofdiversemediumsandvoicesthatare credible, andtocreate and public interest" (5).Theultimategoalofmedia assistanceshouldbe"todevelop women's groups havedevelopedeffective mediamonitoring models. monitoring experiencesfrom bothNorth andSouthtodemonstratehow critique andpracticalchange. Thebookbringstogetherresearch findingsand the formofgendermediamonitoring -systematicdatacollectionaimedatpolicy women's movement.Now, research andactivism havebeenbrought togetherin international als ofgender-whosecritiquehasbeenfundamentalto themodern values thatpeopleuseinmakingsenseoftheirlives.It focusesonmediaportray- local actiontodefendandpromote diversityinthecontent,images,symbolsand monitoring, lobbyingandadvocacy?Thisbookargues that there isarole for market-centred andconsumer-oriented mediaworld,whatisthepotentialfor mation? Howcanaudienceseffectively voicecritiquesofmediacontent?Ina What isthescopeforindependentcitizenactioninmedia andculturalpolicyfor- essential beginning. mainstream genderwithintheirinstitutionsandineditorialproducts isan The developmentofasimplehandbookformediapractitionersonhowto policiesandprogrammes. Fewsuchmaterials existforthemedia. in government Several manualsandguidelineshavebeendevelopedformainstreaming gender coming infordiscussionandscrutiny. Itneedstofeature more inmediadebates. on genderissues.Indeed,theburden ofmasculinityisonethatincreasingly have beenmadeabouttheclosed-mindednessofmentoprogressive coverage little attentionispaidtowhattheywouldbeinterested inknowing.Assumptions media. Ironically, althoughwomenconstitutethemajorityofmediaconsumers, Women invariablyfeature eitherassexobjectsorvictimsofviolenceinthe attitudes. Studiesshowthattheoverwhelmingmajorityofnewssources are men. achievement ofgenderequality. Massmediaplaysakeyrole inshapingpublic Sexist attitudesandstereotypes remain oneofthemajorimpediments tothe SouthAfrica Gender Links,2001,WhoseNews?Views? that are notalignedwiththeir own -orthecountry’s -besteconomic interests action isnotfullyavailableto citizens,votersmaymakechoicesinelectingleaders costly fortheeconomicgrowth ofa nation. Ifinformationaboutgovernment that secrets andasymmetriesofinformationbetween the stateanditspeopleare to offer informationthatcouldbe damagingtothoseinpower. Stiglitzargues have abiastowards theincumbentleadership,limitingleadership’s willingness andthe public.State-controlled media arebetween thegovernment assumedto Stiglitz arguesthatafree, investigativepress reduces asymmetrical information The World BankInstitute. The RoleofMassMediainEconomicDevelopment, Washington, D.C.: Islam, Roumeen,andMcLiesh,Caralee(Eds.)2002, TheRighttoTell: Stiglitz, Joseph,"Transparency inDjankov, inGovernment," Simeon, local interests, needsandculture. media mayhavelittleincentivetoproduce contentthatreflects specificorminority the media.Indevelopingcountries,profit-oriented, advertising-supportedmass audience nichesthatcancommandadvertiserattentionandthusfrom minority tastes.According toOwen,indevelopingcountries,there are fewer media willtendtocatermassinterests, duplicatingprogramming andneglecting Economic modelsofcompetingadvertiser-supported mediaindicatethatsuch benefits ofmassmediacanexistiftheare notsuccessfulbusinesses. Owen statesthatinmarketeconomies,noneofthepolitical,culturaloreconomic Development, Washington, D.C.:TheWorld BankInstitute. Caralee (Eds.)2002,TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMassMediainEconomic Communications," inDjankov, Simeon,Islam,Roumeen,andMcLiesh, Owen, BruceM."MediaasIndustry:EconomicFoundationsofMass media effective intheseroles are independence,qualityandreach. institutional changeandmarketdevelopment.Thecrucialfactorsthatmake improving publichealthefforts; providing civiceducation;andsupporting traditional education;makingpublicservicesmore responsive tothepoor; informing andgivingvoicetopoormarginalizedpeople;supplementing in geographicallyisolatedmarkets;providing informationonpoliticalmarkets; variety ofroles themediaserves:carrying informationandencouragingcommerce This chapteroftheWorld Bank’s 2002World DevelopmentReportestablishesthe for Markets,TheMedia(Chapter10). World Bank,2002.World DevelopmentReport2002:BuildingInstitutions 204 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 205 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources most comprehensive coveragefrom themedia. segments ofthepopulationthatare mostattractivetoadvertiserswillreceive the advertiser-supported economicmodelofthemedia.Stromberg arguesthatthose segments ofthepopulation.Whowillbewell-informed dependslargelyonthe democracies, politiciansare more responsive totheopinionsofwell-informed the resulting impactofpublicopiniononactionsbypoliticians. Hearguesthatin Stromberg’s research considerstheimpactofmediaon publicopinion,and The World BankInstitute. Tell: TheRoleofMassMediainEconomicDevelopment,Washington, D.C.: Simeon, Islam,Roumeen,andMcLiesh,Caralee(Eds.)2002,TheRightto Strömberg, David."DistributingNewsandPoliticalInfluence,"inDjankov, survive andprosper financially. closely linkedtothelocaleconomyandabilityofindividualmediaoutlets