Radioactivity Introduction and History, From the Quantum to Quarks

Second Edition

Michael F. L'Annunziata

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• • AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS

• SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Contents

About the Author xiii 1.7 Nuclear Power 58

Foreword xv 1 7.1 Nuclear Fission 58

Preface to the First Edition xvn 1.7.2 Desalination 59

Preface to the Second Edition xix 1.7.3 Nuclear Fusion 60

Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols xxi 1.8 Summary 66

Introduction xxix 2. Basic Concepts and Definitions 67

2.1 Properties of Atomic Constituents 67 2.2 Nuclide Nomenclature 68 1. Radioactivity and Our 1 Well-Being 2.3 Mass and Energy 70 1.1 Human Health 2 2.4 Q Value 71 1.1.1 X-Ray Diagnostic Radiography 2 2.5 Naturally Occurring Radionuclides 72 1.1.2 X-Ray Computed Tomography 3 2.5.1 Radionuclides of Cosmogenic Origin 73 1.1.3 Single Photon Emission Computed 2.5.2 Long-Lived Radionuclides 73 Tomography 6 2.5 3 Natural Radioactive Decay Chains 74 1.1.4 Positron Emission Tomography 7 2.6 Artificially Produced Radionuclides 74 1.1.5 Radiation Therapy 10 1.1.6 Radioactive Nanoparticles in Cancer 3. Hall of Fame: Part I 79 Imaging and Therapy 18 Democritus (c.460—370 BC) 79 1.2 Biological Research 20 Wilhelm C. Rontgen (1845—1923) 80 1.3 Food and Agriculture 23 Ivan Pavlovich Puluj (a.k.a. Johann Puluj 1.3.1 Insect Pest Control 24 1845-1918) 83 1.3.2 Fertilizer and Water Use Efficiency 26 Henri Becquerel (1852—1908) 89 1.3.3 Animal Health and Production 30 Pierre Curie (1859—1906) and Marie Curie 1.3.4 Plant Breeding 33 (1867-1934) 90 1.4 Water Resources 37 Paul Villard (1860-1934) 93 1.5 Marine Resources 41 Ernest Rutherford (1871—1937) 96 1.5.1 Climate Change and Marine Johannes "Hans" Geiger (1881—1945) 103 Acidification 41 Hendrick A. Lorentz (1853—1928) 109 1.5.2 Ocean Water Transport and James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) 110 Circulation 43 Pieter Zeeman (1865—1943) 113 1.5.3 Harmful Algal Blooms in Marine Jean B. Perrin (1870—1942) 114 Coastal Waters 43 Joseph John Thomson (1856—1940) 116 1.5.4 Other Isotope Applications in Marine Hantaro Nagaoka (1865—1950) 118 Science 45 Philipp Lenard (1862—1947) 120 1.6 Radiation Technology 46 1.6.1 Research Reactors and 4. Radiation 123 Accelerators 46 Alpha 1.6.2 Neutron Diffraction and Scattering 46 4.1 Introduction 123 1.6.3 Neutron Radiography 48 4.2 Decay Energy 123 1.6.4 Neutron Activation Analysis 49 4.3 Alpha Decay-Energy and Half-Life 1.6.5 X-Ray Diffraction, Emission, Relationship 126 and Fluorescence Analysis 50 4.4 Alpha Particle Interactions With Matter 128 1.6.6 Radiation Processing 54 4.5 Alpha Particle Ranges 130 Contents

216 5. Hall of Fame: Part II 135 Time Dilation in Relativity Evidence for Relativity Provided by Muons Frederick 135 Soddy (1877—1956) in the Showers of Cosmic Radiation 217 137 C.T.R. Wilson (1869-1959) Evidence for Relativity From Particle Frederic and Joliet (1900—1958) Accelerator Experiments 219 143 Irene Joliet-Curie (1897-1956) Equivalence of Mass and Energy Enrico Fermi 147 (1901—1954) (£= mc2) 220 Pauli (1900—1958) 153 Wolfgang Energy and Mass in Relativity 221 Frederick Reines and (1918—1998) Relati vistic Mass Calculations 222 L. r. 157 Clyde Cowan, J (1919-1974) Interaction of Gravitational Mass 163 Otto Stern (1888-1969) and Photons 223 Professorships in Switzerland, Czech Radiation and Beta 167 6. Beta Decay Republic, Germany, and USA 224 Einstein's Letter to President Franklin 6.1 Introduction 167 D Roosevelt 225 6.2 Negatron (/3~) Emission 167 Einstein the Pacifist 225 62 1 Basic Principles 168 Arthur H. (1892—1962) 226 6 2 2 Inverse Beta Decay 169 Compton Wu Youxun 230 6 2 3 Neutrino Mass 170 (1897-1977) Yoshio Nishina (1890—1950) 232 62 4 Negatron Decay Energy 171 Formation into Pioneer of Modern 6.3 Positron ((3+) Emission 174 Japan's 232 6 3 1 Basic Principles 174 Physics Pioneer of Modern 233 6 3 2 N/Z Ratios and Beta Decay 176 Physics Work on Atomic Bomb 233 6 3 3 Positron Decay Energy 176 Project Loss and 234 6.4 Electron Capture 179 Heartbreaking Recovery Max von Laue (1879—1960) 235 64 1 Basic Principles 179 Sir William (1862—1942) and 6 4 2 EC Decay Energy 180 Henry Bragg Sir William Lawrence 238 6 4 3 Chemical and Pressure Effects Bragg (1890—1971) Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958) 243 on EC Decay Rates 182 (1887-1915) 248 6.5 Branching (3+, and EC Decay 183 Henry G.J. Moseley Charles Glover Barkla 251 6.6 Double-Beta (|3j8) Decay 184 (1877-1944) Manne 253 6 6 1 Discovery and Current Research 185 Siegbahn (1886—1978) Robert A. Millikan and 6 6 2/3/? Decay Energy 186 (1868—1953) Harvey Fletcher 255 6 6 3 Neutrinoless Decay 188 (1884-1981) Homi Bhabha 264 6.7 Beta Particle Interactions With Matter 190 J. (1909-1966) 6.8 Beta Particle Absorption and Transmission 192 8. Electromagnetic Radiation: Photons 269 6.9 Power and Linear Stopping Energy 8.1 Introduction 269 Transfer 195 8.2 Dual Nature: Wave and Particle 269 69 1 Power 195 Stopping 8.3 Gamma Radiation 271 6 9 2 Linear Transfer 199 Energy 8.4 Annihilation Radiation 274

8.5 Cherenkov Radiation 275 7. Hall of Fame: Part III 203 8.6 X-Radiation 275 8 6 1 Characterized Discrete Max Planck (1858-1947) 203 X-Rays by Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) 207 Spectral Lines 276 Albert Einstein (1879—1955) 210 8 62 Bremsstrahlung 278 8 6 3 From Beta-Particle Early Years 211 X-Rays Emissions Discovery of the Photon Particle 211 283 8.7 Radiation Discovery of Molecular Dimensions Synchrotron 284 8 7 1 Radiation From in Brownian Motion 213 Synchrotron Natural Sources 284 Relativity 213 Relativistic Length Contraction and Time 8 7 2 Discovery of Synchrotron Radiation 284 Dilation 213 8 7 3 Synchrotron Radiation and Accelerated Electron 286 Length Contraction in Relativity 214 Properties Contents ix

8.7.4 Synchrotron Radiation Production The Franck Report, June 11, 1945, James and Applications 287 Franck (Chairman) 403 8.8 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation I. Preamble 403 With Matter 291 II. Prospectives of Armaments Race 403 8.8.1 Introduction 291 III. Prospectives of Agreement 403 8.8.2 Photoelectric Effect 291 IV. Methods of International Control 404 8.8.3 Compton Effect 292 The Franck—Hertz Experiment 404 8.8.4 Pair Production 293 Werner Heisenberg (1901—1976), Erwin 8.8.5 Combined Photon Interactions 296 Schrodinger (1887—1961), Max Born (1882-1970), and Paul A.M. Dirac 9. Hall of Fame: Part IV 303 (1902-1984) 407 Clinton Davisson (1881—1958) and James Chadwick (1891—1974) 303 George Paget Thomson (1892—1975) 424 Lise Meitner (1878—1968) and Otto Hahn Pierre Victor Auger (1899—1993) 433 (1879-1968) 309 Leo Szilard (1898—1964) 318 12. Atomic Electron Radiation Joseph Rotblat (1908-2005) 345 435 The Russell—Einstein Manifesto, London, 12.1 Introduction 435 1955 349 July 9, 12.2 Internal Conversion Electrons 435 Edward Teller (1908—2003) 353 12.3 Auger Electrons 438

10. Neutron Radiation 361 13. Hall of Fame: Part VI 443

10.1 Introduction 361 Victor F. Hess (1883—1964) 443 10.2 Neutron Classification 361 Carl D. Anderson (1905—1991) 446 10.3 Neutron Sources 366 Patrick M.S. Blackett (1897-1974) 453 10.3.1 Nuclear Alpha—Particle-Induced Hideki Yukawa (1907—1981) 460 Reactions 367 Cecil F. Powell (1903-1969) 463 10.3.2 Fission Spontaneous 368 Emilio Segre (1905—1989) and Owen 10.3.3 Neutron-Induced Fission 369 Chamberlain (1920—2006) 474 10.3.4 Photoneutron (y,n) Donald A. Glaser (1926-2013) 485 Sources 372 Manuel Sandoval Vallarta (1899—1977) 492 10.3.5 Accelerator Sources 374

10.3.6 Nuclear Fusion 375 14. Cosmic Radiation 495 10.3.7 Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) 377 14.1 Introduction 495 10.4 Interactions of Neutrons With 14.2 Classification and Properties 496 Matter 379 14.3 Showers of Cosmic Radiation 501 10.4.1 Elastic Scattering 379 14.4 Cosmic Rays Underground 505 10.4.2 Inelastic Scattering 380 14.5 Origins of Cosmic Radiation 506 10.4.3 Neutron Capture 381 14.6 Cosmic Microwave Background 10.4.4 Nonelastic Reactions 381 Radiation and the Big-Bang Theory 506 10.4.5 Nuclear Fission 382 14.7 Radiation Dose from Cosmic

10.5 Neutron Attenuation and Radiation and Other Sources 514

Cross-Sections 383

10.6 Neutron 388 Decay 15. Hall of Fame: Part VII 519

Ivanovich Vavilov (1891—1951) 519 11. Hall of Fame: Part V 391 Sergei Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Niels Bohr (1885-1962) 391 (1904-1990) 527 Gustav Hertz (1887—1975) and James ITJa Mikhailovich Frank (1908—1990) and Franck (1882-1964) 400 Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm (1895—1971) 541 Contents

16. Cherenkov Radiation 547 19. Hall of Fame: Part IX 639

16.1 Introduction 547 Maria Goeppert-Mayer (1906—1972) 16.2 Theory and Properties 550 and J. Hans D. Jensen (1907—1973) 639 16.2.1 Threshold Condition 550 Eugene P. Wigner (1902—1995) 645 16.2.2 Threshold Energies 550 Chen-Ning Yang (1922—), Tsung-Dao 16.2.3 Photon Spatial Asymmetry 552 Lee (1926-), and Chien-Shiung Wu 16.2.4 Photon Spectrum and Radiation (1912-1997) 649 Intensity 555 Parity Violation in Beta Decay 652 16.2.5 Duration of Cherenkov Light Isidor Isaac Rabi (1898—1988) 657 Flash 559 Important Developments from Rabi's Work 16.3 Cherenkov Photons from Gamma-Ray on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 662 Interactions 560 Richard P. Feynman (1918—1988) 670 16.4 Particle Identification 560 16.4.1 Threshold Cherenkov 20. The Atomic Nucleus 679 Counters 560 20.1 Introduction 679 16.4.2 Ring Imaging Cherenkov 20.2 Nuclear Radius and Density 679 Counters 563 20.3 Nuclear Forces 680 16.4.3 Proximity-Focusing RICH 20.4 684 Counters 568 Binding Energy 20.4.1 Nuclear Fission 685 16.4.4 Time-of-Propagation Cherenkov 20.4.2 Nuclear Fusion 686 Counters 570 20.5 Nuclear Models 689 16.4.5 Time-of-Flight Cherenkov 20.5.1 Model 689 Counters 572 Liquid Drop 20.5.2 Shell Model 694 16.5 Neutrino Detection and Measurement 574 20.5.3 Collective Model 696 16.6 Applications in Radionuclide 20.6 Superheavy Nuclei 698 Analysis 579 20.7 Cluster Radioactivity 702 20.8 Proton and Neutron 17. Hall of Fame: Part VIII 583 Radioactivity 703 Ernest Lawrence (1901—1958) 583 20.8.1 Proton Radioactivity 704 John D. Cockcroft (1897—1967) and 20.8.2 Neutron Radioactivity 710 Ernest T.S. Walton (1903-1995) 589 20.9 Nuclear Decay Modes 713 Hans A. Bethe (1906-2005) 596 20.10 Nuclear Reactions 714 Willard F. Libby (1908-1980) 601 20.10.1 Reaction Types 714 Edwin M. McMillan (1907-1991) 610 20.10.2 Reaction Notation 716 Glenn T. Seaborg (1912—1999) 613 20.10.3 Energy of Reactions (Q Value) 717 18. Radionuclide Decay, Radioactivity 20.10.4 Reaction Cross-Section 719 Units, and Radionuclide Mass 621 20.11 Radioactive Nuclear Recoil 721 20.11.1 Relativistic Expressions 721 18.1 Introduction 621 20.11.2 Nonrelativistic Expressions 723 18.2 Half-Life 621 20.11.3 Sample Calculations 724 18.3 General 628 Decay Equations 20.11.4 Radioactive Recoil Effects 725 18.4 Secular Equilibrium 629 18.5 Transient Equilibrium 632 21. Hall of Fame: Part X 729 18.6 No Equilibrium 634 18.7 More Complex Decay Schemes 634 Luis W. Alvarez (1911—1988) 729 18.8 Radioactivity Units and Radionuclide Murray Gell-Mann (1929—) 734 Mass 635 Strangeness 735 18.8.1 Units of Radioactivity 635 The Eightfold Way 738 18.8.2 Correlation of Radioactivity Quarks 740 and Radionuclide Mass 637 George Zweig (1937—) 743 Contents

Oscar Wallace Greenberg (1932—), 22.3 The Particle Zoo 803 Moo-Young Han (1934—), and Harald 22.3.1 The Electromagnetic Force 807 Fritzsch (1943-) 750 22.3.2 The Weak Force 808 Jerome I. Friedman (1930—), Henry 22.3.3 The Strong Force 811 W. Kendall (1926—1999), and Richard 22.3.4 Gravity 811 E. Taylor (1929-) 753 22.4 Images of the Atom 812 Sheldon L. Glashow (1932—), Abdus Salam 22.5 The Atom in Our Future 814 (1926—1996), and Steven Weinberg (1933—), Gerardus 'T Hooft (1946—) and Martinus J.G. Veltman (1931—), and Carlo Rubbia (1934—), and Simon van der Meer Appendix A: Particle Range—Energy Correlations 815 (1925-2011) 760 Appendix B: Periodic Table of the Elements 821 Yoichiro Nambu (1921—), Makoto Appendix C: Derivation of the Lorentz Kobayashi (1944—), and Toshihide Transformations 823

Maskawa (1940—) 773 References 829

Francois Englert (1932—) and Peter Index 879 W. Higgs (1929—) 781 Serge Haroche (1944—) and David J. Wineland (1944—) 789

The Atom as We Know and Use It 799

22.1 Introduction 799

22.2 From Democritus' "Atomos" to

Quarks and Gluons 799