NOTES

CHAPTER I 1. Cordovez, Diego and Selig S. Harrison: Out ofAfghanistan (Oxford: Oxford Uni• versity Press, 1995), p. 26. 2. Lifschults, Lawrence: Pakistan Times, Islamabad, February 12, 1989, p. 23. 3. Wakmen, Mohammed A.: , Non-Alignment and the Super Powers (New York: Radiant Publisher, 1985), p. 5. 4. UNDP, Action plan for immediate rehabilitation of Afghanistan (New York: UN Publication, 1993), vol. 1, p. 7. 5. Wilber, Donald N.: Afghanistan (New York: Human Relation Press, 1980), p. 56. 6. Jawad, Nassi: Afghanistan: a Nation of Minorities (London: The Minority Rights Group, Brixton, 1992), p. 9. 7. Dupree, Louis: Afghanistan in the 1970s (New York: Praeger Publisher, Inc., 1974), p. 14. 8. The Holy Qur'an (Al Madonna: Madonna Publication, 1986), Surah 42, Aya 38, Aya 159, and Sura 3. 9. Ghobar, Ghulam Mohammed: Afghanistan dar Massir Tarikh (, Matba'ah Daulati, 1978), p. 80. 10. Ibid., p. 90. 11. Ibid., p. 277. 12. Anthony, Arnold and Rosanna Klass: "Afghanistan Communist Party and the Fragmented PDPA," in Afghanistan, the Great Game Revisited (New York: Free• dom House, 1987), p. 13 5. 13. Hugh, Beattie: Afghanistan Studies (London: Society for Afghanistan Smdies, British Academy, 1982), vol. 3 and 4, p. 44. 14. Interview with Mr. Abdul Wassil (Wardak), the former woleswal of Enjeel, Herat, and the former governor of the Province of Parwan. He now resides in Con• necticut. 15. Klass, Rosanna: Afghanistan, the Great Game Revisited (New York: Freedom House, 1987), p. 205. 16. Dupree, Louis: Afghanistan in the 1970s (New York, Praeger Publisher, Inc., 1974), p. 4. 17. Hugh, Beattie: AfghaniJ-tan Studies (London: Society for Mghanistan Smdies, British Academy, 1982), vol. 3 and 4, p. 44. 18. Ghobar, Ghulam Mohammed: Afghanistan dar Massir Tarikh (Kabul: Matba'ah Daulati, 1978), p. 468. 19. Kakar, Hassan: Trends in Modern Afghan History (1974), p. 4. 20. Vartan, Gregorian: The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Political Reforms and Modernization (California: Stanford University Press, 1969), p. 361. NOTES 233

CHAPTER 2 1. Ilpyong, KimJ.: Mass Mobilization Polities and Teehniques Developed in the Period of the Chinese Soviet Republie C\Vashington: University of Washington Press, 1996), p.86. 2. Fischer, Louis: The Lift of Mahatma Gandhi (New York: Harper and Brothers Press, 1985), p. 14. 3. Green, Philip: "Democracy," Robert Michael, "Politieal Parties" (New Jersey: Hu• manities Press, 1993), p. 68. 4. My personal notes, Mghanistan, Herat, 1982-1984. 5. UNDP, Aetion plan for immediate rehabilitation of Afghanistan (New York: UN Publication, 1993), vol. 1, p. 34. . 6. There are two words that people, particularly, Dari (Farsi) speaking communi• ties, pronounce similarly: 1) "Ghazi" with ghain; 2) Ghazi with ghaf. Ghazi with ghain means victor. Historically, the term "Ghazi" has a deep root in the tradi• tionallife of Mghans. During the three Mghan-British wars (1884-1919), the term Ghazi became very popular, and individuals like Amir Akber Khan, the son of Dost Mohammed Khan,became the head of the Ghazian (plural of Ghazi) against the British. At that time individuals who committed to be Ghazian be• came professional freedom fighters and a handful of these crossed the border from Mghanistan into India to take part in the Indian people's struggle against British rule in this subcontinent. 7. From 1988 to 1992, the situation was a continuous civil war in Mghanistan be• tween the former Mujahideen groups and Soviet supported government. From 1992-1994, the fight between the Islamic Government of Mghanistan and the opposition riyal groups, particularly the Islamic Party of Hekmatyar, prevented a nationalleadership. From 1996 to 2000, the war between the Taliban forces and the High National Defense Council under General Abdul Rashid Dostam and Ahmed Shah Massoud prevented the formation of a uni ted politicalleadership in Mghanistan. 8. Cordovez, Diego and Selig S. Harrison: Out ofAfghanistan (Oxford: Oxford Uni• versity Press, 1995), p. 34. 9. Hobbes, Thomas: Leviathan or the matter, form and power of a Commonwealth, ed. Michael Oakeshott (New York: Collier Books, 1962), p. 138. 10. Ibid., p. 138. 11. Anthony, Arnold and Rosanna Klass: "Mghanistan's Divided Communist Party," inAfghanistan, the Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanna Klass (New York: Freedom House Press, 1987), p. 13 5 . 12. "The Truth About Mghanistan" (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 1986), p. 4A. .

CHAPTER 3 1. Anthony, Arnold and Rosanna Klass: "Mghanistan's Communist Party: the Frag• mented PDPA," Afghanistan, the Great Game Revisited (New York: Freedom House, 1987), p. 13 5. 2. Wakmen, Mohammed: Afghanistan, Non-Alignment and the Super Powers (Pak• istan, Islamabad, 1985), p. 4. 3. Ibid., p. 5. 4. The People's Democratic Party of Mghanistan (Kabul, Mghanistan: State Pub• lishing House, 1978). 234 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

5. Watkins, Mary: Afghanistan, Land in Transition (New Jersey: Princeton, 1963), p. 29. 6. According to local and international sources, the Soviet secret operation in Mghanistan was comprised of two sections: 1) the civilian operation led by the KGB that concentrated on civil officers of the Mghan government and non• government elements; and 2) the military operation led by GRU that concen• trated on the military officers, in particular, those who were sent 1:0 military schools and training programs in the East Block. These operations also were di• vided into two major mechanisms: 1) recruiting Mghans as individuals and polit• ically and ideologically preparing them to work toward the regional interest of the Soviets. This did not mean that these individuals were involved in intelli• gence operations and became spies. Many of these individuals had their own po• litical ambitions and personal characteristics with strong nationalist sentiments. But being apart of the general Soviet operation in the region in the long run cat• egorized them on the side of the Soviets. Therefore, the KGB and the GRU, at• tempting to benefit from the work of an individual by direct connection, were thought to have the political and ideologicalloyalty to the Soviet leadership. In this case, there were individuals like Hafizullah Amin, who had their own circIe in Mghanistan, and individuals who were working not as a group, like Colonel Abdul,Qader, who'was nurtured by the GRU (Cordovez and Harrison, 1995, p. 26), and Jallalar, a long-term high-ranking official of the Mghan government. In many circumstances, these individuals had a great deal of experience in public af• fairs and were highly qualified professionals able to have significant influence on the shape of government policies. 2) The KGB and GRU were Recruiting indi• viduals who were able to establish their own circIe within the party or their eth• nic and linguistic groups. Among the Pushtons was Hafizullah Amin; among , Abdul Karim Missaq; and among Tajiks, Babrak Karma!. 7. Ibid., p. 138. 8. Ibid., p. 141. 9. Amold, Anthony and Rosanna Klass: "Mghanistan's Communist Party: the Frag• mented PDPA," in Afkhanistan, the Great Game Revisited (New York: Freedom House, 1987), p 141. 10. Ibid., p. 135. 11. Ibid., p. 46. 12. After the Soviet army withdrew from Mghanistan, PD PA changed the title and ideological agenda of the party to "Homeland Party" and tried to represent the modern and traditional, elements of nation politics. But this reform happened after more than a decade of bloodshed, especially, and thePDPA leaders con• tributed directly to the destruction of the country and also were responsible for the death of one and a half million Mghans. Therefore, such political reform could not rescue the deterioration of the PDPA's regime. 13. Amold, Anthony and Rosanna Klass: "Mghanistan's Divided Communist Party," in Afghanistan, the Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanna Klass (New York: Freedom House Press, 1987), p. 13 5. 14. Sen Gupta Bhabani: Afghanistan Politics, Economics and Society (London: 1985), p. 33. 15. Ibid., p. 34 16. Ibid., p. 58. 17. Arnold, Anthony and Rosanna Klass, "Mghanistan's Divided Communist Party," inAfghanistan, the Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanna Klass (New York: Freedom House Press, 1987), p. 142. NOTES 235

18. Ibid.,p.143. 19. Ibid.,p.I44. 20. To the best of my knowledge, I have not seen any evidence that there were finan• dal ties between the Soviet regime and the PDPA before the 1978 coup. But there is evidence that the Soviet operation espedally provided financial support to groups such as the PDPA before seizing government power directed through secondary connections. In the case of PDPA, if it was not direct, it may have hap• pened through the Indian Communist Party (ICP), National Party in Pakistan, and the Revolutionary People Party of Iran. In general, the finandal support by the Soviets to the parties who believed the Soviet Union to be the center of the socialist world was dependent on 1) the geopolitical importance of the country and 2) the influence of the party among the people. These two issues would be the indicators for the Soviet planners in this particular matter to support the party financially either as a whole or just the leaders. 21. Ibid., p. 144. 22. Siddg, Noorzoy M: "Soviet Economic interests and Policies in Mghanistan," in Afghanistan, the Great Game Revisited, edited by Rosanna I

CHAPTER 4 1. Cordovez, Diego and Selig S Harrison: Out ofAfghanistan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 17. 2. Ibid., p. 18. 3. Ibid., pp. 17-24. 4. Ibid., p. 27. 5. Hyman, Anthony: Afghanistan under Soviet Domination (New York: Macmillan Academic & Professional, Ltd., 1992), p. 77. 6. Arnold, Anthony and Rosanna I(!ass: "Mghanistan's Communist Party: The Fragmented PDPA," in Afghanistan, the Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanna I(!ass (New York: Freedom House, 1987), p. 138. 7. Rubin, Barnet: "Human Rights in Mghanistan," in Afghanistan, the Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanna I(!ass (New York, Freedom House Press, 1978), p. 336. 8. Hyman, Anthony: Afghanistan under Soviet Domination (New York: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd., 1992), p. 8I. 9. Arnold, Anthony and Rosanna I(!ass: "Afghanistan's Communist Party: the Frag• mented PDPA," in Afghanistan, the Great Game Revisited (New York: Freedom House Press, 1987), p. 146. 10. Hyman, Anthony: Afghanistan under Soviet Domination (New York: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd.), p. 85. 11. Saur means April, therefore, Saur Revolution = April Revolution. 12. Hyman, Anthony, Afghanistan under Soviet Domination (New York: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd.), p. 83. 13. Rubin, Barnett R.: "Human Rights in Mghanistan," in Afghanistan the Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanna I(!ass (New York: Freedom House Press, 1987), p. 337. 14. Hyman, Anthony: Afghanistan under Soviet Domination (Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd.), p. 85. 236 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

