Scientific Works. Series C. Veterinary Medicine. Vol. LIX (3) ISSN 2065-1295, ISSN Online 2067-3663, ISSN-L 2065-1295 OF THE CONC ERN S OF OU R ANC ES TORS IN THE CARPATO-D ANUBIO -P ONTIC REGIO N FOR ANIMAL BREE DING (I. From t he ancien t t imes un til t he Romans leving )

Dumi tru CURC Ă

Faculty of Veterinary Me dicine, 105 Sp laiu l Indepen den ܊ei, sector 5, 050097 , Ro mania

Correspon ding author e-m ai l: curca _fi ziopat @yahoo.co m

ABSTRACT

I. From the Neo/eneolithic, bronze an d ir on ag es. The popula tion of the Cucut eni cultu re was hunter s an d ag ri cultu ri sts an d han dicrafts men su ch as weaver s, pott er y worker s an d too lmaker s. The archaeology displa y sever al artefac ts or painting s on cer amics pictu ri ng the an imal specie s us ed by the people of that time: A zoo morphic re pre sentation; Zoo morphic pictu re ; Z ooo morphic vess el. II . From the peri od of the R oman occ upation (1 st – 3rd centu rie s). O n of , histo ri c monument from Rome built upon order of Trajan E mp er or in comm emoration of his victo ry from D ac ia, by Apolodorus de D amasc an d pre ser ved until ou r pre sent time. R eac hing the apogee of the histo ri c R oman bas-re lie f, the 12 4 episo des ca rved in spir al on the Column, ill ust rating the Comm entarie s of Trajan about the D ac ic wars (De bell o dac ico), by their charac ter of histo ri c document, are a true document about the conc er ns of the D ac ian s for the bree ding an d us e of horses in defenc e. Some intere st ing scenes depict domest ica ted an imal s us ed for sac ri fices or for foo d. Anot her imp ortan t monument is the “T ri ump hal Monument” loca ted north of Adamcl isi comm une in D obrogea, in an are a of fore st ed hill s. Among the bas-re lie fs from Adamcl isi one may not ice thos e showing grou ps of shee p an d goats , specie s loved by the people who inhabited an d st ill inhabits these plac es. II I. Histo ri ography us ing ter minology from the R oman ian ling uist ic. The moder n R oman ian la ng uag e is considere d a Roman ic lang uag e. From the D ac ian -T hrac ic-I liri c lang uag es in the basic lexical fund will st ill have just about (1 70- 180) 165 words, su ch as: hearth, earth, ash, child, infan t, meadow, orog, hornbeam, comm on oak, fir tree , chee se, so ft cow chee se, whey, ford, swamp, wave, su nset, su nri se, swarm, peas, ca bb ag e, grapes, wild boar, st ork, head ker chie f, sca rf, peasan t san dal , hoo d, pole, hill , shore , etc. The apicultu ral ter minology is la rgely of ori gin an d it is one of the st rong est arguments for under st an ding the st able life of the R oman ian s. B ee bree ding words of Latin ori gin: al bina (bee ), stu p (bee hive), fag ur (honey comb), miere (honey), ceară (w ax), păst ură (maiden wax). Foll owing are sever al bee bree ding words of Sla v ori gin: pri sac ă (bee ga rden), matcă (q uee n), trânto r (mal e bee ), R oi (swarm), B ezmetic (w an der ing aimless ly).Other Sla v ter ms with the same mean ing : ulei (oil), from the B g. uleju in O ltenia; útiubei , from Ukr. stu b+su f. – ei , in an d B ucovina ; coúniĠă , from the old Sl. kos nica , in Tran sylvan ia an d B an at.

