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2014 A Little Bird Told Me...: Consequences of Holding an Implicit Association Between Women and Birds Corey Columb
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A LITTLE BIRD TOLD ME…: CON“EQUENCE“ OF HOLDING AN IMPLICIT
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN WOMEN AND BIRDS
By
COREY COLUMB
A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2014
Corey Columb defended this dissertation on July 15, 2014.
The members of the supervisory committee were:
E. Ashby Plant
Professor Directing Dissertation
Irene Padavic
University Representative
Jon Maner
Committee Member
Mary Gerend
Committee Member
Joyce Carbonell
Committee Member
The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the thesis has been approved in accordance with university requirements.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thank you Ashby for directing this dissertation and being an excellent mentor! I also would like to thank my dissertation committee and the Plant lab for their helpful feedback on this project. Thank you also to the many undergraduate students who assisted with data collection.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ...... v
Abstract ...... vi
Introduction ...... 1
Study 1 ...... 10
Study 2 ...... 16
Study 3 ...... 23
General Discussion ...... 35
Endnotes ...... 40
Appendix A: IRB Approval for Human Subjects ...... 41
Appendix B: Women-Bird IAT Materials ...... 43
Appendix C: Images used in Women-Bird and Men-Mammal brief-IAT ...... 44
Appendix D: Creative Short Story Manipulation ...... 46
Appendix E: Correlations among Study 2 Variables Table ...... 47
Appendix F: Rated Animalization of Women Figure ...... 48
Appendix G: Rated Willingness to Hire the Female Candidate Figure ...... 49
References ...... 50
Biographical Sketch ...... 54
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Study 3: Rated animalization of women...... 48
Figure 2. Study 3: Rated willingness to hire the female candidate in the decision-making task...... 49
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ABSTRACT
Past research has shown that humans possess implicit or unconscious associations which, when activated, affect subsequent behavior. In three studies, I demonstrated a novel implicit association held by some men, an association between women and birds. In Study 1, I provided initial evidence of a
Women-Bird association and its autonomy from other common prejudice measures. In Study 2, I demonstrated two consequences for possessing a Women-Bird association: increased sexist hiring decisions and increased dehumanization of women. For my third study, I demonstrated a causal pattern, such that activation of the Women-Bird association caused an increase in dehumanization of women, sexist hiring decisions, and perceptions that a female candidate was incompetent for those who possessed the association. Mediation analysis indicated that activation of the Women-Bird association among those who possessed the association resulted in sexist hiring decisions because these participants perceived the female candidate as less competent. These findings provide insight into a cause of bias toward women that should be accounted for when attempting to reduce discrimination toward women.
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INTRODUCTION
Over the past several decades, social psychologists have established many different ways people possess conscious associations between social groups and a range of traits, objects, animals, and other concepts. There has been much less research evaluating implicit or unconscious associations and their implications for social responses. However, Goff and colleagues (Goff, Eberhardt, Williams, & Jackson,
2008) recently provided some compelling initial evidence that implicit associations exist and have behavioral consequences (also see Rudman & Mescher, 2012). Although people may hold multiple implicit associations for any given group, my focus in this dissertation is to examine whether one specific implicit association exists and whether there are implications for possessing this implicit association.
First, I posit that men hold, to varying degrees, an implicit association linking women and birds. I argue that the Women-Bird association stems from our cultural past and has been maintained within our society in subtle ways. Second, I hypothesize that activation of the Women-Bird implicit association increases the tendency to dehumanize women. Third, I hypothesize that activation of the Women-Bird implicit association increases bias against women in hiring decisions. In the following sections, I review past evidence for the presence of implicit associations. I then discuss the origins of the proposed
Women-Bird association and how it has been maintained to present day. Next, I review research on two different types of dehumanization. Finally, I outline my hypotheses regarding two general effects of holding an implicit association between women and birds.
Past research on implicit associations
Contemporary wisdom suggests that explicit knowledge of the qualities associated with a group is necessary for associations to form. For example, the psychological literature on stereotyping typically assumes that people have explicit knowledge of stereotypes about a group, even though some situations may trigger these stereotypes implicitly (for a review, see Fiske, 1998). Researchers have de o st ated people s e pli it k o ledge of so ietal ste eot pes a out women (e.g. Boysen, 2013;
1
Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011; Rudman, Moss-Racusin, Glick, & Phelan, 2012; Spencer, Steele,
& Quinn, 1999). For example, in the United States, women are considered to be warm, unintelligent, feminine, weak, passive, quiet, promiscuous, unable to lead, chatty, and emotional. Americans can very easily list these and other stereotypes of women. In large part because these stereotypes are so p e ale t a d idel held, the i flue e pe eptio a d eha io e e he people do t pe so all endorse them and are motivated to disprove the stereotype (e.g. Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999).
I argue that implicit knowledge may also play a role in influencing perception, decision-making, and behavior, despite people being consciously unaware of this knowledge. For example, Goff and colleagues (2008) demonstrated that White men hold an implicit association between Black people and apes, which almost all of their participants denied having any awareness of holding1. Goff and colleagues
(2008) provided evidence for the presence of a Black-Ape implicit association using multiple approaches.
In one study, participants were subliminally primed with 50 Black or White faces before watching a black-and-white film clip of apes or another animal, in which the images in the clip began very fuzzy and became progressively clearer. Participants were told to stop the movie at the earliest point where they could accurately identify the animal in the movie. The researchers found that participants who were exposed to Black faces were quicker to identify the ape clips, compared to those who were primed by
White faces. There was no difference in priming condition for non-ape movies.
In another study, Goff and colleagues (2008) created a categorization task modeled after the implicit association test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998), in which participants categorized ape and big cat words while simultaneously categorizing first names as stereotypically Black or White as quickly as possible. For half of the critical trials, participants categorized images or words related to
Black people or apes (e.g. baboon) with one key, and White people and big cats (e.g. panther) with a second key. For the remaining half of the critical trials, participants categorized words and images related to Black people or big cats with one key and White people or apes with a second key. They
2 argued that the faster participants responded to the categorization task when the Black names and ape words shared the same response key (i.e., congruent trials) as compared to when the Black names and cat words shared the same response key (i.e., i o g ue t t ials , the st o ge the pa ti ipa ts i pli it association between Black people and apes. The categorization task revealed an association between
Black people and apes, such that the Black-Ape pairings were faster than the Black-Cat pairings. They also found in their studies that the magnitude of the Black-Ape association was not influenced by pa ti ipa ts e pli it o i pli it p ejudi e to a d Bla k people. I additio , e fe pa ti ipa ts < % were explicitly aware of the association.
Implicit associations between a social group and an animal or object are particularly troubling because they may lead to dehumanization and biased responses toward that group. For example, participants primed with apes found it more acceptable for police officers to assault a Black suspect, compared to those shown a control prime (Goff et al., 2008). Goff and colleagues (2008) also conducted an archival study looking at the presence of apelike language (e.g. barbaric, howl, stalk) in newspapers covering trials of Black and White defendants eligible for the death penalty. They examined how this language was tied to the verdict. The researchers found that apelike language was more likely to be used to describe Black defendants compared to White defendants. Additionally, Black defendants who were sentenced to death were more likely to receive apelike representations in the press than those who were spared the death penalty. Follow-up research demonstrated that activation of the Black-Ape association caused Black children to be perceived as less childlike, which led to increased perceptions of blame for Black over White children who committed felonies (Goff, Jackson, Di Leone, Culotta, &
DiTomasso, 2014). These studies demonstrate two major consequences of holding a Black-Ape association: greater endorsement of violence, even deadly levels, toward the dehumanized group, as well as an increased willingness to perceive Black children as less childlike at an earlier age.
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Recent work by Rudman and Mescher (2012) suggests that implicit dehumanization of women also occurs. They argued that the high prevalence of sexual victimization in America, despite the
Wo e s o e e t a d othe ad a es fo o e , is likel to e i flue ed othe fa to s i addition to prejudice as traditionally conceptualized. One additional factor that leads to sexual victimization, they argue, is an implicit or unconscious tendency to dehumanize women. To measure implicit dehumanization of women, the researchers developed a categorization task modeled after the
IAT, in which they categorized gender-based words as either male or female while they simultaneously categorized other words as characteristic of animals or humans. The faster participants were at responding when the female and animal words share the same response key, and the slower they were at responding when the female and human words share the same response key, the more they implicitly dehumanized women. Rudman and Mescher (2012) found that participants who implicitly dehumanize women reported greater willingness to engage in sexual harassment and rape, as well as report more negative attitudes toward rape victims. From both this work and the research by Goff and colleagues
(2008), one may see a pattern where dehumanization of a group leads to a greater willingness to physically or sexually harm members of the dehumanized group.
