James Fenimore Cooper and the Idea of Environmental Conservation in the Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841)

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Ceisy Nita Wuntu — James Fenimore Cooper and the Idea of Environmental Conservation in the Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841)

JAMES FENIMORE COOPER AND THE IDEA OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION IN THE LEATHERSTOCKING TALES (1823-1841)

Ceisy Nita Wuntu IKIP Negeri Manado [email protected]

Abstract

The spirit to respect the rights of all living environment in literature that was found in the 1970s in William Rueckert’s works was considered as the emergence of the new criticism in literature, ecocriticism, which brought the efforts to trace the spirit in works of literature. Works arose after the 1840s written by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Margareth Fuller, the American transcendentalists, are considered to be the first works presenting the respect for the living environment as claimed by Peter Barry. James Fenimore Cooper’s reputation in American literary history appeared because of his role in leading American literature into its identity. Among his works, The Leatherstocking Tales mostly attracted European readers’ attention when he successfully applied American issues. The major issue in the work is the spirit of the immigrants to dominate flora, fauna and human beings as was experienced by the indigenous people. Applying ecocriticism theory in doing the analysis, it has been found that Cooper’s works particularly his The Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841) present Cooper’s great concern for the sustainable life. He shows that compassion, respect, wisdom, and justice are the essential aspects in preserving nature that meet the main concern of ecocriticism and hence the works that preceded the transcendentalists’ work places themselves as the embryo of ecocriticism in America.

Keywords: Ecocriticism, James Fenimore Cooper, The Leatherstocking Tales, living environment, sustainable life

Introduction sphere (Glotfelty and Fromm, 1996, p. xix). It can be said that The Leatherstocking Tales The understanding of a literary work is appears from the impulse of the entire usually related to the text, the writer, and the ecosphere. The spirit of exploitation to world (Glotfelty and Fromm, 1996, p. xix). dominate the American plains that control Some materials on the environment are every action was the spirit that was around detected in The Leatherstocking Tales by Cooper when he was completing his work. James Fenimore Cooper, which are Environmental Conservation ideas contained inseparable from the term ‘the world’ that in these works were written in the early 19th precipitates the emergence of Cooper's century in a contemporary perspective attention to the environment. An in-depth regarding the current global environmental analysis of the environment in a literary work crisis, which underlines the role and ability of is a part of the ‘Ecocriticism.’ Critics of the Cooper in raising the prestige of American environment understand the world as an entire literature, which is the focus of discussion in ecosphere that is broader in terms of scope this work. than to understand the concept of the world which is commonly understood as social

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environment at such a young age. Natty’s firm attitude expresses his steadfast confidence in Methodology the values of environmental conservation as well as his maturity. Confidence, The examination on the ideas of assertiveness, and this maturity are growing environmental preservation in The strengths in the work of The Leatherstocking Leatherstocking Tales follows the opinion of Tales. One example that shows maturity in William Ruckert in Glotfelty and Fromn this first work is when facing Hurry Harry, a (1986) which signals the protection of nature. friend he meets on her way to meet Referring to the first ecological law raised by Chingachook and Uncas on a rock at the Commoner, “man does not have the right to mouth of a river, while Hurry is heading do anything he wants with nature. The idea towards Tom Hutter’s residence. Hutter is that nature should also be protected…to older than Deerslayer but unmarried. In their articulate and defend their rights is one of the conversation during the trip Hurry assumes most marvelous and characteristic parts of the that Deerslayer is much younger and therefore ecological vision” (p. 108). It guides reader in he considers more of Deerslayer as expressed determining the direction of the focus of in the phrase “Have you the gal’s faith, to discussion in his work. The role of James encourage you to hope otherwise?” Not at all, Fenimore Cooper in The Leatherstocking I know not how it is-I am good looking, Tales in maintaining safety and fighting for boy...” (The Deerslayer, 1841, p. 506). nature as the living environment can reveal his ideas on environmental conservation. Hurry and Deerslayer’s moral qualities in their statement look quite different compared Findings with when Deerslayer understands that a good Issues on Environmental Conservation relationship should be based on the desire of 1. In The Deerslayer (1841) the two parties, not just one-sided desire that will lead to coercion and not on the basis of Natty Bumppo known as Deerslayer is the love. Hurry does not value love, which must protagonist in this work. This work has be owned by a couple who would later another name which is “The First Warpath” become husband and wife. Hurry does not because in this work Natty starts to be heed the existence of love; he is relying on his involved with the war at the age of 20. This power to dominate others, which has work is important for two reasons, which are implications for the suffering of others and work contains ideas that are more mature and even the environment. He does not have that this work describes the standpoint and the appreciation for other people and the direction of Cooper. This maturity is also the environment, so on that respect, wisdom and base of his attitude of appreciation towards justice will never materialize in his life. the environment and his role in realizing the belief of the importance of maintaining the Environment inhabited by people like Hurry harmony of the environment. will suffer, or be damaged. Hurry in this work begins to be contrasted with Deerslayer when As the work is the first in The Hurry’s interest in Judith Hutter begins to be Leatherstocking Tales, it started with Natty interfered with by Deerslayer, Facing Hurry’s Bumppo who is called a Deerslayer for attitude, although he feels younger, he always appreciating the environment by showing a shows his stern face to Hurry who does not strong attitude towards the actions of the give any value to human life and does not add