15. Bhabani, Sen Gupta: Afghanistan Politics, Economics and society (London: 1985), p. 48. 16. The Truth About Afghanistan (Moscow: Novesti Press Agency PubJishing House, 1986),p.151. 17. Bhabani, Sen Gupta: Afghanistan Politics, Economics and Society (London: 1985), p. 49. 18. The Truth About Afghanistan (Moscow: Novesti Press Agency Publishing House, 1986), p. 149. 19. UN, Coordinator for Humanitarian and Economic Assistance Programs Relat• ing to Afghanistan, Geneva, September 1988, p. 91. 20. Hyman, Anthony, Afghanistan under Soviet Domination (New York: Macmillan Academic & Professional, Ltd., 1992), p. 93. 21. Ibid., p. 94. 22. During the Herat Mass Revolt, I lived in Herat city and witnessed many parts of the city while it was involved in the uprising and the dash between the PDPA armed units and the rebels. I worked with a group of local community activists trying to assist wounded people by co11ecting clean bed sheets to use as bandages. 23. I interviewed Colonel Abdul Aziz, the chief of the arti11ery unit. I also inter• viewed Major Ismail Kahn, in charge of the anti-air artillery unit, who became one of the most important internal front leaders of the Mujahideen against the Soviets and the DRA regime. Ismail Khan became the governor ofHerat in 1992 until Herat was captured by the Taliban forces in 1995. 24. In 1983, I interviewed an officer of this commando unit after he was surrounded by a local Mujahideen group in Kushk, Herat. Since not releasing his legal name was one of the conditions of the interview, I will keep my promise. "It was early morning that we started the mission," he said, "we rushed into the helicopters; soon, we were in the northwest of Herat, and we surrounded the vi11ages." He continued "we separated men from women and children; and we brought a11 the men in the back of the farmlands, and line them up. The head of my unit asked me to fo11ow hirn; he pu11ed the trigger of his Kalakove (an advanced automatie machine gun) while walking across the back of the line of the villagers." He con• tinued with tears, "The officer (the head of the unit) was screaming Tofang (rille), and I was changing the magazine while replacing the empty rille with the loaded one." 25. Amin, Saikal, and William Maley: Regime Change in Afghanistan (Boulder: West• view Press, 1991), p. 23. 26. Hyman, Anthony: Afghanistan under Soviet Domination (New York: Macmillan Academic & Professional, Ltd., 1992), p. 95. 27. The Truth About Afghanistan (Moscow: N ovesti Press Agency Publishing House, 1986), p. 148. 28. Urban, Mark: War in Afghanistan (London: The Macmillan Press, 1990), p. 30. 29. Mohammed Siddieq, Noorzoy: "Soviet Economic Interests and Politics in Afghanistan" in Afghanistan the Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanna Klass (New York: Freedom House Press, 1987), p. 83. . 30. Ibid., p. 18. 31. Urban, Mark: War in Afghanistan (London: The Macmillan Press, 1990), p. 36. 32. Ibid., p. 23. 33. Ibid., p. 28. 34. Ibid., p. 27. 35. Ibid., p. 24. 36. Cordovez, Diego and Selig S. Harrison: Out ofAfghanistan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 41. NOTES· 237

37. Ibid., p. 42. 38. Ibid., p. 43. 39. Ibid., p. 44. 40. Gorbachev declared the Soviet invasion a "bloody wound" that was created by Brezhnev's failure in Mghanistan.

CHAPTER 5 1. Cordovez, Diego and Selig, S. Harrison: Out of Afghanistan (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1995), p. 365. 2. Personal notes, 1987-1988. 3. In 1983, I was traveling in Pakistan along the eastem border of Mghanistan. I met two Pushton men from the Chetral district who migrated from Mghanistan years ago. These two men were on their way to Iran to participate in a religious school in Qoum (the religious center of Iran). They were practicing Shia , and proclaiming that their whole sub-tribe in the Chetral district are Shia. 4. Nassim, ]awad: Afghanistan a Nation of Minorities, the Minority Right Groups (London: Manchester Free Press, 1992), p.9. 5. Ibid., p. 11. 6. Ibid., p. 13 7. Ibid., p.12. 8. Ibid., p.ll. 9. Diego, Cordovez and Selig, S. Harrison: Out of Afghanistan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 26. 10. In December 28, 1929, King Amanollah's govemment was faced with an armed insurgency led by Habibollah (Bachah Saqhah), a Tajik from north of Kabul. Habibullah was able to enter Kabul and seize power for a short period of time and ended King Amanollah's rule. From: Mir Gholam Mohammad Ghobar: Afghanistan dar Massire Tarikh (Tehran: Markaz Nashr Enghallab, 1987), p. 821. 11. The eldership system does not mean a system comprised of old people. To be• came an ethnic or communalleader or the head of a Qawm in Mghanistan it is not necessary for an individual to be aged. There are many middle aged and young adults ages 30 to 40 who became the head of a Qawm. For example, when the ethnic and communal council elected Ahmed Shah Abdali as the head of the Mghanistan state, he was the youngest individual among the ethnic and commu• nalleaders. 12. Farhang, Mir Mohammad Saddigh: Saddigh: Afghanistan Dar Pan} Qarn-e-Akhir (Mghanistan in the Last Five Centuries) in Persian (lran-Mashhad: Derakhshesh Publication, 1992), p. 114. 13. Ibid., p. 327. 14. Editorial article, Enghalab-e-Saur (Kabul: Govemmental Press, ]une 28, 1978), p. 1. 15. Ibid., p. 4. 16. The PDPA leadership announced the military coup of April 1978 as a demo• cratic revolution. Because this coup occurred in the mouth of Saur (April), the second month of the Mghani calendar, they called it the Saur revolution. 17. Barth, Fredrik: Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, The Social Organization of Cultural Difference (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. 1969), p. 9. 18. Taubman, Philip: "Mghan Truce Said to Begin, But Kabul Claim Is Doubted," New York Times,]anuary 15,1988, p. Al 19. From 1980 to 1982, I worked closely with a local Mujahideen group around the city of Herat. The massive air and ground military operations and the pressure of 238 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

shortages destroyed many local Mujahideen groups. The group I was working with lost its main commander in a military operation, Engineer Asghar, and many personnel, while the shortage of food forced us to find, wash, and then eat the bread we threw away during the previous days. The lack of doctors and med• icine made us see, helplessly, many civilians and members of our group die. The lack of ammunition and weapons made the Soviet fire power superior over the Mujahideen. The Soviets and the DRA forces severely punished any village that provided even some bread or nourishment. 20. Diego, Cordovez and Selig S. Harrison: Out ofAfghanistan (Oxford: Oxford Uni• versity Press, 1995), p. 154. 21. Haqqani, Husain: "Rise and Fall of Karmai," Far Eastern Economic Review, De• cember 4, 1986, p. 26. 22. Joseph, Newman, J. R: "The Future of Northern Afghanistan," Asian Survey, vol. 28, no. 7. July 1988, p. 733. 23. Coll, Steve: "Afghan Leader Defies Predictions ofDemise," The Washington Post, May4, 1991, p. A14. 24. These opinions about Khalighyar came from individuals who knew hirn through family connections or had worked with hirn previously. Most of them were suspi• cious of his role in the RSA government but the majority of them stated that he is a knowledgeable person and knows Mghan history pretty well. (Personalnotes from 1987.) 25. In 1988, I was present when a messenger of Khalighyar reached Ismail Khan in the western part of Herat. Ismail Khan rejected any form of cooperation and re• turned the messenger without any positive response. He was furious and ex• tremely upset and verbally called Khalighyar and Najibullah murderers who destroyed the country and killed millions of their fellow countrymen. (Personal notes from 1987 to 1988). Around this time, my father informed me that when Najibullah's/Khalighyar's messenger reached hirn in exile, he also rejected any cooperation with Kabul's regime. 26. Taubman, Philip: "Mghan Truce Said to Begin, But Kabul Claim Is Doubted," The New York Times, January 15, 1988, p. A. 27. Coll, Steve: "Mghan Leader Defies Predictions ofDemise," The Washington Post, May4, 1999, p. A14. 28. Personal notes trom 1987 to 1988.

CHAPTER 6 1. Newman, Joseph J.: "The Future of Northern Mghanistan," Asian Survey, vol. 28, no. 7. July 1988, p. 730. 2. Ibid., p. 732. 3. Ibid., p. 733. 4. For many people it is not dear whether Mihanparast was a Soviet or an Afghan citizen. At one time he worked as a high-ranking officer of the Afghan govern• ment (vice chairman of the Council of Ministers and the minister of electrical energy of Mghanistan). Another time, he worked as the deputy of the Economic Advisory Seetion of the Soviet Embassy in Kabul and the deputy general consul of the Soviet Union in Balkh. 5. Ibid., p. 731. 6. Ibid., p. 734. 7. Ghobar, Mir Gholam Mohammad: Afghanistan Dar Masir-e-Tarikh (Tehran: Markaz Nashr Enghallab, 1978), p. 910. NOTES 239

8. Personal interview in 1984 with Colonel Abdul Aziz, a fonner teaeher of the Harbi Pohanzai (the Military Aeademy) and a famous Mujahideen eommander in Shindand, in the Mujahideen eontrolled area near Shindand. 9. Newman, Joseph J.: "The Future of Northern Mghanistan," Asian Survey, vol. 28, no. 7, July 1988, p. 73 7.