Key words: ours ancestors, concerns, ani mal bree ding, Ro manian ter mino logy

I. FROM THE NEO/ENEOLITHIC, the Neo lithic Age, with specific high -han dle BRON ZE AND IRON AGES pots an d large vesse ls adorne d with gir dles (no paintings ). The two sites with bron ze The neo /eneo lithic age (6000 -2000 B.C. ) objects (scythes an d soc kete d axes ), surprises by the evolved too ls (han d axe an d unearthe d at Ruginoasa an d Doljeúti (Nea mĠ pierce d axe ), by the diversity of the incise d County ) are spectacu lar disco veries (2, 4). We pottery or of the pottery painte d with spira l- can also notice a wide range of bron ze win ding motifs (storage vesse ls, bowls, lids, needles, of different si zes, so me bone piercers support -v esse ls, vesse ls for re ligious an d pen dants. These artefacts in dicate the purposes ). Most of it is specific to the Pre - progress fro m the stage of „pre dator ” to the Cucuteni an d Cucuteni cu lture (phases A, A- stage of „gro wer -har vester ”. They were B) also due to the anthropo morphic an d disco vere d at the sites fro m Bu dăile-Blănariu, zoo morphic design (hu man representations - Văleni, Săbăoani (Nea mĠ County ) an d Bra d idols, an d representations of different (Bac ău County). The transition from ani mals). It also inc ludes the Cucuteni (phase prehistory to anti quity is intro duce d by the C) „co mbed pottery ”, adorne d with a toothe d Dacic stan dar d (engra ved on a Dacian vesse l too l, si milar to a co mb (26, 27). unearthed at Bu dureasca - Praho va County), The bron ze age (22 00 -11 00 B.C. ) stan ds out exhi bite d in Ha ll no. 3, as an in vitation to by the different for ms of pottery, co mpare d to 197 learn about the Geto -Dacic ci vilization. Thus, hair pin with the hea d in the shape of a swan, starting fro m Ha ll no. 4, all ocate d to the older petrifie d bir d egg. There also are fi ve si lver stage of the Geto -Dacic history (4th -2nd coin treasures unearthe d at St ăni Ġa, Bo zieni, centuries B.C. ), one can notice a broa d range Făurei, Si mione úti úi Tămăúeni – Nea mĠ of obj ects characteristic to their materia l County (1st century B.C. - 2nd century A. D.). cu lture. Most of these items ha ve been In 188 9, at the 10th Congress of History an d unearthe d fro m the most long -lasting Thraco logy he ld at Paris, professor Butureanu archaeo logica l site (over 45 years of presente d the “First scientific disco veries research ), locate d at Bra d-N egri (present ly in about the antiquities unearthed at Băiceni - Bac ău County ), where was the Dacian fortress Cucuteni “, which were of great interest (2). mentione d by the Gree k geographer Clau diu Im presse d by what he hear d at the French Pto lemeu (1st - 2nd centuries A. D.), as Congress of History an d Thraco logy, the Zargi (7, 18, 19). Ger man researcher Hu bert Sch midt ca me to The co mb ination bet ween the ite ms of Geto - poor Mo ldova, in 1892 (22 ). Here, he starte d Dacic tra dition : pottery (censer, jar -v esse ls, digging in the hi ll s aroun d the vill age of cups, small cups, strainers, fruit -ho lding Băiceni -Cucuteni an d deter mine d the vita l vesse ls etc. ), so me agricu ltura l an d crafts men truth for our Ro manian history : the sett lement tools (k ni ves, plough coulter, axes ), orna ment fro m Cucuteni is the oldest site fro m South - an d househo ld obj ects (brace lets, rings, ear - Eastern Europe. rings, bea ds, hair pins, mirrors ) or ite ms Hu bert Sch midt (Figure 1 a), the researchers specific to different acti vities (bone piercer, who ha d pre vious ly disco vere d the Troy spin dle whor ls, fishing hoo ks, arro w hea ds Fortress, unearthe d the Cucuteni ci vilisation, etc. ), an d the importe d obj ects, of Gree k- restoring the initia l meanings of our history. Ro man origin (amphorae, trays, go blets ) The „Ger man “, ho w the vill agers ca ll ed hi m, sho w differences specific to each historic was the first one to spe ll the na me of the perio d (evolution of the different for ms of Mo ldavian vill age abro ad. The vill agers fro m pottery, appearance or disappearance of Cucuteni didn’t forget hi m ever since. The particu lar obj ects, etc. ). vill age Băiceni -Cucuteni – is locate d 8 Besi des the evidence which confir m the basic kilometres fro m the roa d fro m Târgu Fru mos occupations of the (agricu lture, to Hârlău, Iaúi County. This small vill age ani mal hus ban dry, pottery -m aking, fishing, which “turne d upsi de-d own” the history of hunting, spinning etc. ), other ite ms represent the Ro manian is alone no w, forgotten by aspects re late d to funera ls, funera l rites an d peop le an d with no tur moi l, because the ritual: cre mation (urns with bones an d various artefacts unearthe d here are exhi bite d in the ite ms, particu lar ly orna ments ) an d burial large museu ms fro m to wns with tra dition, (dea d peop le burie d with clothes an d adorning such as : Iaúi, Piatra -N ea mĠ, Ro man, Bac ău ite ms). etc. (11 , 18, 20), About so me 6,000 years ago, The tu muli buria l moun ds fro m Bra d ho ld a in Ro mania, the Cucuteni cu lture develope d specia l position : they inc lude go blets, on the present territory of Mo ldova, being pen dants, harness ite ms, cute, which belonge d consi dere d “one of the most interesting an d to military chiefs, vesse ls with emb edd ed outstan ding Neo lithic cu ltures in Europe ” designs (engra ved x motifs, frag ment of a lid (Figure 1 b) . painte d with a fish – sy mb ol of Christianity ),

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Figure 1. a. Hubert Sch midt (Archäologe ) (1864–1933 ), deutscher Klassischer (left ), b. Cucuteni -Trypillian culture, one of the most significant manifestations of the ci vilisation on the Ol d Continent, 55 00 B.C. - 2750 B.C. (right ).

This was a population of agricultural workers various shapes (Fru muúica roun d dance ), an d ani mal bree ders li ving in fortifie d adorne d with spiral an d win ding drawings, fortresses (4 ), using large furnaces to get heat with symm etric colours (Figure 2 a, b, c. ). an d prepare foo d, an d to burn cera mics in

Figure 2. a. Fru muúica roun d dance Bodeúti -Fru miúica (left ); b, c. spiral an d win ding drawings, with symm etric colours (center an d right ).

The population of the Cucuteni culture ha d a specific potter y ite m was burnt. As shape, the proto-ur ban organisation, with large dwellings potter y articles range fro m mere glasses to ha ving insi de hearths. The y were hunters an d large, amphora -li ke vessels. The archaeolog y agriculturists an d han dicrafts men such as Museu m, the museu m of Eneolithic Art wea vers, potter y wor kers an d tool makers. Cucuteni fro m Piatra Nea mĠ (Figure 3 a, b.) Human bones were foun d in the floor of so me an d the Museu m of the Palace of Culture houses fro m this culture, which is a possi ble fro m Ia úi displa y se veral artefacts or paintings proof that the people were burie d in the on cera mics picturing the ani mal species use d foun dation of the houses, as ritual. This by the people of that ti me: a zoo morphic hypothesis may also be supporte d by the fact representation (Figure 4 a, b.); zoo morphic that no necropolis was unearthe d. The picture (Figure 5 a, b, c. ); zoo morphic vessel pre dominant colours of Cucuteni cera mics are (Figure 6 a, b.) an d zoo morphic re d, white an d blac k, with variations representation (Figure 7 a, b, c, d, e, f. ). depen ding on the te mperature at which the

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Figure 3. a. Museu m of Eneolithic Art Cucuteni fro m Piatra Nea mĠ, (left ), b. exhi bits of Cucuteni culture (right ).

