Cross-Border Issues in Polish Supraregional Strategies on Example of Strategies for Western and Eastern Poland

Journal of Geography, Politics and Society 2016, 6(2), 32–44 DOI 10.4467/24512249JG.16.011.5456

CROSS-BORDER ISSUES IN POLISH SUPRAREGIONAL STRATEGIES ON EXAMPLE OF STRATEGIES FOR WESTERN AND EASTERN POLAND

Jan Maciej Smutek (1), Przemysław Łonyszyn (2)

(1) Faculty of Geosciences, University of Szczecin, Mickiewicza 16, 70-383 Szczecin, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] (corresponding author) (2) Faculty of Geosciences, University of Szczecin, Mickiewicza 16, 70-383 Szczecin, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]

Citation Smutek J.M., Łonyszyn P., 2016, Cross-border issues in Polish supraregional strategies on example of strategies of western and eastern Poland, Journal of Geography, Politics and Society, 6(2), 32–44.

Abstract The main purpose of this paper is to present areas and directions of integration and disintegration in East-Central Europe. It is based on the comparison of the two development strategies for the two supraregional areas in Poland namely: Western Poland and Eastern Poland. Supraregions are groups of highest administrative units in Poland – voivodeships. It is not any kind of administrative unit, and neither statistical. The reason for supraregional strategies are common challenges of development of groups of voivodeships. In our analysis we present differences between those strategies in scope of cross-border cooperation. We concentrate on four thematic issues: transport connections, economy, academia and a role of foreign institutions in a preparation and a modification of documents. In this way, we confirm that in the East-Central Europe are existing areas of integration and disintegration reflecting also long lasting division of Europe into West and East. We stress that those disintegration areas, mostly the eastern frontier of the European Union, are the result of state policies.

Key words supraregional strategies, Western Poland, Eastern Poland, cross-border cooperation.