26 Ceisy Nita Wuntu — James Fenimore Cooper and the Idea of Environmental Conservation in the Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841) value to the existence of flora and fauna. In (The Deerslayer, 1841, p. 550). Tom Hutter addressing the killings that occurred in the thinks that the scalping action undertaken by war, Hurry and Deerslayer have different the Indians should be avenged in the same views. Both are involved in the killing of man, way, but ideally, according to the faith they in this case Mingos tribe, which is depicted to believe in, such treatment does not have to be be always against the migrants who disturb repaid with the same thing. It is written in the them. scriptures read by Hetty Hutter as a guide to life, “whosoever shall smite thee on the right However, the cause of their involvement in cheek, turn to him the other also” (The the murder is different. Deerslayer does it due Deerslayer, 1841, p. 672). to the urgent situations when he has to suddenly protect himself from the barrage Other teachings believed by the whites that attack by the Indians. While Harry does it on the murder and mistreatment done on purpose purpose, together with Tom Hutter, Harry to our fellow human beings is also raised by often disturbs the tranquility of Mingos tribe Hetty, “Love your enemies, bless them that who feels that they have dignity in their fight curse you, do good to them that hate you, and when it is in war. Harry and Hutter both pray for them the which despitefully use you nurture a grudge against Mingos tribe by and persecute you” (The Deerslayer, 1841, p. conducting reprisals against the Indians, 672). The ways of the civilized white people although they are not attacked. They keep can be taught to the Indians who have a heart seeking the head of the Indians as a proof of to appreciate the basic virtues, like when they their victory. The attitudes of underestimate show it to Deerslayer who abides by coming and not giving value to humans with the to give his life to the Mingoes after freeing desire to kill human beings are more apparent Mingoes prisoners. Deerslayer, ignoring the when Harry has the intention to kill any man fact that he is still 20, does not hesitate to who would become the husband of Judith refuse Harry’s treatment and attitude. He says Hutter. “If she has the courage to marry in my loudly to Hurry who intends to kill anyone absence, she will ne like to know the who will win the heart of Judith Hutter as pleasures of widowhood, afore she is twenty!” follows: (The Deerslayer, 1841, p. 506). “If that man should be Judith Hutter’s Deerslayer has a different attitude with Hurry husband, after what has passed, I might and Tom Hutter. His respect toward human tell enough, at least to put the Colony on lives is evident when he treats the killed trail…I would dare to speak truth, Hurry, Indians lovingly and not by cutting off their concerning you, or any man that ever heads as Hurry and Hutter did. Deerslayer is lived…You may shake Harry, until you against the beheading though it was done by bring down the mountain…but nothing the Indians who did the beheading to beside truth will you shake from me. It is demonstrate their success in addressing the probable that Judith Hutter has no issues that are different from Hurry and Hutter husband to slay, and you may never have who are doing it to satisfy the desire for a chance to way lay one, else would I tell revenge while they have Christian faith that her of your threat, in the first teaches love. This opinion is analogized by conversation I held with the gal…”(The Tom Hutter, “Treachery is an Indian virtue Deerslayer, 1841, 507). and the whites that live much in their tribes, soon catch Reviews their ways and practice”