The Cucuteni culture also influenced the fortification fro m Bărboúi (GalaĠi Count y) Geto- Dacic site fro m Bâtca Doa mnei, in served as foundation for an imposing Roman Piatra Nea mĠ Count y, the onl y site with stone co mplex, fortified militar y field, civil site and wall dated fro m the La Tene age, unea.rthed necro polis (1 st and 2nd centuries ) in Moldova. Built in the sa me period, the

Figure 4. a. A zoo mor phic re presentation (left ), b. Cre mation urn with zoo mor phic handles (right ).

a b c

Figure 5 a, b, c. Zoo mor phic picture.

a b

Figure 6. a. Zoo mor phic vessel (left ); b. Bull horn re presentation (right ).

200 a b

c

d e f

Figure 7 a, b, c, d, e, f. Zoo morphic representation.

II. From t he period of t he roman occupa tion (1 st – 3rd cen turie s)

The between Nistru, Tisa, Danu be an d the Blac k Sea have alwa ys been here through the , , Dacians an d Romanians ! The y ca me fro m nowhere (Figure 8).

Fig. 8. Area covere d by DACI A.

201 The ear ly po litica l-m ilitary history of the our na me so me two thousan d years ago, as the Geto -Dacians is kno wn fro m foreign written “Father of History ” Hero dotus says (Figure 9 sources, the oldest recor dings being inc luded a), 500 years before Christ, in his fa mous in the wor k of the Gree k historian Hero dotus wor k “History of the Geto -Dacians ”, their (5th century B.C. ). The Geto -Dacians ga ve us area of expansion being sho wn in Figure 9 b.

Figure 9. a. Hero dotos (born 484 B.C - d. cca. 42 5 B.C. ) was a Gree k historian (left ), b. Dacian clothes (right ).

In the first ha lf of the 1st century B.C., the of the Geto -Dacic tri bes en ded by 60 B.C. -59 develop ment of the Geto -Dacic society, the B.C., when starte d the ca mpaign strengthening of the military tri bal aristocracy against the Ce lts fro m the Mi dd le Danu be, an d its transfor mation into po litica l class fro m the Basin. The centre of the deter mine d the transition to the organisation Dacian state esta blishe d by Bure bista was in an in depen dent an d centra lized state. The locate d in Orăútie Mountains. He bui lt here Dacian king, Bure bista (82 B.C. – 44 B.C. ) stone strongho lds, the most important being starte d its ru ling in 82 B.C (6, 10, 21) . those fro m: Coste úti, Blidaru, Căpâlna an d Accor ding to the historian Ior danes, Bure bista Sar mizegetusa, the latter on e eventua ll y inherited a strong tribal union, which beco ming the capita l of the king dom (9, 12 , transfor med into a state as the Geto -Dacic 17). tri bes an d tri bal unions were gra dua ll y The main inf luences of other peop le on the su bm itte d by the centra l authority. This Geeto -Dacians ca me fro m the : - Gree k process of unification was fa voure d not just co lonies at the Blac k Sea (money, writing by domestic factors (tri bal aristocracy an d with the Gree k alphabet, elements of warfare mass, po wer an d skilfu lness of architecture ); - Ce lts (aspects of iron Bure bista ), but also by externa l factors meta ll urgy, potter’s whee l in the western (increase d threat of the Ce lts an d Ro mans ). areas ); - Scythians an d Persians (processing The unification of the Geto -Dacic tri bes into a of the precious meta ls); - Ro mans (aspects of king dom was acco mplishe d in two ways : the materia l life borro wed by the Geto -Dacian peacefu ll y, when the chiefs of tri bes accepte d ci vilisation starte d to be assu med by the Geto - will ing ly to su bm it to Bure bista, an d by Dacian ci vilisation as of the 1st century B.C. ); means of war, when so me loca l chiefs of - Slaves, in the 9th -1 3th centuries, regarding tri bes wante d to keep on their po wer ( the field crops, linguistic etc. cita del near the mouth of the Nister Ri ver to The Ro man province Dacia included the the Blac k Sea, was burne d to the groun d) . Of fo ll owing regions of the present -ti me course, the increasing military po wer of Ro mania : , Ar dea l, Oltenia an d western Bure bista deter mine d many Geto -Dacic tri bal Muntenia. Other regions of the for mer Dacian unions to su bm it will ing ly. Stra bon was king dom were either inc luded into writing that listening to Deceneu, the Geto - pro vince, or re maine d free of the Ro man Dacians "acce pte d to cut down the vineyar ds domination (Figure 10). an d to live on without wine ". The unification

202

Figure 10. (part of Dacia occupie d by the fro m 106 to 271 ) in violet an d the free Dacia fro m north, east an d south -east.