1. Introduction Eastern Orthodox Church (Hryniewicz, 2015). After that, Poland could be seen as a bastion against ‘East’ The division of Europe into West and East is a long helping survive Europe against the mighty Turks. lasting phenomenon and borders of such division Later on the frontier has been moved even further were changing during the history moving from as founded St. Petersburg was for Russians ‘a win- east to west (Hryniewicz, 2015). For ages ‘West’ was dow on Europe’ (Ferguson, 2005). The Battle of War- almost a synonym to ‘Europe’ (Ferguson, 2005). His- saw has settled the border between Poland and the torians mentioned about ‘eastern’ tribes penetrat- USSR as ‘a defensive wall’ of ‘West’ protecting from ing ‘West’ after the collapse of the Roman Empire. communism. In the XX c. the border between ‘East’ Later, there was a division of Europe following the and ‘West’ were settled by the Cold War on the Elbe belongings of the Roman Catholic Church and the River. Nowadays we can say that boundaries of ‘West’ Cross-border issues in polish supraregional strategies on example of strategies for western and eastern Poland 33 are the boundaries of the European Union. It moves Southern Polish border. Therefore Western Poland because frontiers are mainly in our minds, are men- could benefit from growth of cross-border move- tal, and it’s much deeper then we could ever recog- ments. In the same time borders in Eastern Poland nize. Of course, they shows the boundaries of politi- were experiencing different changes and its perme- cal control but real frontiers shows the boundaries ability has been decreased. It is of course not a case of the cultural influences as well as the style of living of border with Lithuania but it is only 104 km length (Ferguson, 2005). and Slovakia that is longer (541 km) but has a moun- Borders influence strongly on the development tain character. challenges of regions. Central regions have differ- That division into Western and Eastern Poland is ent development possibilities than borderlands reflected in a specific of Polish documents that are and therefore usually are growing faster (Miszczuk, covering areas of two or more voivodeships. Those 2013). It happens especially with regions where the documents, called supraregional strategies, were borders that are closed or poorly permeable, and are created for Eastern and Western Poland and adopt- a physical barrier of movement and contacts. ed by Polish Council of Ministers. Therefore aim of The splits can appear not only between countries the paper is to depict differences between two su- and regions, understood as a group of countries, but praregional strategies: Strategy for development of also within states. This type of divisions is present in Western Poland 2020 and Strategy for Socio-eco- Poland and it has its West-East dimension, somehow nomic development of Eastern Poland until 2020 long lasting. In scope of socio-economic and cul- in scope of cross-border cooperation. Then those tural development Poland is divided into so called results will be used for presentation of integration ‘Poland A’ and ‘Poland B’. Although it is a stereotypic and disintegration areas in Polish borderlands. The approach, omitting a lot of details, it is a very pop- authors do not aim to validate the mentioned strate- ular point of view in a discussion about division of gies. The comparative analysis should only be a base Poland. The separation line was different during his- to start a discussion about the future of the suprar- tory, once it was Vistula river or Bug and San rivers, egions and its strategies but also to point out pos- then former border between Prussia and Russia in sible guidelines for institutions preparing strategies XIX. This break has been strengthen during the inter- for territories with bigger or smaller area. war period but its beginning was even earlier, after the partitions of Poland. The Poland A is mostly the ex-Prussian partition with a higher level of transport 2. Supraregional strategies in Poland and industry development. The Poland B is mostly the ex-Russian partition where lands were mostly Supraregional strategies are a new and quite unique agricultural with a low level of urbanization. It’s now type of documents on regional development. In a XXI century but this breakdown still exists and the Poland they are common strategies for group of experts shows that it’s even bigger, both economi- voivodeships that are prepared by the ministry re- cally and politically. What is important to mention sponsible for the regional development (at present that division is symbolic, therefore sometimes could – the Ministry of Infrastructure and Development; be seen as not fully logical, as from some points of before – the Ministry of Regional Development) with view ‘East’ starts in Konin (especially for people living a cooperation of regional authorities. Those strate- in Poznan), but then it starts on Vistula river (and also gies are based on observations that some regions part of Warsaw that is on East bank could be seen in have similar, common challenges, that cannot be stereotypic way as in East Poland). In Polish minds solved by themselves alone or only through the bi- this line is the frontier between ‘East’ and ‘West’ or, lateral cooperation. This is the reason for preparation even more politically incorrect, as a border between of supraregional strategies in Poland. It is similarly as ‘Europe’ and ‘Asia’. Moreover, the two ‘Polands’ are added value of cooperation is a reason for preparing quite the same as the supraregions of Western Po- macroregional strategies in the EU (the EU Baltic Sea land and Easter Poland and its strategies are the sub- Region Strategy, the Danube Region Strategy, the ject of this analysis. Adriatic-Ionian Region Strategy and the Strategy for The division into Western Poland (so called Po- Alp Region). Describing it in the other way suprare- land A) and Eastern Poland (so called Poland B) over- gional strategies like other documents settled above laps the geopolitical division of Europe. After acces- administrative borders are based on the territorial sion of Poland to the group of western countries (first approach and the subsidiarity principle. The territo- NATO in 1999, then EU in 2004 with Schengen Zone rial approach, as well as subsidiarity criteria, is con- in 2007) the possibilities of cooperation and integra- nected with challenges that are above borders and tion of development were improved on Western and possibilities of regions. The subsidiarity principle is 34 Jan Maciej Smutek, Przemysław Łonyszyn fulfilled due to the fact that from one side not every • a forecast of development trends, development challenge mentioned in strategies can • a definition of priority policies, an intervention be solved by regions by themselves and from the aims with indicators of success, other side there are different challenges in differ- • a system of implementation, conditions and pro- ent regions of the country (Strategie ponadregion- cedures regulating process of implementation of alne…, 2015). Therefore strategies have to differ strategy, from each other, as they have to face different chal- • financial frameworks. lenges. Further in the paper there will be presented The first prepared supraregional strategy it was the how the differences in situation of each region are Strategy for the Eastern Poland for the years 2007– reflected in the priorities of the strategies. 2013. It was prepared for better spending of addi- The legal basis for the supraregional strategies tional EU funding from Cohesion Policy for weakest are created in the Act on principles of development regions of EU in term of the GDP per capita, for the policy. There are now strategies for four suprar- moment of negotiations of the EU Budget (Polish re- egions in Poland: Eastern Poland, Western Poland, gions lost that status in 2007 after the accession of Southern Poland, and Central Poland. In the EU no- Bulgaria and Romania). The spending of that special menclature voivodeships are NUTS 2 regions. Supra- support was organised in form of the Operational regional strategies can be for NUTS 1 regions (as it is Programme for all eligible regions. That cooperation an example of Central Poland and Southern Poland), was assessed as a success although a low level of but in some cases (Western Poland) they are for two the development, that was the reason for the spe- NUTS 1 regions or are for a NUTS 1 region plus an ad- cial support from the EU, is a long lasting phenom- ditional voivodeship (Eastern Poland). The present enon and it was impossible to overcome all of the situation (August 2015) of the supraregional strat- development obstacles. Therefore some other stra- egies in Poland is presented on figure 1. Only two tegic documents, especially the National Strategy voivodeships are not involved into any supraregion- for Regional Development 2010–2020 (pol. Krajowa al strategy: Pomorskie and Kujawsko-Pomorskie. Strategia Rozwoju Regionalnego 2010–2020) found The supraregional strategies in their structure valuable a further special support for that area. As contain (Strategie ponadregionalne…, 2015): a result of that political support, the new strategy for • a diagnosis of development conditions in the the next programming period of the EU (2014–2020) field of a strategic programming with a scope of was prepared. a state of the environment and the territorial dif- Other regions, especially that one, that were los- ferentiation, ing their economic position in the period after the

