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The Rohingya Muslim in the land of pagoda Winarni, Leni

Veröffentlichungsversion / Published Version Zeitschriftenartikel / journal article

Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation: Winarni, L. (2017). The Rohingya Muslim in the land of pagoda. Journal of ASEAN Studies, 5(1), 37-50. https://nbn- resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-63234-3

Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Dieser Text wird unter einer CC BY-NC Lizenz (Namensnennung- This document is made available under a CC BY-NC Licence Nicht-kommerziell) zur Verfügung gestellt. Nähere Auskünfte zu (Attribution-NonCommercial). For more Information see: den CC-Lizenzen finden Sie hier: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.de The Rohingya Muslim in the Land of Pagoda

Leni Winarni Sebelas Maret University,

Abstract

Regarding as a multi-ethnic region, this paper attempts to examine about why Buddhist Community turns into religious violence against in the State of Rakhine (formerly known as ). Through understanding the triggers of conflicts, this paper applies historical perspective to analyze why ethnic-religious conflict occur nowadays between Buddhist and Rohingya Muslim in . This paper also discusses how history has influenced the construction of the government’s policy under a military regime to exclude Rohingya. However, the ethno-religious conflict is either an indication of a weak state or failure state in managing diversity.

Key words: ethnic- violence, Muslim Rohingya, Buddhist Rakhine, state’s role

Introduction Throughout history, the conflict between Rohingya Muslim in the north The challenges that newly and Rakhine Buddhist in the South of independent state faces in the post-colonial are much influenced by their period are not only on how to manage relationship in the past. Although it is diversity but also how to maintain the classic, the history has created a pattern of stability of a nation-state based on a conflict which is accumulated in the nationalism. Southeast Asia is the society and has constructed their portrayal of the “melting pot” with its perspectives about the others. Moreover, mixed ethnic identity and religious this can also be used to analyze why the diversity among them. It is the place where government leads the primordialist issue most of its unification is an agreement as a reason to maintain stability within the resulting after the colonial states left at the state. Thus, history is one main factor to end of World War II. Meanwhile, the construct the ethnic-religious conflict in mixed community has also caused another Myanmar today. Even though, problem, which revolves around minority Suu Kyi’s National League for Democracy and majority. Rather than examining the (NLD) won the elections in 2015 and her problem of diversity, this paper will focus victory is a way to democracy, but in the on explaining why the Rohingya Muslim case of the Rohingya, the task will not be and Rakhine Buddhist often involve in easy. these conflicts compared to other ethnic groups in Myanmar throughout its historical perspective.

Journal of ASEAN Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1 (2017), pp. 37-50 DOI: 10.21512/jas.v5i1.1812 ©2017 by CBDS Bina Nusantara University and Indonesian Association for International Relations ISSN 2338-1361 print / ISSN 2338-1353 electronic 38 The Rohingya Muslim in the Land of Pagoda

Rohingya Muslim in the Land of Rohingya has Muslims- Sunni. In his book, Pagodas Minahan also stated that according to Bamar Historian “…the term ‘Rohingya’ did Many centuries ago, is not appear until the 1950s when it was coined the most dominant religion in the Rakhine by Bengali Muslim migrants who had settled in Kingdom and took its place in the Rakhine region during the colonial the 500 BCE. After around 710 CE, period…” (Minahan, 2012). On the contrary, reached the state (Saw, 2011; Sakinada, another literature claims that the Rohingya 2005). According to Minahan (2012) in the community has settled in that region for a book entitled Ethnic Groups of South Asia long period before it was under the British and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia, Islam’s colonial rule. arrival has embraced many of the former Buddhist, Hindu, and animist population. The historical background of When was under Muslim rule in Arakan seems close to the conflict. In 1785, 1213, Muslim’s influence was greatly Burman soldiers have attacked Arakan developed in Arakan (Minahan, 2012) one brutally resulting to the destruction of the other hand, Bamars or Burmans , libraries, and cultural disposed the king of Arakan in 1404. institutions (Jonassohn & Björnson, 1998). During the same period, Buddhism The Burman monarchy attempts to clean became the most influential and up those who were considered as “the ascertained religion which can be seen in other” or has non-Burmese origins. In the the later period of Rakhine kings who were efforts to appall the memories of Burmese all Buddhists (Gibson, James, & Falvey, brutality, the Rohingya community 2016). Another fact of Rakhine State is that welcomed the British in Arakan and it was for many centuries there has been relations during the colonial rule that they received made between the Muslims in Bengal and political rights and economic autonomy. In the Kingdom of Arakan. When Arakan was 1937, the British separated Arakan from in the 15th and 16th century, Indian empire which causes the Rohingya this region was ruled by both Buddhists community’s regress into its previous and Muslims (Ursula, 2014). situation; living in fear and insecurity.