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The Deerslayer here also relies on the law as a got the range from the creatur’s eyes. A way to overcome the attitudes that do not man sights suddenly, and fires quick, appreciate other fellow human beings. when his own life’s in danger; yes, I Deerslayer will not hide Hurry if one day know’d it would come to this. I was there is a murder of the husband of Judith. about the hundredth part of a second too quick for him, or it might have been bad Natty in The Deerslayer had his first for me! the riptyle’s bullet has just grazed experience at war. Moral quality attached to it my side, but say what you will, for or is based on the Christian belief that teaches ag’in ‘em, a red-skin is by no means as people not to kill. The murders that happen in sartain with powder and ball, as a white the woods are terrible incidents in his view man. Their gifts don’t seem to lie that-a- and he thinks it would never be done by those way. Even Chingachook, great as he is in who have the morals he has. His inner turmoil other matters, is not downright deadly when facing a war is clearly visible: with the rifle.”(The Deerslayer, 1841, p. 599). “He was as yet unpractised in the ruthless expedients of savage warfare, of which In this quote, many times Deerslayer he kne nothing except by tradition and convinced him that killing in war is theory, and it struck him as an unfair unavoidable when he is being threatened. advantage to assail an unarmed foe. His Deerslayer is actually threatened when the colour has heighten, his eye frowned, his bullets start to come towards him. In the lips were compressed, and all his quote: “I want none…” (The Deerslayer, energies were collected and ready, but, 1841, p. 507) it means that he does not want instead of advancing to fire, he dropped anything. It is the recognition that he did not his rifle to the usual position of a pursue his personal interest to apply much less sportman in readiness to catch his aim, greed to destroy nature; human as well as and muttered to himself, unconscious that flora and fauna. His mission is as he points he was speaking-“No-no-that may be red- out below: skin warfare, but it’s not a Christian gift…we’ll take it out like men; for the “I look forward to a life in the woods, canoe he must not and shall not have. and I only hope it may be peaceable one. No-no; let him have time to load, and All young man must go on the war path then God will take care of the right!”(The when there’s occasion, but war isn’t Deerslayer, 1841, p. 594). needfully massacre…and I now invite you to go your own way, while I go His religious belief does not allow him to kill. mine ; and hope that we may part fri’nds” And for him, his enemies have to deal with (The Deerslayer, 1841, p. 596). him face to face and it is unfair to kill an enemy from behind. In desperation, such as in It becomes clear here that despite his skin a state of war against him, murdering cannot color, he would not side with the whites when be avoided when it threatens his life, white people are not on the path that he believes is right. Moreover, he presents a “I know’d it-I knowed it !” exclaimed peace mission. He is forced to kill the Indians Deerslayer, who was already preparing to who are firing bullets towards him. His force a fresh bullet into his rifle-“I attitude towards the Indians who get killed know’d it must come to this as soon as I shows that he regrets that it happened. He is

28 Ceisy Nita Wuntu — James Fenimore Cooper and the Idea of Environmental Conservation in the Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841) totally against murder. This is evident from whom he regards as an enemy and who is a how he treats the helpless Indians: greedy Christian who is against the Indians, but who knows well the values in the Bible. “…and Deerslayer, after tossing the So it can be said that the protection of the tomahawk into the canoe, advance to his environment, in this case to humans, flora and victim, and stood over him, leaning on fauna, can be maintained through the values his rifle, in melancholy attention. It was of truth in Deerslayer’s belief that is based on the first instance in which he has seen a love. man fall in battle, it was the first fellow creature against whom he had ever The causes of damage on the environment are seriously raised his own hand. The greed and extravagance that come from a sensations were novel; and regret, with heart that does not love others or the the freshness of our better feelings environment. The starting point of the ideal mingle with his triumph” (The attitudes and behavior towards humans and Deerslayer, 1841, p. 599). the environment is owned by Deerslayer who is admired and loved by many people, both The habits that are often carried out by the the Indians and the whites. Natty Bumppo’s Indians for scalping the deceased are later good attitude and behavior are based on his imitated as an act by white people who do not belief in Christianity that has a central fully understand their own religious values but teaching of love, to love other fellow human the Deerslayer does not participate. In beings. contrary, he is extremely sad and has a feeling of uncertainty when looking at it. 2. In The Last of the Mohicans (1826)