thisabilityis the mediatooperateasfinanciallyself-sufficient entities.Inturn, efficient marketsandmore information-richsocietiesdependsontheabilityof The media’s accountability, abilitytocontributeimproved government more Development, Washington, D.C.:TheWorld BankInstitute. (Eds.) 2002,TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMassMediainEconomic of Economics,"inDjankov, Simeon,Islam,Roumeen,andMcLiesh,Caralee Carrington, TimandNelson,Mark."MediainTransition: TheHegemony economic developmentofanation. between thewayownershipofmediaisstructured andthe political and social indicators.Thestudyindicatesthatthere maybepowerfulcorrelations economic rightsandmediafreedom, andonlyslightlymore correlation with few statisticallysignificantcorrelations withnegativeindicatorsof politicaland more sothantelevisionownership.Stateownershipofresults invery of politicalandeconomicrights,mediafreedom andsocialoutcomes,much State ownershipofnewspaperswasmosthighlycorrelated withnegativeindicators competition, makingthemlessresponsive toconsumerdemandsforinformation. self-interest. Second,state-ownedsystemsare considered totypicallyfacelittle the public’s abilitytomakerationalpoliticalandeconomicchoicesintheirown a vestedinterest incontrolling theinformationavailabletopublic,thuslimiting The explanationforthiscorrelation istwo-fold.First,thestateassumedtohave factors suchaspress freedoms, educationattainment,andlifeexpectancy. correlated with‘bad’outcomesinpoliticalandeconomicrights,social 97 countriesandfoundthatstateownershipofthemediawasconsistently measures ofstateownershipnewspapersandterrestrial televisionstationsin economic, politicalandsocialdevelopmentfactors.Theauthorsconstructed This chapterexaminesthecorrelation betweenstateownershipofthemediaand in EconomicDevelopment,Washington, D.C.:TheWorld BankInstitute. and McLiesh,Caralee(Eds.)2002,TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMassMedia "Media OwnershipandProsperity," inDjankov, Simeon,Islam,Roumeen, Djankov, Simeon,McLiesh,Caralee,Nenova,Tatiana andShleifer, Andrei, have significantinfluenceon thecountry’s economicdevelopment. Independence Islam arguesthattheindependence, qualityandreach ofanation’s mediacan Development, Washington, D.C.:TheWorld BankInstitute. (Eds.) 2002,TheRightto Tell: TheRoleof MassMediainEconomic An Overview," in Djankov, Simeon, Islam,Roumeen,andMcLiesh,Caralee Islam, Roumeen."IntotheLookingGlass:What MediaTell andWhy– different policies inpractice. countries mayhavelawsonthebooksthatguaranteepress freedoms, butvery the practicaloperationofmediavariesfrom countryto-i.e.,some perity ofacountry. Thedegree towhichlawsandpolicyhaveanactualeffect on dom usually, thoughnotalways,ispositivelycorrelated withtheeconomicpros- dom, butquestionsthedirection oftherelationship andnotesthatpress free- the positiverelationship betweenlevelsofdemocracyandpress free- includes theinfluenceandavailabilityofforeign mediainsomecases.Islamnotes operate. Reachrefers tothelevelofaudiencepenetrationmedia,and financing, andlegalstructures thatdeterminehowandfreely themedia and qualityare coupled,andaccording toIslamare affected bytheownership, media’s standards ofqualityandeffectiveness. abilitytoachieveinternational practices canalsounderminethe the role ofadvertisingandcorrupt journalistic tries where democraticculture is notwellestablished.Ownershipconcentration, societies, yetrestrictions onmediaare more profound and pronounced incoun- The tendencyofpoliticalmanipulationnewsandpublic debateexistsinall printing presses, lackoftraining,andinvestmentininvestigative reporting. access toofficial information,defamationlaws,abuseofmedia continue tofaceobstaclesinreporting onpublicinformation,includingcensorship, the media ests,and toshapetheclimateofdemocraticdebate.In order tofulfillthatrole, businessandspecialinter- accurate informationontheaffairs ofgovernment, ment activity, istoprovide therole thepublicwithtimelyand ofjournalists To supportthepublic’s righttoscrutinizeandholdinformeddebateongovern- tion? GlobalCorruptionReport2003.Transparency International. Peters, Bettina.2003,Themedia’s role: coveringorupcorrup- innovation, communicationchannels,time,andthesocialsystem. the membersofasocialsystem.Thefourmainelementstheoryare the which aninnovationiscommunicatedthrough certainchannelsovertimeamong vidual determineshis/herreaction toit.Inaddition,diffusion istheprocess by vidual orotherunitofadoption.Theperceived newnessoftheideaforindi- An innovationisanidea,practice,orobjectthatperceived asnewbyanindi- adaptation ofanewinnovation,helpingtoexplaintheprocess ofsocialchange. Diffusion ofInnovationsisatheorythatanalyzes,aswellhelps explain,the Diffusion ofInnovations(5thed.),NewYork: Free Press. Section 4:Society:Chapter10:TheMediaRogers,Everett. 2003,The World BankDevelopmentReport2002:BuildingInstituationsforMarkets: press freedom leadtolower levelsofcorruptioningovernment. same time,studieshaveshownstrong empiricalevidencethatahighlevelsof corruption levelsandvariablesthatindicateacountry’s developmentlevel.Atthe Corruption mattersfordevelopment-there isahighinversecorrelation between Ahrend arguesthatexposure ofcorruptionisakeyfunctionwatchdogpress. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=620102 Delta Working Paper2002-11. Ahrend, Rudiger. 2002,Press Freedom, HumanCapital,andCorruption. must haveaccesstopublicinformation.However, around theworld journalists services suchas blocked 206 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 207 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources around badbeliefsandnorms (Bulgaria). (Poland, Hungary),continuedprevalence ofconflict(Ukraine)andcoordination The authorspresent historicalexamplestoillustratesuccessfulcoordination for coordinating theactivitiesofpoliticianswithdemandspopulace." in afavorablelegalenvironment andproviding qualityinformation,isonemechanism media isonesuchmeansforachievingthis."Theystate "…free media,operating intogamesofcoordination,potential gamesofconflictare andafree turned els ofGameTheorytoshowthat"economicdevelopment isachievedwhen can buildconsensusandunderstandingofeconomicreforms. They employmod- Coyne andLeesonarguethatmediaisintegraltoeconomicreform, becauseit 57, pp.21-44 Understanding theRoleofMediainEconomicDevelopment,Kyklos,Vol. Coyne, ChristopherandLeeson,Peter. 2004,ReadAllAboutIt! intervention, preferably earlyintervention,toavoidmanipulationof themedia. monitoring ofmediafortheseindicators,andreviews potentialmethodsfor contentdesignedtocreate fearorresignation.concern Thearticlerecommends isolation,andthelegalenvironment formedia. Contentindicators journalist manipulation. Structuralindicatorsincludemediavarietyandplurality, degree of used toevaluatewhetherthemediaisparticularlysusceptiblethiskindof violent conflict.There are bothstructuralandcontentindicatorswhichcanbe This articledocumentsthewaysinwhichmediacanbemanipulatedtoinstigate United StatesInstituteofPeace. Media inVulnerable Societies:SpecialReport110.Washington, DC: Frohardt, MarkandTemin, Jonathan.October2003,UseandAbuseof this task.Theauthorbelievescitizensmustultimatelybetheholdersofinformation. the public-findingneedleinhaystackyetmediaoftenfallsshort Yet informationoverloadisalsoaproblem. Themediashouldserveasafilterfor require accesstoinformationinorder tohaveconfidenceinpublicinstitutions. ingness toreport oncorruption.Trust haseroded inallsocieties,andpeople tycoons andpowerfulpoliticalleadersalsoweakenthemedia’s abilityandwill- andthecloserelationships betweenmedia Bribery ofindividualjournalists, orcorporateconcealmentifitbenefitstheirfinancialbottomline. ernment public –largemonopolisticmedianetworksare more likelygoalongwithgov- Competition inmediaisonewayofensuringthatmore informationreaches the zens from abusesofsecrecy andthepoweritprovides, oftenfailinthis mission. financial institutions.Popesaysthemedia,whoserole shouldbetoprotect citi- trust are alsoissueswithmultinationalcorporations,aiddonorsandinternational andthepeople.Perceived secrecyof trustbetweenthegovernment andlackof and release ofgovnermentinformation.Hecitesobsessionswithsecrecy andlack information access.Informationaccesshere refers totransparency inoperations willbeespeciallychallenged inefforts toopen ship orfeudalistgovernments Pope establishesthatcountriestransitioningfrom colonial,communist,dictator- information? GlobalCorruptionReport2003.Transparency International. Pope, Jeremy. 2003, AccesstoInformation:whoserightand since the1970s.Thebook provides anoverviewofthekeyissuesand which womenhaveworked insideandoutsidemainstream mediaorganizations Women andMedia isathoughtfulcross-cultural examinationofthewaysin Introduction, Oxford, BlackwellPublishing Carolyn M.Byerly&Karen Ross,2005,Women andMedia:ACritical leaders andagendasmore forcefully intotheirsocieties. contributed tothemakingofafeministpublicsphere thathasmovedwomen the first-handnarrativesofnearly100womenmediaactivistswhoseworkhas study ofwomen’s mediaactivismin20nations.Theauthorsrecount andanalyze beginning withtheextantliterature inthisgrowing fieldandendingwithanew developments infeministmediacritiquesandinterventionsoverthelast30years, of country-level governance monitoring. of country-levelgovernance the mediafreedom indicatorscontainedintheGlobalIntegrityIndexaspart citizens participationandtherelevance ofafree press. Itproposes touse includingtransparencychecks andbalancestostrengthen through governance, indeveloping financialinstitutions;governance of international development outcomes;meetingcommitmentsonaid,trade, anddebtrelief; performance monitoring examinedindetailthereport includepovertyandmalnutrition;human elements toachievetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals. Theelementsofglobal growth, asessential betterqualityaid,andtradereforms, aswellgovernance The third annualglobalmonitoringreport (GMR)report highlightseconomic Accountability –Aid,Trade andGovernance World Bank:GlobalMonitoringReport2006:Strengthening Mutual violence; rape;sexselection;Muslimwomen'slegalrights;andthepracticeofsati. offering updatesonthemediacoverageofwomen-related issues:dowry-related background ofglobalizationingeneralandmediaparticular, ates, viewsandevaluatesthecoverageofgenderissuesinmediaagainst