According to Minahan (2012), In 1942, the Japanese forces have Rohingya was also known as Ruainggas, reached Rakhine and made that area as a that is part of Indo-Aryan . He front line until the end of the Second World stated that there are other Rohingya War. During 1942-43, both Muslims and communities spreading out in Saudi Rakhines were attacking each other mostly Arabia, , , , due to their different alliances; most Europe, North America, United Arab Muslim communities were pro-British, and Emirates, , and New Zealand. Rakhines were supporting the Japanese. That is approximately 3.5 million of With shellacking from both parties, Rohingya people and about 800,000 has Muslim communities fled to the north lived in the Rakhine State (Minahan, 2012). where they were a majority, and Rakhine He also explained that Rohingya speaks an moved to the south (Yegar, 1972, in Asia Indo-Aryan language which refers to Report No. 26, International Crisis Group Bengali or known as Chittagonian (ICG), 2014). This is reasonable in seeing language that Southeastern why the largest Muslim groups were uses and in the religion aspect, most of settled in the Rakhine State. In 1945, British Journal of ASEAN Studies 39

awarded the Rohingya community a Arakan since 1823 (Bayefsky, 2005). The civilian administration in Arakan because Rohingya community was not only of their loyalty. Two years later in 1948, stateless but also endures military Arakan State was integrated into Burma pressure; including highly restrictive according to the 1948 treaty and Burma policies. This situation is compounded by granted its independence from Britain the fact that the military regime is the one (Jonassohn & Björnson, 1998). to facilitate the movement against Rohingya (Dittmer, 2010). The goal of that Although many evidences and movement is to reduce Rohingya’s historical reports prove that the Rohingya population, hence, there is no accurate community is a native in that region, but documentation estimating the number of Burma (now Myanmar) as well as the Muslim population in the Rakhine State. Burmese Kingdom still perceived them as Meanwhile in 1982, there was about 56 per foreigners or newcomers. Therefore, for cent of the total population inhabitant in the Muslims living as a minority in the the district (Yegar, 2002). It is possible that Buddhists’ land is difficult for Rohingya. the Rohingya community has the highest The poor relationship between Muslims population at that time. A decade later in and Buddhists did not only happens today, 1994, Burmese Muslim was estimated to be but it has a heavy historical relation that 3 per cent out of the total population of 45 result to the Burmese’s reluctance to co- million, but Muslim claimed that their exist with the Rohingya Muslims since number of population is around 7 million centuries ago. or 13 per cent out of the total population Today the Rakhine State, like other (Veen, 2005). According to the data, the states of Myanmar, is a diverse region. The Muslim population shows a small number Rakhine Buddhist is the largest group in Myanmar, but the data of ICG in 2014 or amongst the total population which is other sources stated that Rohingya approximately 60 per cent of the 3.2 Muslims were the second largest group in million. The Muslim communities, the State of Rakhine; even though the including Rohingya, are at least 30 per cent number was under 50 per cent of the while the rest population is Chin (who are population. However, this imbalance Buddhist, Christian or Animist), and other number of population causes insecurity small minorities including the Kaman (also and fear to emerge. Muslim), Mro, Khami, Dainet and Violence Against Rohingya: Problem Maramagyi who have reached 10 per cent with Ethnicity or Religiosity? (International Crisis Group (ICG), 2014). In fact, the data of Rohingya population could The violence against minority not be accurately mentioned; it is because refers to “uncertainty” (Appadurai, 2006). there are discrepancies of numbers from The problem “came out” when they are different sources. among us and the boundaries are unclear between “them” and “us.” Likewise, the Moreover, there are communities minority group who has identified unregistered as citizens because they are themselves as different, the majority needs unrecognized by the regime under the 1982 them to determine what they call as “we.” Law. The military regime According to Appadurai (2006), the rejects Arakan Muslims (Rohingya) from majority needs the “other” to define their their recognition as citizens, even though own identity. He also argues that the they have been settling in the land of 40 The Rohingya Muslim in the Land of Pagoda