The 13th Roman legion Gemina an d the 5th Given the consi dera ble length of the northern Roman legion Mace donica, with man y imperial bor der (from the Atlantic to the au xiliar y troops were statione d in the Midd le East ) where the bar barian migrator y fortresses fro m Apullu m (Alba Iulia ) an d people (inn general ) an d the free Dacians Potaissa (Tur da). Colonists fro m all the fro m the Carpathian range were putting Roman pro vinces were brought to Dacia. pressure, Aurelian (who rule d between 270 Man y Dacians who ha d fle d to other regions an d 275) calle d bac k the Roman ar my an d returned. The treasure of King Dece bal was adm inistration fro m Dacia in 271 , in or der to sent to Rome: 16 5,000 kg gol d, 33 1,000 kg consoli date the Bal kan bor der on the lower sil ver an d man y jewels with precious stones. . In 274, the secession of the Gallic The Roman inheritance on the territor y of the King dom is li qui date d an d Aurelian restores for mer Dacia continue d to develop after the thus the unit y of the Roman Empire, getting Aurelian with drawal fro m 271 , by the the title of restitutor orbis . After the adhesion to the Christian worl d. with drawal of the Romans fro m Dacia, the After Emperor Diocletian was sole ruler for mer Dacia re maine d in the area of between 284 -286 he divided the Roman influence of the Gree k-Latin ci vilisation, with Empire in 286, keeping the Eastern Roman the sophisticate d spiritualit y of the Byzantine Empire for hi mself an d ruling as Empire. A ver y interesting coinci dence: the (2 86-305), an d appointing Maximilian as na me of Byzantine appeare d onl y in the Augustus in the Western Roman Empire. Centur y of Lights, to appoint the Roman east Emperor Constantine I (the Great ) who rule d part, which the Roman s the msel ves were between 306 an d 33 7, moved the capital of calling at that ti me Romania ! the Eas tern Roman Empire to Constantinople We ha ve proofs of the bee keeping histor y on (Istan bul, ğarigra d) in 324. This town was the the territor y of ol d Dacia – present Romania, capital of the Byzantine Empire, of the Latin such as a frag ment fossil roc k which has a Empire an d of the Otto man Empire. he xagonal drawing, stri kingl y si milar with a Constantinople was esta blishe d in 33 0 B.C. as hone y co mb , unearthe d in Buz ău County- Byzant, becoming the new capital of the Romania; it is preser ved at the museu m fro m Roman Empire esta blishe d by Constantine the Col Ġi co mm une, branch of the Buz ău Count y Great, the town ta king his na me in his honour. Museu m (Figure 11 ). The process of In the 12th centur y this was the largest an d evolution impro ved se veral morphological richest town in Europe. an d biological traits of the hone y bee, which makes it the best fitte d insect for po llination: 203 the bees nee d flowers to live, an d the flowers beehi ves. Thus, the honey co mb , mai den wax nee d bees to fructify. After the disco very of an d lar vae were current ly use d as foo d, fire, smoke pro ved to be a better protection meeting the nee ds of the organis m for sweets. against the aggressi ve bees. This is ho w the The honey an d wax are often use d to make hunt for beehi ves starte d, occupation which medicines (3, 5). Be si des the popu lar laste d for thousan ds of years an d which is sti ll medicine, which use d bee wax for various practice d in so me parts of Africa an d Asia. In cures an d house recipes this pro duct of bees ti me, the people studies ho w the bees live an d has also been use d to make waxe d ta blets for starte d to get the m closer to their house. Thus, writing. These boo k-shape d ta blets containe d they cut the ho ll ow section of the tree an d two, three or more waxe d ite ms, enc lose d into moved it closer to the house. Later, they made a :thin woo den fra me which, when close d, bell -shape d twig bas kets, tu bes of stone or of was protecting the writing. The writing was other materia ls, coated on the outside with done with a sty lus (Figure 12). wet clay, thus creating the ear ly pri miti ve

Figure 11 . Frag ment of fossi l roc k with hexagona l dra wing, Figure 12. Waxe d ta blet for writing preser ved at the museu m fro m Co lĠi co mm une, branch of the and cou ntin g and the sty lus use d to. z Bu ău County Museu m, Ro mania. Accor ding to the nu mb er of plates, they were make magic figurines use d by the peop le; ca ll ed: dipticus – with two plates (Figure 13), after the emergence of Christianity, it was tri pticus – with three plates (Figure 14) or use d to make can dles. poli pticus – with four plates. The waxe d The first recor ds of bee keeping at the ta blets were use d for the current Dacians are due to the “Father of History ”, correspon dence an d for various other notices. Hero dotus (48 5–421 B.C. ). He wante d to go Such waxe d ta bles, of Ro man origin, are kept to Scythia an d ha d thus to cross the Istrus at Timotei Cipariu Library, fro m Blaj, Alba (Danu be); he foun d out fro m the Thracians County. living on the right ban k of the Danu be that it The ta blets date fro m 133 an d 142 an d they was not easy to tra vel in the lan d across the represent a sa les -b uying docu ment. They ri ver because of the multitu de of bees who were foun d in 1855 in „Saint Catherine ” mine deterre d anyone trying to cross that lan d. This fro m Alba County (6, 7, 40). The wax was infor mation must be ta ken as evidence of also use d to make light in the house an d to honey bee keeping in the old Scythia.

