History, Archaeology, and Re-enactment by david r. starbuck

William Eyre and Joseph Heath created this “Plan of Fort William Henry and camp at Lake George” ( ca. 1755). The original can be found at the Library of Congress Geography and Map Division (Washington, DC)— http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3804l.ar112100. The star-shaped Fort William Henry is located to the top left near the lake’s edge.

www.museum.upenn.edu/expedition 17 A f o n e H h t C a I F fo c s f zin The f I f al o th pr y Ti Hen La an by “ma 1 The La tl I T th rene New Ca Aug o Wil a i d n n cn h e r orce t or ro ndi n o 8 e t r u o aree r ear ut ut e t r e m l a L ick e con ovo ld e r a ow ke ke ro g d the d na m the I Th r o e, yr , n r e d o n i er l F , s n n ke us s ier a s ia invol ve y r we f fo fir s r e d a f renc h o v Yk or or ns t Ch y s a of wa Ge ou ea t un der its c l i t n u e e h m c a For ir it a a mo t mid- e h t’r c nd g r o e G a s s s a d at ca d tke t m i a l o . m u l t f o y l r f i t re” a In s ls l r an ampl 10, orge d s a Fn e r or Hen d ldier, wa o from ma g o s r i f re ix o b ve P t s i t r t nu b g f a efen e h t th he di a opu t d d e t dma Aug l l i W cen a a an 18th Ca d s a . va a) e y l s t ut das y e ’t s r r jo ch ca k r r at an wa THE merou t Amer 175, . r B yr . th cEa n i i Br Fo t s 18th F h tu c b south d t h t lo , 0 5 F ison r r der i Lie So ons y 10, y tl he in r m a y t s ren la i n it w y l e lo il y e t or i t 17 n e s an t r l al e e Ca a r In en ca b Th i t h s cen st r h , cl u s on of t o fo W a 5 , e l e b utenat-C ol e d s s l u n s ith w ies di a fo d Jo te c e a g n n d na . 5 ic 175 TR h i t r h Wli il 0 n n c r fo e p e to m a i l l i h quen b s s ash mi nt d es r nmo ther or th ear cen to fo an d tu h ug end t i ner or g n i quar e u an d geme t , ui C and waraftd er ish it Br n i r e b m (lat s n d she laid o i r e h t an erest ne tur emb t s catch r a o re Fr enc A y r su a t b ht ld Au War n o he n th t the o o r f o f e co t l i u d am r B DIT u an of e H er ce nd o fo ing B su a Fr enc u g lan y l l u ov e r d a so Fo s s a s i t i f lon nt In dv rd e r i r upp y s y r n nd ha si fa t e c enc fo lmi ohe vw er rer nd 250th t s 1 er d rename b La c h Henr at i er me (1754–63). t r i t s, Frenc g di a h d g e n ul an s n o c or f tok o r r e i Amer d upst ia s sh ONAL 175 7 ar or f o ma i l l i W so t p x e s a b wd o o k .n o i t a r o p r o C d n a wo t sto ouab t cla an the ca er t lo e h derd e and st ce l t e ure e h t ne t i r a o cFn e r ld he and he mi sure kers fo d e t c r u t de n o i t i er f oGe b re ho re ime y—a son . d to a d e h eh t di ate an iers l s r a ye ba pla rg e oth the se s rce B a g in Ge ca d lit t ng ca B amo tea l t sou sur o no i t i h c se 2,30 Fren s g d in i r rg ce New he i i i a ldhe om Ftor Fo n co y iversar s use, s n HI amen, org and on a most smal rur t by t dn ni st on c a cr ent ng e, rou no pi the i of s t he a on lonial tr t lashin nd sh h - STORY ha ch of ar e t cr Indi and the ound td e Y nde d e -shap M a Br tSep emb r a ound l t col n Uni bui k or os d the ar g lo mixt comand h amt r on ha it l Fr ench. an for mies, g of o d, lt p ish B wa fire. td e d e into ve s Hu in ro, da e ar fo , i r p ial i t Ft or Lake ure cre n the rs he it i t t r the by h i at oer p dson a ic al, sh Wi t St cea h ba f a d a n,ur in i at ron Scot has sie of ve ates next as v 30-fot o Bat a Wi roun g io st oGe rge, thin 8, ng upst d e ai ag it Br ge ents last amag ier t Riv aide 175, t by . liaml tle b n ons, by bat cul and and t ee n ing the nst wo ish ate an er. to of of o d. d a - - - f g t T F o S s m t i S h ol uar ain t or f he an e e Euro diers T s B t- d d h m In Edwa r er, e Va er o i t n e an i dia t Fren p ish an ea d Louis- ns rd, n e n d b n , ma c g e l y -st th d h w h, b th n i an en u r rc h o e e h t J e ow ta h y ose to t h d e he f war l wer e a y l ok ex t ve er d p ir out h k of t h a . rt e l il , undre re fere a f de e cta a rea . of d il d d e a t Mo kd e th nd gen ds d to e n ow ntca of sca erous by prote fo p t r lp M r t l m-Gozon he ison e und on t c d ms,ter Old th t ma ers calm’s er eir ny M to a a pr , i F C pica y t lit o ren i Indi so f a Mar ar n t ners. he a ch y da an quis l Ra o fea i Br ar herw e a Aft er l dme d t li i t ure es. d sh to e