Deerslayer is someone who does not justify Frontier area in New York in 1757 is the the killing of men, except in cases when one is background of this work. The background being threatened and in the care of his own story is the war between France and England. safety and when there is an open fire. He hates In this war, the Indians are divided into two. the destruction of flora and fauna and admires The Indians that are easily bought are the natural beauty unspoiled by civilization. described here as Huron tribe, one of which is He also has a role as a helper and protector Magua or Le Renard Subtil. Natty Bumppo in such as when he has to protect the two girls, this work is called Hawkeye or La Longue Judith and Hetty, and he explains that humans, Carabine and he is an ally of the Delaware flora and fauna are to be loved and tribe. The tribe is known as a dignified tribe, appreciated. Deerslayer repeatedly refers to and Hawkeye is raised in the midst of this the teachings of Christianity. Hetty Hurry tribe. whose view of life is based on the holy books that Deerslayer also believes is shown by The environmental destruction in this work Cooper as a character that appears to that makes it different from the other works in emphasize Deerslayer’s beliefs. The Leatherstocking Tales is the destruction of one of the Indian tribes, the Mohicans, with The protection given to Hetty Hurry, though the death of Uncas or Le Cerf Agile, the son she is an enemy, is only due to one reason that of Chingachgook, also known as Le Gros she is honest and true to what the Bible says. Serpent. This tribe is a part of the good tribes The criticism is made by the head of the of the Delaware. One element that was Indian tribe towards Tom Hutter’s father developed in this work relates to the conflicts

29 RUBIKON Volume 1 / Number 2 September 2014 between the Indians, between the French and the British, and between Indians and blacks. The Pathfinder is the third in the series based Another element is the views of on the aging of Natty Bomppo. The Chingachgook who is left as the last of the background is Ontario Lake and the war Mohicans when the newcomers arrive, how between France and the Indians. The Indians they treat them as the first inhabitants in the who misbehave or have impressionable new world and the depression as a result of quality, paid to get out of the identity of their the extinction of the tribe. quality as dignified people also colors this story. Natty’s identity as highlighted in The The conflict in this work is a struggle for Deerslayer does not have any particular power between France and England. The change in attitude and outlook toward nature conflicts involving the Indians have caused and the environment. Similarly, the pattern of bloodshed everywhere because there are mass the plot is not that different from The killings that occurred. The extinction of the Deerslayer, which involves assault, tribe of Mohicans in this work is an example persecution, torturous violence, politeness, of human greed that can lead to the and romance. destruction and the extinction of human beings. In this work, there is no presumption The idea of environmental conservation in this in favor of one of the races except their work can be understood from Natty’s love of opposition to the prevailing evil or who ignore the natural beauty of God's creation, longing the interests of the environment. In a power for a respectful and courteous society which is struggle in this work, the victory is only aware of the different gifts given by God. The expressed in the heart of Chingachgook, the main idea developed in this story is about a last of the Mohicans, when facing the sense of mutual respect and being prudent lamentations that are heard when his son was through the romance involving Mabel killed on the battlefield. Chingachgook felt Dunham, Jasper Western, Pathfinder and that he had done noble work properly so he David Muir. believes that he has dignity and honor. Realistically, one woman later will only be There are three kinds of elements in the owned by a man. Mabel Dunham is liked by warring factions: the intruder, the intruded, or those three men. Of the three men who want two warring parties that intrude on each other. Mabel Dunham, there are three different ways The inner satisfaction of Chingachgook to react. Jasper Western is addressing that he indicates that he and his group are troubled. has the ability, honesty and courage as he The extinction of good people like the demonstrated to the Pathfinder when he says Mohicans is a symbol of destruction when the that he wants Mabel Dunham. US just stays still while the Mohicans become extinct. Thus, the damaged environment in On the other hand, David Muir is imposing this work is spiritual and social environment. his will. Faced with this problem, Pathfinder Thus, the idea of environmental conservation does not impose his will when he hears in this work is to overcome environmental Jasper’s confessions. Jasper Western is skilled destruction with the intent to do good without in the race and really loves Mabel Dunham. claiming someone else’s belongings as Avoiding coercion is a way to avoid the practiced by the Mohicans. destruction of the environment. Coercive attitude is to fulfill the desire to have whatever 3. In The Pathfinder (1840) one wants, including flora and fauna with no