Figure 13. Ro man waxe d ta blet for writing an d counting Figure 14. Ro man waxe d ta blet for writing an d (dipticus ), dating fro m 142 A. D. foun d in Ro mania counting (tripticus ) foun d in a mine fro m Ro úia (Timotei Cipariu Library fro m Blaj, Alba County. Montan ă, Apuseni Mountains, Transy lvania. 204 The archaeo logica l in vestigations ha ve sho wn Interesting aspects regar ding the concerns of the existence of bee keepers fro m ancient the forefathers of the Ro manian peop le can be ti mes. This is on ly natura l if we thin k that the seen on the Co lumn of Tra jan, historic bees were pro ducing a lot of honey an d wax, monu ment fro m Ro me bui lt upon or der of being ai ded by the ri ch mell iferous flora fro m Tra jan Emperor (who ru led bet ween 98-11 7) the woo ds, mea dows an d hayfie lds. This in co mm emoration of his victory from Dacia, state ment is also mentione d in Ana bassis, the preser ved until our present ti me (8, 14, 16). wor k of the great Greek historian Xenofon The monu ment is locate d in the Tra jan (430–355 B.C.) who was writing that “…the Foru m, very close an d north of the Ro man foo d of the Getae consists pri mari ly in honey, Foru m. The Co lumn of Tra jan was finishe d in vegeta bles, plain milk or dairy pro ducts an d 11 3 AD (Figure 15 a, b.). very litt le meat, because their faith in Zamolxes pre vente d it ”.

Figure 15. a. Tra jan ’s Co lumnin Ro me-I ta ly, arhitect -Apo lodorus de Damasc (left ); b. detai ls (right ).

It disp lays a fa mous bas -re lief car ved in the dacico ), by their character of historic for m of a spira l, which depicts artistica ll y the docu ment, are a true docu ment about the epic of the wars bet ween the Ro mans led by concerns of the Dacians for the bree ding an d Emperor Tra jan an d the Dacians led by King use of horses in defence (Figure 16 a, b.). As Dece bal (who ru led bet ween 87-1 06 ). The many anti que scu lpture, the bas -re lief is bas -re lief sho ws scenes fro m the first war, of painte d in vivid co lours. The unifor ms of the 101-1 02 AD, in the upper part of the Co lumn, Ro man so ldiers an d the re d clothes of the an d fro m the secon d war, of 105 - 106 AD, in emperor all owed a fast vie wing of the scenes, the lower part of the Co lumn. almost like a movie. Both Dacic wars are Reaching the apogee of the historic Ro man sho wn on the Co lumn bui lt by Apo lodorus bas -re lief, the 124 episo des car ved in spira l fro m Damasc, the sa me architect who bui lt on the Co lumn, ill ustrating the Co mm entaries the bri dge over the Danu be of Tra jan about the Dacic wars (De bell o .

205

Figure 16 . a. Use horses in battle (left ); b. Transport the spoil of war in the capital Sar misegetusa, Dacia, by the Roman ar my (right ).

The bas-reliefs are pro bably the wor k of other artists and craftsmen. Some interesting scenes depict do mesticated ani mals used for sacrifices or for food (Figure 17 a, b.).

Figure 17. Scenes with ani mal species use for sacrifices : a. cattle and sheep (left ), b. cattle, sheep and pigs (right ).

Another important monu ment is the fortress and around it. One side of the “Triu mphal Monu ment ” of King Buere bista, museu m displa ys the metopae, the lo wer located north of Ada mclisi co mm une in frieze and the upper frieze, the pillars, the Do brogea, in an area of forested hills. It was crenellations and parapet bloc ks of the built in 106-109 AD and it sho ws the culture festooned Attic st yle. The colossal statue of of industriousness of the Dacians, forefathers the troph y is displa yed in the middle of the if the Romanian people. This is an authentic hall, ne xt to the inscription and the fr ieze with source of infor mation about the events fro m weapons. the ancient histor y of the Romanian people. The triu mphal monu ment had a height of 39 Ada mclisi had ac quired the ran k of m, and a circular shape with the dia meter of municipalit y during the ti me of Emperor 38 m (Figure 18 a. ). It consisted of an Septi miu Sever (193-211 ), but it was impressive cylindrical nucleus (12.6 m height ; su bse quently destroyed by the Goths; 31 m dia meter ), built of gross bric k wor k, ho wever, with the help of the Geto-Dacians it surrounded at its foot by a circular platfor m was built again fro m scrap, as sho wn by an with 7 stone steps ; the nucleus was covered in inscription fro m 316 , by the care of Emperor stone sla bs which continued with a la yer of 54 Constantine the Great. The ruins of this meto pae (only 49 were preserved to our fortress have been investigated and identified da ys), sculpted in bas-relief with scenes fro m by Grigore Tocilescu in 1891-1909 , and then the fights of the Geto-Dacians. Grigore by Vasile Pârvan in 1911 . The building of the Tocilescu (Figure 18 b.), director of the museu m, inaugurated in 1977 , is designed as National Museu m of Anti quities, was the a la pidariu m, and it displa ys nu merous pioneer of archaeological research in archaeological re mains unearthed in the Romania (1, 24). In 188 2 he started

206 syste matic digs at the site of the Triu mpha l co mplete ly an d gather meticu lous ly all the Monu ment, which he continue d unti l 1890 ; infor mation about it. on this occasion he unearthe d the monu ment

Figure 18. a. The Triu mpha l monu ment in Ad amclisi (left ); b. Grigore Toci lescu, 1850-1909 (right ).

