Regional Dynamics and Bottom-Up Economic Development in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut (Canada)
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Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen FB 07: Mathematik und Informatik, Physik, Geographie Institut für Geographie Land Claim Settlements and their Impacts: Regional Dynamics and Bottom-Up Economic Development in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut (Canada) vorgelegt von Gerlis Fugmann, M.A. Dissertation Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Dr. rer.nat im Fachbereich Geographie Gießen, März 2011 Erklärung Erklärung „Ich erkläre: Ich habe die vorgelegte Dissertation selbständig und ohne unerlaubte fremde Hilfe und nur mit den Hilfen angefertigt, die ich in der Dissertation angegeben habe. Alle Textstellen, die wörtlich oder sinngemäß aus veröffentlichten Schriften entnommen sind, und alle Angaben, die auf mündlichen Auskünften beruhen, sind als solche kenntlich gemacht. Bei den von mir durchgeführten und in der Dissertation erwähnten Untersuchungen habe ich die Grundsätze guter wissenschaftlicher Praxis, wie sie in der „Satzung der Justus-Liebig- Universität Gießen zur Sicherung guter wissenschaftlicher Praxis“ nidergelegt sind, eingehalten.“ …………………………………….. ……………………………………… Ort, Datum Unterschrift ii Acknowledgement Acknowledgement After working so long on a project it is hard to not forget anyone that has contributed to its successful completion. I first and foremost want to thank my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Andreas Dittmann for his continued support over the last few years - first in Bonn and later in Giessen - and for allowing me to work with him and complete this project under his supervision. I also wish to extend my sincere thank you to the following people and organizations: the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD) for providing the funding for the data collection and field work part of this project through their “Kurzstipendium für Doktoranden” Programme. The Nunatsiavut Government, Inuit Community Government of Nain, Labrador Inuit Development Corporation, Makivik Corporation, the Northern Village of Kuujjuaq, Nunavik Landholding Corporation Association, Gerard Duhaime, Donat Savoie, Belinda Webb, Stephen Hendrie, John Merritt, Terry Fenge, Pita Aatami, Michael Gordon, Marc Allard, Jacque Dorais, Larry Watt, Daniel Epoo, Jim Lyall, Kristy Sheppard, Theresa Hollett, Brian Vincent, Sarah Ericson, Molly Shiwack, Wayne Jenkins, Bobby May, Tom Goodwin, Doreen Tucker, Tammy Smith, Dennis Wyatt, Claude Gadboie, Jonathan Epoo, Herman Webb, Jacquie Dawe, Sammy Duncan, Eric Pearson, Greg O’Reilly, Boyd Manuel, Dorman Webb, Deidi Kohlmeister and Rod Woodward for their willingness to take part in this study. I want to thank Ludger Müller-Wille for his advice and support. This research project could not have been successful without their help and permission. A special thank you also goes to Nancianne Nassak and her family for her hospitality in Kangirsuk and allowing me to be part of her family on her wedding day. Also, a thank you to the members of the Webb family for their hospitality on many evenings in Nain and for a memorable trip to Webb’s Bay. Thank you to Bernd Goecke, Lisett Diehl and Nadine Vorbeck from the Cartography section of the Department of Geography at the Justus Liebig University Giessen for their great work on the maps used in this dissertation and for being patient with all my last minute changes. I also want to thank the many colleagues that contributed to this study through advice and discussions at the various conferences that I attended while preparing this project. A special thank you goes to Jenny Baeseman for her support and mentoring as well as everybody else at the Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS). The amazing iii Acknowledgement work we all do for helping to “shape the future of polar research” has greatly improved my understanding and skills needed to complete this project and hopefully many more to come. I also want to thank my husband Rob for his love and patience with all my crazy ideas and for supporting me along the way to fulfilling my dream. Last but not least, I want to thank my parents for their amazing support over the last few years. This would not have been possible without your love, help, patience, guidance and encouragements. You are truly the best parents in the world and I want to dedicate this dissertation to you! Gießen, 03.03.2011 iv Table of Contents Table of Contents Erklärung..............................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgement...............................................................................................................iii Table of Contents..................................................................................................................v List of Maps.......................................................................................................................viii List of Figures.......................................................................................................................x List of Tables......................................................................................................................xiii List of Acronyms...............................................................................................................xiv 1 Development Approaches in the Arctic Context...........................................................1 1.1 Definition of the Arctic Region..................................................................................1 1.2 Arctic Indigenous Peoples: The Inuit and Their Homeland.......................................3 1.3 Development Theory in the Arctic Context: The Bottom-Up Approach....................5 1.4 Research Question and Purpose of the Study...........................................................10 1.5 Methodology and Data Collection...........................................................................13 2 Basis for Bottom-Up Development: Regional Agreements with the Inuit in the Arctic..............................................................................................................................17 2.1 Recognition of Indigenous Rights on the International Level.................................17 2.2 Recognition of Inuit Rights on the National Level in the Arctic..............................22 2.2.1 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act............................................................23 2.2.2 Self-Government in Greenland......................................................................26 2.2.3 Land Claim and Self-Government Agreements in Canada............................29 3 Regional Dynamics in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut.......................................................37 3.1. History until the 1970s.............................................................................................38 3.1.1. Nunavik – „Our Great Land“.........................................................................38 3.1.2. Nunatisavut – „Our Beautiful Land“..............................................................42 v Table of Contents 3.2 Land Claim Agreements in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut.............................................46 3.2.1 James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement 1975........................................46 3.2.2 Nunavik Inuit Land Claim Agreement (2006)...............................................49 3.2.3 Self-Government Negotiations in Nunavik....................................................51 3.2.4 Labrador Inuit Land Claim Agreement (2005)..............................................52 3.3 The Regional Economy in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut – Characteristics and Challenges................................................................................................................55 3.3.1 Challenges for Economic and Business Development...................................56 3.3.1.1 Small Northern Market......................................................................56 3.3.1.2 Demographic Challenges...................................................................56 3.3.1.3 Education...........................................................................................66 3.3.1.4 Infrastructure......................................................................................69 3.3.1.5 Financial and other technical and professional services....................78 3.3.1.6 High Business and Personal Living Costs.........................................78 3.3.2. Economic Characteristics in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut.................................82 3.3.2.1. Inuit Culture and Subsistence Economy............................................82 3.3.2.2. Dominance of the Public Sector.........................................................87 3.3.2.3. Mining................................................................................................91 4 Bottom-Up Business Development in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut...........................100 4.1 Strengthening Small Business Development..........................................................101 4.2. Collective Private Sector Initiatives: Impact of Cooperatives and Ethnic Corporations...........................................................................................................107 4.2.1. Cooperatives.................................................................................................107 4.2.1.1. Fédération des Coopératives du Nouveau Québec..........................109 4.2.1.2. Torngat Fish Producers Cooperative Society...................................115 4.2.2. Inuit Development Corporations.................................................................120