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Title: World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development: 2017/2018 Global Report This complete World Trends Report Report (and executive summary in six languages) can be found at en.unesco.org/world- media-trends-2017 The complete study should be cited as follows: UNESCO. 2018. World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development: 2017/2018 Global Report, Paris The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authori- ties, or concerning the delimiation of its frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The same disclaimer applies to commissioned UNESCO publications cited in this study. Editorial coordination: Rachel Pollack Ichou Lead researchers: Nicole Stremlau, Iginio Gagliardone and Monroe Price Graphic design, cover design and typeset: Marc James Infographics: Carlos Manzo p. 28, 64 © Shutterstock / Marcel Clemens p. 33, 161 © Alfred Yaghobzadeh p. 51 © Shutterstock / Piotr Adamowicz p. 68,100 © Fred Cifuentes p. 76 © Shutterstock / LDprod p. 104 © Slim Ayadi p. 132 © AFP PHOTO / James Lawler Duggan p. 135, 128 ©Tobin Jones p. 143 © Shutterstock / Dragon Images p. 170 © Carlos Duarte Printed in UNESCO printshop, Paris, France. This publication was supported by Sweden. World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development GLOBAL REPORT 2017/2018 Contents List of figures 6 List of boxes 7 Editorial Team 8 Foreword 10 Executive Summary 12 Introduction 18 Rationale 19 International norms of press freedom 19 Conceptualizing press freedom 20 Conceptual elaboration 22 Technological, social and political context 24 Inequalities and audiences 26 Conflict and violent extremism 27 Forced migration and the refugee crisis 28 Structure of the report 29 Conclusion 29 Ch. 1 Trends in Media Freedom 30 Overview 33 Understanding media freedom 34 Limitations on media freedom 38 Defamation laws and other legal restrictions on journalists 38 Internet curbs, cut-offs and content removal 40 National security and countering violent extremism 45 Access to information and privacy protections 46 Access to information 46 Privacy, surveillance and encryption 50 Protection of confidential sources and whistle-blowing 56 Internet governance and media freedom 58 Gender equality and media freedom 62 Conclusion 64 Ch. 2 Trends in Media Pluralism 66 Overview 69 Understanding media pluralism 70 Access 72 Internet and mobile 72 Broadcast media 75 Newspaper industry 77 Economic models 77 Pluralism in media ownership 78 Advertising, between old and new models 79 New platforms and business models 81 Content 83 User-generated content 83 4 World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018 Algorithms, echo chambers and polarization 84 ‘Fake news’ 86 Reporting on marginalized groups 87 New news players: the democratization of news production? 90 Media and information literacy 91 Gender equality and media pluralism 93 Gender equality in the media workforce 95 Women and decision-making 96 Gender and representation 97 Changing the picture for women in media 98 Conclusion 100 Ch. 3 Trends in Media Independence 102 Overview 105 Understanding media independence 107 Trends and transitions in regulation 109 Independence and government regulation 109 Self-regulation 110 Political and economic influences in media systems 114 Trends of de-legitimizing media 114 Media capture 117 Financial regulations and business models 118 Journalists’ perceptions of media independence 120 Professionalism and efforts to mitigate political and economic interference 121 Gender equality and media independence 124 Gender equality in the media workplace 125 Media monitoring and advocacy 125 Formal and informal professional associations 126 Conclusion 128 Ch. 4 Trends in safety of journalists 130 Overview 133 Understanding the safety of journalists 134 Violence against journalists 137 Killings of journalists 137 Impunity for crimes against journalists 144 Other attacks on the safe practice of journalism 148 Digital safety for journalists 150 Gender equality and the safety of journalists 153 Online harassment of women journalists 155 Actions taken to enhance the safety of journalists 158 United Nations 160 Member States 162 