30 Ceisy Nita Wuntu — James Fenimore Cooper and the Idea of Environmental Conservation in the Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841) thought of the reality, and by not having a Temple “Put an in, Judge, to your clearings ... heart that is willing to give. Therefore, Use, but do not waste” (The Pioneers, 1823, p. collisions can occur which can lead to 250). destruction. This expression does not mean that people 4. In The Pioneers (1823) cannot cut trees. It means that Leatherstocking is maintaining frugality and not destructive. This work is the first of the five works in “The Taking as needed is the way he wants to live. Leatherstocking Tales” written by Cooper. This expression, leads to the understanding The setting of place is in Cooperstown, that living in a hut is enough so that he can around Otsego Lake in the frontier area by the take shelter from the rain and heat. Building Templeton that takes place from 1793-1794. costs a lot and sacrifing a lot of natural In this series, Natty Bumppo is called resources. Understandably, Natty Bumppo is Leatherstocking and he is seventy-one years so upset with the attitude of Billy Kirby who old. This work contains adventure, morality, wants to cut any trees on the hill just to show and the history of America. The main conflicts that he is the greatest and cannot be defeated. built in this work are the differences regarding For fine dining in the celebration of feast days the outlook and attitude towards life which such as Christmas, Leatherstocking only occur between Natty Bumppo or requires a small bird, while Judge Temple and Leatherstocking with the Templeton’s vibrant his colleagues need to kill five deer. Another rural communities that live from cutting trees, commendable behavior performed in this farming and animal husbandry. work is the responsibility to rescue others that are weak. Leatherstocking has saved Environmental destruction in this work is the Elizabeth, the child of Judge Temple from cutting of trees which is done on pride, power tiger attacks and from the fire. His anger and with the purpose of the collection of towards Judge Temple is not a reason to not wealth as much as possible. Other help Elizabeth. environmental elements that were damaged are abundant birds in the air and plentiful fish The essence of Leatherstocking’s thinking in the lake which Templeton villagers harness about the environment is that the environment as the source of their pleasure. is the source of life. The idea that flora and fauna’s lives should be maintained is seen In this work, the Templeton villagers feel the when he argued Judge Temple about tree benefit of the environment around them cutting and the destruction of the forests, because they can get their food from the stating “was not the woods made for the beast environment, such as fish, birds, and deer and birds to harbor in? And when men wanted meat. Leatherstocking earns a living from the for Reviews their flesh, Reviews their skin, or surrounding environment. A clear distinction Reviews their feathers, there's the place to between Templeton villagers and seek them” (The Pioneers, 1823, p. 250). A Leatherstocking is their way of life or their good way that must be applied to maintain the lifestyle. Regarding residence, Judge Temple viability of the environment is to treat the owns a large building equipped with very environment with love, because only love can luxurious household appliances, while save a little bird that does not mean anything Leatherstocking occupies only a very small for the Templeton rural communities, like hut in the forest. The cause of this difference what Leatherstocking does when feeling can be understood from the phrase to Judge

31 RUBIKON Volume 1 / Number 2 September 2014 affectionate towards a bird that was lying in migrants and the old trapper to the agony (The Pioneers, 1823, p. 250). environment. In a controversy, old trapper is always on the side of what is good and Leatherstocking cannot bear to let the bird die commendable. In this work, the old trapper, as a result of shooting games done by again, admires the nature of courage displayed Templeton villages. This occurs when there is by a young Pawnee fighter from the tribe empathy in Leatherstocking’s heart, like when named Hard-Heard. Nevertheless, the old he compares the small birds to humans or to trapper did not accept the desire to end other himself when he says that they only need their people’s lives when he said: “Pawnee, I love tongues to express their thoughts and feelings. you; but being a Christian man, I cannot be In such circumstances, Leatherstocking was the runner to bear such a message” (The imagining himself being a wounded state, Prairie, 1823, p. 819). The desire to kill near death and as helplessness as the bird. people according to old trapper should not be Human strength cannot be combated by birds, maintained. This feeling is a superior feeling therefore, to save the flora and fauna is a must granted when a man can be killed freely and it as shown by the attitude of the is beginning of cruelty towards flora and Leatherstocking. fauna.

5. In The Prairie (1827) Compassion for one another and for the environment needs to be maintained to keep The Prairie takes place in 1805. This work the harmony of the environment. References tells the story of Natty Bumppo in old age at to scripture believed by Natty are 82. Almost the same as The Deerslayer, this rediscovered in this work. Protection of the work also shows the maturity of Natty environment in this work is in the form of Bumppo, since the end of his life and the end respect for the law made by man to protect the of the story of The Leatherstocking Tales are environment. West area, which is free from in this work, so that this work reflects his migrants is considered a place to commit maturity as parents. In this work, his crimes freely since they see that the man- nickname is the old trapper. made law cannot reach them in the wild.