David R. Starbuck revenge would unify British and American colonists against the French and Indians and eventu - ally lead to British dominance in North America.

HISTORY AND MYTH

Although the ruins of Fort William Henry were largely neg - lected for the next 200 years, James Fenimore Cooper’s highly fictionalized novel, The Last of the Mohicans , published in 1826, kept the events of 1757 alive in historical and literary circles. His story’s continuing popularity— as depicted in modern movies, memorabilia, and the well- known protagonists Hawk-eye, Uncas, Chingachgook, Magua, and Colonel Monro’s two beauti - On August 11, 2007, massive re-enactments in the Village of Lake George commemorated the 250th anniver - ful daughters, Cora and Alice— sary of the siege, surrender, and “massacre” at Fort William Henry. makes it is easy to understand why the “Massacre” at Fort William they were held for ransom. Although early chroniclers claimed Henry continues to fascinate. The fort is still viewed locally as that as many as 1,500 British were killed, more recent analy - the site of a brutal and senseless slaughter of innocents, and, sis—based on period documents—places the number closer given the mix of racial and cultural tension and violence, its to 185. history is highly emotional for both sides even today. A series of misunderstandings and betrayals had led to the In 2007 the 250th anniversary of the Massacre at Fort surrender and murder of many of the fort’s defenders. Modern William Henry prompted many new commemorative events historians point out that Montcalm’s allies had been promised at historical sites across the northeastern United States. The scalps and plunder in exchange for their participation in the three forts directly involved in the massacre—Fort William expedition from Canada. The surrender agreement worked Henry, Fort Edward, and Fort Ticonderoga (old Fort out between Montcalm and Monro, however, effectively pre - Carillon)—are all now reassessing and retelling the story to vented the Indians from receiving booty. Their attack upon the contemporary audiences. Recreated battles and military prisoners—the so-called massacre—was a belated attempt to maneuvers, craft demonstrations, replica watercraft, and enor - obtain trophies and honor. Some of the Indians even dug into mous encampments of re-enactors are educating the public the graves of the military cemetery that lay outside the fort’s about 18th century life, and while much has clearly been for - walls so they could scalp the dead and steal blankets and cloth - gotten—replaced by the stories of later wars—the Massacre at ing. This resulted in one of the ironies of history since many of Fort William Henry is once again fresh and relevant. those who lay in the cemetery had died from highly contagious Yet with large armies of re-enactors passionately retelling diseases. Transmitted along the trails running north, smallpox the story as a type of outdoor theater, it is important to exam - decimated entire villages in eastern Canada. ine the story again against the backdrop of history and myth, After the surrender the French removed any supplies they particularly as it becomes clear that everyone’s“truth” is differ - k c could use from the fort, burned the fort down, and ent. For example, among present-day Native Americans, there u b r a t then returned to Fort Carillon, 40 miles to the north. In is a strong tendency to believe that their ancestors were justi - S . R

d the days that followed, British anger and the desire for fied in going after the booty promised to them by the French. i v a D

www.museum.upenn.edu/expedition 19 While Native Americans—portrayed here by re-enactors loading their muskets—were responsible for the original “massacre,” they invariably are a crowd favorite during modern re-enactments. k c u b r a t S . R d i v a D

20 volume 50, number 1 expedition In contrast, modern re-enactors try to focus on recreating 18th century life as faithfully as possible without assessing blame for what happened, while today’s historians are making a serious effort to quantify and explain the past rather than simply repeat stories from earlier generations. What about archaeology? What can it tell us?