majority recognizes the minority group as of abuse. While, the data has also shown an “impure” element in the national body. that in 1994, at least 110,000 Karen and Meaning, they destroy an opportunity for (some of Myanmar’s self-definition in “understanding their ethnicities) as other minority groups in own identity” (Sen, 2010). Myanmar fled to Thailand during the intense offensive act by the military of In fact, the concept of “we” as the Rakhine (Burma Project, n.d.). Muslim majority’s argument poses as a difficult Rohingya might not be the only minority boundary to accept the “others.” In the case group that is targeted in the violence. of Rohingya, the Burma Kingdom for However, compared to the other groups, many centuries ago and Myanmar state the issue of Rohingya Muslims is more today have continuously oppressed them complicated. because they are different. They are regarded as not a part of Myanmar Meanwhile, according to the 2009 nationality. Rohingya is perceived as Human Right Watch Report, in 1995, the different because they were pro-British in Bangladesh government has forced most of the Second World War and they have a Rohingya Muslims to go back to the border different religious identity with the with the UN supporting this repatriation majorities of Myanmar. Rohingya was process. Then, the government granted closely associated with Bengali, but on them a Temporary Registration Card contrary, they are clearly different from (TRC), which gave them the limited Bengali; physically and politically. and employment in the western part of Arakan. When it is believed in 1990 that in accordance with the ending of Cold War, The violence for anti-Muslim also the world would return to a new hope of occurred in 1996 in Shan state and . peacefulness and a more democratic world In 1997, SLORC initiated an anti-Muslim order, but the fact is showing the riot in Mandalay as well as other cities and pathologies in the nationhood purification. the government is reported to be involved Myanmar, since their political isolationism in the riot (Veen, 2005). The issue of anti- under the military’s rule in 1962, is closed Muslim violence has since been happening from outside world. There is not much in 2001 as well as in Sitwe which results to information acknowledged by the many Muslims and Buddhists killed and international community regarding injured. Since that time, the Government Myanmar’s situation. There is no clear and decided for travel restriction on Muslims in obvious information on how Rohingya the conflict area, particularly those who do people becomes the object of perpetrator travel between Sitwe and other towns. In and the subject to brutal violence from the these cases, there were no information on majorities. For example, in 1991-2, the whether Muslim-Rohingya has been army has arranged about 250,000 Rohingya involved in the conflict or not. However, communities to flee to Bangladesh, and the issue of anti-Muslim (non-Rohingya) they were repatriated without “given has also spreads out to the other Muslim citizenship” by the state (Dittmer, 2010). communities. The data from reported that Karen Muslim In addition, the data reported by community has also been victimized. A Rianne ten Veen and the Islamic Human refugee from Muslim Karen Woman from Rights Commission states that in 1991, Hpa’an Township Kayen State, said that Rohingya Muslims were targeted as object Journal of ASEAN Studies 41