Fig. 1. Supraregional strategies in Poland Source: Strategie ponadregionalne…, 2015. Cross-border issues in polish supraregional strategies on example of strategies for western and eastern Poland 35 accession of Poland to the EU were expressing their have a large percentage covered by forests. The su- interest in an additional special support (Lubuskie praregion has locations attractive for tourist like and Zachodniopomorskie). Some other arguments sandy beaches with high cliffs in the North and the had been used, among them the problem of a col- Sudety mountains in the South. lapse of the former state farming (pol. Państwowe The Western Poland is generally better urban- Gospodarstwa Rolne) and a loss of some economic ised with smaller importance of agriculture than in functions of the borderlands due to accession to the the Eastern Poland. There are located three big cities Schengen Zone. Regions in the Western Poland al- that are changing into metropolitan areas: Wrocław ready were cooperating strongly in different issues (population of 634 ths. in 2014), Poznań (546 ths.) (mostly on Odra river and the development visions and Szczecin (407 ths.). For example, they were iden- for the Polish part of the Borderland of Poland and tified as weak Metropolitan European Growth Ar- Germany) and therefore they were ready for a joined eas (MEGA) by ESPON (ESPON 2005…, 2004) and as action as a group of five voivodeships and applied to metropolitan areas by National Concept for Spatial the state for a special Operational Programme from Development 2030 (Koncepcja Przestrzennego…, the EU Founds. That additional support hadn’t been 2012). There are other capitals of voivodships but given but at the same time the added value of the much smaller like Gorzów Wielkopolski (124 ths.), integration of priority policies had been found by Opole (120 ths.), and Zielona Góra (119 ths.). the regional authorities and the state government. The supraregion called Eastern Poland consists Therefore strategy for Western Poland was created. of 5 voivodships: Warmińsko-Mazurskie, Podlaskie, Other voivodeships were observing the struggles Lubelskie, Świętokrzyskie, and Podkarpackie. Its of the Western Poland and had decided to prepare eastern frontier is mostly the eastern border of the their own supraregional strategies. The Strategy for EU. The economy mostly depend on agriculture (es- socio-economic development of Eastern Poland un- pecially in the central part – Lubelskie voivodeship) til 2020 was approved in July 2013. The Strategy for and forestry (in the North, Warmińsko-Mazurskie development of Southern Poland was adopted in and Podlaskie Voivodeships). A high development January 2014 and the Strategy for development of potential of the southern part of the supraregion Western Poland was approved in April 2014. In time is created by the Podkarpacie Aviation Valley (pol. of writing that article the Strategy for Central Poland Podkarpacka Dolina Lotnicza) in Rzeszów. Very im- is in preparation. portant for the region is its high value of natural resources although sometimes it creates barriers for transport links. The supraregion borders with Slova- 3. General geographical characteristic of kia in the South, Ukraina, and Belarus in the East, and Western and Eastern Poland with Lithuania, the Russia Federation, and the Baltic Sea in the North. There are no big geographical bar- The supraregion Western Poland consists of 5 riers other than the Bug River in the East and the Car- voivodships: Zachodniopomorskie, Wielkopolskie, pathians in the South. Comparing to rest of Poland Lubuskie, Dolnośląskie, and Opolskie. The suprar- the supraregion is sparsely populated. egion borders with the Czech Republic in the South, The cities in the Eastern Poland are generally Germany in the West, and the Baltic Sea in the North smaller than in the Western Poland. The biggest city (and by that with Sweden and Danemark). The west- is Lublin with population of 342 ths., then Białystok ern frontier is delineated mostly on the Oder and (295 ths.), Kielce (199 ths.), Rzeszów (185 ths.) and Neisse rivers. The region is rather better developed Olsztyn (174 ths.). They are not seen as a metro- than average for Poland although some of its parts politan areas neither by Polish researchers (e.g. face large problems with restructuring economy. Smętkowski et al., 2009) or European studies (ES- The biggest cities in region and their functional PON 2005…, 2004). For the reason of not wasting urban areas are booming, especially Wrocław and a development potential of this area the National Poznań (Szczecin is facing troubles of economic re- Concept for Spatial Development 2030 (Koncepcja structuring). High level of welfare is characteristic for Przestrzennego…, 2012) called them as the poten- Legnica-Głogów Copper Mining District, where is lo- tial metropolitan areas. cated one of the largest producer of copper and sil- What differs Western from Eastern Poland it is ver in the world. A linking element of the whole su- a long lasting level of infrastructure development. It praregion is the Oder river which flows through four is connected e.g. with development of railway trans- out of five voivodeships. A high level of agriculture port in the XIX century in Germany and Russia. Look- is characteristic for Wielkopolskie, Dolnośląskie and ing from the historical perspective the railway trans- Opolskie, while Lubuskie and Zachodniopomorskie port is better developed in the Western Poland (the 36 Jan Maciej Smutek, Przemysław Łonyszyn

German Empire before WWI) than in the Eastern (the more concentrating on themes that are connected Russian Empire before WWI). Although an investment with special financing from the ERDF (European Re- negligence of railway transport in the transition time gional Development Fund) and the ESF (European contributed to balance the density of railways, still Social Fund). One of the examples connected to this there are differences in dual-track lines. Some of the is a problem of a social inclusion. That isn’t present in differences are also the result of the contemporary the Strategy for Western Poland, whereas, it is impor- policies. Only the A4 highway was built further to the tant in the implementation system of the Strategy East than the line of the Vistula river. Nowadays the for Eastern Poland. missing connections of express motorways are built. Due to the process of the documents prepara- Taking into account all certainly justified arguments, tion the Strategy for Western Poland looks more like that are influencing the development policies of Pol- a strategy for regions in a federal state. Therefore ish transport infrastructure on West and East, the dif- documents look like a result of a bargaining of differences in those policies are influencing the possi- ferent interests from different responsible for devel- bilities of cooperation between regional capitals and opment of their regions. In the same time, the style other regions in cross-border area. of the Strategy for Eastern Poland in much more for unitary state where the state decides (with consultation among regional authorities) what is good for 4. Criteria of analysis of documents those regions. The differences between those two strategies can be illustrated by a statement that the It was necessary to make a profound reading to do vision of Western Poland will be possible ‘only with a comparative analysis of both strategies. They were full involvement in a close cooperation of the re- read almost simultaneously chapter by chapter. For- gions’ (Strategy for Western…, 2014, p. 60). That kind tunately, the structure of the strategies was close of statement is not included in the text of the Strate- enough that the task was relatively easy to do. More- gy for Eastern Poland. For analysis of the integration over, after finishing reading of both documents the and disintegration areas it should be stressed that general conclusions has been made. Another way the Strategy for Western Poland see a interregion- to make good and valuable analysis was a separate al and cross-border cooperation as the most (the reading by both authors of the paper without mak- first) important condition for the best development ing any consultation. Thanks to that the higher level (Strategy for Western…, 2014, p. 60). Such issues, es- of intersubjectivity has been achieved. All collected pecially an interregional cooperation, are hardly vis- conclusions has been analysed and then separated ible in the Strategy for Eastern Poland. twice. The first split was for the general and detailed There are some differences that are coming from separation. The second split took the detailed con- the regional specificity. One of that issues is the clusions and separated them into four different general difference in the economic development, categories: transport connections, an economic co- which is higher, generally, in the Western Poland operation, an academic cooperation and a role of than in the Eastern Poland. Interesting is the impor- foreign institutions in preparation and modification tance of the capital of the country which it is much of documents. This split is reflected in the further smaller in the Strategy for Western Poland. It should part of this paper. be noted that both of the strategies see a development potential of their regions as an improvement of connections mostly with ‘west’. For the Strategy of 5. General differences between documents Western Poland it is Germany and generally the EU. For the Strategy of Eastern Poland it is the Central In that part we refer only to differences and com- Poland, mostly Warsaw but also Gdansk and Cracow, mon characteristic only in areas that are not object and then countries and regions further to the West. of deeper analysis. Some of the differences between Another difference between those two strategies is strategies are coming from the very beginning. As a presence of tourism issues. It isn’t included in the we wrote it before, the intentions of creating that Strategy for Eastern Poland but it is considered as documents were different. The Strategy for East- a potential for the development of some regions of ern Poland has been inspired by the national gov- the Western Poland. ernment and among main purposes was a proper The common characteristic of those strategies spending of the EU Founds. The inspiration of the is a big concentration on ‘repairing mistakes of the Strategy for Western Poland was from the voivode- past’, and overcoming the weakness from the SWOT ships that had to convince the ministry for that ini- analysis. The authors find it as a quite common prob- tiative. Therefore the Strategy for Eastern Poland is lem of Polish strategic documents. Cross-border issues in polish supraregional strategies on example of strategies for western and eastern Poland 37