CHAPTER 7

1. Frederick:, Barth: "Cultural Wellsprings of Resistanee in Mghanistan," in Afghanistan, Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanna Klass (New York: Freedom House, 1987), p. 187. 2. Abdul, Rashid: "The Mghanistan Resistance," in Afghanistan the Great Game Re• visited, ed. Rosanna Klass (New York: Freedom House, 1987), p. 209. 3. Ibid., p. 210. 4. In my trips to Pakistan between 1982 and 1986, I witnessed many of these loeal Mujahideen groups who were desperately waiting to get weapons and ammuni• tions. I interviewed many of the staffs and eommanders of these groups. 5. In 1981, Zahir, an aid to Kamal Khan and later Qafar Khan, both main field com• manders of]amaiat Islami Burhanadin, presented me official documents written by the]lAS chief officers in Mashahd and Tehran ordering hit eampaign and military attacks against the forees of Shir Agha Chongar from Harkat-e-Islami Mohammedi. 6. In the fall of 1984, as I organized medical support for the Mujahideen groups in northwest Mghanistan, I witnessed many groups from the ethnic Hazaras who were running away from the Mujahideen's internal fighting in the central part of the eountry. These groups were exhausted and each one had a horror story to tell of their fiight to Iran. 7. At that time I was affiliated with a loeal politieal eircle, and no member of that group was eonneeted to anyone on the outside or received external aid. We do• nated money or eollected from the volunteers, mostly in the private sector. I also participated in the mass revolt ofHerat. My partieipation in the revolt, like many other members of the group, was not planned by the group; it was our feeling and sentiment for doing so. As a loeal resistanee group, we knew there would be an uprising, but no one knew when and how. To the best of my knowledge, it was like a wave that starts from a small interaction' of wind and water then gets bigger and greater. On the third day of the revolt, when the 17th army division broke out and opened fire on the PDPA leadership and the Soviet advisors in the base, I, with some of my friends, approached one of the villages nearby to see what was going on and also to sneak out ammunitions and rifies. We got into an annored vehicle with a lieutenant and two soldiers and headed toward the city. On the way, while we were busy taking apart a heavy machine gun from the top of the vehicle, I asked the lieutenant, "Who is your leader?" "We don't have leader, I was in charge of my unit, we just joined the other unit to punish those who wanted to seIl us to the Soviets," he yelled at me. 8. Roy, Olivier: Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer• sity Press, 1986), p. 13 3. 9. Newman, Joseph, J: "The Future of Northern Mghanistan," Asian Survey, vol. 28, no. 7,July 1988, p. 738. 10. Rubin, Barnett: The Fragmetation of Afghanistan (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), p. 234. 11. Simpson, John: "The Rare Stone that Buys Guns," WOrld Monitor, vol. 3, Sep• tember 1990, pp. 16-18. 240 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

12. Personal interview with Engineer Ballal, Massoud representative in the south• west to Ismail Khan in 1987. 13. Rubin, Barnett: The Fragmentation of Afghanistan (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), p. 239. 14. Afzal, Mohammad, Neda-ei-Sangar (The Front Line Call) (Herat: monthly jour• nal of the Southwest Mujahideen lead by Ismail Khan, Oetober 1987), p. 1. 15. Personal notes, 1986-87. 16. Rubin Barnett: The Fragmentation of Afghanistan (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), p. 241.

CHAPTER 8 1. Saikal, Amin and William Maley: Regime Change in Afghanistan (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 119. 2. Ahmed, Rashid: "Friendless Foe," Far Eastern Economic Review, vol. 150, October 25, 1990,p. 18. 3. Henry, Kamm: "Muslim lnsurgents Attacking Kabul," The New York Times, Oe• tober 13, 1990, p. 6. 4. Krauss, Clifford: "U.S. Renews Hope for Afghan Peaee," The New York Times, Oetober 15, 1990, p. A3. 5. Hollon, Eliza Van: Afghanistan, A Year of Occupation (Washington, D. c.: Depart- ment of State, February 1981), Special Report no. 79, p. 3. 6. The Washington Post, April 13, 1982, p. A9. 7. Personal notes from 1984-1986. 8. The Washington Post, June 4, 1982, p. AIS. 9. Time, July 5, 1982,p. 39. 10. Ahmed Rashid: "$3 billion Eeonomie Aid, Military Sales Paekage," Pakistan Times, Islamabad, June 16, 1981, pp. 1, 5. 11. In the fall 1987, Mohammed Zahir Azimi, chief Commander of Harkat Islami Mohsseni in Herat, was angry about the hardship that the Iranian government imposed on his activities among the Afghan refugees. Commander Zahir told me that Iranian sources were not happy about the military and finaneial aid he had received during his reeent trip to Pakistan.

CHAPTER 9 1. During the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, there were many Afghans who were active inside the loeal Mujahideen forees and not affiliated with the Pakistan and Iran-based Afghan political parties. These political activists were engaged in day• to-day politics in Afghanistan. Most of them were loyal only to the regional eommanders and provided these commanders their organized opinion and thoughts on many different issues. In the course of several years, any time I trav• eled to different provinees I was able to interview and talk with these types of in• dividuals. Most of these political activists were disappointed with the external front leaders while struggling against the Afghan eommunist regime. 2. In 1987, I was with Ismail Khan in the western part of Herat, and he was fully convinced that the Afghan leaders in Pakistan or Iran were not capable of creat• ing an alternative for Afghanistan. In a meeting with Commander Allawadin Khan, the seeond person after Ismail Khan who just arrived from his trip to Pak• istan, I understood that what was going on in Pakistan was designed by ISI and Saudi's intelligent service to put Afghan leaders into a so-called exiled govern- NOTES 241

ment by using finaneial resourees and military aid. In partieular, ISI and Saudi Arabia wanted to seleet eaeh of the leaders in a government position aeeording to their loyalty to the general and special interests in Afghanistan. 3. In 1987, Commander Allawadin Khan told me that the wircless radios they re• eeived from Pakistan ehannels were distributed in a way so that eaeh kind of radio ean only operate within a speeifie region, and for long-range eommunication eaeh region has to conneet through the Pakistani base station to reaeh other regions. He stated that the ISI and Mghan leaders were against any network of eommuni• eation between the major eommanders. In the following months, the major eom• manders trained staff to build the eommunieation bridge between them. 4. Ahmed, Rashid: "Friendless Foe," Far Eastern Economic Review, Oetober 25, 1990, p. 19. 5. Steve, Coll andJames Rupet: "Afghan Rebels Veto Drive for Kahul," The Wash• ington Post, November 28, 1990, pp. 27, 28. 6. "Praise Allah and Pass the Ammunition," U. S. News & World Report, November 12, 1990, p. 54. 7. Personal notes from 1982-1984. 8. Aeeording to my observation, only in the provinee of Herat were many major militia eommanders reeeiving military and financial aid from Pakistan-based Afghan politieal leaders: militia eommanders like Shir Agha Chonger (1980-1982) from HEl led by Mohammedi; Turan Rassul (1984--1986) and Jamah Gull Pahlawan (1984--1989) from HIH led by Hekmatyar; and Aamcr Said Ahmed and Gholam Yahya Siawshan (1984--1989) fromJIA led by . 9. Rubin, Barnett R.: The Fragmentation ofAfghanistan (New Haven: Yale Univer• sity, 1995), p. 253. 10. Ahmed, Rashid: "Friendless Foe," "Far Eastern Economic Review, Oetober 25, 1990, p. 18. 11. Ibid., p. 25.

CHAPTERIO 1. Wolesmal, Mohammed Hassan: "Interview with General Safi," Mujahed Wollas, vol. 16, no. 240, August 1997, pp. 1,4. 2. Sandy Gall: An Interview with Commander Ahmed Shah Massoud, Asian Affairs Journal, The Royal Society Asian Affairs, vol. 25 (old service vol. 81, part II), June 1994, pp. 141-142. 3. Ibid., p. 149. 4. Rashid, Ahmed: "Advantage Rabbani," Far Eastern Economic Review, July 7, 1994, p.22. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid.

CHAPTER 11 1. In Arabie the word Talib ean eombine with different adjeetive like Talib-u-Ilm, the knowledge seeker, to whieh the Taliban leaders' name refers. 2. Aabha, Dixit: "Origin, Ideology and Strategy ofTaliban," The Pioneer, June 11, 1997, p. 4. 3. Singh, S. K.: Hindustan Times, February 1995. 4. Aabha, Dixit: "Origin, Ideology and Strategy of Taliban," The Pioneer, June 11, 1997, p.3. 242 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

5. Ibid., p. 3. 6. Singh, S. K.: Hindustan Times, February 1995. 7. Aabha, Dixit: "Origin, Ideology and Strategy of Taliban," The Pioneer, June 11, 1997,p.4. 8. "Lawand Order in Mghanistan," The Taliban Islamic Movement, editorial, June 20,1998, p. 1. 9. Magnus, Ralph H.: "Mghanistan in 1996," Asian Survey, vol. 37, no. 2, February 1997.p.112. 10. Ibid. p. 113. 11. Personal notes, Afghanistan, 1984. 12. "The Truth about Taliban," Taliban in Perspective, in Persian, November 1, 1995, pp. 1-23.

CHAPTERl2 1. "The Truth about Taliban," Taliban in Perspective, in Persian, November 1, 1995, pp. 1-23. 2. Thor, John: "Dahlburg," The Guardians, November 24, 1995, p. 5. 3. Tokhi, Owais: "Yong Boys' True Jihad," AFP reporter in Karaehi, August 10, 1997. 4. "The Truth about Taliban," Taliban in Pmpective, in Persian, November 1, 1995, p.l0. 5. Davis, Anthony: "A Brotherly Vendetta," Asiaweek, Deeember 1996, p. 14. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. Rashid Ahmed: "Mghan Taliban have $100 million war ehest," Academic, AFP, February. 18,2000, p. 6. 11. Ibid., p. 1. 12. Ibid., p. 2.

CHAPTERl3 1. Rashid, Ahmed: "Dangerous Liaisons," Far Eastern Economic Review, April 16, 1998, p. 28. 2. Cooper, Kenneth J.: "Mghanistan Cultivates Islamie State but Jgnores Illicit Harvest," UTashington Post, May 11,1997, p. A22. 3. Khan Eme!: "Taliban Leaders and the New Government," Frontier Post, Pak• istan, February 24,1995. 4. Author's eonversation with Abdul Hakim Mujahid Noorullah Zadran and Tal• iban representative at the UN in New York, March 2000. 5. Yusufzai, Rahimullah: "Massive changes in Taliban Government," Jang News, Oetober 28, 1999, p. 4. 6. Mullah Abdul Salam Rakiti, a military man, kidnapped several Pakistanis, includ• ing a deputy eommissioner, militiamen, and Chinese engineers, from Baloehis• tan in retaliation for the arrest of his brother by Pakistani authorities. 7. Radio Shariah, "The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan," Oetober 28, 1999. 8. Fairbanks, Charles: "Strategy & Governmental Organization" Comparative Strategy, vol. 6 no. 3, 1987, p. 23. 9. Webber, Max: Wirtschaft und GesellshaJt, in Gerth and Mills, op. Cit., p. 196. NOTES 243