This SecondEditionretains the uniquegenderanalysisofmediacontentandsitu- and communicationstructures andtheirportrayalperspectivesinmediacontent. access tothemediaandinformationingeneral,asusers,participators women's en transformations.Thishasraisedanewsetofquestionsconcerning global mediaenvironment whichhaveresulted intechnologicalandmarketdriv- Since then,dramaticdevelopmentshavetakenplaceinboththenationaland women inthemainstream mediainIndia overtheeventfuldecadeof1978-1987. to (SAGE 1994),whichanalysedthecoverageofissuesparticularconcern This istheSecondEditionofhighlysuccessfulandpioneeringfirstedition Women's Issues,SecondEdition,London,SagePublications Ammu Joseph,KalpanaSharma,2006,WhoseNews?TheMediaand detailed casestudyofCameroon. media ethicsandprofessionalism inAfrica.Thegeneralanalysisissupportedbya African mediaworkerslabor. Theauthoralsoexplores thewholequestionof and statecontrol haveevolvedandthehugedifficulties underwhichmost ofmediaownership the rapidlychangingglobalmediaandshowshowpatterns and empoweringcivilsocietyinAfrica.TheauthorcontextualizesAfricawithin This majorstudyexplores therole ofthemassmediainpromoting democracy Belonging, ZedBooks Francis B.Nyamnjoh,2005,Africa'sMedia:DemocracyandthePoliticsof countries; andglobal 208 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 209 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Forum onMediaDevelopment, attended theInauguralGlobal Amman Jordan,October2005 List ofOrganisationsthat Union of Journalists YeniUnion ofJournalists Nesil AzerbaijanPublicAssociation Internews Azerbaijan Press Institute International Yerevan Press Club Armenia Internews Armenia Daily Jugantor Africa Media InstituteofSouthern Angola Argentina Foro delPeriodismoArgentino(FOPEA) Argentina Algériens) IFJ (SyndicatNationaldesjournalistes Daily Sawtalahrar Algeria Albania Albanian MediaInstitute Sayara Media&Communication Pajiwok AfghanNewsAgency NAI Institute forMediaPolicyandCivilSociety(IMPACS) Afghanistan The Journalism DevelopmentGroup The Journalism Bosnia Radio forPeaceBuildingAfrica (RJCEBENIN) Benin Federation ofJournalists International Belgium The BelarusianAssociationofJournalists Belarus Information DevelopmentPromotion Foundation Media Watch, Bangladesh andCommunication(BCDJC) Bangladesh Centre forDevelopmentJournalism, Bangladesh Media DevelopmentCenter Bulgaria Samdef Africa(MISA) Media InstituteforSouthern Botswana World Press Freedom Committee World Association ofNewspapers International Internews Europe Internews Institut PanosParis Crosslines France Ethiopian Free Association-EFJA press Journalists' Institute forWar &PeaceReporting United NationsEconomicCommissionforAfrica Ethiopia AIDS Resource Center/Internews Estonian MediaCentre Estonia The ArabCenterfortheIndependenceofJudiciaryandLegalProfession Radio &Television Union-Egypt Arab Press Freedom Watch (APFW) AmericanUnivinCairoAdham CenterforElectronic Journalism, Al-Ahram Newspaper Egypt Ecuador Radio LaLuna Asociación LatinoamericanadeEducaciónRadiofónicaALER Ecuador IMS Danish SchoolofJournalism Denmark Voces Nuestras Instituto dePrensa yLibertaddeExpresión (IPLEX) Costa Rica Foundation fortheFreedom ofthePress FNPI-Fundación NuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano Corporación CIDCCE Colombia Environmental EducationMediaProject (EEMP) CHINA CENTRALTELEVISION China Oku RuralRadioAssociation United MediaIncorporatedCommonInitiativeGroup Cameroon The CommunicationInitiative forHumanRights(JHR) Journalists Freedom ofExpressionInternational eXchange(IFEX) Institute forMediaPolicyandCivilSociety(IMPACS) GlobeCastNews Association MondialedesRadiodiffuseurs Communautaires (AMARC) Canada 210 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Georgia Georgian Association of Regional TV Broadcasters Internews Georgia Germany Catholic Media Council (CAMECO) InterPress Service (IPS) Transparency International Transparency International Media in Cooperation MIC (Media in Cooperation) Ghana Media Foundation for West Africa Ghana Journalists Association Panos Institute Caribbean Guatemala Association of Guatemalan Journalists Haiti Panos Institute Caribbean Honduras Comité por la Libre Expression Hungary Center for Independent Journalism Centre for Advocacy and Research India Centre for Advocacy and Research Drishti Media Collective Madhyam Communications/VOICES Net Radiophony India Pvt Ltd Panos South Asia Indonesia Press & Broadcasting Society OneWorld International Foundation The Concerned for Working Children Indonesia The Press Council, Indonesia International centre for journalism "MediaNet" Institute for the Studies on Free Flow of Information (ISAI) ProMedia Indonesia Iraq Al Mibad Television and Radio Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Mapping the Sector: Literature, Association of Iraqi journalists Aswat al-Iraq news agency (Voices of Iraq news agency) Iraqi National Communication & Media Commission Iraqi National Journalists Advisory Panel IFJ Norwegian People's Aid Press and Communication Directorate- Iraqi Presidency Israel Cinema Factory

MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: MEDIA MATTERS Women Mediterranean Press Network 211 Center ofLegalAssistanceforMassMedia Zadina Communications Yarmouk University UNESCO Iraq UNESCO ofLondon The Times The NationalCentre forHumanRights Royal CulturalCenter Philadelphia University National CouncilforCulture andArts National BankJordan Ministry ofLabor Media InCooperation Jordan Jordan-United StatesBusinessPartnership Jordan TelevisionJordan Jordan Radio&Television Corporation Jordan Press Association Jordan NewsAgency Jodan InformationCenter DistributionAgency International Information andCommunicationExpertise Housing Bank Higher MediaCouncil Gandhi CenterforStrategicstudies Freedom HouseJordan First HoldingsLimited Jordan Director General Center forDefendingFreedom ofJournalists Bukra "creativity Network" BRIDGE, InstituteofDevelopmentStudies(IDS) ASEZA- AqabaSpecialEconomicZoneAuthority Arab Telemedia Services Aqaba DevelopmentCorporation AmmanNetn Al-Quds CenterforPoliticalStudies Al-Ghad Jordan Al Rainewspaper Al RaiDailyNewspaper Al GhadNewspaper Al DeyarNewspaper Al AnbatDailyNewspaper Aghad newspaper/amman/jordan Agence FrancePresse Ad-Dustour Daily Abdali Investment&Development The Jordan Press Association Jordan Center forMediaStudies& PeaceBuilding CJA Kenya African Woman andChildFeatures The MediaInstitute Africa Free MediaFoundation African Woman andChildFeature Service Kenya National AssociationofTelevision andRadioBroadcasters UnionofKazakhstan Journalist Kazakhstan Internews Kazakhstan 212 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Kuwait Kuwait Asian Journalists Association Association of Regional Broadcasting Kyrgyzstan Internews - Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Lebanese University United Nations Development Program Liberia International Center for Media Studies and Development in West Africa Liberia Women Media Action Committee (LIWOMAC) Press Union of Liberia Macedonia Macedonian Institute for Media Lithuania Lithuanian Journalism Centre Malawi The National Media Institute of Southern Africa Malawi Malaysia Southeast Asian Centre for e-Media Mexico Center for Journalism and Public Ethics CIDEM Fundación Prensa y Democracia México (PRENDE) Mauritius Mauritius Times and Mauritius Union of Journalists (MUJ) Moldova Independent Journalism Center Association of Independent Press of Moldova Mongolia Mongolia Today.com online magazine Morocco Centre for Media Freedom MENA Region (CMF MENA) Mozambique NSJ-Southern African Media Training Trust Nepal Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) Antenna Foundation Nepal

Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Mapping the Sector: Literature, Himal Media Pvt.Ltd. Netherlands Free Voice New Zealand Press Now New Zealand National Commission for UNESCO Nicaragua

MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: MEDIA MATTERS Foundation Violeta Chamorro 213 Media RightsAgenda Press Center (IPC) International IMC GEOTV Institute forMediaandSociety(IMS) African NewspapersofNigerianPLC Development CommunicationsNetwork Nigeria Sierra LeoneAssociation ofJournalists Center forMediaandTechnology, C-Met Sierra Leone Institute fortheAdvancement ofJournalism Serbia Panos West AfricaInstitute Office federation ofJournalists-Africa International Senegal Association Rwanda Journalists Panos InstituteWest Africa New EurasiaFoundation/Media Rwanda Media LawandPolicyInstitute Russia Internews Independent InstituteforCommunicology inExtreme Situations Center forJournalism Association ofIndependentRegionalPublishers Russia Romanian Press Club Center forIndependentJournalism Romania Al-Jazeera Qatar Mindanao NewsandInformationCooperativeCenter(MindaNews) Philippines Sindicato dePeriodistasdelParaguay Instituto Prensa yLibertad Paraguay Centro Latinoamericanode Periodismo(CELAP) Panama Palestine NewsNetwork Live Media Voice ofPalestine Al-Ayyam Newspaper Palestine The Researchers Press forPeace AMIN MediaNetwork-Internews South AsianNewsAgency[SANA] Pakistan Press Foundation Pakistan Internews Pakistan Oman Globe International Oman 214 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Singapore Asian Media Information and Communication Centre (AMIC) South Africa Association of Independent Publishers Institute for Democracy in South Africa Internews National Community Radio Forum (NCRF) Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa Zambezi FoX Free Media Movement & Centre for Policy Alternatives Soul Beat Africa The Zimbabwean Sri Lanka Press Complaints Commission of Sri Lanka Sudan SUDIA Swaziland Media Institute Southern Africa - Swaziland Sweden Fojo Institute for Further Education of Journalists Skarners Media Switzerland Institute of Applied Media Studies, Zurich University of Applied Sciences Winterthur Media Development Loan Fund Medienhilfe Syria International Development Associates Al Hayat/LBC Tajikstan Khoma Tanzania Carpe Diem Inc Thailand Asia Media Forum Internationale Afrique Aidons Nous Campaign for Popular Media Reform Internews Network Press Development Institute of Thailand Southeast Asian Press Alliance Timor-Leste Timor Media Development Centre

Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Mapping the Sector: Literature, Community Radio Arabia Togo International Afrique Trinidad & Tobago Association of Caribbean MediaWorkers Tunisia Drassaba ERTT MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: MEDIA MATTERS S.R.T.T. 215 Ukrainian AssociationofPress Publishers NGO Telekritika Kyiv MediaLawInstitute IREX U-Media Ukraine Internews Independent AssociationofBroadcasters Ukraine ICTV Africa Panos Eastern Uganda Internews Women's TribuneInternational Centre /AMARC RepublicanInstitute International CenterforJournalists International InterMedia SurveyInstitute Humboldt StateUniversity Global MediaForum Inc. Creative AssociatesInternational, Columbia University, Schoolof Journalism Studies Center ForStrategicandInternational Annenberg SchoolforCommunication,UniversityofPennsylvania United States The ThompsonFoundation The PanosInstitute TrustThe MediaWise Rory PeckTrust Reuters Foundation UnitedKingdom Panos Institute OSI, NetworkMediaPrograms Media DiversityInstitute Lisa Richards Management Institute forWar andPeace(IWPR) IREX Europe Financial Times Europe Internews Healthlink Worldwide Globewise Communications Newhouse NewsServices Index onCensorship Delta PearlLtd Foreign andCommonwealthOffice Communication forSocialChangeConsortium BBC World ServiceTrust BBC Monitoring Article 19 Albany Associates United Kingdom MEDIA Abu DhabiChamberofCommerce &Industry Elkhabar DailyNewspaper Zayed University SP Productions Abu DhabiTelevision United ArabEmirates 216 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 217 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Yugoslavia APM Print Yemen Pacific IslandsNewsAssociation-PINA Samoa Western (VFEJ) ForumforEnvironmentalVietnam Journalist Vietnam Lod delMedio/NGO&UniversidadCentraldeVenezuela Instituto Prensa ySociedad-Venezuela Venezuela NGO Internyus Uzbekistan Radio Voice ofthePeople (VOP) City Courier, Bulawayo,Zimbabwe Zimbabwe AfricanEditors'Forum Africa/Southern Media Instituteofsouthern Africa-Zimbabwe Media InstituteofSouthern Africa Panos InstituteSouthern Breeze FM Zambia Search ForCommonGround Zaire endanger(JED) Journalistes Voice ofAmerica Corporación 555,C.A St.John's University University ofMassachusetts United NationsDevelopmentProgramme United Nations U.S. StateDepartment,Bureau forDemocracy, HumanRightsandLabor(DRL) U.S. DepartmentofState DCHA/DG Governance Development(USAID)Office ofDemocracy& U.S. AgencyforInternational Development U.S. AgencyforInternational The World Bank The Ford Foundation St. John'sUniversity Scriabine Foundation Prometheus RadioProject Project forGlobalCommunicationStudies,AnnenbergSchool Pacific NewsService Media Support Media DevelopmentLoanFund,Inc. Lodestar Foundation Link TV intheAmericasatUniversityofTexasKnight CenterforJournalism John S.andJamesL.KnightFoundation IREX Network Internews notes 218 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 219 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources notes notes 220 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 221 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Management &Coordination Media Development, GMFD :RegionalForafor Treasurer, JohnLiu,EEMPC,China Secretary, JeanetteMinnie,ZambeziFoX,SouthAfrica Foundation, theOpenSociety Institute,andUNESCO. Foundation, theNationalEndowment forDemocracy, theUnited Nations ofJordan, JohnS.andJamesL.KnightFoundation, theLodestar the Government the SwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation(SDC), theFord Foundation, Development (DFID), Agency (CIDA),theUK‘sDepartmentforInternational Development The GFMDwassupportedin2005/6bytheCanadianInternational http://www.gfmd.info ,mailto:[email protected] Kathleen Reen,MarkHarvey, EricJohnson Vice Chair,Vice FederationofJournalists AidanWhite,International Chair, DavidHoffman, Internews G E A E L L S S G R a a u u o o F F f f F F E E t t r r r r u u M M M M G G i i i i a a n n c c t t s s D D h h D D a a I I