FIFTY YEARS OF FORT ARCHAEOLOGY

The conflict and rivalry between the British and French in North America during the 18th century left a legacy of vast military encampments, forts, battlefields, siege lines, cemeteries, and hospitals. Over the past century many of the forts of the The reconstructed fort—shown here with its southwest bastion in the foreground and Lake George beyond—sits atop the original site, closely approximating the French and Indian War have either been stabilized location of the original buildings. or rebuilt as major tourist attractions—as Fort William Henry was in the 1950s. At each of these sites archaeology has been a crucial guide to recon - struction and interpretation, especially given the incompleteness of the historical record. But where archaeology was once merely seen as an aid in site restoration, it is now an important tool both to elaborate the traditional historical account and to provide fresh insights into daily life on the frontier, what we might call “fort culture.” Archaeology was first used to help tell the story of Fort William Henry in the 1950s, when develop - ers from Albany decided to rebuild the fort as a commercial tourist attraction. In 1953, they hired Stanley Gifford, an amateur archaeologist, to

uncover the fort’s original footprint, locate the out - Excavation inside the fort’s cemetery in the 1950s exposed individual grave shafts lines of key buildings, find the fort’s cemetery, and (shown pedestaled)—about ten of which were actually excavated. Courtesy of the recover artifacts that would help create exciting new Fort William Henry Corporation. exhibits. Assisted by college students, Gifford com - pletely excavated the fort’s northwest bastion—the site of the most pronounced French bombard - ment—and discovered fragments of mortar bombs, cannonballs, buckshot, axes, pewter spoons, knives, tobacco pipes, canteens, and much more in the charred ruins. The most unusual find was a human scalp with black hair stuck to the side of a mortar shell that had never exploded. Gifford finished his work in 1954, and, guided by the archaeological finds and the original engineers’ k c drawings, the fort was quickly reconstructed and u b

r This mortar shell was discovered inside a barracks foundation in 1954 with part of a a t opened to tourists in 1955. No further archaeology S human scalp—complete with black hair—stuck to its surface. Courtesy of the Fort . R

d was attempted for the next 40 years.

i William Henry Corporation. v a D

www.museum.upenn.edu/expedition 21 parade ground. Originally dug by Rogers’ Rangers in 1756, the well had never been a reliable source of water, but for all the years since the fort’s destruction its well-top had jutted out of the ruins, often appearing in historical photographs. The upper part of the well was partially excavated in the late 1950s, and since 1960, tourists had thrown their own “artifacts” into it—flash cubes, chewing gum, sunglasses, and hundreds of pounds of pennies. In 1997 I began digging in the well, excavating it to a depth of about 30 feet. At the bottom I encountered a thick water - tight “barrel” that lined the well and allowed groundwater to flow into it by running over the tops of the barrel’s vertical staves or through holes purposely drilled through it. Inside the barrel I found a dozen lead musket balls, some French gun - flints, many small pieces of cut lead shot, and the corner of a square-sided bottle. Although I had hoped to discover the remains of massacre victims or evidence that the French had polluted the well to prevent the British from reusing it, its con - tents reflected very ordinary daily activities.

Excavations in the dump just east of the reconstructed fort were deep and difficult, especially next to the wall where we had to create a “step trench” to protect our diggers from cave-ins.