The vision of the regions in those two documents 6. Differences between documents in scope of is similar. The Western Poland sets stronger empha- cross-border cooperation sis on mobilisation of its endogenous potential, better integration (also transport) of area and innova- In our paper we’ve examined differences in the fol- tiveness (Strategy for Western…, 2014, p. 62). The lowing thematic areas: transport infrastructure, an Eastern Poland sets priorities on a supraregional, en- economic cooperation, an academic cooperation dogenous specialisation, a knowledge based econ- and a preparation of documents. From the perspec- omy and an accessibility of the region (Strategy for tive of a cross-border cooperation they are impor- Socioeconomic…, 2013, p. 72). The differences are in tant, because they enable exchange of goods and fact that the Western Poland is pointing on tourism ideas (transport connections), make it valuable in as one of its potentials that can be used thanks to scope of exchange of goods (economic cooperation) better accessibility of the Western Poland for tourist and ideas (academic cooperation). from the countries richer than Poland. The Eastern Any kind of cooperation is based on good or bad Poland is more concentrated on strengthening the experiences from the past, therefore actions taken major functional urban centres due to the fact, that for better flow of information on any level should they are weaker than in the West. have potentially positive impact on future coop- The main difference in visions in those two eration. Among those actions is listening to interest strategies is that the Strategy for Western Poland expressed by people and institutions from neigh- threat more about an integration of the whole area, bouring regions and countries. Because of that all, and the Strategy for Eastern Poland concentrates the above-mentioned areas of analysis had been on a general growth of economic performances. chosen. It could be seen when we compare the objectives from both strategies, although they are quite similar. For the Western Poland they are (Strategy for West- 7. Transport connections ern, 2014, p. 63): I. Spatial and functional integration of the suprar- One of the most visible results of development strat- egion. egies is an improvement in a transport infrastruc- II. Building the macroregion’s economic offer. ture. Quick and comfortable transport connections III. Strengthening the scientific and research poten- are one of the most important conditions of devel- tial of the supraregion. opment. Bad transport accessibility was described For the Eastern Poland the aims are following (Strat- by entrepreneurs as one of the biggest barriers of egy for Socioeconomic…, 2013, p. 72): the economic development in Poland (Stryjakie- 1. Increasing the level of innovativeness of the mac- wicz,1999). However, there are also researchs argu- ro-region (…). ing that investments in infrastructure have a mar- 2. Activating labour resources and improving the ginal impact on economic development (Crescenzi, quality of human capital (…). Rodríguez-Pose, 2008), especially when it is not the 3. Increasing the external accessibility and internal worst barrier for development. consistency of the macroregion (…). From the perspective of cross-border coopera- As we can see transportation issues are on the tion investments in transport infrastructure are cru- first place in the Strategy for Western Poland and cial. Lack or poor quality of transport infrastructure on the last in the Strategy for Eastern Poland. An is harmful for a cross-border cooperation. It is about improvement in innovativeness is on the first place general transport connections and specific border for the Eastern Poland and on the last for the West- infrastructure, namely border crossings. It has to be ern Poland. The Strategy for Eastern Poland concen- mentioned that the number and capacity of border trates on issues connected with a development of crossings on the Polish eastern border were grow- human capital while the Strategy for Western Po- ing slower than on the West and are a barrier for land emphasizes more a better fit and use of exist- development (Komornicki, Miszczuk, 2011). In that ing economic assets (and of course their improve- scope, it must be stressed the difference between ment – among them human capital) in a scope of the Western Poland and the Eastern Poland. All of innovativeness. Beside those small differences the the borders in the Western Poland are internal bor- main objectives and visions for both areas are quite ders of the EU and the Schengen zone. The situation similar what is an example of one of the weaknesses is quite opposite in the Eastern Poland. Only the bor- of present development policies in Poland (Górniak, ders with Lithuania and Slovakia are the internal bor- Mazur, 2012). der of the EU. Crossing the borders with the Russia Federation, Belarus and Ukraine is possible only on 38 Jan Maciej Smutek, Przemysław Łonyszyn border-crossings, therefore its existence is crucial for The differences in thinking about cross-border a cross-border cooperation. transport connections in both strategies are clear The differences between the Strategy for West- and bright. The Strategy for Eastern Poland omits ern Poland and the Strategy for Eastern Poland in the significance of transport connections with the transportation issues are quite clear. Generally, in adjacent countries, not only with Russia Federation, the strategy for Western Poland transport issues on Belorussia or Ukraine but also with the EU-members the interregional scale are more important than in like Slovakia or Lithuania. The very important Via the Strategy for Eastern Poland. What has to be men- Baltica – a road with a key importance for the EU tioned, it’s that they are concentrating on different regarding integration with the Baltic States – has axes, not only East-West. Summary of those differ- been omitted in the development directions and ences was presented in table 1. in the diagnosis as well. For the Western Poland, it One of the objectives of the Strategy for Eastern looks totally different. The transborder connections Poland is to get better access to the biggest cities by have a key role in its development plans. It looks like some kind of centripetal connections or saying this both strategies concentrate on transport in only one in other words – by investments realized in each re- direction – due west, but it means something differ- gion. That should strengthen the paths connecting ent for both supraregions – for one it’s the central the Voivodship cities of the Eastern Poland with the Poland, for another it’s something abroad. biggest cities of Poland: Cracow, Warsaw, and Tricity. An element that appears only in the Strategy for These connections with the Polish economic core Western Poland it’s a use of water transportation. should allow diffusion of innovative products. This This document contains sentences about a restora- strategy accepts only two transport paths – express tion of the Oder Waterway and connecting it with all roads (without highways) and railroads. European inland waterways. There is also mentioned The Strategy for Western Poland treats transpor- about its role in strengthening the competitiveness tation in a totally different way. At the beginning of of the Szczecin-Świnoujście Harbour. The restoration the objectives description, there is mentioned that of this waterway should give another platform for the supraregion should be functionally integrated a cross-border cooperation within e.g. water man- with cities of Poland, Germany, Czech Republic and agement and flood control (Strategy for Western…, Scandinavia. Following this guideline there are 2014, p. 43). There is no information about water- sentences about building highways and express ways in the Strategy for Eastern Poland although the roads with a supraregional significance and also E40 waterway goes across that supraregion. about modernization of the existing rail infrastructure that could allow connect Western Poland with Warsaw, Tricity, Katowice, Berlin, Dresden, Prague, 8. Economic cooperation Vienna and Scandinavian cities. In the result of this actions the transborder relations should be bet- Economic cooperation is a field of human activity ter and stronger (Strategy for Western…, 2014, that in contemporary economies is not ruled by gov- p. 43–44). ernments. However, economic issues due to their

Tab. 1. The presence of transport issues connected with a cross-border cooperation in the Strategy for Western Poland and the Strategy for Eastern Poland

Western Poland Eastern Poland • Aims: • stressing peripheral location without strong connections • improvement of transport connections with Warsaw, with activities Silesia, Gdańsk, Berlin, Prague, Wien and Dresden • more important is the connection of Eastern Poland with • modernization of Oder River waterway and improve- Warsaw and further, to the West ment of the cross-border cooperation • missing information about Via Baltica • better transport connections with Berlin and Dresden • limited information about development of transport than with Warsaw and central Poland especially for Szc- connections not only with countries outside of the EU zecin and Wrocław but also within EU that are bordering with Eastern Poland • bigger importance of North-South than East-West con- (Lithuania and Slovakia) nections in infrastructure priorities • Baltic-Adriatic connections among them importance of Central European Transport Corridor CETC ROUTE-65 – European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation Source: own analysis. Cross-border issues in polish supraregional strategies on example of strategies for western and eastern Poland 39 influence on society, are one of the main topics of Corridor (CETC 65) (Strategy for Western…, 2014, p. political discussions. Therefore states are trying to 32). improve their economic development by various The inflow of direct foreign investments is gener- measurements. That role is specific in a scope of ally bigger in the Western Poland than in the Eastern, international economic relations. Although states although differences are getting smaller (Strategy are not involved in direct economic cooperation, for Western…, 2014, p. 44). It is due to differences in they are generally trying to influence decisions of investment attractiveness (Godlewska-Majkowska, firms on location of their activities. Within that in- Zarębski, 2011). It is understandable that countries fluence is the public aid. From the perspective of an lying west and north-west (Scandinavia) of Poland EU-member country possibilities of direct financ- are better developed and the biggest inflow of for- ing of economic cooperation are very limited. The eign investments comes from the developed coun- EU regulations generally forbid the public aid, but tries. For companies from Germany (and Denmark there are some exceptions (among them is special or Sweden in Zachodniopomorskie) Poland is one of support for cohesion regions with the framework of the closest location for the international expansion. a regional aid). Geographical proximity to European growth areas Among instruments of the public aid is support is seen by the Strategy for Western Poland as play- for an international cooperation and an entering of ing an important role in the competitive position firms on new international markets. There are also of the supraregion (Strategy for Western…, 2014, p. other forms of support for a cooperation that are 15). It is more important for the Western Poland re- growing in importance. Some of the very important gions, cause they are closer than regions in Eastern factors are formal and informal links of cooperation Poland. From that point of view the cross-border co- within chambers of commerce, clusters and other operation with neighbouring countries is important associations of entrepreneurs. Unfortunately analy- for those regions and it could bring directs political sis of existing clusters in both strategies does not benefits for their authorities. show any with cross-border members or ambitions Differences in the economic situation of the West- for that kind of development even in some of clus- ern and the Eastern Poland in a scope of a cross-bor- ters were in more than one voivodeship. der cooperation and a policy response to it is seen in Cross-border and international economic links table 2. As it can be seen the economic situation is are playing generally bigger role in Western Poland very different and policy responses are not so much. than in Eastern. Remarkably it could be seen on the example of Slovakia. Although it is the neighbour of Podkarpacie in the Eastern Poland supraregion the 9. Academic cooperation country is not mentioned in the Strategy for Eastern Poland in issues of economic cooperation. The dif- Role of innovations, innovativeness, entrepreneur- ferent situation is in the Western Poland, where it ship and creativity in contemporary economy has been mentioned as an important partner in de- is growing. One of the elements of innovativeness velopment around the Central European Transport is close cooperation of science with business. One

Tab. 2. The presence of economic cooperation issues connected with a cross-border cooperation in the Strategy for Western Poland and the Strategy for Eastern Poland Western Poland Eastern Poland • spatial proximity to European growth zones as a chance • the location peripheral to the European growth zones as for the economic development a threat for economic development • local industry heavily export-based (compared with the • local industry weak export-based with weak external rest of Poland) economic links • strong economic links with Germany because of the FDI • a small inflow of foreign investments seen as a problem • cooperation of Zachodniopomorskie with Scandinavia in for development maritime economy • relatively weak information about economic connections • building an economic offer for new investments is crucial with the neighbouring countries and with the develop- for the economic success of the supraregion ment plans • there is no information about smart specialisations for the • the main model of development is based on the use of whole region endogenous potential • smart specialisations of the whole region are chosen without any connections with the neighbouring countries Source: own analysis. 40 Jan Maciej Smutek, Przemysław Łonyszyn of the theory explaining relationships between eco- situation that cross-border links for scientific cooper- nomic growth, innovations and role of the state, ation are not envisaged in strategy, is also huge loss. business and academia, is triple helix theory (Ran- It is even if there is existing institutional cooperation ga, Etzkowitz, 2013). Strategy of Eastern Poland is between universities from neighbouring cities, like mentioning it and describing with emphasis that mentioned in strategy cooperation on Collegium it is crucial element of improvement in innovative- Polonium in Słubice. ness of whole region (Strategy for Socioeconomic…, Talking about the development of scientific 2013, p. 47). Strategy for Western Poland do not refer centres in the Strategy for Eastern Poland it has to to that theory, although is highlighting role of trans- be mentioned that it is based on an implementa- fer of knowledge between academia and business tion of academic institutions from this supraregion (Strategy for Western…, 2014, p. 72). into the network of strong partners in Poland and In general view both of the strategies are similar abroad (Strategy for Socioeconomic…, 2013, p. 76). in scope of academic cooperation and differ only It is not mentioned from which country or regions in relation to the fact, that generally scientific cen- those partners will probably come. Similar situation tres in Western Poland are better developed than in is for the strategy of Western Poland. The Strategy for Eastern (Smętkowski et al., 2009). Therefore Strategy Western Poland in terms of the scientific and tech- for Eastern Poland is giving stronger emphasis on nological development is based on similar founda- general development of scientific centres (Strategy tions as the Strategy for Eastern Poland (Strategy for for Socioeconomic…, 2013, p. 76) and Strategy for Western… 2014, p. 71). Presence of cross-border is- Western Poland is concentrating more on coopera- sues in international academic cooperation for both tion of existing institutions but mostly within suprar- of strategies is presented in table 3. egion (Strategy for Western… 2014, p. 71). Although it should be mentioned that those differences are very slightly cause supraregional and cross-border 10. Role of foreign institutions in preparation cooperation is one of the way Strategy for Eastern and modification of documents Poland is planning to improve position of scientific centres (Strategy for Socioeconomic…, 2013, p. 76). An active role of foreign institutions in the process of Surprisingly cross-border scientific cooperation is preparation and modification of documents is some- not mentioned within the directions of interven- thing what is difficult for administration on local, re- tion in the Strategy of Western Poland (Strategy for gional and state level due to the legal and cultural Western…, 2014, p. 72). It is weakness of that strat- barriers. In most of the countries in Europe law is gen- egy, especially cause neighbouring regions from erally limiting possibilities of an influence of institu- Germany and Sweden with Denmark (via Baltic Sea) tions from other states on local and regional strate- are on much higher level of innovations and scien- gies. One of the exemptions from that is cross-border tific research, what was recognized by authors of the environmental impact assessment existing (only for Strategy (e.g. referring to European Regional Innova- countries that are in the European Union) since 1985 tion Scoreboard 2012) (Strategy for Western…, 2014, (Council Directive 85/337/EEC). Beside of that, the p. 72). Taking into account that scientific centres in influence of authorities from neighbouring coun- Western Poland are generally better developed, tries are generally limited and based on a goodwill of

Tab. 3. The presence of academic cooperation issues connected with cross-border cooperation in The Strategy for West- ern Poland and The Strategy for Eastern Poland.