i i O O A A

a a

R R E E C C M M m m : : N N a a e e O O Manana Aslamazyan, Internews Russia Manana Aslamazyan,Internews A A s s g g e e A A O O t t r r i i N N

o o i i L L A A R R c c A A n n

a a D D s s F F G G : : : : i i I I a a O O Edetaen Ojo,MediaRightsAgenda,JeanetteMinnie,ZambesiFoX N N E E Jaime AbelloBanfi,FundaciónNuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano : : M M A A R R Kavi Chongkittavorn, SouthEastAsianPress Alliance Kavi Chongkittavorn, T T A A E E I I N N O O

F F T T N N O O

C C R R O O

M M M M M M E E I I D D T T T T I I E E A A E E

D D ( ( 2 2 E E 0 0 V V 0 0 6 6 E E - - L L

2 2 O O 0 0 0 0 P P 8 8 M M ) )

E E N N T T Committee 2006–2008 Steering GFMD on Represented Media SupportOrganisations • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Media RightsAgenda,Nigeria: Media DevelopmentLoanFund(MDLF),USA: IREX, USA: Russia, Internews : France International, Internews (IFJ),Belgium: FederationofJournalists International (ICFJ),USA: CenterforJournalists International Institute forWar &PeaceReporting(IWPR),USA/UK: Fundación NuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano (FNPI),Colombia: Environmental EducationMediaProject, China: BBC World ServiceTrust, UK: http://www.wan-press.org/ World AssociationofNewspapers(WAN), France: http://www.seapabkk.org South EastAsianPress Alliance,Thailand: http://www.panos.org.uk Panos, London,UK: http://mediarightsagenda.org/index.html http://www.mdlf.org http://www.irex.org http://www.internews.ru/en/ http://www.internews.tv/home/index.php http://www.ifj.org/ http://www.icfj.org/ http://www.iwpr.net/ http://www.fnpi.org http://www.eempc.org/index.php http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust / / / / / / 222 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources The Global Forum for Media Development (GFMD) GFMD aims to bring greater linkages and sustainable impact to the work of the media assistance sector as a whole. It seeks to do this through:

Collaboration Creating a practitioner-led platform for the media support sector to advocate with donors, governments, opinion leaders and the wider public.

Substantiation Promoting and disseminating research and analysis on the effects of media assistance on governance, poverty alleviation,emergent crises, and markets worldwide; making the case for media development as a primary pillar for advancing social, economic, and political development.

Professionalization Establishing agreed-upon standards and ethics for media development work that encourage cross-sector cooperation.

Shared Learning Evaluating the media development sector to identify and advance good practice in media support.

www.gfmd.info