Academia, civil society and media 164 Conclusion 170 Appendices 172 Bibliography 173 Regional groupings 196 Acronyms and abbreviations 199 World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018 5 List of figures Figure 1-1 Justifications for internet shutdown 41 Figure 1-2 Number of content removal requests made by governments received by Google and Twitter 43 Figure 1-3 Reasons cited for content removal requests received by Google 43 Figure 1-4 Number of content removal requests made by governments received by Google, Twitter and Facebook 44 Figure 1-5 Member States by region with a freedom of information law or policy 48 Figure 1-6 Number of countries with data protection or privacy laws adopted or amended by region, 2012-2016 53 Figure 1-7 Member States that are Party to the UN Convention against Corruption 57 Figure 1-8 Internet Universality and the ROAM principles 60 Figure 2-1 Percentage of individuals using the internet, 2012-2017 72 Figure 2-2 Number of mobile cellular subscriptions, 2012-2016 73 Figure 2-3 Main source of news by age 75 Figure 2-4 Status of the transition to Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting 76 Figure 2-5 Internet advertising revenue, 2012-2016 80 Figure 2-6 Alternative media business models 81 Figure 2-7 Share of internet advertising revenue by platform, 2012-2016 82 Figure 2-8 The roots of ‘fake news’ 86 Figure 2-9 Invisible women? Gender equality in media content, decision-making and media workforce 93 Figure 2-10 Gender equality in decision-making positions and on boards in media organizations in Europe 97 Figure 3-1 RDR indicator scores for policy transparency in regard to third-party requests for content or account restrictions 113 Figure 3-2 RDR indicator scores for policy transparency in regard to their terms of service enforcement (which impact upon content or account restrictions) 113 Figure 3-3 Effect of de-legitimation of media on society 116 Figure 3-4 Trends in journalists’ perceived editorial freedom 120 Figure 3-5 Trends in journalists’ perception of the credibility of journalism 121 Figure 3-6 Donor priorities in media development 123 Figure 4-1 Journalists killed by year and by region, 2012-2016 137 Figure 4-2 Map of journalists killed by region, 2012-2016 138 Figure 4-3 Journalists killed by country, 2012-2016 139 Figure 4-4 Journalists killed by country, 2016 140 6 World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018 Figure 4-5 Journalists killed in countries with armed conflict, 2012-2016 140 Figure 4-6 Employment status of journalists killed, 2012-2016 141 Figure 4-7 Type of media of journalists killed, 2012-2016 141 Figure 4-8 Local and foreign journalists killed, 2012-2016 144 Figure 4-9 Status of judicial inquiry into killings of journalists, 2006-2016 144 Figure 4-10 Status of judicial inquiry in killings of journalists by region 145 Figure 4-11 Member State responses to the Director-General’s request for information on the status of judicial inquiry, 2017 146 Figure 4-12 Percentage of Member States that responded to UNESCO’s request for information on the status of judicial inquiry, 2013-2017 147 Figure 4-13 Types of threats to the digital safety of journalism 151 Figure 4-14 Sex of journalists killed, 2012-2016 154 Figure 4-15 Online harassment of women journalists 156 Figure 4-16 UN resolutions on the safety of journalists adopted since 2012 166 Figure 4-17 Member States sponsoring UN resolutions on the safety of journalists since 2012 168 List of boxes Box 1-1 UNESCO’s work to promote media freedom 36 Box 1-2 Laureates of the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize 37 Box 1-3 Focus on Lamii Kpargoi, advocate for access to information in Africa 47 Box 2-1 UNESCO’s work to promote media pluralism 71 Box 2-2 Lina Chawaf, giving a voice to Syrian civilians 89 Box 3-1 UNESCO’s work to promote media independence 108 Box 3-2 Tai Nalon, creating a landscape of trustworthiness 115 Box 4-1 UNESCO’s work to promote the safety of journalists 136 Box 4-2 Focus on Oscar Cantú Murguia, taking a stand against the killing of journalists 143 Box 4-3 Focus on Maria Ressa, refusing to be silenced in the face of online harassment 159 World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development