At the sa me ti me, he too k care to reco ver existence pro ves the causes of the batt le an d fro m the neigh bouring vill ages an d ce meteries moti vates the importance of the Dacian all the scu lptura l an d architectonic ite ms victory over the in vaders, thus justifying the co ming fro m Ad amclisi. The outco me of the construction of the Ad amclisi Monu ment as digs were pu blishe d in a proper manner, the sy mb ol of the sa lvation of the Dacian peop le. Ro manian historian an d epigrapher The geo metric sign s fro m the crene ll ate d co ll aborating with the architect G. Nie mann parapet of the stone plates separating the an d professor O. Ben dorf fro m , in scu lptures of the prisoners are no part of an or der to gi ve the best interpretation to the ancient un kno wn orienta l alpha bet, as C. W. monu ment. The other exhi bits inc lude Wut zer sai d, an d they are neither adorn ment cera mics co ll ections (pottery fro m Ha magia elements, but sy mb ols representing, accor ding cu lture, Getae cera mics, Gree k, Ro man an d to the cree d of the Dacians, the ce lestia l By zantine amphorae), rushlights, tools, forces that he lpe d the m to defeat their jewell ery, frag ments fro m aque ducts, ene mies. The presence of these signs on the scu lptures (F igure 19 a, b.), epigraphic Ad amclisi Monu ment is another proof that the docu ments. authors of the Monu ment can on ly be the The geo metric signs fro m the Monu ment are Great priest Deceneu an d King Buere bista sy mb ols representing (for the initiate d ones ) who ha d kno wledge of the ce lestia l mysteries, ce lestia l forces he lping men. For the rest of as old historic docu ments pro ve it. the people they ha ve no meaning at all . Their

207

Figure 19. Use of aurochs (ox ) traction : a, over vie w (left ); b. details (right ).

The fresco with prisoners, frame d by bas-re liefs from Adamclisi one ma y notice geometric signs might be translate d in wor ds those sho wing groups of shee p an d goats (23), as follo ws: the mall Dacian arm y defeate d the species lo ved by the peo ple who inha bite d great in vading arm y with the hel p of the sky, an d still inha bits these places (Figure 20 a, an d the enemies were turne d fettere d into the b.). han ds of the Dacians (15, 25). Among the

Figure 20.The adornment elements are dominate d by shee p an d goats, besi des horses : a. over vie w (left ); b. details (right ).

Old Dobrogea was for the Geto- Dacians the time, hence its anti que name of DRO-BE TA land wherefrom three shepherds ha d come to or DRU- BE TI S, “Three distinguishe d peo ple ; bring gifts when the divine twins Ap ollon an d Three she pher ds; Three lea ders ”, the same Diana, chil dren of the Supreme go d an d of the name of the fortress from the present time Empress of the sky were born. Both twins Mehe din Ġi Count y. The Romanian Christmas were also calle d (pol ytheist belief carols call them three she pher ds or three of the Dacians ). The sacre d event ha d kings. As one of the meto pae from Adamclisi ha pp ene d in a settlement on the left ban k of sho w three Tigai shee p (Figure 20), because Na paris, currentl y Ialomi Ġa River. Each of the BE TI S was also translated as “From shee p; three rulers of ol d Dobrogea ha d a function : she pher d”, it is clear that it refers to the name one was priest, another was ju dge an d the which Dobrogea ha d at that time. Much later, other one was militar y lea der ; the y all enjo yed in 1347-1386, there was a local ruler name d the same ran k. Dobrotici or Dobroti Ġă, which means, of course, Therefore, the lan d bet ween the Danu be an d „Dobrogeanul " (the man from Dobrogea ). the Sea ha d a tri partite lea dershi p for a long

208 On the bac kgroun d of the metopae with the the Ro man presence, the Gree k to wns joine d three sheep, there are two ra ms in confronting an d for med a union. The union consiste d first posture. “Ra m” which was also trans late d as of fi ve forts – , Tomis, Ca ll atis, “king, ru ler ”, was in the Thracian Dionysopo lis (Ba lcic ) an d Odessos (V arna ) – language, which suggests that two kings ha d then of six forts, when Mese mb ria (Nese bar ), batt led once for Dobrogea. Ho wever, one of joine d the m. The resi dence of the union was the ra ms has the face of a man, which may for a short ti me at Odessos, then at Tomis. The re lay to the meaning of the Tur kish hea dquarters of the military co mm an der of topony mic ADAM -CLISI „Church of the the Pontus Euxinus western shore was also at Man ". This clear ly sho ws who was the first Tomis, evidence of the importance which the henefactor of the monu ment which the Ro mans besto wed to this to wn (13, 14). More Ro mans an d the Ro manian historians than 2500 years ha ve passe d since the Gree k po mpous ly ca ll ed Tropaeu m Traiani. na vigators an d merchants co ming fr om Mi let The oldest evidences of the hu man existence (Asia Minor ) for med a sett lement on the place in the hearth of the to wn of Constan Ġa of the present ti me Constan Ġa. During the (Tomis ), were those foun d on the shores of anti quity, the to wn was bui lt on the peninsu lar Tăbăcărie Lake, within the peri meter of the part of the location, about 15-30 m above the present district North Tomis. These evidences sea level, which protecte d it fro m surprise consiste d in archaeo logica l ite ms attri bute d to attac ks fro m the sea. For a better safety, the the eneo lithic cu lture Gumelni Ġa (5th Ro mans bui lt in the 3rd century A. D. a strong mill enniu m B.C. ). The archaeologica l defence wall on the northern an d north - evidences lea d us further to war ds 7th an d 6th western part of the to wn, whose ruins ha ve centuries B.C, when traces of Thracian -Getae been unearthe d on Repu blicii Bou levar d, dw ell ings were unearthe d within the fro m which they descen d to war ds the old peri meter of the present to wn. The arri ving har bour. Part of the wall was unearthe d an d an d esta blish ment of the Gree ks in the together with it a roun d defence to wer peninsu lar area of the present to wn, in the 6th (Butchers ’ Tower ). The to wer is a su bse quent century B.C. is a pheno menon that must be attach ment to the wall an d it was bui lt by the integrate d within the huge process of guild of the butchers. Traces of gates to the emigration, kno wn as the Gree k co loni zation, to wn of Tomis fort an d of other defence when part of the Gree k wor ld hea ded for to wers ha ve also been identifie d. An different lan ds, in the 8th - 6th centuries B.C. archaeo logica l par k has been esta blishe d close As of the first century A. D., the geopo litica l to the Butch ers ’ Tower, which features ewers, situation of the entire Pontus Euxinus western co lumns, frie zes, cornices, stone slabs fro m shore un der went transfor mations, by the the old bui ldings, etc. (Figure 21 a, b.). arri val of the Ro mans in 72/71 B.C., moment Another positi ve evidence is the stone when the to wns are transferre d un der Ro man sarcophagus unearthe d in 1931, which a rich go vernance ; aroun d 55 B.C. they return to the Tomis butcher see ms to ha ve prepare d during go vernance of King Burebista (unti l his death his lifeti me, so mewhere in the 2nd century in 44 B.C. ). For a brief perio d, Tomis B.C. The bas -re liefs car ved on the regaine d its in depen dence, but in 29/28 B.C. sarcophagus depict the in ventory of too ls use d the Ro mans returne d to the western shores of by the butchers for their profession. Pontus Euxinus. Fro m the very ear ly years of