Past research has shown some evidence for an implicit association between Black people and apes (Goff et al., 2008, 2014). Could there be implicit associations for other groups? The work by
Rudman and Mescher (2012) suggests that people may dehumanize women implicitly, which may stem from possessing an implicit association. In the next section, I propose an implicit association that may contribute to the dehumanization of women: an association between women and birds.
Women-Bird association in historical and contemporary culture
Early references to an association between women and birds can be traced as far back as the
Greek and Roman civilizations, where several philosophers explicitly associated women and birds in their work. For example, during a debate on education, Musonius Rufus said it was important to educate
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o e so that the ould t appea i fe io to he s a d other female birds, which fight to protect thei ou g f o u h la ge a i als Ki g, . G eek tholog also pai ed o e a d i ds together in their depictions of the harpies and sirens. Sirens were used as a symbol of dangerous temptation embodied in women (e.g. Homer, 1909). Sirens in particular were picked up by Christianity during the Middle Ages; according to Christian lore, women behaved as half-bird succubae, depriving men from reason and causing men to stray from the right path in life (Carlson, 1986; Longworth, Clifton,
& Tice, 2003). Fourteenth century British culture also helped strengthen the Women-Bird association li guisti all aki g a o e tio et ee u d, hi h as a poeti te fo o a o lad , a d
i d du i g the s (Lyman, 2007). Since these two words are homonyms, people in Britain began to use the o d i d as sla g fo o e .
Although more subtle, there are several references to the Women-Bird association within
American culture today. For example, there are references linking women to birds in several musicals,
o ies, a d TV sho s su h as Chi ago e.g. Chi kies i pe , The Musi Ma e.g., Pi k a Little where the ladies are portrayed as chickens clucking as they complain), the Notebook (e.g. the character
Allie calls herself a bird), and Glee (e.g. the portrayal of Emma as a bird). The focus of these shows is not to associate women with birds, but rather subtly incorporates the association within its larger story.
There is a similar pattern in music su h as Nell Fe tado s I like a i d a d Luda is s M Chi k Bad, in books such as the depiction of Sonya and Katniss in A Song of Fire and Ice and The Hunger Games series, in popular catch-ph ases su h as hi k a d othe he , a d ith ho people describe female
eha io e.g. fe ales s ua ki g he the o plai . Due to the si ulta eous p ese e of a d la k of cultural focus on the Women-Bird association, I argue that people may be unaware of possessing and being influenced by the Women-Bird association. If true, the Women-Bird association would likely be an implicit association.
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Associations and dehumanization of women
In past research, activation of the Black-Ape implicit association was shown to cause an increase in dehumanization of Black people (Goff et al., 2008). Similarly, I hypothesize that activating the
Women-Bird association increases dehumanization of women. There are, however, two types of dehumanization empirically defined in past research, mechanistic and animalistic dehumanization.
Which form of dehumanization does the Women-Bird association influence? To have a better understanding of this question, I first explore past literature on dehumanization below.
Researchers have identified two ways that people are denied humanness (for a review, see
Haslam, 2006). The first type, mechanistic dehumanization, focuses on denying the individual traits commonly found in humans. These traits, which include warmth, depth, and individuality, develop early i o e s life a d a e o side ed inherent within humans. Groups that are denied common human traits are often associated with common objects or possessions. Mechanistic dehumanization of women has been heavily researched in the pornography (e.g. Check & Guloine, 1989; LeMoncheck, 1985;
MacKinnon, 1987) and objectification literatures (e.g. Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), demonstrating that greater dehumanization leads to higher legitimization of rape and sexual victimization. Also, women who objectify themselves focus more on their bodies and physical appearance instead of on themselves more holistically, resulting in greater body shame, restrained eating, and diminished mental performance (e.g. Frederickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998).
The second type of dehumanization, animalistic dehumanization, focuses on denying the individual traits considered to be unique to humans. These traits, which include civility, morality, and highe le els of i tellige e, de elop late i o e s life a d a e o side ed to e highl depe de t o socialization. Groups that are denied uniquely human traits are often associated with animals. The effects of animalistic dehumanization have been examined primarily in the racial prejudice literature
(e.g. Goff et al., 2008; for a review, see Jahoda, 1999). For example, Goff and colleagues (2008) found
6 that greater levels of animalistic dehumanization, operationalized by the activation of the Black-Ape association, led to greater endorsement of violence against Black men. Jahoda (1999) notes that associating groups with animals often leads people to believe the animalized groups lack rationality and sophistication and instead possess more base instincts for sex and violence.
It is important to understand situations that lead to the dehumanization of groups because denying people humanness is often used as a rationale for unequal treatment. With a better understanding of dehumanization, society will be better equipped to prevent a repeat of past indiscretions, such as the treatment of women as property by men, of Black people as slaves and when segregated from White people, and of Jews, Gays, Roma, and other groups being forced into concentration camps during the Holocaust. There has already been some research evaluating how dehumanization affects attitudes and behavior. For example, Kelmen (1976) argued that by denying someone an identity and a community, people are less likely to feel compassion or moral emotions toward dehumanized targets, and are more likely to treat the dehumanized as a means to an end. Along a similar vein, Opotow (1990) argued in his moral exclusion work that when people are placed outside the boundary of moral values, rules and considerations of fairness no longer apply to them.
Consequences of moral exclusion can vary in intensity, from milde effe ts su h as i diffe e e to o e s suffering to more intense effects such as genocide (Opotow, 1990). The common theme between many psychological explanations of dehumanization is that the dehumanized target is thought to lack some aspect of humanity, which justifies bias toward that group.
To k o ledge, ‘ud a a d Mes he s o k e aluati g the li k et ee i pli it dehumanization and sexual harassment and rape is the only empirical paper evaluating animalistic dehumanization of women. Although the work by Rudman and Mescher (2012) demonstrates that people can dehumanize women implicitly, they do not go into what specific associations contribute to the dehumanization of women. In addition, Rudman and Mescher (2012) evaluated one consequence of
7 dehumanizing women, but it is possible there are other consequences. The present research on the
Women-Bird association helps to address both of these issues by exploring one potential specific association that may lead to the animalistic dehumanization of women and by demonstrating that decision-making can also be affected by holding an implicit association.
General overview and hypotheses
In order examine whether an implicit association between women and birds exists, I first created an implicit assessment of the degree to which people relate women with birds, called the
Women-Bird IAT. I chose an IAT as my measure because of past research demonstrating that this reaction time task is resistant to faking (e.g. Kim, 2003), and because it has been well-established as a reliable and valid measure of assessing implicit attitudes and associations (e.g. Goff et al., 2008, Study 4;
Jost et al., 2009; Nosek, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2007; Rudman & Mescher, 2012). My goal was to assess the extent to which participants had a stronger association between women and birds than men and birds.
In Study 1, I examined whether the Women-Bird association exists, is unconscious, and is independent from explicit and implicit sexism. Additionally, I explored whether this association is stronger in men than women. I hypothesized that the Women-Bird association would be stronger in men than women for several reasons. First, members of groups are less likely to make negative dispositions about an ingroup member, compared to an outgroup member (Stephan, 1977). Second, people in general tend to see outgroups as more homogeneous than their own ingroups, increasing the likelihood that associations held for outgroups would be applied broadly (Jones, Wood, & Quattrone,
1981).
In Study 2, I focused on two potential effects of holding a Women-Bird association: increased animalistic dehumanization of women and gender bias in hiring decisions. First, I hypothesized that participants who hold an implicit association between women and birds would dehumanize women by
8 perceiving that they possess less uniquely human qualities (animalistic dehumanization), while not affecting their perceptions that women possess typical human qualities (mechanistic dehumanization).
Second, I hypothesized that there would be no relationship between the Women-Bird association and dehumanization of men. Third, I hypothesized that participants who hold an implicit association
et ee o e a d i ds ould oth e aluate a ale appli a t s esu e as st o ge tha a fe ale s resume and be more likely to hire the male candidate over the female candidate.
In Study 3, I demonstrated causation by examining the implications of manipulating the activation of the Women-Bird association. Participants read one of two creative essays describing a typical school day for a female college student. In one version, bird-like language was used to describe the female, while in the second version no bird-like language was used. Generally, I anticipated that exposure to the bird language would activate the Women-Bird association, causing it to impact the subsequent responses. However, I expected that this effect would occur only for those participants who possessed the women-bird association. First, I hypothesized that participants exposed to the Women-
Bird story who possess the association between women and birds would be more likely than those who do not possess the association to dehumanize women, but not men, on traits related to animalistic dehumanization. Second, I hypothesized that participants exposed to the Women-Bird story who possess the association between women and birds would perceive a female job candidate as less competent than participants who do not possess the association, leading them to be less likely to hire the female candidate.
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STUDY 1
Study 1 was designed to evaluate if people possess an implicit association linking women to birds. Male and female participants were given an Implicit Associations Test (IAT), during which they categorized images as either birds or mammals and categorized common first names as either female or male. Afterwards, participants completed measures assessing implicit and explicit sexism, motivation to respond without sexism, and knowledge regarding the association between women and birds. I predicted that I would find evidence for an implicit association between women and birds, as measured by the Women-Bird IAT. However, I did not anticipate that participants would be aware of possessing this association. In addition, based on Goff and colleagues work on the Black-Ape association (Goff et al.,
, I p edi ted that pa ti ipa ts te de to asso iate o e ith i ds o the IAT ould be unrelated to their implicit sexism, explicit sexism, or motivation to respond without sexism levels.
Finally, I hypothesized that the association between women and birds would be held more strongly by men than women. I predicted that men would be more likely than women to possess an association between women and birds for several reasons. Past research has shown that people are less likely to remember negative stereotypes about an ingroup member, compared to an outgroup member
(Jackson & Rose, 2013). Many associations between humans and animals dehumanize the target by i pli itl a gui g that the g oup does t possess ualities u i ue to hu a s e.g. i tellige e, rationality, and morality; see Haslam, 2006). Although people may view birds as cute and beautiful, it is more likely that any group associated with birds would be viewed as frail, weak, irrational creatures that are unable to take care of themselves. Since these attributes are considered unfavorable in society, women would be less likely to want these attributes attached to them or to their ingroups. If this logic is true, then men may be more likely than women to possess this association because the negative attributes associated with birds would not be connected to their social identity. Based on this logic, men may be more likely than women to accept this potentially negative association. Supporting this idea,
10 past research has demonstrated that women implicitly favor women over men (e.g. Nosek & Banaji,
2002; Rudman & Goodwin, 2004).
Method
Participants
Eighty-nine (77% female; 59.6% White, 12.4% Black, 14.6% Hispanic, 13.4% other race) undergraduates at a southeast university completed the study in the lab for either partial course or extra credit.
Procedure and materials
Participants first completed a Women-Bird IAT, which assessed the presence of an implicit association between women and birds. For this task, participants had to categorize 12 commonly used first names as either male (e.g. Michael) or female (e.g. Abigail). Each male name was matched with a female name on both length and commonality in America, as assessed by statistics collected on the top
US names in 2010 (US Social Security, 2011). Participants also categorized 12 images of common animals found in the United States as either birds or small mammals (e.g. squirrel, hamster). The mammals were selected on the basis of having several common attributes to the selected birds (e.g. size, cuteness).
Please see Appendix B for a full list of stimuli used in this task.
On critical blocks of trials, participants simultaneously categorized each stimulus on either the typical gender of the name or the type of animal. For half of these critical trials, participants categorized women and birds using the same key on the keyboard, while categorizing men and mammals with another key. For the other half of the critical trials, participants categorized women and mammals using one key and men and birds with the other key. The order of these critical trials was counterbalanced.
Similar to othe IAT tasks, e used the pa ti ipa ts a u a a d ea tio ti e fo atego izatio du i g the critical trials to calculate a D score as outlined by Greenwald, Nosek, and Banaji (2003). Scores were calculated such that higher values represent a stronger association between women and birds.
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Participants next completed a second IAT assessing implicit sexism (Richeson & Ambady, 2001).
For half of the critical trials, participants categorized words and images related to women or pleasant words (e.g. joy) with one key, and men and unpleasant words (e.g. death) with a second key. For the other half of the critical trials, participants categorized words and images related to women or unpleasant words with one key, and men or pleasant words with a second key. The order of the critical trials was counterbalanced. Higher D scores indicated a stronger implicit bias toward women.
After the IATs, participants were given the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI), which contained two 11-item subscales assessing two types of e pli it se is : hostile se is e.g. Wo e seek to gai po e getti g o t ol o e e , α = . a d e e ole t se is e.g. Wo e , o pa ed ith e , te d to ha e a supe io o al se si ilit ; α = . , Gli k & Fiske, . Pa ti ipa ts ated their level of agreement with these items on a six point scale, such that higher scores reflect more hostile or benevolent sexism. Participants then answered a ten-item questionnaire assessing internal motivation to espo d ithout se is e.g. A o di g to my personal values, using stereotypes about women are
OK e e se s o ed ; α = . a d e te al oti atio to espo d ithout se is e.g. If I a ted se ist to a d o e , I ould e o e ed that othe s ould e a g ith e; α = . ; Klo is, Pla t, &
Devine, 2005). These items were measured using a 9 point scale, such that higher scores reflect greater levels of internal and external motivation.
Pa ti ipa ts e t o pleted a ste eot pe k o ledge uestio ai e assessi g thei k o ledge of different associations for men and women. This measure was modeled after a similar measure used
Goff a d olleagues a d i luded state e ts assessi g the pa ti ipa ts o s ious a a e ess of associations held in American society about men and women. These state e ts e e I am aware of the stereotype that women are not good at math ; I a a a e of the ste eot pe that o e a e like
i ds ; I a a a e of the ste eot pe that e a e loud ; a d I a a a e of the ste eot pe that e a e iole t . I o de to e su e pa ti ipa ts e e ot si pl ag eei g ith all p oposed asso iatio s,
12 o e state e t fo ea h ge de as i luded that is lea l ot pa t of the ste eot pe e.g., I a a a e of the ste eot pe that o e a e pat ioti a d I a a a e of the ste eot pe that e like to ead. .
Participants responded by circling yes or no. Lastly, participants completed a demographic measure before being debriefed.
Results
A one-sample t-test was conducted on the Women-Bird IAT D score2 with 0 as the test- value to see if there was evidence for an association between women and birds. As predicted, consistent with an implicit association between women and birds, participants were faster categorizing the trials where women were paired with birds and men with mammals, compared to the trials where women were paired with mammals and men with birds (D =.04; one-sample t-test t(88) = 2.59, p = .01).
To rule out alternative explanations for the Women-Bird implicit association, a regression analysis was run to evaluate whether Women-Bird IAT scores are predicted by sexism, motivation to respond without sexism, knowledge of the association, and gender. Women-Bird IAT D scores were not predicted by implicit sexism, benevolent sexism, hostile sexism, internal motivation, external motivation, or knowledge of the association between women and birds (all p s > . , see Ta le fo correlations). However, there was a significant effect of gender on the Women-Bird IAT scores (F(7, 77)
= 3.166, p = .002).
One-sample t-tests were conducted on the D scores for the Women-Bird IAT scores for both genders separately to see if the D score for each gender significantly differed from 0. As expected, the D score for men was significantly different from zero in the predicted direction (D = .13, one-sample t-test t(19) = 3.13, p < .01), indicating that they associated women with birds more than mammals. A one- sample t-test for women failed to uncover any evidence for an implicit association between women and birds (D = .02, one sample t-test t(68) = 1.06, p = .29). It appears that the presence of an implicit
13 association between women and birds is largely held by men, and women do t t pi all possess this association.
Discussion
Study 1 offered preliminary evidence that men, but not women, possess an implicit association between women and birds. The Women-Bird association, similar to the Black-Ape association revealed by Goff and colleagues (2008), is unrelated to other negative beliefs and attitudes regarding women including implicit sexism, explicit sexism, and internal and external motivation to respond without sexism. Given that the present study provided evidence that men possess an association between women and birds, the next step was to examine the implications of possessing the association. Similar to past research on the Black-Ape association which demonstrated its influence on endorsements of violence, visual perception, and attention (Goff et al., 2008), the Women-Bird association may have an impact on judgments, behavior, and decision-making. Study 2 focused on evaluating two potential effects of possessing a Women-Bird implicit association.
Although the present findings provide some evidence of an association between women and
i ds, it ould e a gued that the fi di gs do t efle t a asso iatio et ee o e a d i ds, ut rather an association between men and small mammals or the combined effect of these two asso iatio s. Although the a als that e e sele ted e e o es that ould t fit the o o stereotypes associated with men (small, frail, and helpless), I directly addressed this alternative explanation in Study 3.
Consistent with our predictions, the Women-Bird implicit association was present only in men.
One explanation for women not possessing the Women-Bird association is it would be disadvantageous for one to dehumanize their ingroup. Indeed, there is a lot of evidence toward this notion, including research on ingroup bias, prejudice and stereotyping, and dehumanization (e.g. Opotow, 1990; Steele,
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2010). For example, the stereotype threat literature is rife with examples of members of groups not only rejecting a stereotype for an ingroup, but actively working to try to disprove those given stereotypes.
This applies to a variety of groups, including women in math (e.g. Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999), Black people in academic settings (e.g. Steele & Aronson, 1995), and White people in sports (e.g. Stone, Lynch,
Sjomeling, & Darley, 1999). Due to both past research and Study 1 results, my second and third studies were comprised of only male participants.
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STUDY 2
Study 1 provided initial support for men possessing a women-bird association. In addition, Study
1 found that the women-bird association was not predicted by implicit sexism, explicit sexism, conscious awareness of a cultural stereotype associating women and birds, or motivation to respond without sexism. Study 2 extended the findings from Study 1 by examining two implications of possessing the
Women-Bird association. First, it is possible that possessing the Women-Bird association leads men to dehumanize women. Past research has demonstrated two types of dehumanization: animalistic dehumanization (i.e., people are thought to have fewer uniquely human qualities) and mechanistic dehumanization (i.e., people are thought to have fewer traits that are considered a part of human nature; for a review, see Haslam, 2006). Since the Women-Bird association relates women to a specific animal, it is highly likely that people who possess the Women-Bird association will display higher levels of animalistic dehumanization of women, compared to people who do not possess the Women-Bird association. In Study 2, I explored the relationship between possessing the Women-Bird association and animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization of women and men. To measure dehumanization of women and men, participants completed a trait endorsement measure which contained traits related to uniquely human qualities, as well as traits that are thought to be a part of human nature.
Many of the common associations held in America regarding birds have to do with their lack of i tellige e. Ofte , people ill sa ph ases su h as i d-brai ed o dodo to o e a pe so s la k of intelligence, with the underlying implication that birds have a lower level of intelligence than humans
(and possibly many other animals). It is possible that people view women as unintelligent or incompetent when women are linked to birds, causing women to be seen as unfit for roles that require critical thinking. Since many occupations require intelligence to perform well, I proposed that people who possess a Women-Bird association are more likely than those who do not possess the association to make more sexist hiring decisions. To measure this form of sexist decision-making, participants
16 completed a hiring decision task in which they reviewed resumes of two potential job candidates, one of each gender, before deciding which candidate to hire.
In Study 2, I hypothesized that those with a stronger women-bird association would a) show increased animalistic (but not mechanistic) dehumanization of women and b) view a female applicant as having a weaker resume and be less likely to hire a female applicant, compared to a male applicant.
These findings would demonstrate two negative effects for possessing a Women-Bird implicit association. In Study 2, participants completed the same Women-Bird IAT as in Study 1. Afterwards, participants were asked to complete a trait endorsement task for women and men generally, which contained adjectives related to animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization. Participants then completed a hiring decision task that involved reviewing two candidates, one male and one female.
Pa ti ipa ts i di ated ho st o g the pe ei ed ea h appli a t s esu e as a d thei illi g ess to hire each applicant for the job.
Method
Participants
Forty-nine male undergraduates (57.9% White, 17.5% Black, 9.9% Hispanic, 2.5% Asian, 12.2% other race) at a southeast university completed the study in the lab for either partial course or extra credit.
Procedure and materials
Participants first completed the Women-Bird IAT as outlined in Study 1. Next, participants completed a trait endorsement task. For this task, participants rated the extent to which they believed women and men on average possessed 32 traits on a 7 point scale, from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Six of these traits were related to animalistic dehumanization (e.g. unreliable, moral (reverse scored), intelligent (reverse scored)), and five traits were related to mechanistic dehumanization (e.g. warm (reverse scored), superficial, emotional). These measures had adequate reliability (women
17 a i alisti dehu a izatio α = . , o e e ha isti α = . , e a i alisti α = . , e
e ha isti α = . .
Next, participants completed a hiring decision task. For this task, participants were told that they were to choose between two finalists for a mid-level accounting position, and they were to make this de isio ased o the fi alists esu es. O e of these esu es had a t pi al ale a e Ada a d the other had a typical female name (Jane). The contents of the two resumes varied such that one finalist had a high amount of experience but little education and key skills, while the other had a high amount of education and key skills but little experience. The names on the resumes were counterbalanced so half the time the female applicant had a high amount of experience, while the other half she had a high amount of education and key skills; this counterbalancing did not affect results and was dropped from analyses. After reviewing the resumes, participants rated the strength of each resume and the likelihood that they would hire each applicant each on a 7-point scale.
After the hiring decision task, participants completed the implicit sexism IAT, benevolent sexism inventory, and the stereotype knowledge questionnaire from the first study, as well as a demographics questionnaire before being debriefed.
Results
D scores for both the Women-Bird IAT and the implicit sexism IAT were calculated using the procedure outlined by Greenwald, Nosek, and Banaji (2003). First, analyses were run to see if the
Women-Bird IAT provided evidence of a Women-Bird association. A one sample t-test on the D scores from the Women-Bird IAT once again found evidence for an implicit association between women and birds (D =.12; one-sample t-test t(47) = 4.44, p < .001). Implicit sexism D scores revealed a low level of sexism, following the general pattern from past research (D =.07; one-sample t-test t(47) = 1.75, p = .09) and providing evidence that our male participants did hold a low level of implicit sexism. A regression analysis was next conducted to see if implicit sexism, benevolent sexism, and hostile sexism predict D
18 scores on the Women-Bird IAT. As in Study 1, benevolent sexism, hostile sexism, and implicit sexism scores did not significantly predict D scores on the Women-Bird IAT (p s > . .
Next, a regression analysis was conducted on the dehumanization of women and men scores with Women-Bird D scores, implicit sexism, benevolent sexism, and hostile sexism as predictors. As predicted, D scores for the Women-Bird association predicted animalistic dehumanization of women (β
= .32, t(44) = 2.58, p = .01), such that those who more strongly held the association between women and birds were more likely to animalize women. There also was a main effect of hostile sexism (β = .43, t(44)
= 3.33, p < .01), such that those who held more hostile sexism beliefs were more likely to believe that women have less uniquely human qualities.
In contrast, D scores for the Women-Bird association, implicit sexism, and benevolent and hostile sexism scores did not predict levels of animalistic dehumanization of men (p s > . . Also, as predicted, D scores for the Women-Bird association did not predict levels of mechanistic dehumanization of women or of men (p s > . . Be e ole t se is did predict levels mechanistic dehumanization of women, such that those who held more benevolent sexist beliefs were less likely to objectify women (β = -.44, t(44) = -3.26, p < .01), but not objectify men (p> .64). Hostile sexism and implicit sexism also failed to predict mechanistic dehumanization of women and men (p s > .13). This provides initial evidence that possessing an implicit association between women and birds only predicts animalistic dehumanization of women, while having no effect on dehumanization of men or on the objectification of women.
Difference scores were calculated between the male and female applicants for both the strength of the resume and the willingness to hire the applicant, such that higher scores indicated a greater preference for the male over the female applicant. Regression analyses were conducted on these difference scores with Women-Bird D scores, implicit sexism D scores, benevolent sexism, and hostile sexism as predictors. Analyses revealed a significant effect of parti ipa ts Wo e -Bird D score
19 on both the strength of the resume (β = .37, t(44) = 2.44, p = .02) and willingness to hire the applicants
(β = .38, t(44) = 2.51, p = .02), such that those who more strongly endorsed the Women-Bird association thought the male resume was stronger and were more likely to hire the male applicant over the female applicant. Replicating past research, there was a marginal effect of hostile sexism on willingness to hire the applicants (β = .27, t(44) = 1.82, p = .08), such that those who had higher levels of hostile sexism were more likely to hire the male applicant over the female applicant (Good & Rudman, 2010). There were no additional effects of implicit sexism, benevolent sexism, or hostile sexism on perceptions of the strength of the resumes or on willingness to hire one applicant over the other (p s > . . These fi di gs indicate that the implicit association between women and birds influences both the interpretation of a fe ale appli a t s ate ials a d the illi g ess to hi e a female applicant compared to a male applicant.
Discussion
Study 2 replicated the findings in Study 1, providing evidence for an implicit association between women and birds held by men. Study 2 also extended Study 1 by demonstrating two consequences of the Women-Bird association that are independent of implicit and explicit sexism: a decreased endorsement of uniquely human qualities to women and a decreased willingness to hire women compared to men. A decreased willingness to hire women is important since women will have an additional barrier to break through in order to get hired if the hiring process is run by a man possessing an implicit association between women and birds. To help equalize the playing field, it is important to find ways to negate the effects of the Women-Bird implicit association (this point will be discussed further in the general discussion).
One interesting finding was that the Women-Bird implicit association predicted the willingness to hire a male over a female candidate more than implicit and explicit sexism. Past research has demonstrated that pa ti ipa t s hostile se is s o es i pa ti ula p edi t de eased pe ei ed
20 hireability of a female applicant (Good & Rudman, 2010). However, based on results in Study 2, it appears that the effect of hostile sexism on hiring decisions is weaker than the effect of the Women-Bird implicit association. It is possible an association that directly relates to perceived competence of women has a stronger effect than a more general construct like hostile sexism, which reflects antipathy toward women who challenge the gender status quo in general. One of the goals of Study 3 is to replicate this pattern of results.
There are a few limitations of Study 2 that need to be addressed. First, these findings are correlational. As such, it is possible that there was a third-variable causing the relationship between the
Women-Bird association and dehumanization, as well as between the Women-Bird association and increased sexist decision-making. A more direct test that manipulates the activation of the Women-Bird association is necessary in order to demonstrate that the Women-Bird association causes an increase in animalistic dehumanization of women and a gender bias in hiring decisions. Second, because of the approach used to assess the Women-Bird implicit association in both Studies 1 and 2, it is possible that the findings represent a tendency to associate men with mammals more than women with birds. That is, the Women-Bird IAT assessed simultaneously an association between women and birds, as well as an association between men and mammals. This leaves open the possibility that our findings reflect an association between men and mammals, rather than an association between women and birds. A more direct measure of the Women-Bird association is necessary to make these arguments.
Third, it is important to note that the Women-Bird IAT is a task where people have to actively categorize women names and bird images concurrently. Thus, it is plausible that completing the task at the beginning of the experiment may serve as a prime, activating the Women-Bird association and affecting subsequent behavior and decision-making. In order to assess this possibility, the IAT task was placed at the end of the experiment in Study 3. With this procedural change, we will be able to assess
21 whether it is necessary for the Women-Bird association to be activated in order to affect subsequent behavior and decision-making. I addressed these three issues in Study 3.
22
STUDY 3
Study 3 extended the previous findings in three important ways. First, Study 3 assessed the possibility of a causal relationship between the Women-Bird association and the effects found in Study
2. More specifically, it is possible that activation of the Women-Bird association would decrease the likelihood of hiring a female applicant as well as increase perceived animalization of women. Past research supports the possibility of a causal pathway, demonstrating that the activation of an implicit association can affect social judgments, visual perception, attention, and categorization (Goff et al.,
2008, 2014). The priming literature is also rife with examples of activated concepts affecting behavior, judgments, and decision-making (e.g., Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996). In order to establish a causal relationship, participants were randomly assigned to read one of two versions of a creative short story.
In one version, participants read bird-like language (e.g. chick, hovered) in relation to the female protagonist. In the second version, the bird-like words were replaced with words unrelated to birds (e.g. female, hung around). After reading the short story, participants completed the same trait endorsement and hiring decision tasks from Study 2. I predicted that exposure to the story containing language directly linking women to birds would activate the Women-Bird association and cause increased animalization of women and sexist decision-making, compared to participants exposed to the control story.
However, as demonstrated in Studies 1 and 2, there is variation across individuals and groups with regard to how strongly people possess the Women-Bird association; indeed, some people do not appear to possess an association between women and birds, while some people possess a strong
Women-Bird association. As such, exposure to the Women-Bird article should only affect subsequent judgments and decision-making for those who possess an association between women and birds. This pattern has been demonstrated with past research on the weapons effect, where exposure to hunting rifles increased aggression only for non-hunters, who associated hunting rifles with violence. Hunters,
23 who associated hunting rifles with recreation or fun, displayed no difference in aggression when exposed to these objects compared to when they were exposed to a control prime (Bartholow,
Anderson, Carnagey, & Benjamin Jr., 2005). Based on this research, I predicted an interaction between sho t sto o ditio a d pa ti ipa ts st e gth of the Wo e -Bird association. Participants who were exposed to the Women-Bird story were expected to animalize women and make more sexist decisions if they possessed the Women-Bird association than if they did possess the association. I anticipated no effect of Women-Bird association for participants exposed to the control story, since the Women-Bird association was not activated and therefore should not affect decision-making or perceived dehumanization of women.
Second, Study 3 resolved some ambiguities with the Women-Bird IAT. Since the prototypical IAT is set up as a dual categorization task, it is possible that the findings do not reflect a Women-Bird association. Although the author believes it is less likely, the results could instead reflect a tendency to associate men with mammals or a combination of both associations. To address this issue, participants completed a version of the IAT called the brief-IAT, which is a single association reaction time task
(Sriram & Greenwald, 2009). Participants completed two single association IATs, one for each gender, comparing how strongly the participant associated that gender with mammals and how strongly they associated that gender with birds. This teased apart the effect of the Women-Bird association from the
Men-Mammal association by making it possible to evaluate whether the Women-Bird association solely predicted the dependent measures, or if the Men-Mammal association also played a role. I hypothesized a relationship with the Women-Bird brief-IAT, such that participants who possessed a strong association between women and birds were less likely to hire and more likely to animalize women. I did not expect a relationship with the Men-Mammal brief-IAT. Further, I hypothesized that the proposed interaction between short story condition and strength of implicit association outlined above would occur with the
Women-Bird brief-IAT score, and not with the Men-Mammal brief-IAT score.
24
A second ambiguity with the Women-Bird IAT involved the specific images used in the task. It is possible that the Women-Bird IAT was measuring an association between women and a specific trait exemplified by the bird images, rather than an association between women and birds generally. For example, it is possible that the bird images used are more likely than the mammal images to be perceived as small in stature, helpless, more colorful, high in attractiveness, or as lacking intelligence
(i.e. flighty, bird-brained). If the bird images are associated with one of these traits more than the mammal images used, it is possible that the relationship between the Women-Bird IAT and increased animalization of women and sexist decision-making could be explained by the trait exemplified rather than by a Women-Bird association. I assessed this possibility when designing the Women-Bird brief-IAT, which is discussed below in the Method section.
Third, I wished to further understand the effects from the decision-making task in Study 2. More specifically, what is the Women-Bird association activating that decreased the likelihood to hire a female candidate? It is possible that associating women with birds may lead to a decrease in perceived competence toward a target female. Past research lends some support for a connection between views of competence and biased hiring practices. For example, the Stereotype Content Model argues that women on average are stereotyped as low on competence, leading people to view them as ill-equipped to handle responsibility and increasing the likelihood for sexist hiring-decisions (Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick,
2008; Eagly & Mladinic, 1989). To measure competence, I included a questionnaire assessing pa ti ipa ts pe eptio s of ea h jo a didate on a series of traits, some of which were related to competence. For participants exposed to the Women-Bird story, I predicted people who possess a
Woman-Bird association would perceive the female job candidate as less competent, compared to participants who do not possess the association. This perceived decrease in competence was hypothesized to mediate the interaction between article condition and strength of the Women-Bird association on the decision-making task.
25
Method
Participants
One hundred and six male undergraduates (81.9% White, 7.4% Black, 4.2% Asian, 6.5% other race) at a southeast university completed the study in the lab for either partial course or extra credit.
Since the previous power analysis with an alpha level of .05, effect size of .21 (based on Studies 1 and 2), and 80% statistical power indicated that I required 84 male participants, I had sufficient power to detect the expected effects.
Materials
Women-Bird and Men-Mammal brief-IAT
In order to assess whether the effects from the first two studies were due to participants possessing a Women-Bird or a Men-Mammal association, participants completed two brief-IATs designed to measure nonrelative associations. This measure was selected based on past research that used it to pinpoint effects assessed with the dual-categorization version of the IAT (e.g. Rudman &
Mescher, 2012; Sriram & Greenwald, 2009). The first brief-IAT, the Women-Bird brief-IAT, had participants for half of the critical trials categorize female and mammal images with one key and bird images with a second key. For the second half of critical trials, participants categorized women and birds with one key and mammals with a second key. The order of the critical trials was counterbalanced, such that half of participants categorized women and mammal together first, and the other half categorized women and birds together first. Counterbalancing did not affect results, and so it was dropped from the a al ses. ‘espo se late diffe e tials et ee the o e a d i d a d o e a d a al critical trials were used to calculate a D score, such that a high positive score represented a tendency to implicitly associate women with birds more than women with mammals. Participants also completed a
Men-Mammal brief-IAT, assessi g pa ti ipa ts asso iatio s of e ith a als a d i ds.
26
The images used for the Women-Bird and Men-Mammal brief-IAT tasks were the same ones used in the Women-Bird IAT with some important changes, which were based on a pretest addressing the possibility that the Women-Bird IAT was measuring an association between Women and a specific bird-like trait instead of an association between women and birds. Thirty-three undergraduate students at a southeast university completed evaluations assessing how strongly they associated the following traits with the twelve images used in the Women-Bird IAT: small, frail, helpless, colorful, attractive, cute, intelligent, and competent. The goal was to select images that did not differ on these traits.
Examination of these ratings revealed that one bird and one mammal image were rated particularly high or low on several of the traits (e.g., a very attractive bird) and so were removed from the images used in the IAT. The average ratings of the remaining bird and mammal images were compared for each trait using a within-subject ANOVA, with participant gender as a covariate. Analyses failed to reveal a significant difference between trait ratings of mammal and bird images for small, frail, helpless, att a ti e, a d o pete t p s > . .
An ANOVA evaluating perceived intelligence revealed a significant difference between bird and mammal images, such that the birds were perceived as more intelligent than the mammals (F(1,31) =
6.65, p = .02). Based on these findings, perceptions of intelligence for the mammal and bird images should work against the results found in Study 2; the Women-Bird IAT was associated with greater animalization of women and a reduced likelihood to hire a female candidate despite the fact that the birds used were perceived as more intelligent than the mammal images. If the findings were actually due to an association between women and intelligence, then the findings would have been in the opposite direction. Similarly, an ANOVA evaluating perceived cuteness revealed a significant difference between bird and mammal images such that the mammals were perceived as cuter than the birds
(F(1,31) = 9.85, p = .004), which would also work against the results found in Study 2.
27
The only trait that could serve as a plausible alternative is colorfulness, with an ANOVA revealing that the birds were perceived as more colorful than the mammals (F(1,31) = 75.16, p < .001). This makes sense at face value, since the bird images were literally more colorful than the mammal images. To address this as a potential confound, the 10 images used in both brief-IATs were converted to black and white images (see Appendix C).
Procedure
Participants entered the lab and read one of two versions of a creative short story purportedly written by another participant and designed to manipulate activation of the Women-Bird association
(see Appendix D). In one version, participants read several words that use bird-like language in relation to a female protagonist (e.g. chick, hovered). In the second version, participants read the same short story with the bird-like language replaced with neutral language (e.g. woman, hung around). Afterwards, participants answered questions on the content of the article as well as a word fragment task that served as a manipulation check assessing activation of the Women-Bird association. The six key trials could be completed either with words related to the Women-Bird association or with neutral words (e.g.
_lap can be completed as flap or slap, _eck can be completed as peck or deck). The dependent measure for the manipulation check was the percentage of key trials that were answered with bird-related words.
Ostensibly for a different study, participants next completed the same hiring decision task used in Study 2 with one addition. After reviewing the resumes but before rating their willingness to hire each candidate, participants completed a trait endorsement task for each candidate, which included a 12- ite su s ale easu i g pe ei ed o pete e of ea h a didate fe ale a didate α = . , ale
a didate α = . ; C a dall, Bahns, Warner, & Schaller, 2011). The measure also included a 17-item su s ale easu i g pe ei ed a th of ea h a didate fe ale a didate α = . , ale a didate α =
.90), to ensure that any effects are specific to competence and not to perceptions of each candidate
28 generally. Participants rated their level of agreement with each item (e.g. intelligent, competent) on a seven point scale, with higher scores reflecting greater perceived competence or warmth. After, participants answered the same trait endorsement task assessing animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization of women and men used in Study 2.
Next, participants completed the Women-Bird and Men-Mammal brief-IATs, followed the same
Women-Bird IAT used in the first two studies, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, internal and external motivation to respond without sexism, stereotype knowledge questionnaire, and demographics questionnaire before being debriefed.
Results
IAT analyses
D scores for all IAT measures were calculated using the procedure outlined by Greenwald, and colleagues (2003). A one sample t-test with 0 as the test value on the D score from the Women-Bird brief-IAT revealed evidence of an implicit association between women and birds (D = .05; one-sample t- test t(105) = 3.12, p = .002). A one sample t-test on the D score from the Men-Mammal brief-IAT also revealed evidence of an implicit association between men and mammals (D = -.12; one-sample t-test t(105) = -6.19, p < .001). A one sample t-test on the D score from the Women-Bird IAT also indicated associations between women and birds and men and mammals (D = .16; one-sample t-test t(105) = 7.27, p < .001).
Next, a series of ANOVA tests were conducted evaluating whether short story condition affected
Women-Bird brief-IAT, Men-Mammal brief-IAT, and Women-Bird IAT scores. Although I did not expect the manipulation to influence the degree to which participants possessed an association, it was possible that the manipulation would have increased the association. Analyses failed to reveal an effect of short story condition for any of these measures (p s > . . A o elatio a al sis o pa i g the Wo e -Bird brief-IAT and the Women-Bird IAT used in Studies 1 and 2 found a nonsignificant correlation (r = .003, p
29
= .98). The Women-Bird brief-IAT was also uncorrelated with the Men-Mammal brief-IAT (r = -.10, p =
.31), providing evidence that these two associations are independent and therefore any effects stemming from the Women-Bird brief-IAT cannot be explain by possessing a Men-Mammal association.
A regression analysis evaluated the effects of benevolent sexism, hostile sexism, internal motivation to respond without sexism, and external motivation to respond without sexism on D scores for the Women-Bird brief-IAT, Men-Mammal brief-IAT, and Women-Bird IAT. As in Studies 1 and 2, the regressions revealed that benevolent sexism, internal motivation to respond without sexism, and external motivation to respond without sexism failed to predict D scores on the Women-Bird brief-IAT,
Men-Mammal brief-IAT, and Women-Bi d IAT p s > . . U like i the fi st t o studies, hostile se is predicted Women-Bird brief-IAT scores, such that higher levels of hostile sexism predicted a stronger implicit association between women and birds (β = .27, t(101) = 2.24, p = .03). To ensure that any effects of the Women-Bird brief-IAT on the key dependent measures are due to possessing an implicit association between women and birds and not due to hostile sexism, I included hostile sexism and its interaction with short story condition in all subsequent analyses. The pattern of results is highly similar whether or not these variables were included.
Main analyses
All dependent measures were evaluated using regression with story condition, Women-Bird brief-IAT scores, Men-Mammal brief-IAT scores, hostile sexism, interaction between Women-Bird brief-
IAT and story condition, interaction between Men-Mammal brief-IAT and story condition, and interaction between hostile sexism and story condition as predictors. As in Study 1 and 2, the analyses also controlled for benevolent sexism, awareness of the Women-Bird association, and internal and external motivation to respond without sexism.
30
Manipulation check
A regression analyzing the number of completions on the word-fragment task with bird-related words revealed a main effect of story condition, such that participants exposed to the Women-Bird story
(M = .33, SD = .21) completed more word-fragment trials with words related to birds than participants exposed to the control story (M = .23, SD = .14; β = -.24, t(94) = -2.42, p = .02). This provided evidence that exposure to the Women-Bird story activated the concept of birds. The story condition main effect was not qualified by an interaction with the Women-Bird brief-IAT (β = .05, t(94) = 0.45, p = .65), Men-
Mammal brief-IAT (β = -.01, t(94) = -0.13, p = .90), or hostile sexism (β = .002, t(94) = 0.02, p = .98).
Dehumanization measures
A regression evaluating the effect of the predictor variables on animalistic dehumanization of women revealed a main effect of hostile sexism, such that participants who had higher sexism dehumanized women more (β = .34, t(94) = 3.13, p < .01). There also was a main effect of Women-Bird brief-IAT scores, such that participants who possessed a stronger association between women and birds were more likely to animalize women (β = .20, t(94) = 2.25, p = .03). This effect was qualified by an interaction with short story condition (β = -.18, t(94) = -2.01, p = .05). Simple slopes analyses examining responses among participants exposed to the Women-Bird story revealed that participants who possessed the Women-Bird association animalized women more than those who did not possess the association (β = .37, t(94) = 2.77, p = .007). For participants who were exposed to the control story, there was no effect of Women-Bird brief-IAT (β = .02, t(94) = 0.14, p = .89). There was no main effect of Men-
Mammal brief-IAT scores (β = -.003, t(94) = -0.03, p = .98) and no interaction between it and short story condition (β = -.09, t(94) = -0.98, p = .33). There was also no interaction between short story condition and hostile sexism (β = .07, t(94) = 0.80, p = .42).
Similar regression analyses evaluating the effect of the predictor variables on objectification of women and dehumanization of men failed to reveal a main effect of short story condition, Women-Bird
31 brief-IAT scores or its interaction with short story condition, or Men-Mammal brief-IAT scores or its i te a tio ith sho t sto o ditio p s > . .
Hiring decision task
A eg essio e aluati g pa ti ipa ts epo ted likelihood of hi i g the fe ale a didate e ealed a significant interaction between Women-Bird brief-IAT score and short story condition (β = -.20, t(94) =
-1.96, p = .05). Simple slopes analyses examining responses among participants exposed to the Women-
Bird story revealed that those who possessed a Women-Bird association were marginally less likely to hire the female candidate, compared to those who did not possess a Women-Bird association (β = .26, t(94) = 1.70, p = .09). There was no effect of Women-Bird brief-IAT for participants exposed to the control story (β = -.14, t(94) = -1.04, p = .30). There was no main effect of Men-Mammal association in predicting willingness to hire the female candidate (β = .07, t(94) = 0.66, p = .51), as well as no interaction between it and short story condition (β = .07, t(94) = 0.65, p = .52). Additionally, there was no main effect of hostile sexism (β = -.08, t(94) = -0.75, p = .46), as well as no interaction between it and short story condition (β = 0.01, t(94) = 0.14, p = .89). The pattern of results was similar when controlling for willingness to hire the male candidate. Short Story condition, Women-Bird brief-IAT scores and its interaction with short story condition, and Men-Mammal brief-IAT scores and its interaction with short sto o ditio failed to p edi t illi g ess to hi e the ale a didate p s > . .
Perceived competence and mediation analyses
To see if perceptio s of the fe ale a didate s o pete e ediated the a o e i te a ti e effect on decision-making, I next ran a regression evaluating the impact of the predictor variables on pe eptio s of the fe ale a didate s o pete e. I i luded pe eptio s of the male candidate as an additional control variable. Analyses revealed a significant interaction between short story condition and
Women-Bird brief-IAT scores (β = .16, t(93) = 2.03, p = .05). Simple slopes analyses examining responses among participants exposed to the Women-Bird story revealed that for participants exposed to the
32
Women-Bird story, those who possessed a Women-Bird association perceived the female candidate as less competent (β = -.26, t(93) = -2.14, p = .04). There was no effect of Women-Bird brief-IAT for participants exposed to the control story (β = .07, t(93) = 0.63, p = .53). There was no main effect of
Men-Mammal brief-IAT scores (β = -.08, t(93) = -0.69, p = .49) and no interaction between it and short story condition (β = .06, t(93) = 0.49, p = .63). Analyses also failed to reveal a main effect of hostile sexism (β = .04, t(93) = 0.53, p = .60) or an interaction between hostile sexism and short story condition
(β = .00, t(93) = 0.00, p = 1.00). A regression evaluating the impact of the predictor variables on pe eptio s of the fe ale a didate s a th failed to e eal a ai effe ts o i te a tio s (p s >
.27).
I followed the bootstrapping method of Preacher and Hayes (2004) to evaluate whether perceived competence of the female candidate mediated the interaction between short story condition and Women-Bird brief-IAT. To conduct these tests, I created 5,000 bootstrap samples by randomly sampling observations with replacement from the original dataset. I calculated a 95% confidence interval of the indirect effect of perceived competence of the female candidate, which should not include zero if it mediates the interactive effect of short story condition and Women-Bird brief-IAT on willingness to hire the female candidate. This calculation revealed perceived competence as a mediator, since the confidence interval [.31, 4.19] did not include zero. Additionally, the direct interactive effect of short story condition and Women-Bird brief-IAT when including perceived competence of the female candidate in the analysis was not significant (p = .44), indicating full mediation.
Discussion
Study 3 replicated and extended the first two studies by providing evidence of the Women-Bird association and demonstrating that activation of the Women-Bird association caused an increase in the animalization of women and sexist hiring decisions for men who possess this association compared to men who do not possess it. In contrast, we found no evidence of a relationship between the Women-
33
Bird association and the dependent variables for participants who were exposed to a control article.
Thus, it appea s that si pl possessi g the asso iatio is t e ough to i ease dis i i atio to a d women and that the activation of the Women-Bird association is necessary in order for the association to have an effect. Study 3 further extended our knowledge by demonstrating a mediator for the hiring decision – a perceived lack of competence of the female candidate.
Study 3 also provided evidence against several alternative explanations. When designing the
Women-Bird brief-IAT, I found no evidence that the bird and mammal images differed on several bird- like traits (e.g. attractive, incompetent), making it unlikely that the IAT is assessing an association between women and a specific trait. Replicating the first two studies, Study 3 also provided evidence that the findings cannot be explained in terms of explicit prejudice or motivation to respond without prejudice. Additionally, Study 3 demonstrated that the findings are due to participants possessing an implicit association between women and birds, and not between men and mammals.
34
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Despite the Wo e s ‘ight o e e t a d a gai s fo o e s e ualit , the e a e still instances of gender bias in America that are only partially explained by explicit or implicit prejudice.
With this research, I proposed one additional source of bias toward women: an implicit association between women and birds. Across three studies, I provided evidence that men on average possess an implicit association between women and birds. I further demonstrated two consequences of possessing and activating an implicit association between women and birds: dehumanization, specifically the animalization, of women, as well as gender bias in hiring decisions. Specifically, men who possessed the
Women-Bird association and had that association activated, either by exposure to the woman-bird IAT
(Study 2) or a story designed to activate the association (Study 3), were more likely to animalize women and less willing to hire a female candidate. Study 3 also provided an explanation for the sexist decision- making: decreased perceptions of competence. For participants exposed to the Women-Bird short story, those who possessed the Women-Bird association perceived the female candidate as less competent than those who did not possess the association, and this reduction in perceived competence led to a decreased willingness to hire the female candidate.
I evaluated several possible alternative explanations that failed to explain the effects of the
Women-Bird association. Throughout the three studies, hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, implicit prejudice, internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice, and awareness of the implicit association between women and birds were measured and statistically failed to account for the
Women-Bird association effects. I also took into account potential validity concerns regarding the
Women-Bird IAT by demonstrating that the effects were not due to possessing an alternative implicit association (i.e. an association between men and mammals). In addition, by assessing whether the images of birds and mammals differed on bird-like traits (e.g. size, colorfulness, intelligence) that could account for the effects between the Women-Bird IAT and the dependent measures (e.g. dehumanizing
35 women), I was able to select images for the IAT in Study 3 that did not differ in ways that would influence the key findings.
These findings have several important implications. First, they extended the literature on implicit associations by revealing an implicit association toward a group (women) not tied to this phenomenon in past research. Second, this research sheds light on one source for the animalistic dehumanization of women. Although there have been several papers demonstrating dehumanization of women, the majority of it has focused on mechanistic dehumanization of women, and research demonstrating the animalization of women has not explored the possible sources of animalization (e.g.
Rudman & Mescher, 2012). The present work reaffirmed that people may view women as not possessing uniquely human traits, and extended the literature by providing evidence of one source of this fo of dehu a izatio i toda s so iet : possessing an implicit association between women and birds.
Third, I demonstrated one implication for possessing the Women-Bird implicit association that has real-world consequences: occupational decision-making. Despite women earning over 50% of bachelor degrees, only 40% of managerial roles are held by women, 35.9% of businesses and 15.5% of law firms are owned by women, and 14.3% of executives in the Fortune 500 are women (US Census
Bureau, 2007). Part of this gender inequality may be due to those making hiring or promotion decisions possessing negative implicit associations about women, such as an association between women and birds demonstrated in the current work. If so, activation of the Women-Bird association will cause them to view women as less competent, decreasing the likelihood they will hire or promote a female candidate. Together, this work demonstrated a contributing factor of bias against women that should be taken into consideration when attempting to reduce sexism. It also emphasizes the need for people to be careful when making analogies linking women and birds, since activation of the Women-Bird association causes several negative outcomes toward women.
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Limitations and future directions
Although the present research provides strong initial evidence of a Women-Bird implicit association in American society, there are a few limitations that should be addressed with future research. One limitation involves the way the Women-Bird association was measured. Throughout the three studies, the Women-Bird association was measured with one of two variations of the Implicit
Associations Test (IAT). There has been some criticism regarding the effectiveness of the IAT, most recently regarding what the IAT is specifically measuring (e.g. Oswald, Mitchell, Blanton, Jaccard, &
Tetlock, 2013). It is possible that another implicit measure may be better able to assess the presence and strength of implicit associations. It is important to use a measure that does not require conscious awareness since a majority of participants were unaware that the Women-Bird association existed and, presumably, unaware of possessing this association. Although the brief-IAT has some advantages over its original form, another task such as the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP, Payne, Cheng,
Govorun, & Stewart, 2005) may more accurately measure the implicit association. Future research should assess whether other implicit techniques such as the AMP are more effective than the IAT or brief-IAT at measuring the presence and strength of implicit associations.
Second, the present research focused on a subset of birds that are often related to women in
Western culture: songbirds and hens. It is possible that other types of birds may also be associated with women. For example, there are several examples linking women with water fowl, such as in the movie
Bla k “ a o i Lad Gaga s usi ideo Applause. E posu e to la guage o i ages that di e tl li k women with water fowl may produce dehumanization of women for similar reasons as songbirds; they are viewed as possessing traits that are unrelated to success or positions of high-power in America (see
Rudman, Moss-‘a usi , Gli k, & Phela , . Additio all , the p ese t esea h did t e aluate whether there is an association between women and birds of prey, such as hawks or owls, and any consequences from this association. If an association between women and birds of prey exists, we may
37 see difference consequences than what was found in the present research; birds of prey are often associated with traits related to high-power individuals (e.g. competitive, aggressive).
Beyond birds, it may be valuable to examine the associations between women and other animals that may contribute to dehumanization of women. It could also be interesting to see if there are associations between men and certain kinds of animals that may lead to negative (or positive) responses to men compared to women. Future research should evaluate if women and men are associated with other birds or animals and if these associations produce similar or unique effects from the present research.
It is important to note that the effects of implicit associations are autonomous from other common sources of discrimination such as prejudice. Indeed, past research has demonstrated that prejudice and dehumanization, which is affected by activating an implicit association, take distinct routes to discrimination and predict distinct outcomes (Eyssel & Ribas, 2012; Leyens et al., 2000, 2001).
As such, a better understanding of the process that leads to the development of implicit associations would be beneficial in order to discover an effective technique for reducing discrimination. Is the process similar to the formation of conscious stereotypes, with an added step of somehow losing conscious awareness of the association or failing to retrieve the association stored in our memory? Or is it possible for implicit associations to form without ever possessing any conscious awareness of the association, perhaps by repeated exposure to subtle cues within our environment? A better understanding of how implicit associations can be formed would provide clues for techniques to prevent the formation and eliminate the presence of implicit associations within people. Future research should focus on how implicit associations are formed, as well as interventions that can be used to reduce discrimination caused by possessing an implicit association.
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Closing remarks
Initial research demonstrated several consequences for possessing an implicit association between Black people and apes, including dehumanization of Black people, increased endorsement of violence, and viewing Black children as less childlike (Goff et al., 2008, 2014). The present research expanded this phenomenon by demonstrating an implicit association between women and birds. In three studies, I provided evidence linking the Women-Bird association to perceptions of women as possessing less uniquely human qualities; past research has acknowledged that women can be viewed as not possessing these qualities (e.g. Rudman & Mescher, 2012), but often avoids speculation on potential sources for this bias.
The present research is also important because of its implications in present-day society. It is important to have a level playing field in order for everyone to have an equal opportunity for employment. However, managers that possess a Women-Bird association may display a bias in their decision-making, causing them to view female candidates as less competent and therefore be less inclined to hire or promote women. By identifying factors that may contribute to inequality, we may be better able to tackle these factors and reduce social bias, fostering equal opportunities for all.
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ENDNOTES
1 Since the stimuli used to evaluate the Black-Ape association used Black and White male faces, the researchers ran only male participants to control for potential gender effects. Presumably, White females would also hold an implicit association between Black people and apes, and we would see these effects with Black female faces.
2 When the order of the critical trials for all IAT measures were included in the analyses, it did not influence results and was, therefore, dropped from all analyses.
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APPENDIX A
IRB APPROVAL FOR HUMAN SUBJECTS
The Florida State University Office of the Vice President For Research Human Subjects Committee Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742 (850) 644-8673 · FAX (850) 644-4392
RE-APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Date: 2/21/2014
To: Corey Columb
Address: 1107 W. Call St. Tallahassee, FL 32306 Dept.: PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT
From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair
Re: Re-approval of Use of Human subjects in Research Implicit Associations
Your request to continue the research project listed above involving human subjects has been approved by the Human Subjects Committee. If your project has not been completed by 2/11/2015, you must request a renewal of approval for continuation of the project. As a courtesy, a renewal notice will be sent to you prior to your expiration date; however, it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator to timely request renewal of your approval from the committee.
If you submitted a proposed consent form with your renewal request, the approved stamped consent form is attached to this re-approval notice. Only the stamped version of the consent form may be used in recruiting of research subjects. You are reminded that any change in protocol for this project must be reviewed and approved by the Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the protocol. A protocol change/amendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the Committee. In addition, federal regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report in writing, any unanticipated problems or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others.
By copy of this memorandum, the Chair of your department and/or your major professor are reminded of their responsibility for being informed concerning research projects involving human subjects in their department. They are advised to review the protocols as often as necessary to insure that the project is being conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations.
Cc: E. Plant, Advisor HSC No. 2013.11961
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42
APPENDIX B
WOMEN-BIRD IAT MATERIALS
List of first names: Abigail Emily Olivia Emma Madison Elizabeth Jacob Michael Ethan Joshua William Alexander
List of animal pictures: Chicken Cardinal Blue-gray Tanager Grey tit Blue Jay Bluebird White rabbit Gray Bunny Gerbil Hamster Chipmunk Squirrel
43
APPENDIX C
IMAGES USED IN THE WOMEN-BIRD AND MEN-MAMMAL BRIEF-IAT
44
45
APPENDIX D
CREATIVE SHORT STORY MANIPULATION
Experimental (Control) condition: Ashley woke up at 7:30am to her alarm clock, took a quick shower and dressed for her day at campus. As an avid bird (pet) lover, Ashley owns 3 canaries (hamsters). So, she spent 10 minutes feeding and giving some love and attention to her birds (pets) before getting ready to leave for school. Ashley carefully packed her bag, making sure she had her homework due today and her schoolwork she was planning to do after class. After finishing her preparations, she grabbed a breakfast bar, gave her mother a quick peck (kiss) on the cheek, and drove to FSU to make her 9:05 class. Despite the fact that some people might call her flighty (unpredictable), Ashley always felt she was pretty grounded, and demonstrated this quality by making sure every day she made it to all her commitments on time and by finishing her coursework ahead of time. After each of her morning classes, Ashley hovered (hung) around the professor to ask a question about the lecture. She ate a quick lunch and went to her early afternoon voice (piano) lesso . Although usi is t he ajo , she has al a s e jo ed si ging (playing the piano) ever since a little girl, and has made a commitment to keep singing (playing). Her voice (piano) instructor praised her throughout the lesson and said she sings (plays) like a bird (professional), which particularly pleased her. After her voice (piano) lesson, Ashley went to Strozier for a few hours and studied for her exam next week. Although she was nervous about the exam, she was cautiously optimistic that she would do well, especially if she kept studying for the exam every day. In the early evening, Ashley met up with some of her friends at the movie theater, where they watched the latest chick flick (romantic comedy). She went home after the movie and studied for another hour before going to bed, ready for her classes tomorrow.
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APPENDIX E
CORRELATIONS AMONG STUDY 1 VARIABLES TABLE
Women- Benevolent Hostile Gender SIMS SEMS Bird IAT Sexism Sexism IAT Women-Bird IAT ____ .004 .087 .125 .055 .026
Benevolent Sexism .004 ____ .463** -.003 .034 .206*
Hostile Sexism .087 .463** ____ -.07 -.140 .169
Gender IAT .125 -.003 -.07 ____ .008 -.089
SIMS .055 .034 -.140 .008 ____ .105
SEMS .026 .206* .169 -.089 .105 ____
** p < .01 * p = .05
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APPENDIX F
RATED ANIMALIZATION OF WOMEN FIGURE
4.8
4.6
4.4
Bird 4.2
Control 4 animalization animalization of womenscores 3.8
3.6 High Women-Bird Low Women-Bird
Figure 1. Study 3: Rated animalization of women
48
APPENDIX G
RATED WILLINGNESS TO HIRE THE FEMALE CANDIDATE FIGURE
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5 Bird
2.4 Control 2.3
Desire Desire hireto female candidate 2.2
2.1
2 High Women-Bird Low Women-Bird
Figure 2. Study 3: Rated willingness to hire the female candidate in the decision-making task
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Corey Columb received his B.S. in Psychology in 2007 from Elmira College and his M.S. in Social
Psychology in 2011 from Florida State University. He enrolled in the Social Psychology doctoral program at Florida State University in Fall 2011. His advisor is Dr. E. Ashby Plant and his work focuses on situational and cognitive factors that affect prejudice and discrimination, with an emphasis on advanced quantitative methods.
54