her village was destroyed by the soldiers in Rakhine Buddhists. Besides being Muslim, April 2004 - including their . the physical appearance of Rohingya is very distinct from the descendant of Until in 2012, the conflict occurred Mongoloid. It seems to simplify the reason, between Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya “they are not like us; we cannot accept Muslims in Rakhine finally spreads out in them” (Hurd, 2015). international media, harvesting mass attention from the world. The trigger of The communal violence between this conflict is the and murder of a Muslim Rohingya and Buddhist Rakhine Buddhist woman by Rohingya Muslims was not only an issue in the Islamic world, which leads into violence and riot in the but also in international level. It leads into same year. The data report shows that strong international critic over military dozens of people were killed, a hundred government of Myanmar neglecting the houses burned, and 75,000 people, mostly conflict in Rakhine state. However, the Rohingya, displaced (Caballero-Anthony, violence against Rohingya Muslim by the 2016). state is showing how state has significant rule in perceiving Rohingya as “the other.” The conflict between Muslim Thus, the discrimination was not only in, Rohingya and Buddhist Rakhine also law, economic, or education, but also spreads out of the Rakhine state. In March political and humanity right. 2013, violence occurred in Meiktila, Mandalay region and 43 people were killed When Buddhists Turn to Violence in this accidence. While in May 2013, a boarding school and a mosque were set on The historical explanation fire in Lashio, Shan State (Fuller, 2013). describes that Arakan State, for centuries, According to the data, extremist Buddhist has been an area for territory struggle and groups known as 969 were suspected to symbol of power, respectively amongst initiate the anti-Muslim violence. This Portugal, Britain and Japanese. The report is also written by Caballero (2016), Rakhine Buddhist and Muslim, including but according to her, 40 people were killed Rohingya are claiming each other that because of these riots. She explained that a Arakan is their own land, whether that is commotion in a gold shop in Meiktila, “the land of Muslims” or “the land of Central Myanmar has lead the violence Buddhists.” In terms of political between Buddhist and Muslims. phenomenon, there are two major factors in ethno-religious conflicts which are She also explicated that based on ethnicity and territory (Harris, 2009). the UN claim and a BBC News report, in January 2014, more than 40 Rohingya men, In her book, Erika Harris (2009) women, and children were killed in explained that homeland is a crucial place Rakhine State after an issue that a for the people: Rohingya Muslim killed a Rakhine police. “In the case of homeland, the appeal is Seeing these cases, we can see how that, in the first place, it belongs to violence can be easily followed by another people whose name it carries; what violence; even the reason behind the happens to others who may not have incident was unclear. The boundaries of another homeland or who even think of conflict become unclear then, whether it is it as their own is as secondary communal conflict between Rohingya and consideration, if a consideration of Rakhine or Rohingya Muslims and 42 The Rohingya Muslim in the Land of Pagoda

ethno-national movements at all… nomenclature of Rakhine was designed for there is no potential for conflict or known as “the Buddhist anywhere without disputed territory, land.” as there is no peace without territorial settlements. Homelands are spaces There are three core points where national narratives are made, to contesting in this conflict; ethnicity, which past struggles and dreams of the territory, and identity, which are all related future belong. All homeland are “lands to the historical background. These points of hope and glory” but also, space of the are the main elements of why conflict nightmare of ethnic violence take happens in the world, particularly in place….” Rakhine. According to Jack Snyder (2000), there are two kinds of nationalities in the Nevertheless, the conflict in world: ethnic nationalism and civic Rakhine state is not only about the clash of nationalism. Ethnic nationalism is based on two ethnicities, but also identity, which the primordial sentiments such as Harris did not include it as an element of ethnicity, culture, or religion. While, civic analysis. The identity could not be nationalism is based on national separated from homeland nor ethnicity. It sentiments that overcome the distinction of can be seen from the Palestine conflict ethnicity, religion, race, and social class between Palestinian and Israeli who fights within the society. Today, in the and claims that Palestine is their homeland. globalization era, the ethnic nationalism, For Rohingya people or the Rakhine which based on primordialism sentiment is Buddhist, Rakhine state is the place where being abandoned gradually, especially in their ancestor lived in and they are the West. In contrary, the countries that emotionally engaged with. Arakan is the faced diversity problems like Myanmar, place where they find the memories of their the common structure of a conflict is identity. Although the oppressed constructed by the dominant power to government compels them to leave the marginalize the minorities with great land, they are returning with the oppression. consequence of being stateless. It is because they have no other place nor The question then is why the choice for both to stay and survive. Buddhist community turns to violent measures against Rohingya Muslims. Historical homeland conflict also Firstly, it should be noted that religious has its root when regime fulfilled violence can occur in all their promise to give autonomy in Arakan (Hansclever & Rittberger, 2000; Seul, 1999; and Mon in 1962. However, the Mujahidin Bartels, n.d.). Jeffrey Seul in his journal in that time continue demanding its legal argued that the escalation of intergroup or separation from Burma (Azizah in Yusuf, inter-ethnicity conflict cannot be solely 2013). In the same year also, Burmese seen as identity competition, even Army did coup d’état against U Nu regime, economic and politics factors also play and Burma was under military junta. In important roles in the conflict (Seul, 1999). 1989, the government changed the name of By adopting Connor’s idea about Arakan to Rakhine. Thus, when someone nationalism which refers to “us-them” mentions “Arakanese Muslims,” it refers to (Seul, 1999), Seul explains that Connor’s Muslim minorities that has already argument was based on a single cultural disappeared. It seems that the marker, including religion which can be Journal of ASEAN Studies 43