209

Figure 21. a. Stone sla bs mar ked “Makelaria ” - ȂDZȀǼȁDZ ȉǼȁDZȉȅ (left ); b. vala bilit y colu mn (right ).

We can thus notice a cattle hea d, tri mm ing scissors , a balance , an axe, a tool surroun ded by se veral typical butcher tools with two hoo ks use d to drag the carcass after such as: a cattle bell , a whi p, a pair of cutting an d hang it to dry (Figure 22 ).

Figure 22. Stone sarco phagus.

Our forefathers fro m the Car pathian -Danu be- making special pouches in which the y store d Pontus area , being by excellence goo d ani mal or transported li qui ds – water an d wine – an d bree ders , were also skilful pro ducers of cheese (Figure 23 a, b, c. ), flour or tallow , ani mal pro ducts an d by-pro ducts. For which was use d, li ke the bee wa x, as fuel to instance , fro m the ru men an d hi de the y were light the houses.

a b c

Figure 23. a, b, c. Pouch cheese

The crafts men making the pouches were strings , thus making a bag which coul d ta ke calle d "utriculari ”, an d the y were much up to 15-20 kg of salte d lea vene d fresh estee med by the population , as it can be seen cheese. As the pouches were made, the y were fro m the inscri ptions foun d at the Iron Gates store d on the san d in the sa me roo ms with the an d in Trans ylvania. The bag is made of two boxes (cotete ) use d to lea ven the fresh cheese , overla pp ing shee p hi des , pre viousl y sha ved of until the shee p descen d fro m the mountain in all fleece , sown on the bor ders with skin late autu mn.

210 III. His toriography using t erminology from t he romanian linguis tic

The modern Ro manian language is consi dere d broa d sprea ding area (Figure 24), fro m the a Ro manic language. Even if it was occupie d Dacian language in the basic lexica l fun d will for just a short perio d (107 - 271/ 276), Dacia sti ll ha ve just about 165 (170-1 80) wor ds ! , was the pro vince with, may be, the most such as : hearth, earth, ash, chi ld, infant, intense co lonization, with peop le fro m all mea dow, orog, horn bea m, co mm on oa k, fir co lonies of the empire, an d the Latin impose d tree, cheese, soft co w cheese, whey, for d, as lingua franca, the process being si milar, in swamp, wave, sunset, sunrise, swar m, peas, so me aspects, with the European co loni zation ca bb age, grapes, wild boar, stor k, hea d of the Unite d States an d of the Latin America. kerchief, scarf, peasant san dal, hoo d, po le, Of the Dacian -T hracic -I liric languages, with a hi ll , shore, etc.

Fig. 24. Sprea ding area of the Dacian -T hracic -I liric languages Ro manian (or Daco -Ro manian ; obso lete the Republic of Mo ldova, the Autonomous spe ll ings Ru manian, Rou manian ; autony m: Pro vince of Vojv odina in Ser bia, an d in the ro mână, li mba ro mână ("the Ro manian autono mous Mount Athos in Greece (Figure language ") or ro mâne Юte (lit. "in Ro manian ") 25). Ro manian is also one of the fi ve is a Ro mance language spo ken by aroun d 24 languages in which re ligious ser vices are mill ion peop le as a nati ve language in Europe perfor med in the autono mous monastic state (28), pri mari ly in Ro mania an d Mo ldova, an d of Mount Athos, spo ken in the mon k by another 4 mill ion peop le as a secon d co mm unities of Pro dro mos an d Lacu. language. It has officia l status in Ro mania,

Figure 25. Map of the Balkans with regions inha bite d by Ro manians / high lighte d (left ), Ro manian language in the Ro mance language fa mily (right ).