10. Personal notes, Herat, summer 1995. 11. Personal interview with several medical doctors at Herat's main hospital, Herat, summer 1995. 12. Rashid, Ahmed: "Hope for Peace in Kabul," Far Eastern Economic Review, July 1, 1994, p. 22. 13. The Islamic Conference of Herat for Pe ace in Mghanistan, in Persian, July 1994. 14. The Islamic Conference of Herat for Peace in Mghanistan, in Persian, J uly 1994. 15. Personal notes, Herat, 1987. 16. The Aims & Goals ofJamait-e-Islami Afghanistan, printed in Pakistan, 1983, p. 4. 17. Mossbah and his group became famous as Ikhwani Shia. 18. Personal interview Guly 1995) in Herat with an officer of the Mghan Intelligent Service, who insisted on remaining anonymous. 19. "DustamMade aDeal," Afghan News, vol. 11, no. 9, August 1995, p. 7 20. Personal interview Guly 1997) with a elose member of commander Nasir's family who fought with him against the Taliban forces, and now he and his family are refugees in Birjund, Iran. He requested that his name not be mentioned. 21. Nasseri, Waiss, Telephone interview with Ismail Khan, September 9, 1995, Hamburg, Germany. 22. Economist Intelligence Unit: Report on Afghanistan, 4th Quarter 1995, p. 11. 23. Kalilzad, Zalmay (an Mghan-born, U.S. citizen) is Director of Strategy, Doc• trine and Force Structure of Project Air Force and Director of the Greater Middle East Studies Center at the RAND Corporation. "Mghanistan in 1995," Asian Survey, vol. 36, no. 2. February 1996, p. 191. 24. "Uzbek General Helps the Taliban," Reuters, September 7,1995,04:16 AET. 25. Ibid. 26. Crossette, Barbara: "Kabul Under Taliban," The New York Times, International, September 26, 1996, p. A3. 27. Moosa, Muhammad: "The Taliban Movement and Their Goals," from Darul Ifta-e-Wal Irshad, Peshawar, Pakistan, 7th Moharram 1417 Gune 20, 1998).

CHAPTER14 1. Moosa, Muhammad "The Taliban Movement and Their Goals," from Darut Ifta-e- WalIrshad, Peshawar, Pakistan, 7th Moharram 1417 Gune 20, 1998). 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Laghari, Nazeer and Mufti Jameel Khan, Interview with the Ameerul M'umi• neen, Peshawar, Pakistan,June 1998. 5. Moosa, Muhammad "The Taliban Movement and Their Goals," from Darut Ifta-e-WalIrshad, Peshawar, Pakistan, 7th Moharram 1417 Gune 20, 1998). 6. Ibid. 7. Rashid, Ahmed: "Scourge ofGod," Far Eastern Economic Review, August 7,1997, p.52. 8. Bums, John: "Islamic Rule Weighs Heavily for Mghans," The New York Times, September 24, 1997, p. A6. 9. Moosa, Muhammad "The Taliban Movement and Their Goals," from Darut Ifta-e-WalIrshad, Peshawar, Pakistan, 7th Moharram 1417 Gune 20, 1998). 10. Bums, John: "From the Chaos of the Cold War, Mghanistan Inherits Brutal New Age" The New York Times, February 14,1996, p. Al, A8. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid. 244 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

13. Rashid, Ahmed: "Austere Beginning," Far Eastern Economic Review, Oetober 17, 1996, p. 19. 14. Ibid. 15. "Fears Fighting in North ofKabul," The Hartford Courant, Associated Press, Oe• tober 31,1996, p. 4. 16. Goodman, Anthony: "The Afghan Taliban Opposition Offers Cease-Fire," Reuters, Oetober, 31, 1996. 17. "New Wave ofRefugees in Kabul," Reuters, January 21,1997.

CHAPTER15 1. "Ethnie Cleansing in North Afghanistan," Reuters, November 20, 1998. 2. Cooper, }{enneth J.: "Taliban Short Vietory in the North," Washington Post For• eign Serv~ce, June 4, 1997, p. A25. 3. "A Short Biography of the Martyred Leader, Abdul Ali Mazari," Hazara Press, India, June 1998, p. 3. 4. Cooper, Kenneth].: "Taliban Short Vietory in the North," Washington Post For• eign Service, June 4,1997, p. A25. 5. "By the Herald," Hazara Press, June 1998, p. 1. 6. "New Waves ofRefugees in Northern Afghanistan," The New York Times, May 4, 1997,p.13. 7. Davis, Anthony: "The U.N. is probing ineidents of mass murder," Nations, June 19, 1998, p. l. 8. CNNTelevisionlnteractive, WorldNews,June 3,1997. 9. Ibid. 10. This information is based on personal interviews with Hazarah politieal aetivists who wanted to remain anonymous. 11. "Massoud Forees Bloeked the Taliban Advauee," The lrish Times, May 30, 1997, p. 1. 12. "Afghan Warring Factions Talking Peaee," Reuters, September 18, 1997. 13. Koshan, M. Qawi: "Northern Alliance Should Avoid Hekmatyar," Omaid Weekly (Persian), vol. 7, no. 322, June 22, 1998, p. l. 14. Interview with Gulbadin Hekmatyar, Missaq Issar (Persian), vol. 45, no. 5, April 26, 1998, p. 1,3. 15. Hekmatyar's Talk at Balkh University, -e-Sharif, Missaq Issar (Persian), May 15,1998, p. 12. 16. Davis, Anthony: "A Brotherly Vendetta," The New York Times, Deeember 1996, p. 2. 17. "Afghan Opposition's New Strategy," Reuters, June 12, 1997. 18. The Associated Press: "Afghan Oppositions New Military Front," The Hartford Courant, March 20, 1997, p. A16. 19. "Mass Exeeution in Northern Afghanistan," The Economist, August 8, 1998, p. 38 20. Radio , August 8, 1998, 8 P.M., Ioeal time. 21. Ibid. 22. Maulawi Mahboob-u-Rahman, Taliban's Spokesperson in Pakistan, August 13, 1998. 23. "Taliban Greeted by the Local Commanders," The Frontier Post, August 13,1998, p.4. 24. Clover, Charles: "Taliban Forced Sweep into Opposition's Last Redoubts," The New York Times, August 13, 1998, p. 6. 25. Gubar, Ghulam Mohammed: Afghanistan Dar Masir-e-Tarikh, Persian (Kabul: State Publieation, 1981), p. 643. NOTES 245

CHAPTER16 1. Dunphy, Harry: "2 Mghan battle over an embassy," Tbe Inquirer, May 29, 1997, p. 4. 2. BBC World Service, November 30,1997. 3. Reuters, November 18,1997,6:32 P.M. 4. NNI, Islamabad, February 28,2000. 5. Rashid, Ahmed: "Taliban Ine.," Par Eastern Economic Review, August 7, 1997, p. 16. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. UNOCAL: "Offieial position on Afghanistan pipeline projeet," 1998. 9. Rashid, Ahmed: "Taliban Ine.," Par Eastern Economic Review, August 7,1997, p. 15. 10. Ibid. 11. Ali, Lila: "Pak-Mghan-CAS raillink feasibility ready," Business Recorder, April 23, 2000, p. 3. 12. Menaker, Drusilla: "Iran Waging Quiet War on Drug Traders mostly Solo Ef• fort May Help to Ease Isolation From West," Tbe Daltas Morning News, Febru• ary 20,2000, p. 2. 13. Quaglia, Signor: "United Nations Drug Control Program in Mghanistan," UN Special Report, August 11, 1979. 14. "Organized Crime in Pakistan," IDSA, Strategie Analysis, vol. 23, no. 5, August 1999, pp. 719-747. 15. Rashid, Allmed: "Afghan Taliban have 100 million dollar war ehest," Academic, andAPp, Feb. 18,2000, p. 5. 16. Webber, Max: Economy and Society, ed. Guenmer Rom and Claus Wittieh (1980), p.225. 17. Burns,John F.: "Islamie Rule Weighs Heavily for Afghans," Tbe New York Times, September 24,1997, p. 6. 18. Ibid. 19. Rashid, Ahmcd: "Seourge ofGod," Par Eastern Economic Review, August 7,1997, pp. 52-53. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Cooper, Kenneth: "Taliban Islamie-Code," Tbe Wasbington Post, March 11, 1998, p.4. 24. Ibid.

CHAPTER17 1. "Islamie Threats on me Southern Borders," Tbe Communist Tajikistana, May 13, 1988. 2. Warikoo, K.: "Mghanistan Faetor in Tajikistan's Crisis," 7ajikistan Times, May 1994. 3. Some Afghan politieians argued mat the formation of a joint-government be• tween me Mujahideen and the Watan Party, probably, was me best praetieal al• ternative for me establishment of a eentral government in Afghanistan. 4. Huntington, Samuel P.: Tbe Clasb of Civilizations and tbe Remarking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), p. 247. 5. When me Taliban seized Kabul in 1996, Gulbadin Hekmatyar has moved his headquarter to Iran. Hekmatyar and me JIA Ikhwanis rejeeted me partieipation 246 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

of the former Afghan king in the peace process and they condemned his Loyah Jirga initiative as an American plot. 6. Warikoo, K., "Afghanistan Factor in Tajikistan's Crisis," Tajikistan Times, May 1994. 7. "The important of U zbekistan Security" Inside Central Asia, no. 141, September 30 to Oetober 6, 1996, p. 1. 8. Ibid. 9. BBC, Summary ofWorld Broadeasts, May 28. 10. "China Resurnes Flights to Kabul," Far Eastern Economic Review, March 11, 1999, p. 14. 11. Sirrs,]ulie R.: "Report on Foreign POW's Held by the Anti-Taliban Forces," In• ternational Committee lor Red Cross, Oetober 1999. 12. Dawisha, Adeed and Karen Dawisha: The Making 01 Foreign Policy in Russia and the New States olEurasia (New York, M. E. Sharpe, 1995), pp. 215-245. 13. Shevtsova, Lilia: Yeltsin's Russia (Washington, D.C: Carncgie Endowmcnt for In• ternational Pe ace, 1999), pp. 107-126. 14. "The important ofUzbekistan Seeurity" Inside CentralAsia, no. 141, September 30 to Oetober 6, 1996, p. 1. 15. "Containing the Islamie Threat is Jmportant for National Seeurity," Interfax N ew Ageney report, Oetober 1, 1996. 16. Radio Shariat, Kabul, Mghanistan, May 31, 1997, 6pm. 17. Rassiskaia Gazeta, Oetober 1, 1997. 18. Pope, Hugh: "Moseow Lures Back Central Asia," The Wall Street Journal, May 22,2000, p. 4. 19. Cornell, Svante: 01 Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study 01 Ethnopolitical Con• flict in the Caucasus (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p. 6. 20. Pope, Hugh: "Moscow Lures Back Central Asia," The Wall Street Journal, May 22,2000,4. 21. Bergen, Peter and Riehard Maekenzie: "Terror Nation: US Creation?" CNN Presents,]anuary 16,1993. 22. Raphel, Robin: Testimony to the Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on the N ear Rast and South Asia, May 11, 1996. 23. Nelan, Bruee W: "The Rush for Caspian Oil," Time, May4, 1998, p. 41. 24. "Odd Partners in UNO's Mghan Project," Omaha World Herald, October 26, 1997. 25. Caroline Lee: "Oil barons court Taliban in Texas," Sunday Telegraph, Deeember 14,1997. 26. "Bin Laden's Anti-Ameriean Decrees," Time, ]anuary 11, 1999. 27. "Taliban Leader Rejeeted Osam's Extradition," Assoeiated Press, Islamabad, Pakistan, March 1999. 28. Holland, Steve: "Clinton charges Bin Laden behind bomb plot," Reuters, May 17,2000. 29. Waxman, Sharon: "A Cause Unveiled, Hollywood Women Have Made the Plight of Afghan Women their Own," The Washington Post, March 30, 1999, p. 4. 30. EBC News, Oetober 6, 1999, at 16:00 GMT. 31. UNOCAL Position Statement, "UNOCAL in Afghanistan: Poliey on Proposed Central Asian Pipeline Project," April 1998. 32. "The U.S. Six Flag Ship Visits Caueasus," Times of Central Asia, April 8, 1999. 33. "US to counter terrorism in Afghanistan," The Nation Group, 1999. 34. The V.S. Senate Foreign Relation Committee, Testimony on Mghanistan, Washington D.C.,]uly 20,2000. NOTES 247

