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Energy Systematics and Long Term Performance of the Pierre Auger Observatory’S Fluorescence Telescopes

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Energy Systematics and Long Term Performance of the Pierre Auger Observatory’S Fluorescence Telescopes Energy Systematics and Long Term Performance of the Pierre Auger Observatory’s Fluorescence Telescopes Phong Huy Nguyen A thesis submitted to the University of Adelaide in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. School of Physical Sciences Department of Physics 2018 2 Abstract Since the discovery of cosmic rays in the early 20th century, physi- cists have strived to gain a deeper understanding of the properties be- hind the universe’s most energetic particles. Aiding in this effort has been the development and operation of very large cosmic ray detec- tors, which have successfully contributed to numerous advancements in the field of cosmic ray astrophysics. The most notable of such detec- tors is the Pierre Auger Observatory, situated in the Mendoza province of western Argentina, and is the result of an international effort to study cosmic rays of the highest of energies. The Pierre Auger Ob- servatory utilises two well established methods to study enormous particle showers initiated by the interaction of incoming cosmic rays at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere. One such method is the detection of faint fluorescence light emitted during the longitudinal evolution of a cosmic ray initiated particle shower, achieved through the specially designed fluorescence detector. This thesis will investigate the long term performance and stability of the Pierre Auger Observatory’s energy scale, with a particular focus on the Observatory’s fluorescence detector. A brief history of the discovery of cosmic rays is presented in Chapter 1, followed by a discussion of the current knowledge of the properties of the cosmic ray flux and possible production mechanisms. Chapter 2 begins with a review of the physics of extensive air showers and shower detection methods, as well as a discussion of several notable cosmic ray experiments, both past and present. This is followed by an extensive discussion of the Pierre Auger Observatory in Chapter 3. Recent notable results and discoveries are highlighted in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 begins with a discussion of the calibration methods used to monitor the performance of the Observatory’s fluorescence detector. This will be followed by an extensive analysis of the long term stability of the Observatory’s energy scale. This includes a discussion of notable analyses improvements developed in recent years, and the effect of these improvements on the Observatory’s energy scale. Chapter 6 begins with a discussion of how the night sky background signal is monitored by the Observatory’s fluorescence detector. A cross check method is developed to use the night sky background observed between neighbouring fluorescence telescopes to monitor the stability of their inter-calibration. In Chapter 7 a cross check method is developed to monitor the long term stability of the fluorescence detector’s absolute calibration using stellar photometry. The results are compared with the long term sta- bility of the Observatory’s energy scale from Chapter 5. The results from these studies are summarised in Chapter 8. ii Declaration of Originality I, Phong Huy Nguyen, certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously pub- lished or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution with- out the prior approval of the University of Adelaide and where ap- plicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the Univer- sity Library, being made available for loan and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search engines, unless per- mission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a pe- riod of time I acknowledge the support I have received for my research through the provision of an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. Signed: ..... .. Date: ..................................22 - 02 - 2018 Acknowledgements Firstly I would like to thank my supervisors Bruce Dawson and Jose Bellido. Their eternal patience, wisdom and support have been immea- surable and this would not have been possible without their guidance. I would like to thank all members, past