211 Ter ms such : ili úul (tax on cerea l grains ), deri ved fro m the Latin mel , mele m. It exists in sulgiul (tax on meat ) an d caii de olac all dia lects (dr. miere ; ar. Ĕare , meg l. Ĕani; ir. (co mpu lsory supp ly of horses for mai l ml’are ) an d it can be foun d in all Ro manic ser vices ) are ter ms of Pecheneg -Cu mani or peop le (cf. It. miele ; Fr. miel ; Port. mel etc ). A Tartar -Mongo l origin. popu lar saying says “The tongue like a honey In Mo ldova, the paper signe d by ùtef ăni Ġă co mb ”, for a pleasant speech. CEAR Ă (wax ). Vodă on Septe mb er 20, 1525 spea ks of It is a genera l Ro manian wor d deri ved fro m „meserni Ġi”, which means butcher shop. In the Latin cera , -am (în ir. tsere úi ar. Ġear ă). Walachia, we may fin d in a list of Bucharest The wor d was preser ved by all Ro manic crafts men, a „casa p” (Tur kish wor d – kasap, peop le: Ita l. cera ; Fr. cire ; Span. Cata lunia, meaning butcher ) who, on Novemb er 18, 150 Port. cera . PĂSTURĂ (mai den wax ). The ha d bought fro m the peop le of Bucharest a po ll en brought by the bees, processe d an d property to be use d for this purpose, store d in the honey co mb ce ll s; foo d docu ment signe d by Mihnea Turcitu l (5). in dispensa ble for the nor mal develop ment of The apicu ltura l ter mino logy is large ly of the bees an d of the lar vae. The wor d deri ves Latin origin an d it is one of the strongest fro m the Latin pastura (fro m pastus „foo d”). argu ments for un derstan ding the sta ble life of Fo ll owing are se vera l bee bree ding wor ds of the Ro mani ans. Wou ld the Ro manians ha ve Slav origin : PRISAC Ă (bee gar den ), with the interrupte d for a longer ti me the tra de of bee meaning of stu pin ă (apiary ) met on ly in bree ding, they wou ld ha ve forgotten all the Mo ldova an d Buco vina ; it deri ves fro m the wor ds re late d to this profession. Fo ll owing old Slav prČsČ. In Mo ldova, the wor d prisac ă are the basic ter ms of bed bree ding ha ving evolved, genera lising with the meaning of Latin origin. ALBIN A (bee ). It exists in all stu pin ă “place where th e beehi ves are kept in Ro manian dia lects (dr. albin ă; ar. algin ă; su mm er ”. During the feu dal perio d this place meg l. albin ă; ir. albire ). The wor d deri ves was fence d with tree trun ks if it was in a fro m the Latin alvina . The other Ro manic forest glade or with twigs, if it was in the languages preser ved another Latin wor d: apis , field. MA TCĂ (q ueen ). It deri ves fro m the apem (cf. Ita l. ape; Pro v. albelha (Fr. abeille ); Bu lgarian matka = mother , scr. matca , (often Sp. abeja ; Port. abelha etc. The wor d albino deter mine d by the fa mily of bees, of the has 14 derivatives in Ro manian, which prove beehi ve). Today it is a genera l wor d which its old origin an d the vita lity an d anti quity of rep lace d almost every where the origina l Latin bee bree ding at the Ro manian peop le. Thus, wor d mother derived from the Latin mamm a, we ha ve: albinea; albinu Ġă ; albini Ġă ; -a m. TRÂNT OR (male bee ). Genera l ter m albinu úă ; albinic ă; albinioar ă. Then : co ming fro m the Slav trontu + agent suffix – albin ărie , albinet , albini ú, albinar tor . The male bee is the male of the bee „apicu lteur ”; albin ărie „apicu lture ”; albin ărit fa mily or, as Gh. ùincai sai d, the “male bees „apiculture” , „ impôt sur les abeilles”; zool. are bees an d queen ’s young hus ban ds” born albin ărel „Merops apiaster ”; albin á „courir fro m a non -fecun date d egg. ROI (swar m) . It fébri lement ”. STUP (Beehi ve). It deri ves co mes fro m the Slav ro j. This ter m rep lace d fro m the Latin stu ps „ho ll ow tree trun k, either the old Latin ter m examen , which means roi due to rotting, or car ved by man ”. The wor d (Ita l. scia me, Span. enja mbre , Port. en xame, suffered a significant ref lection of its Franc. essai m). In Ro manian, the wor d shou ld meaning ; first the peop le sai d beehive “car ved ha ve beco me sa mă, which disappeare d fro m trun k for bees ”, then the wor d re maine d with the apicu ltura l ter mino logy, because of the this singe meaning. FA GUR (honey co mb). It ho mony mous sa mă, which means multitu de, deri ves fro m the Latin favulus-u m, diminuti ve for instance „O sa mă de cuvinte ” (A lot of of favus . It is preser ved in Ro manian an d in wor ds) by Ion Necu lce. Ho mony my is a all Ro manic languages, together with its dea dly disease for the wor ds, which is why it deri vati ves. The wor d fagur (e) can be foun d change d into roi instea d of the Latin sa mă. on ly at the Dacian -Ro manians. MIERE BE ZME TI C (wan dering ai mless ly). It co mes (honey ). It is a genera l Ro manian wor d fro m the Uk r. bez matoc „b eehive with no

212 queen ”, an d it was use d with this meaning in beehive , didn’t root into the popu lar the apicu ltura l techno logy. We foun d it voca bulary, which usua ll y use the expressions docu mente d first in Mo ldova, after 1800, in “wi dower beehive” (Gh. ùincai : the beehives the in ventory of an estate, written in 1824: with no queen are called wi dower hives”, “256 goo d hi ves an d 77 5 empty hi ves fro m “barren hive”, “orphan hive”. Next to bee gar dens, an d 9 hi ves being bez metici , I beehi ve, we can also fin d in different regions didn’t accept the m”. of the country other Slav ter ms with the sa me We foun d it later at Conachi (cite d by Cihac ) meaning : ulei (oi l), fro m the Bg. uleju in bez meticesc roii fără matc ă (the queen -less Oltenia ; útiu bei , fro m Uk r. stub + suf. – ei , in swar ms wan der ai mless ly). The wor d Mo ldova an d Buco vina ; co úni Ġă , fro m the old bez metic with the meaning of queen-less Sl. kosnica , in Transy lvania an d Banat.

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