35. Kinzer, Stephen: "Uzbek offer Plan to End Mghan War," Tbe New York Times, October,4, 1997, p. 6. 36. BBC News, December 1,1997, at 16:00 GMT. 37. Glacomo, Carol: "The United States and China Support Peace Settlement in Mghanistan," Reuters, April 9, 1998. 38. "The U.S Broking Peace in Mghanistan," Tbe New York Times, April 18, 1998, p. A4. 39. Singh, Ajay & Anthony Davis: "Mghan Warring Faction Meet Face to Face," Asiaweek Hompage, May 22, 1998. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid. 43. Samad, Omar: "Tashkent Declaration on Fundamental Principles for a Peaceful Settlement of the Conflict in Mghanistan," Afgban Azady Radio, Washington, D.C., July 21, 1999. 44. Khattak, Afrsiab: "The Failure ofTashkent Conference," Weekend Post, July 28, 1999, p. 11. 45. Rubin, James: Press Statement, U.S. Department of State, Washington D.C., March 13, 1999. 46. Farooq, Omar: "Taliban Reject Plan to Convene Loya Jirga," Jang, Tbe News, July 16, 2000.

CONCLUSION 1. Clover, Charles: "Taliban Forced Sweep into Opposition's Last Redoubts," Tbe New York Times, August 13,1999, p. 12. 2. Skocpol, Theda: State and Social Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), p. 5. 3. UNDP: "Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation of Mghanistan," vol. 1 (New York: United Nations, 1993), pp. 11-17.

EPILOGUE 1. Cogan, Charles c.: "Partners in Time, the CIA and Mghanistan," World Policy Journal, NewYork, Summer 1993, vol. X, no. 2, pp. 373-374. 2. Phillips, James: "Defusing Terrorism at Ground Zero: Why a New U.S. Policy Is Needed for Mghanistan." The Heritage Foundation Background, July 12, 2000, p. 13. 3. Nicholson, Reynold: Introduction to Rumi, trans. Ovaness Ovanessian (Tehran: Nashr-I-Nay, Publication), 1987, p. 130. 4. Beyer, Lisa: "The Most Wanted Man in the World." 5. Weaver, Mary Anne: "The Real Bin Laden," Tbe New Yorker, January 24,2000. 6. Report of the Secretary General: "The situation in Mghanistan and its Implica• tions for International Peace and Security," August 17, 2001, p. 9. 7. Telephone conversation with Mohammed Younus Qanoni, a member of the UIFLA leadership council. 8. Telephone conversation with Haroon Amin, the UIFLA liaison in Washington, D.C. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Note: A list of definitions and abbreviations Afzali, Saffiollah, 107 appears on pp. xi-xiv. Afzalis, 107, 144, 147-48,164-65 1 Sarandoy units, 82 Aga Khan, 80 4th mechanized army division, 93 Agency Coordinating Body For Relief of 7th Division, Central Corps, 53 Afghanistan (ACBAR), 105 9th Division, Asmar 38th Brigade, 53 Agha, Mullah Syed Ghayasuddin, 138 17th armydivision, 52, 93, 239n.7 Ahmadzai, Shapur, 44 18th army division, 82 Ahmed, Aamer Said, 62, 77, 241n.8 Aakhondzadah, Abdul Qhaffar, 135 Ahmed, Marouf, 126 Abbasid empire, 4 Ahmed, Mullah Sardar, 138 Abbas, Mullah Mohammed, 137, 179-80 Ahmed, Mullah Wakil, 137 Abdali tribe, 2 Ahmed, Nassir, 146 Abdulah, Abdullah, 166 Ahmed, Qazi Hussien, 119, 120 Abdullah,Mulla, 139 Ahmed, Wakil, 154 Abdullah Ansari, 4 Ahmed Shah Abdali, 2, 4, 9, 63, 69, 237n.11 Abd-ul-Rahim, 168 Ahmedzai, Shahpur, 151 Abdul Rahman Khan, King, 64, 69, 169 Aimaqs, 1,63 Abu Muslim Khorsani, 4 Akayev, Askar, 190 Abu Sayyf (Philippincs), 227 Akber Khan, Amir, 233n.6 Achekzai, Mansur, 118 Akhgar (Star) party, 19,210 Al Adhere University (Cairo), 224 Akhondzadah, Nassim, 211 Afghan-British wars, 7-8, 30,23311.6 Akhund, Mullah Mohammed Hassan, 138, Afghani,]amal Din, 183 139 Afghani, Muhammad Masoom, 121, 138 Akhund, Mullah Nagibullah, 110-11, 117 Afghanistan: central, 171; changes in, due to Akhund, Mullah Qudratullah, 139 wars, 206-19, 221-23; economy, 175-78, Akhundzada, Mullah Nassim, 123 212-15; foreign investment, 175-78, 199; Akhundzada, Mullah Raauf, 139 geographical importance of, 218, 231; "Al," names beginning with. See next element o[ history, 1-10; in the international system, name 182-205; mass mobilization in, 13-27, alaghah-dar, 6 43-45; modernization, 5-10; national Alam, Mawlawi, 92 identity, 2-3, 207, 215-19, 228-29; Albright, Madeleine, 173, 188,201 northern, 171; peace efforts since 1997, Algeria, 22 7 202-5,229-31; peoples of, 1-2,30-31, Ali Shir Nawai, 5 63-66,78-82; socia! classes of, 32-33,90, Allawadin Khan, 240n.2, 241n.3 208; statistics on war losses, 214-15; Amanullah Khan, King, 2, 7-8, 30-31, traditional political system of, 5-10, 237n.1O 28-40; traditional valucs, 29-30, 67-71; Amawiad dynasty, 4 war-based economy, 213-15 Amin, Hafizullah, 21, 25,37,38,39,43-44, Afghanistan Mujahideen National COUIlcil, 17 55,56,65,66, 71, 72, 210, 234n.6 Afghan Melat (Social Democratic Party), 86, Amin, Qazi, 84 89 amir, 180 Afghan Mellat (Afghan Nation), 20 Amir-e-Bil M'aroufWa Nahi Anil Munkar Afzali, Azizullah, 145 (General Department for the Preservation INDEX 253

ofVirtue and the Elimination of Viee), blood feuds, 61-62 154,180-81,189 Boghran distriet, 13 5 Amir Hamza Division, 93 Bonn eonference (1998), 205 amir-ul-muaminin, 91,101,152,154 Borejan, Mulla, 160 Anahita,31 Brahimi, Lakhadar, 187,204 Arabs,4, 165; volunteer, 144,226 Bridas eompany, 176 Armenia, 195 British, 7-8,12-14,30 Aryana airlincs, 22 3 Brojerdi, Alluadin, 165 Asak,Jumah,79 Brown, Senator Bank, 198 Asghar, Engineer, 23 8n.19 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 222 Asia, 53 Buddha statues, 169, 170,229 Asiatie mode of produetion, 53 Buddhism,169 atroeities, 56, 58, 161, 168 bureaueracy, 140 Atsak, Juma, 109 Bums, Nieholas, 199 Attar, Mohammed Ali, 147 capital punishment, 154-55 Awami National Party of Pakistan (ANP), 39, Carter administration, 197 119 Caspian region, 195-96, 201 Ayob, Engineer, 107 Caucasus, 201 Ayob Khan, Gohar, 173 Center for Afghanistan Studies at the Azerbaijan, 195 University ofNebraska, 199,201 Azimi, Mohammed Nabi, 109, 111 Central Asia, 118, 130, 132-33, 159, 175-77, Azimi, Mohammed Zahir, 145, 240n.11 182-83,184,201,214,218,222,223 Aziz, AbduJ, 236n.23 Central Asian Republies (CAR), 81-82, 131, Azzam, Abdullah, 226 172,190-91,192,193-96; Afghanistan Baba, Hamid 224 poliey, 190-91 Baba, Qari, 136 Central Asian Union, 195 Babar, General Nasirullah, 117-18, 122, 128, Central Intelligenee Agency (CIA), 108, 197 130-31,148,226 Chagheharan, 148 Badakhshan,53,92 Charasiab, 112, 136 Badghis provinee, 114, 141, 148, 158-59, 167 Chatty,74 Ba'ess, Maulawi, 20 Cheehnya, 191, 193, 196 Bagram, 40, 109, 157 Cherat, 128 Baheshti, Ayatollah Said Ali, 88, 89, 99,101, Chemomyrdin, Viktor, 193 102, 186 China, 173, 175, 191-92,202,203; Balkh provinee, 80, 82, 92,114,158,168 Afghanistan policy, 191-92 Balkh University, 82, 163 Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 12-14 Balueh, Hakim Khan, 62 Chonger, Sir Agha, 239n.5, 241n.8 Baluehis, 1,63,65 Christopher, Warren, 198 Baluehistan, 119, 124, 126, 132, 164 Civil War (from 1988 to present), 60-77, Bamyan, 53, 229; fall of(1998), 169-70 95-104, 113-16,221-23; peaee efforts Bamyan University, 169 since 1997,202-5 Al-Bana, Hassan, 87 Clinton, Hillary, 201 Banino, Einuna, 173 Clinton administration, 172, 187, 198-200,223 Barakzai, Arif, 62 Cold War, 183 Baryalai, Mahmud, 44,109 Communism, 75, 182; in Afghanistan, 31 Bhutto, Benazir, 117, 119, 121, 130, 131-32 Communist Party of India (pei), 39 Bhutto, Zulfiqar Ali, 84, 128,225 Communist Party of the Soviet Union Bin Baz, Shcikh Abdul Aziz, 189 (CPSU),36,39,51,59 bin Jaber, Mohammed, 189 Congress Party, 13 bin Laden, Osama, 137, 140, 174, 176, 189, Constitutionalists, 7 191,199-200,218,220,223,226-28; Cordovez, Diego, 60, 62 eareer of, 226-27; terrorism of, 199-200, Council of Resolution and Settlement, 113 220,227-29 Coup of 1978,39-40,41-42 Binori, Maulana Mohammed Yusuf, 120 Dadfar (Kalakani), Abdul Chyom, 19, 210 Biradar, Mulla, 139 Dauod, Mohammed, 25, 38-40, 84, 86, Al-Birooni, 4, 224 127-28, 138,225; overthrow of, 39-40 254 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

Dari language, 64 Gazni,122 Dawi, Abdul Hadi, 30 GenevaAccords, 78,129,197 Dawlat-e-Islami-e-Mghanistan (Islamic State Georgia, 195,201 of Mghanistan), 113 Ghadir, HajiAbdul, 100, 111, 114, 149, 184 Deeni schools, 122-24, 179 Ghafoorzai, Abdul Rahim, 157, 162-63 Delju,l46 Ghalzais, 61 Delta Oil, 189 Ghatally, Sayyid Abmed, 107, 145 Democratic Republic of Mghanistan (DRA), Ghaus,JajiMohammed, 138, 160-61, 199 24,41-59,65,69,71-76,85,88,210,221, ghazi (victor), 22, 233n.6 224; reforms of, 45-47 Ghazni,136 Deobandi school, 119, 120, 124, 125-26, 181 Ghobar, Mir Ghulam Mohammed, 30 Dinger,]ohn, 173 Ghor province, 102, 114, 135, 141, 160 Dorannis, 61 Ghous, Mullah Mohammed, 138 Dostam, Abdul Rashid, 18,61,96, 110-11, Gillani, Sayd Ahmed, 90 112,113,114,115,116,130,134,143, glasnost, 59, 96 145,146,150,155-56,158,159,160, Golabzoi, Syed, 39 162, 163-64, 165, 167, 168, 185, 190, Golden Crescent, 214 204,212 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 57, 59,66,210 Dubs, Ambassador Adolph, 20, 79 Gorki, Maxim, 36 Durand Line, 183 Gouttierre, Thomas E., 199 Durani, Assad, 108 Gozarah,52 Durani Pashtun, 63 Greater Mghanistan, 55 Dushanbe, 92 Great Game, 196,201 East Germans, 56 GRU, 38, 39, 234n.6 E'azam, Abdullah, 144 Gulabzoi, 55, 74 Economic and Technical Cooperation Gulai, General, 167 agreement, 80 GulfWar, 188, 197,220 Egypt, 39, 87,119,222,224,227,228 Habibollah (Bachah Saqhah), 237n.1O Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, 224 Habibullah, Amir, 31 Ehsanullah, Mullah, 137, 146 Habibullah Kalakani (Bacha-e-Saqhaw), 9, 218 eldership system, 237n.11 Haghani, Mawlawi, 100, 106, 108-9, 110, Emad, Sayyid Noorallah, 107, 145, 146, 164 111,211 Engels, Frederich, 70 Hakim, Maulana AbduI, 121, 138 Enjil,52 Halim, Ustad, 118 EsmatMuslim, 121 halqa-ejawanan-e-Afghan (young Mghans), Etamadi, Nur Ahmad, 45 30-31 European Organization, 173 Hammas, 227 European Union, 187 Hanfab, Abu, 4 ex-Mujahideen, 127 Hanifi Mowlawis, 120 Fahd,SaudiEJng, 114, 173 Haqh, Abdul, 94,100,106,184,211 Faiz, Dr., 19 Haqqani, MawlawiJalaladin, 17,84,94, 115, Farah province, 118, 136, 141, 145 146, 184 F arghana, 190 Haqqani, Mullah Saeedur Rahman, 139 Faryabprovince, 114, 167, 171 Haqqani, Mullah Said Mohammed, 139 Fazl-ul-Rahman, Maulana, 119, 121, 124, Harbi Pohanzay (Military Institute), 66 132, 189 Harkat-al-Mujahedin (pakistan), 227 Feminist Majority, 200-201 Harkat-e-Islami-e-Mghanistan (Islamic foreign aid, 73 Movement of Mghanistan) (HIA), 20, 26, Frah, 114, 122 93,99-100, 103 Fulin, Said Valentim, 56 Harkat-e-Islami Mohammedi (HIM), 119, Fundamental Principles ofDRA, 49 122, 124, 239n.5 Gailani, Sayyed Abmed, 20, 103, 104, 162, Hashimi, Engineer, 163 225 Hassan, Mullah Mohammed, 137, 138 Gandhi, Mahatma, 12-14 Hassan, Sayed (SayedJagran), 89, 99 gang of four, 55 Hassan-al-Bana,119 Gates, Robert, 197 Hazarahjat,99, 102 INDEX 255

Hazaras (Hazarahs), 1, 36, 63, 64, 65, 66, International Islamie Front for ]ihad (HF]), 160-61,163,168,169-70,171,172,186, 227,229,230 212, 234n.6, 239n.5; Taliban attaeks on, International Red Cross, 229 160-62 Iran, 15, 17,20,36,39,64,82,85,86,94,95, Hekmatyar, Gulbadin, 20, 21, 23, 26, 84, 85, 98-100,101,102,103,107,110,130,131, 87,91,96,101,107-9,110, 111, 112-13, 142, 143, 145, 153, 159, 163, 164, 165, 114-15, 117-18, 119-20, 123, 127, 128, 168, 169, In, 174, 175, 176, 181, 186-88, 129,130,136,142,143,149,150,153, 193,196,199,202,203,209,211,214, 162, 164-65, 182, 184, 186, 188-89, 217,221; Mghanistan policy, 186-88; 197-98,204,212,222-23,225,245n.5; influenee on Civil War, 98-100 losses to Taliban, 164-66 Iranian Revolutionary Guard, 186 Helmand province, 118, 122, 123, 135-36,214 Iraq, 227 Herat, 64, 77, 89, 98,103, 1l0, 114, 117, 135, ISI (pakistan intelligenee agency), 94, 95-96, 136,158-59,187,215,236n.22;f.Ulof 99,106,108-9,118,120,121-22,127-30, (1995),141-48; mass revolt against DRA 131-32,135,146,147-48, In, 183, 185, (1979), 52-54 188,197-98,199,212,222-23,225, Herat eonferenee (1994), 204 240n.2,241n.3 Herat provinee, 25, 76, 79, 93, In Islam, 3-5, 22, 56, 57,12,75,81,123, Herat University, 142, 147 125-26,149,216 Hezb-e-Hahdat, 109, 112 Islamabad, 114 Hezb-e-Islami (lslamie Party), 26, 84-85 Islambaly, Khaled, 222 Hezb-e-Islami Hekmatyar (lslamie Party) Islamic Emirate of Mghanistan (lEA), 138, (HIH),20, 21,24, 26,87,91, 101-2, 171-81,217-18,223,225; administration, 115-16,119,122,128-30,145,150, 174-75; diplomatie moves, 112-74 165-66,182,184,211,222,225,241n.8 Islamie fanaticism, 193-94; in Mghanistan, Hezb-e-lrlami Khaless (HIK), 94, 119, 122 224-26 Hezb-e-Todah (People's Party), 36 Islamie government, 81, 91, 134, 136, 174, Hezb-e-Wahdat lrlami Afghanistan (lslamic 182,190 . Unity Party of Mghanistan) (HWIA), 103, Islamie militancy and revolution, 78, 131, 1l0, 115, 136, 160, 162, 163-64, 165, 166,217,220,222 169-70,171,187,189,204 Islamie Movement ofUzbekistan, 227 Hezb-e-Watan (Motherland Party) (HWA), Islamie Movement Party, 88 18,20,75-76,96,109,115,127,184-85, Islamie organizations, 20-21 210, 2ll-12, 245n.3 Islamie Republic Party (lran), 101 Hezbollah,227 Islamie Resistance Party (lRP), 182 Hezbollah group, 103 Islamic Salvation Front, 227 Hindu Kush, 81 Islamic Society Party, 77, 87, 88 Hindus, 3, 5, 224 Islamic State of Mghanistan (Dawlat-e- Hobbes, Thomas, 24 Islami-e-Mghanistan) (lSA), 18,23,52, human rights, 200-201, 236n.24 185,212,221 Hussein, Qazi Ahmed, 85,108,135,153, Islamic Uni ted Revolutionary Council of 222 Mghanistan, 88 Hussein, Saddam, 188, 197 Islamic Unity, 20 Ikhwan-al-Mulirnin (Mghan Muslim Ismaeli Muslims, 79-80, 109, 114, 115, 162, Brethren) (lM), 84, 87', 122, 127-28, 186, 163-64 188-89,224 Isrnail Khan, Mohammed, 17, 62, 76, 77, 79, Ikhwani Shia, 147, 149 84,93-94,98,100,102-3,106,107,110, imam, 101 114, 115, 129, 132, 134, 135, 141-48, Iman, Colonel, 118 159-60, 172, 177, 184, 185,204,211,212, Inderfurth, Karl F., 202 236n.23, 238n.25, 240n.2 India, 14,39,122,128,131, In, 196 Israel, 220, 222 Indian Communist Party (lCP), 31, 235n.20 Istanikzai, Sher Mohamrned, 155 individualism and autonomy, as Mghan Itahad-e-Islami Sayyaf (IlS), 222 values, 67-71 Itehad-e-Seganah, 103 Indonesia, 173 ]abha-e-Nejat-e-Mili-e-Mghanistan Inner Shura (Taliban), 137-38 (Salvation Front of Mghanistan), 20 256 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

Jagran,Sayyed,102 Kazakbstan, 190-91, 192, 194,201 J alalabad, 96, 113, 114 Kenya, 189, 199 Jamaat-al-Islamia (Egypt), 227 Keyani, Sayyad N ader, 114 Jamaat-e-Islami ofPakistan OIP), 85, 99,108, KGB, 38, 39, 55-56, 234n.6 119-20,121,135,153,165,222 1ChAD, AGSA, KAA1 (lChedamat-e-Etal'at-i• Jamaat-e-Ulema-e-Islami Pakistan OUIP), Dawlati) (secretpolice), 45,52,57,75,76, 119,120,121, 124, 12~ 126, 132, 13~ 189 94,211,225 Jamaiat-e-Islami (Islamic Society of lChaiber, A1ir Akbar, 38, 39,44 Mghanistan) OIA), 24, 85-86, 101, 102, lChairkhwa, A1ullah lChairullah, 139 107, 112, 115-16, 143-45, 147-48, 164, lChajah Abdullah Anssari, 224 165, 182, 183,204,211,222, 241n.8; lChaless, A1awlawi, 94 Jamaiat-e-Islami Rabbani, 26, 93, 117, kbalifah, khelafat, 4, 152, 180,226 119, 122, 186, 225, 239n.5 lChalighyar, Abdul A1alik, 76, 238n.24 Jamait-e-t Inghalabi Zahmatkeshan lChalili, Abdul Karim, 162, 163, 169 Mghanistan (Labor Revolutionary lChalilzad, Zalmay, 199 Organization of Mghanistan) (SAZA), 19 lChalis, A1aulawi Younos, 84 Jamal, Semj, 173 Khalqis, 21,25,31-32,36,38,39,43-45,50, Jamat-Uloma-e-Islam, 164 55,65-66,71,72,74,96,108,109,111, JameellChan,A1ufri,153 115, 127,209 Jami'ah Haqqanih madresah, 121 IChan, Alawadin, 77, 145 J amiat-ul-Uloom-al-Islamiyyah madresah, lCharazi, Kamal, 202 120 AllChatab group, 191 J an, A1aulawi Ahmed, 175 lChatami, Sayd A1ohammed, 187 Jan, A1011a Bore, 127 lChidmat, A1aktab al, 226 Japan, 173 lChodadad, A1oulawi, 146 Jeb-u-Lsaraj, 157 lChomaini, Ayatollah, 221 Jegran, Sayd Hassan, 88, 100 lChomm, Ali Ahmed, 84 Jellal, Sayed, 26 lChoshhallChan lChatak, 224 Jews, 3, 5, 224 IChost, 53, 108 JIA Ikhwanis, 245n.5 Kiani, SayydJafar Nader, 110-11, 162, 163 jihad, 22, 91, 123, 154,223,225,227,228 King Abdul Aziz University, 226 Al Jihad (Egypt), 227; IslamicJihad, 222 Kirghiz, 1, 63 jirga (tribal or communal council), 3, 28-30, Kozyrov, A., 190 208-9 Kunar conference, 107, 108 Jiwon, Daoud, 62 Kunar province, 53,129,150-51,226 Jowzjan province, 79,114 Kunduz, 92,114 Junbesh-e-A1eli, 212 Kushk,76 Kabul, 64, 94, 96, 98,106,108,109, 111, Kuwait,227 113-14,130-31,137,140,155,156-57, Kyrgyzstan, 190, 192, 228 161,165,171, 179, 197,221; fall of Laghman, Bashir in, 164 (1996),23,148-51 Laghmani, A1ir Sayyed Qassim, 30 Kabul University, 44, 64, 113 Lagman province, 150 Kahan, Allawadin, 148 Lalai, Amir, 118 Kaihani, Sayyd Nader, 109 land redistribution, 49-51 Kalakani, Abdul A1ajid, 19, 210 Lebanon,227 Kalamadin, A1aulvi, 180-81 Lebed, Alexander, 194 Kamilov, Uzbek Foreign Minister, 202 Leghari, Farooq, 148 Karachi, 135,228 Lenin, 33, 53-54 Karimov, Islam, 190, 195 Leno, A1avis, 201 Karmal, Babrak, 31, 37, 38, 39, 43, 44,55,57, Leshkar-e-Anssar (Pakistan), 227 65,66,72,74-75, 109,210, 234n.6 Leshkar-e-Eissar (Army of Sacrifice), 108 Karte Seh, 136 Leshkargah, 13 5 Karzai, Abdul Ahad, 22 5 Lewinsky, A1onica, 199 Karzai, Hamid, 202, 205 literacy campaign, 47-49 Kashmir, 131 Lodi, Abdur Rahman Lodi, 30 Katib, Sayyid A1ahbub, 145 Logar province, 136 INDEX 257

Loya Jirga (national assembly or great council), Moharnmedi, Mawlawi Mohammed Nabbi, 28-30, 166, 180,229-30,231, 246n.5 26,88, 103, 104, 120, 124,225 Ludin, Aziz, 141 lVlohammed Zaisis, 61 madresah (religious school), 119, 154, 172, Mohseni, Mohammed Assef, 20, 99, 103 228; Taliban trained in, 121-24, 125-27 Mojadidi family, 45 Mahaz-e-Meli-e-Mghanistan (National Moldova, 195 Islamic Front of Mghanistan), 20 monafiq,225 Mahmud, Mufti, 124 Mongoi eonquest, 5 Maidan Shahr, 136 Mossa, Mohammed, 152 Majroh, Shamssadin, 225 Muhammad, Mullah Yar, 159 Maktabis (educated ones), 24, 87-88, 91, 101, Mujaddadi, SibqatolJah, 20, 103, 113, 185, 102-3,104,107,115,119,144,147-48, 224,225 153, 164-65 Mujahed, Mullah Mohammed Omar, 23, 118, Malang, Mullah Mohammed, 138 120-21,126,132,136-37,139,152, Malaysia, 173 153-54,168,171,176,179,180,189,200, Malik, General, 162, 163, 167 203,221,227 Manan, Abdul, 168 Mujahid, Abdu:l Hakim, 173 Mansoor, Mawlawi, 84,143 Mujahideen, 15, 17-18,21-22,26,58-59,60, Mao Tse Tung, 13 62,63,66,72,73,75-80,83-110,114, Marx, Kar!, 46, 53, 208 119-21, 123-25, 127, 129, 133, 182-86, Marxism/Leninism, 19,21,24,31-37,42,44, 188,191,196-97,209-11,217,222,223, 47,49,53,65,69,75,81,216 240n.1, 245n.3; external front, 16-18, Marzari, Abdul Ali, 160 86-88, 96, 210-11; internal front, 105-6; Mashal, Ustad, 147 leadership, 90-91, 97, 100-104 Masir, Najibullah, 80 mullah, 35, 125 Masoom, Mohammed, 138 Muridke, 120 Massbah, Adbul Ali, 144; resistance to Muslim Brotherhood (Egypt), 85, 87, 101, Taliban,155-57 119, 120, 127,226 mass mobilization, 11-27 Mutawwakil, Mullah Wakil Ahmad, 13\1 Massoud, Ahmed Shah, 17, 18,24,26,61, Muttaqi, Mullah Amir Khan, 139 84-85,92-93,96,98,100,102-3,106-7, Naderi, Sayed Hussine, 79-80 109,110-16,128,130,134,142,145, Nadir, King, 31, 42 150-51,155-57,158-59,161,162, Najibullah, 18,21,22,57,60,61,74--76,79, 163-66,170,172,184,185,189,192,196, 80,82,95-96,106,109,118,127,129-30, 205,211,212,220,229,231 184--85, 193,210,211-12,238n.25; Maudodi, Abul Ala, 101, 119, 122, 183 execution of, 151; government of, 62,187, Maulvizada, Maulwi J alilullah, 181 197-98,211-12 Mawlana Balkhi, 4, 224 Namangani,Jumah,228 Mazar, 167-68, 187 Nangarhar provinee, 53, 114, 149, 150,227 Mazar-e-Sharif, 79, 80, 81, 82, 92, 109, 171, Nangarhar Shura, 115, 130, 134, 149-50, 179,182,212,215; Taliban offensive in, 185,212 158-70 Naqshbandiya Sufi order, 45 Mazari, Abul Ali, 136 Naser Khosrow, 224 Mazdooryar, Shirjan, 55 Nasser, Gamal Abdul, 183 Mecca,114 National Commander Council (NCC), Middle East, 220, 224 197 Mihanparast, Sayed Nasim, 80, 238n.4 National Commanders Shura (NCS), 106-9, Miller, Marty, 198, 199 111-12,129,212 Ministry of Edueation, 48-49 National Fatherland Front (NFF), 57, 66, Ministry ofInterior, Pakistan, 100 71-74 Ministry ofTribal Affairs, 67,71,78 National Islamic Front for the Deliverance of Mir, Haji, 146 Mghanistan (NJFDA), 162-66 Missaq, Abdul Karirn, 36, 234n.6 Nationalists,7 Mohabbat, Yar Mohammed, 173 National Party in Pakistan, 235n.20 Mohammed, Mullah Gazil, 137, 138 National Reeoneiliation Poliey (NRP), 75-77, Mohammed, Tila, 168 78 258 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