the root or reference for national identity and nations (Hasenclever & Rittberger, construction. This argument could be 2000). Otherwise, in the constructivist examined in the context of Myanmar in perspective, religion is an intervening which Buddhism was constructed as their variable. national identity. In the other hand, Rohingya community is not reflected as a Marco Ventura (2014) mentions part of the Mongolian nation. Thus, there about the constructivist approach in his must be a logical argument to explain how book in the following term: intergroup conflicts in Rakhine occur. “…ethnic identity is as fluid, Seul as well as Samuel Huntington changeable, and often actively are using the primordialist perspective. contested. From such perspective, most Huntington believes that the next pattern of the emphasis of the analysis is on the of conflict after the Cold War pattern was strategic aim of collectivity framing not only dominated by ideological or ethnic membership and boundaries in a economical aspects, but it will involve given manner than on individual religion-fed cultural “fault lines” (Ventura, motives to endorse a given ethnic 2014). The following statement is affiliation. Consequently, elite and Huntington’s most cited passage in The mass interests are not assumed to Clash of Civilization: converge, nor are the interests of different ethnic group assumed to be “It is my hypothesis that the intrinsically divergent: ethnic conflict fundamental source of conflict in this and violence can serve elite interests new world will not be primarily beyond ethnic boundaries and can ideological or primarily economic. The contradict the interests of the masses great divisions among humankind and on all sides.” the dominating source of conflict will be culture” (Huntington, 1993). This approach also described about how the elite plays a significant role in According to the primordialists intergroup conflicts. Related to the (Samuel Huntington, Gilles Kepel, Jeffrey Rohingya case, the elite Army plays a role Seul, and Bassam Tibi), they argue that the to mobilize the violence through most important factor in the twenty-first recognizing that Rohingya people are the century conflicts is the nations in “impure” community in the state. Here, civilization (Hasenclever & Rittberger, the regime saw the issue of impurity as an 2000). In their book, Hasenclever and opportunity to reduce population. Indeed, Rittberger are also attempting to outline Buddhist-Muslim violence is nothing new the three approaches to analyze the impact in Myanmar, especially in Rakhine of faith and politics, before it can be used to (Kingsbury, 2015). It can be seen from the measure the conflict. government statement when other entities ask of the solution for refugee camps or In the instrumentalist perspective, deportation. President socio-economic are the basic of conflict and emphasizes that Rohingya people were religion is only a spurious correlation in unacceptable in Myanmar. His comments terms of intergroup conflict. The in Radio Free Asia (2013), states that they Instrumentalists believe that most of take responsibility for their own ethnics religious conflicts start from unequal and because Rohingya were not growth between economic, social, political authentically their ethnic, it was 44 The Rohingya Muslim in the Land of Pagoda

impossible to endure them legally Bengali. When Arakan was Bengal’s (Caballero-Anthony, 2015). feudatory in the 15th century, Rohingya converted to Islam and developed their There are two approaches to own distinct culture and art (Jonassohn & understand the Buddhist in how they are Björnson, 1998). The Rohingya community involved in the violence; that are has the skills needed to develop their own primordialists and constructivist economic ability or thorough education perspective. But this hypothesis has also but because they are “stateless,” they do been influenced from the history of not have the opportunity and are relationships between Buddhist and powerless. On the other hand, the Rakhine Rohingya just as how Burmese-Buddha Buddhist already has an opportunity to has ruled for centuries imposing the restore their socio-economic because they Rohingya. Aside from the historical have obtained official citizenship. background, cultural reasons also play an However, when Rakhine Buddhists opted important role. If cultural reasons cause the violence, it seems that they are defending construction of “us and them,” which is their nationalism, but unfortunately very clear to differentiate Rohingya Rohingya could not do the same way, Muslim and Rakhine Buddhist, then it is because they have either no state or indeed an important factor that depicts and “nationalism.” influences the course of history for Rohingya people in Myanmar An Overview: Islam in Myanmar continuously. Muslim in Myanmar was not The Buddhist practices its religion dominated by the ethnic of Rohingya, there as a Burmese religion for centuries so that some ethnics involved as well. However, it has a strong influence in the Burmese the antagonistic relationship between culture. Although the government Rohingya Muslim and Buddhist Rakhine changed the name of Burma into has never been in peace. Serial conflicts Myanmar, the identity was already record that ethnical conflict between embraced by the whole nation. Since there Burmese with Buddhists as a majority and is an imbalance between majority and other immigrant, such as Indians, does minority, the Buddhist culture becomes a happen. Sub-ethnics such as Mon and reflection of their basic culture. They feel Karen, as mentioned previously, have also insecure and fearful that the minority will become victims in the Burmese conflict, change the Buddhist culture. and many among of them are Muslims.

On the other hand, according to the It is significant since Buddhists in historical background in during the British Myanmar has not been in the conflict with colonial, Rohingya Muslims owns legal other Muslim community with Chinese administration since they were loyal to the descendant –Chinese Muslim that comes British colony. They have an opportunity from Yunan, a border area between in economic, social status, and education. and Myanmar in the west. Most of them They have a position in the government come to Burma as traders, breeders and and this continues in the U Nu regime until refugees in the post-Panthay revolution coup d’état by the junta military in 1962. (1856-1873). Under the Manchu Historically, they came to Arakan as government in Myanmar, this Chinese traders and soldiers, most are notably from Muslims then are well-known as Panthay Arab, Mongol, Turkish, Portuguese, and Journal of ASEAN Studies 45

or Hui in the . According happened due to fear over wide to Naw Lily Kadoe in her writing entitled distribution of Muslim power and the Ulama, State, and Politics in Myanmar, as possibility of a scrapped Buddhist cited in Yegar (1972), this tribe easily position, which still needs to be proved. assimilates with the local community and Third is that conflict over Buddhist is be able to keep their identity as Muslims. Rakhine and Muslim Rohingya is considered completely as an ethnical On the other hand, the arrival of conflict, but it has much to do with a Indians under the British government had religion. For the example, their rejection caused an increasing number of Muslim over Rohingya without mentioning Islam population in Myanmar. Previously, the as the religious attribute. Fourth is the Muslim population in this state is small, limited information of conflict regarding passive and loyal to the king of Burma. the relationship between Buddhist Yet, the coming of Indian immigrants have Burmese and ethnic Hui (Panthay) as doubled the population and with the minority. Meaning the closeness between increasing number of mosque and school Rakhine and Hui could be viewed as based on Islamic education constructions ethnical intimacy, both of which came from (Yegar, 1972). The scale of ethnical conflict Mongoloid race. Yet, it could be also between Indian Muslims and Burmese interpreted that the ethnic of Hui could Buddhists increases in the post-World War adopt the local culture better compared I, that is in the 1930 and 1938 which with Bengali Muslim (Rohingya) and happens due to the fight for jobs in Indians. Rangoon (Yangon) (Kadou, 2015). Path for Harmony Analyzing conflict in Myanmar is not an easy task, but serial historical factors Although it is not easy and there is with violence over Muslim Rohingya is still no win-win solution acquired between showing that ethical conflict is not new, it Buddhist Rakhine and Muslim Rohingya, was rooted on their historical relationship. many efforts had already been shown to Through short explanation, we can analyze reconcile the parties. Indeed, this issue had what Buddhists’ relationship with the grabbed international attention, either Muslim minority in Myanmar looks like. from the Muslim countries or non-Muslim However, it cannot be generally concluded countries. International respond over the that the Buddhist-Muslim relationship in conflicts in Myanmar, especially in the Myanmar is worse because, in several northern Rakhine State is a movement for cases, anti-Muslim sentiment happens in global humanitarian crisis. Rakhine due the ethnicity of Rohingya, and the conflict has also happened outside Since the crisis happened in the Rakhine. 2012, 57 counties affiliated in the Organization of Islam Cooperation (OIC) There are some hypotheses that condemned over Rohingya can be drawn by looking at this problem; Muslim in Myanmar, as what happened in first is that conflicts happening between the summit meeting in Mecca, Augusts Buddhist Rakhine and Muslim Rohingya is 2012 (Kadoe, 2015). In the other side, motivated through economic-politic and Myanmar government invited the state social variables. Second, is that the conflict representatives and UN to see the actual between the two had created bigger reality that is happening in the Rakhine religious conflicts crossing ethnicity. It had 46 The Rohingya Muslim in the Land of Pagoda

State. Indeed, this decision also emerges a emergency support for Rohingya Muslim serial of protests especially from Buddhists refugees in February 2017. It is recorded in several areas of conflicts, such as that since the humanitarian crisis Yanggon, Meiktila, Lashio in the northern happened in 2012, many Rohingya Shan State. refugees have been escaping to Southern Malaysia. A couple years before in 2011, Adli Abdullah, the leader of the International Likewise, Malaysia and Indonesia Concern Group on Rohingya (ICGR) in as the largest Muslim populations in Asia Malaysia, hoped that the Rohingya issue have also been supporting the refugees in could be discussed in the ASEAN Summit the same way. Recently, refugees of while several parliaments from Southeast Rohingya community receives Asian countries still intensively conducted accommodation and hospitality in Aceh the dialogue to solve the issue of Rohingya. before they depart to Australia to gain They urge ASEAN to include this issue as asylum. Indonesia is also the only state the main agenda of the ASEAN summit in allowed by the Myanmar government to Malaysia on 26-27 April 2015. However, enter the Rakhine region to provide this effort still has an obstacle, because humanitarian assistance to Rohingya Myanmar considers the issue of Rohingya refugees when the crisis still occurred. The as a domestic matter and ASEAN has no Indonesian government through the right to interfere this issue. Even if there are Ministry for External Affairs has been many Rohingya refugees residing in doing diplomacy in resolving conflict as ASEAN countries, particularly in well as giving humanitarian aids for Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. Rohingya Muslims. Thus, international demand for harmony cannot be well- Later, on 20th of May 2015, the achieved without internal effort from Foreign Ministers of three ASEAN Myanmar government per se. countries, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand conducts a meeting in Kuala The wining of National League for Lumpur to discuss joint solutions and the Democracy (NLD), pioneered by Aung San resolving of regional issues (Indonesian Suu Kyi in the general election 2015 had Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2015). This previously seen as bringing a hope for Meeting also aims to find a comprehensive religious freedom and sectarian conflict. In solution involving the country of origin, contrary, wining does not give a significant transit, and goals through the principle of contribution to religion harmony. Indeed, burden sharing and shared responsibility. intents to limit This is necessary to prevent the issue of international intervene for resolving the irregular migrants for it not to evolve into problem of Rohingya Muslim and a humanitarian crisis in Southeast Asia. Buddhist Rakhine. Furthermore, the appointment of in the Furthermore, in the meeting with parliament (2016) gives no significant the Ministry of External Affair of ASEAN changes due to his loyalty towards Aung in Yangon December 2016, the Minister San Suu Kyi. Thus, the harmony is located from Malaysia, Anifah Aman, demands for on the government’s ability in handling full humanitarian access in the conflict militaristic regime. At least, the president area. It made Malaysia as the ASEAN from civil society could be a new hope for country that initiates involvement into the issue. Indeed, Malaysia also reports to give Journal of ASEAN Studies 47

Myanmar after many years of militaristic 2016). Otherwise, according to historian controlling regime. and it is mostly believed by Rohingya people, they argued that their ancestors While, international sympathy over were not only coming from , this case is still going on. In the prior but also from different Muslim countries. December 2016, there are fourteen They were not coming to Rakhine State countries, among them are Austria, during the British colonial period but over Belgium, , , , hundred years earlier before. Rohingya France, Greece, Ireland, the , people has heavily rooted in Rakhine, the Poland, Spain, , , and the definition of Rohingya people identity . These countries imposed seems difficult to be explained. Hence, the Myanmar government in allowing them to Rohingya people itself as an ethnic identity give aids for Rohingya Muslims (The New is still debatable. York Times, 2016). It is related to the UN report portraying the increasing number of The conflict in Rakhine based on humanitarian crisis in that area. However, the primordialists and constructivist the amount of aid especially in food is still perspectives also could be explained based limited. There are 20,000 people from on historical context which states that for 150,000 refugees who got food. This centuries the Burma Kingdom did invade tragedy was reported by Pierre Péron, a Rohingya to get Arakan. After Arakan was spokesperson of UN for Coordination of a part of Burma Kingdom, this land since Humanitarian Affairs. then belongs to them. In the 17th century, when Arakan was under the British rule, Basically, the problem of Rohingya Rohingya was protected until the Britain Muslim is not an easy task to be solved, it colony left the country in 1948. Post-British is due to historical complexity that has rule, the Muslims’ peacefulness in Arakan been happening for a long while. In other changes into conflict with the Buddhists. words, a conflict between Rohingya Indeed, since 1962, the junta military has Muslim and Buddhist Rakhine is not oppressed Rohingya Muslims and played merely a temporary response; it is rooted a significant role in the movement to expel happened many years, across generation Rohingya from the Myanmar state. The and remaining into the present. case of Rohingya currently has found a new stage and it is a concerned as an issue Conclusion related to humanitarian disaster in It is believed that Rohingya is a Southeast Asia. This issue becomes more legacy from British colonial policies that complex because the conflict involves not are trapped in a misfortunate situation. only ethnic-religious, but also economic, Historically, Rohingya were leaving their social and political aspects. However, the ancestors to migrate into Rakhine State conflict between the Buddhist and during the British colonial period and was Rohingya community is very complicated called by most non-Rohingya people as and its resolution is not easy. The Bengali Muslim. The official view of the international communities are continuing Myanmar Government is that all Rohingya their efforts to negotiate with junta military people are illegal immigrants from Bengal to give more accesses to Rohingya and to (present day Bangladesh) and the know about what happened in Rakhine as government does not address Muslim a part of humanitarian activities. migration under British rule (Gibson, 48 The Rohingya Muslim in the Land of Pagoda

About the Author 29, 2017, from BBC: http://www.bbc.com/indonesia/du Leni Winarni is a lecturer in nia/2015/04/150422_rohingya_asea International Relations and researcher in n_parlemen. Center of ASEAN Studies, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta. Currently, she is a Caballero-Anthony, M. (Ed.). (2016). An Ph.D. candidate of Inter-Religious Studies introduction to non-traditional (IRS) in Gadjah Mada University. Her key security studies: A transnational interests are politics and religion, Islamic approach. Sage Publication Ltd. studies, history, conflict resolution, and Russia and East European studies. Christian, J. L. (1942). Burma: Strategic and Political. Far Eastern Survey, 11(3), References 40-44.

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