and present, of the High En- ergy Astrophysics Group in Adelaide. It has been a pleasure to work with you all and my time as a student has been enjoyable because of your company. In particular I would like to thank Simon, Patrick, James and Alex for providing valuable companionship and banter for the past 8 years. I would like to thank all members of the Pierre Auger Collaboration for providing me the opportunity to work on such an incredible exper- iment. Lastly, I would like to thank my friends and family in particular my parents, Quang and Lan, and my brother, Huy, for their love and con- tinual support of my studies. You taught me the value of hard work and for that I am forever grateful. Contents Abstract i Declaration iii Acknowledgements iv 1 Cosmic Rays 1 1.1 The Cosmic Ray Energy Spectrum . 2 1.2 Cosmic Ray Acceleration Mechanisms . 5 1.2.1 Fermi’s Original Theory . 5 1.2.2 Diffusive Shock Acceleration . 8 1.3 Cosmic Ray Sources . 10 2 Extensive Air Showers and Cosmic Ray Detection Methods 12 2.1 Extensive Air Showers . 12 2.2 Heitler’s Model for Electromagnetic Showers . 13 2.3 Hadronic Air Showers . 15 2.4 Detection Methods . 17 2.4.1 Ground Arrays . 17 2.4.2 Fluorescence Detectors . 18 2.5 Past and Current Experiments . 19 2.5.1 Volcano Ranch . 19 2.5.2 Haverah Park . 20 2.5.3 Sydney University Giant Air-shower Recorder (SUGAR) . 20 2.5.4 Yakutsk . 20 2.5.5 Fly’s Eye . 21 2.5.6 Akeno Giant Air Shower Array (AGASA) . 21 2.5.7 HiRes . 22 2.5.8 The Telescope Array Experiment (TA) . 23 v 3 The Pierre Auger Observatory 27 3.1 Surface Detector . 27 3.1.1 Station Design . 28 3.1.2 Station Calibration . 29 3.1.3 Energy Reconstruction . 30 3.2 Fluorescence Detector . 32 3.2.1 Telescope Design . 33 3.2.2 Telescope Calibration . 33 3.2.2.1 Absolute Calibration . 33 3.2.2.2 Relative Calibration . 34 3.2.3 Event Reconstruction . 36 3.3 Atmospheric Monitoring . 38 3.4 Hybrid Energy Calibration . 39 3.5 Auger Enhancements . 40 3.5.1 HEAT . 40 3.5.2 AMIGA . 42 3.5.3 AERA . 42 3.5.4 AugerPrime . 44 4 Recent Results From Cosmic Ray Experiments 46 4.1 Energy Spectrum Studies . 46 4.2 Mass Composition Studies . 49 4.3 Anisotropy Studies . 52 5 Monitoring the Energy Scale of the Pierre Auger Observatory 59 5.1 Calibration Constants . 59 5.1.1 Monitor for Camera Performance . 62 5.2 Running Cal A Measurements . 64 5.3 Calibration Constant Temperature Dependence . 66 5.4 Calibration Constant Background Light Dependence . 67 5.5 Long Term Stability of the Observatory’s Energy Scale . 71 5.5.1 Functional Fit to the Long Term Energy Scale . 71 5.5.2 Broken Fits to the Energy Scale Ratio . 73 5.5.3 Estimating Uncertainties . 78 5.6 Improvements to the Aerosol Database . 79 5.7 Surface Detector Weather Correction . 82 5.7.1 Surface Detector Event Rate . 85 5.7.2 Application to the Energy Scale Ratio . 88 5.8 Combining Corrections . 88 5.8.1 Discussion of Residual Features . 90 5.9 Conclusions . 92 vi 6 A Cross Check of the Fluorescence Detector Relative Calibration Using the Night Sky Background 94 6.1 The Night Sky Background . 94 6.2 Calculating the Night Sky Background Photon Flux . 98 6.2.1 Identical Pixel Method . 98 6.2.2 Kv Method . 100 6.3 Cross Check Method . 101 6.4 Results and Discussion . 103 6.5 Conclusions . 109 7 A Cross Check of the Fluorescence Detector Absolute Calibration Using Stellar Photometry 111 7.1 Choosing a Constant Light Source . 112 7.1.1 Identifying Star Signals from FD Night Sky Background Files 114 7.1.2 Functional Form of Star Tracks . 117 7.1.3 Characteristics of Star Tracks . 119 7.2 Analysis Method . 121 7.2.1 Correcting the Rayleigh Atmosphere . 121 7.2.2 Correcting Track Modulations . 125 7.2.2.1 Simulated Template . 125 7.2.2.2 Empirical Template . 127 7.2.2.3 Guided Template . 127 7.2.3 Fitting Algorithm . 129 7.2.4 Spread in the Fitted Absolute Calibration . 131 7.3 Analysis of Systematic Errors . 134 7.3.1 Broadening of the Point Spread Function . 134 7.3.1.1 Direct Measurement of the Point Spread Function . 135 7.3.1.2 Verification of Previously Measured PSF . 137 7.3.2 Rayleigh Model Systematic Uncertainties . 140 7.3.2.1 Spectrum . 141 7.3.2.2 Fluorescence Detector Efficiency . 144 7.3.3 Fitting Algorithm . 144 7.3.3.1 Angstrom Coefficient . 147 7.3.3.2 Choice of Template . 148 7.3.4 Systematics Summary . 149 7.4 Results and Discussion . 150 7.4.1 Sirius . 150 7.4.2 Rigel . 152 7.4.3 Canopus .
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