The development of the idea of environmental Natty does not accept it even though he conservation in this work is built on moral prefers to always move around the free areas. actions by Natty Bumppo or old trapper as he His trip to the free region is the rejection of did in other works in “The Leatherstocking the attitudes and behaviors of malicious Tales”, such as the actions of giving help and newcomers to the environment. The strength liberation. Old trapper in this work helps the of the idea of environmental conservation in family of Ishmael Bush in the Great Plain this work is that the environment should be after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. As maintained with the laws of man. The old usual, he gives help and protection. He also trapper’s hatred is shown by refusing to stay gives assistance and protection to Middleton together with the settlers in the colony- by helping free his wife Inez who was settlement which indicates the absence of kidnapped by Abiram White, Esther’s brother, tolerance towards anyone who damages the the wife of Ishmael Bush. environment.

Then, the idea emerged from a clash between Damaging the environment is not necessary the good and bad, between the treatment of because according to the old trapper, nature

32 Ceisy Nita Wuntu — James Fenimore Cooper and the Idea of Environmental Conservation in the Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841) has provided for the needs of man. The food available in nature is already tasty, so there is This opinion is also justified by Cooper, no need to add seasoning made by man. A Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville. solid defense for the environment of the old The third author believes that nature can affect trapper is when he decides to stay together and influence people. Natty Bumppo concerns with good Pawnee tribe in the barren Great against forest destruction which will result in Plain area than with those white people who animals losing their habitat which can also damage the environment when they justify the lead to human catastrophe. Violations of killing of human beings. The destruction of norms by Hester Bryne and Pastor flora and fauna will be easier to do by them Dimmesdale are also due to the restraint of the than by man who has the ability to resist. Old natural properties inherent in both of trapper is not able to justify the killing when individuals that can result in death as he practices his religious belief properly when experienced by Dimmesdale. The same thing he warned the young Pawnee fighter he happens to Captain Ahab who tries to fight a admired that the teachings which he believed giant whale in Moby Dick. The size of the did not justify murder. whale will not be able to be defeated by Captain Ahab, though he is well known as an In Christianity, the Bible is the religious expert in killing whales. The fight finally reference. It is written in it that “Thus live takes his life. Addressing the existing these three things: faith, hope and love, and problems in each of these works, Cooper the greatest of them is love” (1 Corinthians chooses to react in a manner that is not greedy 13:13). In another part of the Holy book it is and frugal, Hawthorne deals with attention written, “and the second law is: Love thy and love, and Melville responds not with neighbor as yourself” (Matthew 22:39). The dexterity but with ingenuity. old trapper’s attitude towards humanity is greatly influenced by Christianity. Loving Humans also have balanced power of nature others will prevent people from doing as they according to Thoreau. In his work Walden, he please. says that humans naturally possess wildness and goodness. They like both of them The Leatherstocking Tales as embryos of (Thoreau, 1971, p. 210). Thoreau’s definition Eco-criticism in America of balance also appears in The Leatherstocking Tales. In some of the issues, The Leatherstocking Tales contains the spirit Cooper is always in the 'middle position'. of exploitation in connection with the eviction Wilderness is a symbol of freedom, but Natty of the Indian Cherokees executed in 1838. Bumppo’s desire to follow the forest that he The extinction of the Mohican tribe and the loves due to the environmental destruction attitude and behavior shown by the that he does not like is not a decision to newcomers towards the flora and fauna show acquire absolute freedom as freedom inhuman the lack of their understanding that nature can laws. Abiram’s desire in The Prairie to stay in affect human. Nature is an important element the wild as 'prairie' is a motivation to find which should be considered by humans as freedom from the human laws. In the end, he exemplified by the writers of American committed a murder to assume that the literature. Henry David Thoreau’s opinion in ‘prairie’ is a free area from the law. “Walden” is that nature “is hard to be overcome but she must be overcome” Thus, Cooper is not on a particular side when (Thoreau, 1971, p. xvi). confronted with the conflicts between whites

33 RUBIKON Volume 1 / Number 2 September 2014 with whites, Indians with Indians, Indians Hester Prynne, thou little, little knowest with whites, and vice versa. Cooper does not all the horror of this thing! And the choose Judith whom he admires as his wife shame-the indelicacy!-the horrible even though she was a bright girl, he does not ugliness of this exposure of a sick and choose Hetty either, his sister, who obeys the guilty heart to the very eye that would teachings of religion, in his work The gloat over it!” (Baymn, 1989, p.1265). Deerslayer. Cooper does not choose the old Ta Wah Wah who becomes his lover in The Some secret mistakes have made Dimmesdale Pathfinder, nor the young Judith. 'The middle suffer and eventually die. The mode of nature, position selected by Cooper is a strong which is reflected here is that every human understanding of the nature and its properties. being has natural properties that are unscrupulous to demonstrate their capacity as From writers who wrote about the a savior. Hester’s obstinacy is Hawthorne’s significance of the nature above, Cooper is the recognition to the needs of attention for the author of nature that accommodates the human soul. Hester believes that what he did physical, social and spiritual environment. would be justified by God (Baymn, 1989, p. Hawthorne’s defense is on the properties that 1265). stick to human beings when Hester Prynne was so strong in character as well as his Dimmesdale’s death is Hawthorne’s attitude defense of nature, which he has in himself as that does not tolerate an attitude which is he prefers to be punished in prison and against natural moral stance contained in man. scaffold or by hanging and humiliated in the Hawthorne has the same attitude toward market place. Natural elements that nature, that nature cannot be resisted. Both Hawthorne raised are different with natural authors differ in the scope of nature’s size that elements raised by Cooper. Hawthorne they manage, although in principle they reject chooses natural properties of the human the bad traits of nature. Both have an eco- psyche or mentality. Hester Prynne and centric attitude. Dimmesdale’s moral attitude, Dimmesdale feel different when Hester even though he eventually dies, is Prynne violates the rule because she was Hawthorne’s form of defense against moral neglected by her husband Chillingworth, values, as well as the moral values that are while Arthur Dimmesdale feels that he believed by Hester Prynne, which are commits treason against the trust of protected by Hawthorne with the opportunity parishioners. to continue living. Cooper is also eco-centric. Natty Bumppo’s hut in the forest and the Hawthorne here distinguishes the quality of extinction of the Mohican tribe indicate the the offense. Vices of human nature are dialectic between cause and effect. ultimately defeated when Dimmesdale dies because of the pressure of guilt against the The extinction of the Mohican tribe causes prevailing norms in the society. Dimmesdale’s Natty Bumppo to restrain his natural human death is a result of psychological pressure to desire on the abundance of properties that is neglect the rules of society. shown by the migrants who exploit the environment. Melville also has an eco-centric “…Happy are you, Hester, that wear the moral soul when human’s revenge eventually scarlet letter openly upon your bossom! is defeated by the nature. It is the same with Mine burns in secret…now it is all Cooper, Hawthorne and Melville, who show falsehood!-all emptiness!-all dead!”…O eco-centric moral attitude, with different

34 Ceisy Nita Wuntu — James Fenimore Cooper and the Idea of Environmental Conservation in the Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841) displayed nature. Cooper, Hawthorne and done by Billy Kirby in The Pioneers and the Melville show the similarity of view about the fauna mass murder in the village of Templeton positive and negative of nature. Melville has a for pleasure. strategy to play with nature that cannot be changed by man with moral values and Materials about environmental safety in the wisdom and not with the attitude shown work of Cooper The Leatherstocking Tales Captain Ahab (Melville as cited in Baymn et began to be written two years after he wrote al, 1989, pp. 2157-2158). his first novel The Precaution (1821). Through his work, fighting for a good cause The spirit, which is owned by Captain Ahab is towards the environment that he began in the spirit of arrogance that consider as he 1823, forty-seven years after American considers himself great, powerful and more independence, Cooper already reminded the than others. With the spirit of arrogance, by country to be sensible to the natural relying on his physical abilities, he advances environment and human environment around to conquer the giant whale but eventually dies. it. Cooper’s popularity in the 19th and 20th Thoreau does not dismiss nature in human centuries exceeded writers like Thoreau, beings. In “Higher Laws” in Thoreau's Melville, and Whitman. These three authors “Walden”, he says, “I love the wild not less were discovered by modern readers when they than the good” (Thoreau, 1971, p. 210). got American awards. Cooper’s fame in obtaining national literature from the quality However, Thoreau’s recognition gives a sense of his works reveals the identity of American of tolerance or gives place to the bad natural literature, which is “American-ness” as the properties which are circumvented by Cooper, emergence of varied dialects, ