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University of Southampton Research Repository Eprints Soton University of Southampton Research Repository ePrints Soton Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk School of Humanities, English, University of Southampton , ' PhD, English Literature 'THE LAW OF HELP': JOHN RUSKIN'S ECOLOGICAL VISION, 1843-1886 Mark Frost, September 2005 'THE LAW OF HELP': JOHN RUSKIN'S ECOLOGICAL VISION, 1843-1886 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 1 CHAPTER 1 THE CHANGING FACE OF NATURE AND THE NATURAL FACE OF CHANGE. 47 CHAPTER 2 'THE LAWS OF ORGANIC ECONOMY': RUSKIN'S CULTURAL SCIENCE. 105 CHAPTER 3 SEX, MATERIALISM, AND THE FALL OF ECOLOGY IN RUSKIN'S LATE WORK. 164 CONCLUSION 227 BIBLIOGRAPHY 235 INTRODUCTION Composition means, literally and simply, putting several things together so as to make one thing out of them; the nature and goodness of which they all have a share in producing [ ... J It is the essence of composition that everything should be in a determined place, perform an intended part, and act, in that part advantageously for everything that is connected with it. Composition, understood in this pure sense, is the type, in the arts of mankind, of the Providential government of the world (John Ruskin, The Elements ofDrawing, 1857).1 The reputation of John Ruskin (1819-1900) has rested partly on his contributions to art criticism, but in this descliption of composition from an 1857 book of drawing instruction can be found the means to understand much more than his view of art. Composition in painting was a typological representation of the organisational forces that Ruskin perceived everywhere in the wider world, in the realms of aesthetics, architecture, nature, and society. The act of 'putting several things together so as to make one' expressed his realisation that nature operated according to what would shortly come to be described by others as ecological laws. Ruskin believed that the same underlying compositional rules affected not only art, but 'government' in its widest sense: every aspect of human and non-human existence was, in a state of harmony, governed by a single law of composition, in which mutuality, interaction, and process were central. Three years after The Elements ofDrawing, Ruskin returned to the subject of composition in 'The Law of Help', one of the key chapters of the fifth volume of his most famous work of art criticism, Modern Painters (1843-60, 5 vols.). Again, 1. All subsequent references to Ruskin's texts will be to The Library Edition ofJohn Ruskin's Works, 39 vo1s., ed. by E. T. Cook and Alexander Wedderburn (London: George Allen, 1903 - 12), given in the form of volume number and page number(s). For example, the quotation above occurs at 15. 161-2. 1 Ruskin looked initially to painting for a definition of composition, which he described there as simply 'the help of everything in the picture by everything else' (7.205). Again he claimed a universal function for the law of composition, arguing that 'a pure or holy state of anything, therefore, is that in which all its parts are helpful or consistent' (7. 205). In speaking of 'the highest or organic purities', he expressed a preference for natural over synthetic organisation. By doing so, he formulated a universal organic principle: 'the highest and first law of the universe­ and the other name of life is, therefore, "help."', whilst 'the other name of death is "separation'''. Orderly co-operation made up 'the laws of life' whilst division and competition represented 'the laws of death' (7. 205). Ruskin could not have been clearer about his belief in the natural source of creativity, and of the duty of humans to adhere to organic principles in their acts of creation. The crucial movement in the passage from The Elements ofDrawing, a movement from art to government, and from aesthetics to culture, was emphasised much more explicitly as this statement of 'The Law of Help , unfolded. Divisions between nature and culture, between mechanical and spiritual realms, and between humanity and the inanimate world, were dissolved by a characteristic attention to their shared practices. 'Life' and 'help', described as deeply collaborative acts of creativity, were indistinguishable for Ruskin. 'The Law of Help' was conceived as a dynamic corning-into-being whose foundational template was drawn from divine nature. The act of drawing 'several' into 'one' which Ruskin described in The Elements ofDrawing permits one to comprehend his vision of nature, but the fact that he regarded nature, culture, and society as involved in ongoing, overlapping, and parallel acts of composition also helps one to understand that a dynamic order and organisation might be found in Ruskin's own work. I will argue that Ruskin's texts should be re-examined as examples of exactly the kind of laws of composition he describes in The Elements ofDrawing and 'The Law of Help' . Over the past 2 forty years, critics have become increasingly convinced that there is an underlying unity to Ruskin's work, but have been far from unanimous about its source. Underpinning this thesis is a conviction that Ruskin's complex, often contradictory, participation in ecology has been wrongly overlooked as a possible source of this unity. One of the most important scientific developments of the nineteenth century might provide the missing context that will facilitate better understanding of the underlying order of the work ofthis most complex of Victorian writers. According to Peter Fuller, Ruskin was routinely dismissed by art academics in the 1960s as 'just another forgotten Victorian, an eccentric embedded within the amber of Victorian celibacy', but this situation has long changed.2 He has been the subject of so much critical reassessment over the past three decades that one Ruskinian during the 1980s wryly noted that 'Ruskin has suffered lately from a superfluity of writers and a deficiency of readers'. 3 Amongst this general upturn in critical fortunes, Ruskin's nature studies have received particular attention, in terms of their importance to his overall career, and their relations with broader cultural contexts. I would strongly endorse this tendency to situate Ruskin's nature writings within Victorian culture; and also to see them not as a separate category of his writing, but as an integral part of his output. To do so is to gain a foothold in understanding the organic totality of his work. Throughout Ruskin's lifetime, nature - and trees in particular - served as a personal touchstone. His first childhood memory was of 'the twining roots of trees' on Friar's Crag in the Lake District, and towards the close of his career, in an 1887 letter reflecting upon his traumatic mental disintegration, he confided that 'I've got 2. Peter Fuller, 'The Geography of Mother Nature' in The Iconography ofLandscape: essays on the symbolic representation, design and use ofpast environments, ed. by Stephen Daniels and Denis Cosgrove (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) (pp. 10-29), pp. 13-14. 3. P. D. Anthony, John Ruskin's Labour: a study ofRuskin's social theOlY (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. i. 3 some very comforting birch trees [... ] and cut everything away that worries them' (5. 365, 37. 587). Nature did not always offer comfort, however, and its role in his work was more than merely personal. Its impact on his thinking was rivalled only by religion. From his earliest work, The Poetry ofArchitecture (1837-8), until his autobiography Praeterita (1885 -6), it was an enduring element of his writing. Ruskin turned to nature to validate his views on painting and building in key early works like Modern Painters and The Stones of Venice (1851-3,3 vols.). His art theories were reliant on sustained references to the 'truth' of nature, whilst his preference for gothic architecture was predicated as much on its naturalness as its piety. Within later texts, including The Crown of Wild Olive (1866), The Queen of the Air (1869), and Fors Clavigera (1871-83, 5 vols.), nature remained a key presence, versatile enough to inform his theories on subjects as diverse as politics, gender, and science. Nature formed the main subject of a trio of natural histories serialised by Ruskin in the 1870s and 1880s, notably the botanical primer, Proserpina (1875-86), and also the apocalyptic The Storm Cloud of the Nineteenth Century (1882), one of the earliest warnings of man-made climate change. In his social pronouncements, Ruskin's ideal community reflected a model of social order whose roots were organic, and his rage at Victorian culture resulted in large measure from his belief that the despoliation of landscape by industry was concomitant with the degradation of society. The fact that Ruskin's vision of nature related so profoundly with all areas of his work has led scholars from widely differing fields to contribute to a diversity of critical readings. Of late, Ruskin's natural history has been framed in an astonishing range of contexts, from gender to evangelicalism, and from mythopoesis to chaos theory. In 1999, the pUblication of a series of articles under the title Ruskin and Environment appeared to represent the culmination of a unique period of sustained interest.
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