My own involvement in the archaeology of this period began in 1991, when I commenced excavations in Fort Edward—the huge military encampment 16 miles to the south that was the home base for the outpost at Fort William Henry. In 1996 the curator of Fort William Henry told me that his fort’s current owners were eager to conduct new archaeologi - cal investigations in the wake of the most recent The Last of the Mohicans movie (1992). Between 1997 and 2000 I conducted intensive excavations at Fort William Henry, both inside and outside the reconstructed fort, followed by additional testing near the fort’s cemetery in 2004. Our research inside the fort opened up sizeable parts of the parade ground, where we sometimes descended for 8 feet or more into the cellars of former barracks buildings. This was not easy! Fort William Henry was built on a sandy glacial lake terrace—well above the modern level of Lake George—and We completely excavated the fort’s original well in 1997, using wood barriers to hold back tourists, a hoist to lift buckets of dirt, and a mod - k we had to spend much of our time shoring up our trench walls c ern culvert placed inside the well to prevent cave-ins. At the base of u b r a with plywood to forestall the inevitable collapses. t

the column of stones that formed the well shaft we discovered a “bar - S . rel” at the bottom of the well that had several holes drilled through its R

One of the most significant features we excavated was the d i v

lining to allow water to enter the well. a original stone-lined well for the fort at the north end of the D

22 volume 50, number 1 expedition tons, cuff links, buckles, and even two mouth harps, some British halfpennies, and a Spanish silver coin ( real ). The sol - diers had walked the shortest possible distance to dispose of their garbage, and everything lay within about 30 feet of the fort’s outer wall. Although archaeological techniques are well suited to reconstruct American history, archaeology has yet to deal sys - tematically with the fort’s cemetery or the site of the massacre. The former was only lightly sampled by Gifford in the 1950s, and it seems likely that hundreds of skeletons may lie beneath the mod - ern parking lot. So far, ground-pene - trating radar has not been allowed in this area to locate any burials. It will be even more difficult to locate where the Excavations inside the foundation of the West Barracks in 1999 revealed that the first 4 feet below retreating British were attacked—pre - the parade ground were badly disturbed, but deeper layers contained charred timbers and evidence for cellar-level rooms. sumably a few miles down the road toward Fort Edward—and where most Between 1998 and 2000, we excavated extensively within of the massacre took place. After 250 years of arguments the West Barracks, unearthing a small (5-foot by 6-foot) room about how many prisoners were killed, long-lost mass graves outlined with charred timbers and the base of a stone fire - might provide the only quantitative evidence for the “mas - place. Artifacts recovered included a host of personal and util - sacre’s” severity. itarian items used by the soldiers and officers during their two years at the fort—buttons, buckles, cuff links, a finger ring, a RECREATING THE PAST wineglass stem, a Delft medicine cup, lead gaming pieces, part of a grinding stone, the base from a case bottle, the bone inlay Both history and archae - from a knife handle, scissors, a brass spoon, and fish hooks. We ology are essential for also found thousands of pieces of animal bone, fragments of interpreting the past, and mortar shells, cast iron canister shot, lead musket balls, gun - their use, particularly in flints, and a bayonet fragment. The barracks’ cellar even pre - the reconstruction of served sewing supplies—a thimble, a needle, and pins. The forts, has had an enor - routines of daily life were well represented, with only the frag - mous impact on the pub - ments of armaments hinting at the violent end that awaited lic perception of the the soldiers. French and Indian War. Between 1997 and 1999 we also conducted extensive test - Recently, however, histor - ing—12-foot-deep trenches—outside the walls of the recon - ical re-enactments that structed fort, inside the moat, underneath modern parking recreate the events and lots and lawns, near several possible burial areas, and inside an lifestyles of 18th century enormous dump just east of the fort. This dump provided the America—what might be best glimpse into the lives of soldiers far from home. Food called “period theater”— remains predominated—nearly 16,000 fragments of are beginning to play a k c butchered bone from cows, pigs, and fish—followed by large much larger role in u b r a t quantities of musket balls, hundreds of potsherds and frag - educating the public. In S This re-enactor portrayed Lt. Col. George . R

d ments of wine bottles, British and French gunflints, metal but - the future their influence Monro during the surrender ceremony. i v a D

www.museum.upenn.edu/expedition 23 On September 15 and 16, 2007, an even larger re-enact - ment took place just south of Lake George Village— nearly 1,200 re-enactors portrayed British and French soldiers, civilians, and Native Americans. This sea of British Regulars (Redcoats) and white tents reflects cur - rent approaches to the interpretation of the “massacre.” k c u b r a t S . R d i v a D

24 volume 50, number 1 expedition may very well come to dominate and override the impact of all small garrison fighting for its life, and the French betrayal still of the books and museum exhibits ever created. From a histor - evokes outrage. James Fenimore Cooper’s fictionalized ical (or archaeological) perspective, it therefore becomes account is a rousing-good love story, and today there are thou - essential that these re-enactors strive to attain the highest lev - sands of living descendants of the soldiers who served around els of accuracy. Fortunately, in many cases, good historical Lake George. The Massacre at Fort William Henry occurred research underlies their efforts. 250 years ago, yet the public still cares passionately about how Yet the inclusiveness of 21st century America does not nec - we tell the story. As we blend the findings of archaeologists, essarily produce appropriate-looking armies from the 18th historians, and re-enactors, we hope we are reconstructing the century. For example, someone entering a re-enactor encamp - past more accurately than ever before! ment will most likely encounter thousands of graying baby- boomers, accompanied by a sprinkling of female soldiers and 10-year-old boy soldiers, all sleeping in immaculate white tents and wearing wonderfully clean clothing. Similarly, our david r. starbuck , an Associate Professor of perception of the protagonists and antagonists of the past Anthropology at Plymouth State University (part of the often change to fit modern needs and perceptions. A particu - University System of New Hampshire), specializes in the larly ironic example occurred on August 11, 2007, during the archaeology of 18th cen - tury forts and battlefields recreation of the surrender ceremony in Lake George. A spe - and lives about 20 miles cial visitor in attendance, the Baron Georges Savarin de north of the site of Fort Marestan of France, portrayed his great-great-great-great- William Henry. great-great-grand uncle, General Montcalm. He was greeted by local tourism officials with all of the ceremony befitting a Acknowledgments head of state, even though his distinguished ancestor had been I would like to thank the Fort the enemy leader at the time of the massacre 250 years before. William Henry Corporation, In the name of tourism all had been forgiven, though many in Adirondack Community College, and Plymouth State University for the audience were quite aware of the irony! sponsoring our field and laboratory work at Fort William Henry. Such thoughts and others are part of the process of Thanks are also due to the nearly 100 students, volunteers, and staff reassessing the events of August 10, 1757. As an archaeologist, who participated in the research. I am able to say, “Here are the tangible bits of material culture that have survived inside the fort, and it appears that the sol - For Further Reading diers lived rather well.” As an anthropologist, I am eager to be allowed to examine the military cemetery and construct Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War . New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000. demographic profiles of its occupants. I also would like to bet - Baker, Brenda J., and Christina B. Rieth. “Beyond the Massacre: ter understand the motives of the Native Americans who Historic and Prehistoric Activity at Fort William Henry.” Northeast accompanied Montcalm from Canada. To what degree did Anthropology 60(2000):45-61. they view the lands around Lake George as rightfully theirs by Cooper, James Fenimore. The Last of the Mohicans . New York: inheritance, or was their alliance with Montcalm strictly a Penguin Books, 1980 [1826]. matter of obtaining scalps and booty? Rose, Mark. “The Forgotten Fight for America.” Archaeology 58- I am also reminded of the time when my book Massacre at 1(2005):46-51. Fort William Henry first arrived from the publisher. A passerby Starbuck, David R. “Anatomy of a Massacre.” Archaeology 46 at the reconstructed fort remarked, “I hope your book isn’t (Nov/Dec 1993):42-46. politically correct. I won’t buy it if it is.” I assured him that it was not, realizing yet again how strongly modern audiences Starbuck, David R. The Great Warpath . Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1999. want the story of the massacre to be told “their” way. As archaeologists we sometimes encounter strongly held Starbuck, David R. Massacre at Fort William Henry . Hanover, NH: beliefs when we dig at famous battle sites or on the properties University Press of New England, 2002. k c of famous Americans. The massacre story resonates well with Steele, Ian K. Betrayals: Fort William Henry & the “Massacre.” New u b r a t modern audiences. Fort William Henry was occupied by a York: Oxford University Press, 1990. S . R d i v a D

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