National Revolutionary Front, 39 People's Party of Pakistan (PPP), 131 National Salvation Front (NSF), 103 Persian Gulf, 174, 175; countries of, 161, 164 National Security Council, 138 Peshawar, 63, 96,105,109,119,128,183 Niazi, Abdul Rahim, 85 Peshawar, Akora Khartak, 121 Niazi, Mullah Dust Mohammed, 168 Peshawar Accord, 113 Niazis, 107, 144, 147-48 Philippines, 227 Nimroze province, 122, 136, 141 pir-e-trighat, 90-91 Niyawv, President, 191 political parties, 19-21, 30-31, 101-4, non-Afghans, 174,226,228-29 162-64,209-10 Non-Aligned Nations Movement, 39 Powzie, Humaun, 162 Noor-al-din, Mullah, 137 Poyan, Gholam Rassul, 62,141 Noori, Mullah Noorullah, 139 Pozanov, A. M., 55, 56 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Punjab,120 195 Pushto language, 63 Northern Alliance, 159, 167, 170,202-3,229, Pushtonistan, 20, 38, 131, 183, 185 231 Pushtons, 1,20,21,28,31,51,61,63,65,69, Northwest Frontier Province ofPakistan 74,79,85,89-90,96,110,130,131,150, (NWFP), 63, 119, 132 157,158,165,166,168,172,207,224, Nur, Nur Ahmad, 44 234n.6 OakIey, Robert, 199 Pushtonwali concept, 30, 224 Olympic games of 1980, 59 Putin, Vladimir, 196 opium, 118, 135, 136, 176, 177-78, 185,214 Qader, Abdul, 25, 39-40,43,44,65, 234n.6 Oppressed Nation Movement (Setam-e- Qadir, Haji Abdul, 110, 115, 134, l50, 166, Milli),20 168,212,229 Organization of the Islamic Conference Al-Qaeda, 220, 226-28,230 (0IC),173 Qalah, Mossa, 13 5 Oruzgan province, 26 Qalamuddin, Maulwi, l54 Ottoman Empire, 30 Qandahar, 23,52,98, 110, 117, 118, 121, 122, Pahlawan, Abdul Malik, 160, 162 134,135-36,140,148,179,215 Pahlawan, Jamah Gull, 241n.8 Qandahar-Chaman, 121 Pakistan, 15, 17,20,26,38, 56,63,74,82,84, Qanooni,1runus, 229 85,86,90,94,95-96,98-100,101,103, qawmjirga, 208-9 104,106,107,110,113,117-18,119,120, Quetra, 118, 119 121-24, 125, 126, 127-33, 135, 142, 143, , Sayd, 87, 119, 183 145,148,150,163,164-65,166,173,176, Rabbani, Burhanadin, 20, 23, 24, 26, 77, 84, 177,178,179,182-86,187,191,193,198, 85-86,87,88,93, 101, 102, 112, 113, 114, 203,205,209,211,214,217; 218,219,221, 115,119,128,136,142,143,146,148, 222-23,225-26,227,229,241n.3; 149,153, 157, 162-63, 182, 185, 187, 189, Afghanistan policy, 182-86, 222; Forward 204,211,212,222,224,225 Policy of, 127-33, 183; influence on Civil Rabbani, Mullah Mohammed, 13 7, 13 8, 13 9, War, 98-100; and Taliban, 119-25, 130, 185 173,176,179 Paktia province, 53,94, 115 Radio Afghanistan, 41 Palestine, 220, 227 Radio Kabul, 44 pan-Islamism, 130, 183-84,226 Radio Sharia, 139, 168 Panjshir valley, 92, 98, 128, 155-57, 170 Rahaei party, 210 Parchamis, 21, 25, 31, 36, 38-39,44,50,55, Rahi, Humaira, 169 57,65,66,71,72,74,84,96,109,115,209 Rahman, Mullah Abdul, 138 Parwan province, 98 Rakbmanov, President, 191 Pasani, Mullah, 137 Rakiti, Mullah Abdul Salam, 242n.6 Paternal National Front and the National Raphel, Robin, 198 Peace policy, 25 Rashid, Qari Abdul, 175 People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan Rassul, General, 109, 241n.8 (pD PA), 13-21,24-25,31-40,42,45-46, Ratebzad, Anahita, 44 50-57,65,69,71-76,82,89,96,105,106, Raushangar group, 210 138, 185,209-10,213,216-17,221, Razzaq, Mullah Abdul, 138, 139 234n.12, 235n.20; party dynamic, 54-56 Reagan administration, 197 INDEX 259

Red Cross, 114 Sazeman-e-N assr-e-Mghanistan (Victory refugees, 119, 122-25,206-7,209,213,217 Organization of Afghanistan, NASR, SN), religious police, 154 20,26,88,101-2,103,186 Republic of Mghanistan (1973), 38, 84 secret police. See KhAD Republic State of Mghanistan (RSA), 76, 78, September 11, 2001, terrorist attack, 95-96,210 220-31 Revolutionary Council of tbe Armed Forces, Serwary, Assadullah, 55, 56 24,41-42 Setam-c-Mcli party, 79, 210 Revolutionary Council of the Islamic Union Shabarghan province, 79 of Mghanistan, 89 Shafiq, Moussa, 45 Revolutionary People's Party ofIran, 235n.20 shahadah, 22, 123 Revolutionary Women Association of Shahi, Agha, 99 Mgbanistan (RWAA), 200 Shahid, Maulwi Mohammed Omar, 144 Richardson, Bill, 202 Shamal, Junbesh, 163 Riede!, Bruce, 202 Shamley, Ziba Shoresh, 200, 202 Rocketi, Mullah Abdul Sa!am, 139 Shari'ah (Islamic law), 126, 137, 152-53, 154, Rome conference (1999), 205 180-81,226,228 royal family, 45 Shaurai Inqalabi Itefag-e-Islami, 26 Rubin, James P., 205 Sheendand, 93 rurallife, 18-19,50; destruction of, 73-77, 213 Shia Muslims, 16,20,63,64,79-80,86,95, Russia, 130, 190-91, 192-96, 203; 99,100,102,103,107,113,134,144,162, Afghanistan policy, 192-96; Tsarist, 81 186, 216,237n.3 Saafi, Ahdul Rauf, 53 Shoayb, Austad, 210 Saber Shah, 68 Shora-e-lslami Etefaq-e-Inghalab Sadat, fulwar al-, 56,222 Mghanistan (SIEIA), 99-100,103,186 Sadeqi, Mir Husain, 101 Shura-e-Hamahangi (Coordinated Council), Sadi, 132 113 Saffi, General, 111 Shura-e-Nezar (Supervisory Council of Saghar Conference, 106, 129 North) (SCN), 92, 102, 106, 113, 212 Sajadi, Sayed Amin, 163 Siawshan, Gholam Yahya, 145, 241n.8 Salafis, 127 Sikhs, 3, 5,224 Salang highway, 92 Silk Road, 169 Salikzada, Mohammed Usman, 168 Sind province, 126 Samangan, 114 Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP) (Prophet Samarkhel, 96 Companion's Guards), 120 Sameyran,Madhu,40 Six Plus Two conference, 203-4 San tos, Charles, 199 Soviet Central Asia, 78-79, 97 Sapah-e-Pasdaran Inghalab-e-Is!ami SovietUnion, 15-16, 18,20-23,30,31,36, Mghanistan (Islamic Revolutionary Guard 39,53,55,56-57,75,78,96,97,105,128, of Mghanistan), 100, 101 130,180,184,188,191, 235n.20; army, Sapah-e-Sahabah, 168 97; invasion of Mghanistan, 25, 56-57, 85, Sarandoy forces, 66, 109, 130 123,149,186,191,197,209,211,216-17, Sar-e-Pol province, 80 220,221,225,228, 234n.6, 236n.24; Sar Shahi, 114 withdrawal from Mghanistan, 59, 95-96, Satar, Abdul, 205 182, 184, 192,221,222 Saudi Arabia, 39, 95, 100, 108, 110, 119, 121, Spin Buldak, 117, 118, 134 122,144,153,173,181,187,188-89,198, Stanakzai, Sher Mohammed Abbas, 172 222,226-27, 240n.2; Mghanistan policy, Sudan, 227 188-89; royal family, 227 , 228 Saur Revolution, 24-25,43-44,46,49,70, Sughar,17 75, 237n.16 Sunni Muslims, 4, 16,20,63,64,65,86,95, Sayyaf, Abdul Rabe Rassul, 87, 113, 122, 189, 99, 122, 127,216 224 Sm Cheshma, 157 Sazaman Inghalabi Mardom Mghanistan Syyaf, Abdul Rab-e-Rassul, 107-8 (People's Revolutionary Organization, Tahrik-e-Taliban, 185 ), 19-20,210 Tajikistan, 177, 182, 190-91, 192, 195,203 260 THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN

Tajiks, 1,21,31,51,63,64,65,66,69,85,92, 207,222,223,230-31; Development 150, 155, 172, 190-91, 234n.6 Pro grams (UNDP), 214; High Takhar provinee, 92, 203 Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Talghan provinee, 168 157 talib, 125 United States, 59, 81, 95-96, 99,100,110, Taliban, 23-24, 118-24, 130, 132, 134-51, 130, 137, 139, 140, 172-73, 176, 186, 187, 198-99,203,204-5,212,217-18,223, 188,189,196-202,203,213,220,222-23, 225-26, 227, 229-31, 241n.1; 227,230-31; Mghanistan policy, 196-202, administration, 136-41, 174-75, 178, 222-23,230-31; war in Mghanistan, 231 228-29; ideology of, 225-26; leadership UN()CAJL, 176, 189, 198, 199,200,201,223 factions, 179-81; legal administration, urban middle dass, 30 154-55; military tactics and strategies, Urdo,63 134-51,155-70; origin of, 119-22; Uzbekistan, 65, 80,163,167,190,194,195, politieal ideology of, 152-57; soda! roots 202,203,228 of, 122-24, 125-27 Uzbeks, 1,21,61,63,65,79,82,96,109, Tanai, Shahnawaz, 21, 96,108,127,129,188, 160-62,163,167-68,170,172 198 villages, 18-19 Tanzania, 189, 199 violenee, 24-27,51-52 Taraki, Noor Mohammed, 21, 25,31,37,38, Wahabis, 119, 122, 127, 149, 153; maslak, 39,43,45,47,55-56,65,66,71 144; Ulema, 189 Taron, Daoud, 55 Wahid, Abdul, 13 5 Tashkent, 92 Wakil, Abdnl, 109 Tashkent Collective Security Treaty (TCST), , Shah, 56 194-95 Waqad, Qazi Amin, 85 Tashkent conference (1999), 203-4 Wardak province, 98 terrorism, 199-200,220,227-31; training War ofIndependence, 7-8, 30 camps, 228 Watanjar, Mohammed Aslam, 25, 39,43,55, ThirdMovement, 105-13,219 115 Thomsen, Peter, 202 Wazaman-e-Italaat (pakistan intelligence Timuriad Empire, 5 service), 100 Tokayev, 190 Wzsh-e-Zalmayan (Awakened Youth), 31 Training Teacher Institute, 48 wolcswal,6 Transit Treaty, 186,214 women, 180-81,200-201,228 Turkey, 30, 163 World Trade Center: bombing (1993), 197; Turki, Saudi Prinee, 132, 188-89 atrack (2001),220,230 Turkics,191 World War TI, 97 Turkistan,81 Yaqub Laiss Saffari, 4 Turkmens, 1,63,65,79 Yeltsin, Boris, 190 Turkmenistan, 65, 149, 191, 196,203,223 Yossuf, Mohammed, 143,204,225 Tursumbayev, Baltash, 194 Yuldashev,228 Ubaidullah, Mulla, 139 Zabihullah, 92 Uighur,l92 Zabul, 118, 122, 136 Ukraine, 195 Zabuli, Abdul Majid, 10 ulema, 181,203 Zafeeruddin, Mohammed; 181 United Arab Emirates, 173 Zahid, Abdul Rahman (Rashid), 138, 174 United Front, 189, 196,203,204 Zahir Shah, King Mohammed, 20, 38,104, United Islamic Front for Liberation of 139,166,180,198,202,205,229,231, Mghanistan (UIFLA), 87, 103, 132, 139, 246n.5 140,170,172,205,229,231 Zawahiri, Ayman al-, 228 United Nations, 60,129,130, 137, 139, 140, Zia-ul-Haq, General Mohammed, 99, 119, 141,149,151,163,166,170,173-74, 128,130,183-84,197,217,222,225 177, 187, 198,200,202,203,204,205, Ziri, Shah Mohammed, 67