Western Poland Eastern Poland • concentrates on support of supraregional and interna- • mentioned cooperation of Lublin with Lviv and Bialystok tional cooperation but do not mention cross-border with Vilnius on issues of academic cooperation academic cooperation • mentioned general cooperation with Ukraine, Russia and • mention common research centre Collegium Polonicum Belarus in Słubice established by Adam Mickiewicz University in • threat of a leapfrog development cooperation of Warsaw Poznań and European University Viadrina in Frankfurt with Minsk and Kiev without participation of academics (Oder), from Eastern Poland • academic centres from neighbouring countries are sup- • cross-border dimension is important in improvement of posed to be included in general process of consultation of R&D cooperation multilevel management of the development of Western Poland Source: own analysis. Cross-border issues in polish supraregional strategies on example of strategies for western and eastern Poland 41 cooperating partners. It is fully understandable that Such a need of cooperation concerns not only states are somehow trying to protect their interest linear infrastructure but also the development of hu- from the interest of other states and their adminis- man capital, joint provision of regional and local ser- trative units. From a perspective of the political co- vices (higher education, health care or fire preven- hesion, it is also understandable that formal restric- tion). On the Polish western border with Germany, it tions are bigger for regions than for communes. It resulted with subregional studies and projects that is a case of Poland, where voivodeships are obliged can serve for both sides. A good example of an exist- to determine priorities of international cooperation, ing cooperation on different issues on a local level that needs to be approved by the Ministry of Foreign is the Szczecin Metropolitan Transborder Area (Tölle, Affairs (Ustawa z dnia 8 marca 1990 r. o samorządzie 2014). This example is especially important when we gminnym, 1990). Such obligation is not required compare present level of cooperation with existing from communes (gminas) and districts (poviats). in that borderland the postwar prejudices and a fact Therefore, it is worth to mention that priorities of the that on the beginning the cooperation was not de- international cooperation of regions in Poland also veloping rapidly (Miłosz-Augustowska, 2014). The depend on priorities of the state foreign policy. existence of that cooperation stimulates coordina- Due to differences in political climate there could tion of development from both sides and therefore be seen differences in the role of foreign institutions improve efficiency of spending public money on in the preparation process of documents. Existing both sides of the border. That efficiency can be bet- tradition of the interregional and the cross-border ter ensured only through cooperation and coordina- cooperation in the Western Poland, as we describe it tion of common investment priorities. in a further chapter, and strong bottom-up pressure The differences in a way how institutions from on state administration have influenced to the fact foreign states could be seen in both of the strategies that foreign institutions were included in prepara- is presented in table 4. tion of the strategy for that supraregion. Those institutions are envisaged in further evaluation of strategies and coordination with other documents. There 11. Other supraregional strategic documents are existing some documents of a common vision concentrating on development of analysed for the Polish Borderland in Western Poland (Studi- area um Integracji…, 2013). In contrast such hearings of voices from other side of the border is not envisaged Talking about differences between both analysed in the Strategy for Eastern Poland. Authors find it as documents it cannot be omitted the differences in one of the weakness that could be easily overcame tradition of cooperation of regions in field of spatial and is not connected with high additional costs. It planning and development programming. Such tra- is important for example for investments priorities ditions are quite strong in Western Poland and quite cause motorways on both sides of the border have week in Eastern Poland. Cooperation of voivode- to meet on border crossing and for higher utility ships in Western Poland was conducted in many they should be built in similar time. cases in relation to neighbouring countries, mostly

Tab. 4. The role of foreign institutions in process of preparation and changes of The Strategy for Western Poland and The Strategy for Eastern Poland.

Western Poland Eastern Poland • existence (or being in preparation) of common strate- • participation of foreign institution was not mentioned gies for development of Polish-German and Polish-Czech either envisaged in any step of preparation or modifica- neighbouring regions tion of the document • participation of foreign partners in the consultation pro- • existence of cross-border operational programmes for cedure (among them: the Berlin Senate) Poland and Lithuania as well as for Poland and Slovakia • existence of cross-border operational programmes taken are not mentioned in the document under consideration by the managing authority (although in a limited spectrum) • generally predicted participation of foreign institution in evaluation, coordination and consultation of changes in strategy • foreign institutions are envisaged in a multilevel management of the development of the Western Poland Source: own analysis. 42 Jan Maciej Smutek, Przemysław Łonyszyn

Germany. One of the most important issues of co- of their regions) that were involved in process of operation was Odra river, that is also in some part cooperation. Further cooperation change involved border with Germany. Some of the documents were people expectations about motivation and possibili- prepared together with other side of the border, ties from other side. People learn how to cooperate some were prepared only for one part. Purpose for from each other and what they can afford via work- that split is better preparation for future binational ing together and what they cannot. It has also to be cooperation. Examples of documents on spatial de- mentioned, that is existing also special intergovern- velopment of Polish and German side of the border mental agreement of Poland and Germany on issues prepared in last 25 years are (Studium Integracji…, that has to be implemented. Poland does not have 2013): such a document signed with any other countries. Concept for support of Odra region (pol. Kon- Similar strategies for socio-economic spatial devel- cepcja wspierania regionu Odry) from 1991 and opment were prepared for Polish and Czech Bor- called after name of initiator of the projest, who was derland (Polish-Czech border region development a prime minister of Land Brandenburg, as Stolpe study, pol. Studium zagospodarowania przestrzen- Plan – which was rather suspiciously received by nego pogranicza polsko-czeskiego). They are exist- Polish side, ing studies on development of Polish-Slovak Border- Polish-German borderland as a problem of re- land (Więckowski et al., 2012). Such documents are gional politics (pol. Pogranicze niemiecko-polskie not existing on Eastern Poland although there were jako problem polityki regionalnej) – so called Willers prepared studies for use of cross-border cooperation Plan and was also prepared by German side, in OP Eastern Poland 2014–2020 (e.g. Komornicki, The Study of directions of spatial development Miszczuk, 2011). of area along Polish-German border (pol. Studium Other important issue connected with cross- kierunkowego zagospodarowania przestrzennego border cooperation is existence and nature of eu- obszaru wzdłuż granicy polsko–niemieckiej) – pre- roregions. All of Polish borders are covered by eu- pared by Polish side, roregions, although generally speaking euroregions The Guideline Study of Spatial Development on west are smaller and bottom-up initiatives. On alongside the Polish-German Border from 2005 (pol. Eastern border they are rather bigger and top-down Studium kierunkowe zagospodarowania przestrzen- initiatives and therefore they are more fragile on pre- nego obszaru wzdłuż granicy polsko–niemieckiej) sent changes in international policies (Kaczmarek, that was prepared by team from Polish Academy of 2005). Science under coordination of prof. G. Węcławowicz and was referring only to Polish part, Study on Integration of Poland and Germany 12. Summary Borderland – Polish Part from 2013 (pol. Studium Integracji Pogranicza Polski i Niemiec) – that was Analysis conducted in that article proved that there prepared by planning administration from three are existing areas of integration and disintegration neighbouring regions on Polish side: Zachodniopo- in space of Central-Eastern Europe. Western bor- morskie, Lubuskie and Dolnośląskie, der of Poland and in some extent North-West and Maps of investments plans for Polish-German South-West border are areas of integration. In con- Borderland from 2009–2011 (pol. Mapa zamierzeń tradict Eastern border of Poland, than in most part inwestycyjnych polskiej części pogranicza Polski is also external border of the EU, is area of disinte- i Niemiec) – that document was prepared separately gration. Unfortunately in strategies like Strategy for first by Polish side by ministry of infrastructure, and Eastern Poland it is not clearly visible that there is then by German side by Federal Institute on Build- no big political reasons for strong development of ing, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development. cooperation with other EU countries: Slovakia and Some of the documents listed above were ob- Lithuania. The north-south connections are hardly jects of huge critique from both side (Guz-Vetter, visible in Strategy for Eastern Poland, what is one of 2002). Nature of them and atmosphere of coopera- the weakness and threat for future cross-border inte- tion is changing. Mostly it was way from naïve expec- gration of supraregion. tations that via that cooperation all of the problems In out article we can confirm what was stated in on borderland could be resolved. Then after first bit- expertise conducted by T. Komornicki and A. Misz ter experiences sometimes connected with misun- czuk (2011) for Eastern Poland Strategy for that su- derstanding it was switch to scepticism mixed with praregion border is rather barrier than development some sort of hostility and rivalry especially among possibility. Unfortunately Strategy for Eastern Poland public servants (in purpose from protecting interest rejected ex-ante evaluation result for implementing Cross-border issues in polish supraregional strategies on example of strategies for western and eastern Poland 43 cross-border issues in its content. When the state on scientific research on western border is a bad prog- the frontier of the EU do not see it as an important nosis for future integration of Poland into European issue, then it could be seen as a threat for further Research Area. Another type of activities that are im- deepening of division of Europe into West and East portant for local and regional authorities is tourism. and further disintegration of continent. It has its reflection in documents, where cross-bor- Strategy for Eastern Poland is prepared in order der changed for tourism development are visible in to minimise existing differences within Poland and strategy for Western Poland and tourism is omitted division into so called Poland ‘A’ and ‘B’. Existing poli- in Eastern Poland. cies are decreasing differences although in some On example of strategies for Western and Eastern scope they are deepening them or threatening that Poland we can show that integration and disinte- they will be deeper in future. One of that kind of is- gration of European space strongly depends from sues is general accessibility of regions in different di- general geopolitical situation. Therefore success or rections. While strategy for Western Poland is taking defeat in economic development of regions is de- actions in purpose for general accessibility of region pending strong from changes in geopolitics (Misz from all directions also cross-border relations, strate- czuk, 2013), although they are not only one reasons gy for Eastern Poland concentrate mostly on accessi- for economic development. Generally speaking bility to fastest growing economic centres in Poland. opening of borders improve economic performance It is understandable, as far as bad accessibility from of regions. Those influences are not always clear and economic centres is one of main present challenges easy to predict. Sometimes even general opening of of development for that region. However, in future it economy and abolition of border control can have is threatening development of that region cause it negative effects on development of border regions will remain accessible only from one direction and due to the fact of leapfrog development. Opening therefore stay longer as a periphery. It is also grow- of the economy can influence also a directions of ing threat that frontier of the EU will remain disinte- trade and therefore has negative impact of devel- gration area in scope of transport connections and opment of some regions. One of the good example therefore economic performances. Of course all of of that king of bad influence of general geopolitical other assumptions and conditions for development changes is development path of Szczecin and Zach- have to be taken into account and threat of overin- odniopomorskie in socio-economic transformation vestments (Crescenzi, Rodríguez-Pose, 2008) in infra- of Poland (Smutek, Łonyszyn, 2014). Beside of those structure in Western and Eastern Poland is existing. exemptions EU integration is supporting of integra- For development of cross-border intraregional tion on western border of Poland and disintegration cooperation socio-economic situation of biggest cit- on eastern direction. ies is very important. The difference in development of metropolitan functions between cities in Eastern and Western Poland (Smętkowski et al., 2009) has 13. Recommendations for state policy negative impact on cross-border cooperation in Eastern Poland. Foreseen by the strategy, support Analysis of those two strategies in context of cross- for development of metropolitan functions in big- border issues enabled authors for policy recommen- gest cities in Eastern Poland will help in minimalizing dations in future changes of those documents. Rec- existing barriers of economic and academic cross- ommendations for future supraregional strategies border cooperation. It should be also mentioned are: that cross-border scientific cooperation is not fully • for strategy for Western Poland – bigger support utilized in strategy for Western Poland and is less vis- of cross-border scientific cooperation of suprare- ible than in strategy for Eastern Poland. It is threat for gion with nearest big academic centres (mainly integration of that area with European Science Area. Berlin, Oresund region and Prague), Comparing both of the strategies we can see • for strategy for Eastern Poland – development of that interregional and cross-border cooperation and cross-border transport connections, especially transport connections are generally more important on north-south axes, with countries within EU for strategy that was bottom-up initiative (Strategy and not only with biggest Polish economic cen- for Western Poland). Cross-border scientific coop- tres (mainly Warsaw), eration is more important in strategy for Eastern • for strategy for Eastern Poland – involvement of Poland although potential benefits from coopera- foreign institutions, mostly cross-border, in pro- tion with cross-border partners are bigger in West- cess of future changes, evaluation and imple- ern Poland (as those regions are better developed mentation of next edition of the strategy. in that field). Lack of concentration of cross-border 44 Jan Maciej Smutek, Przemysław Łonyszyn

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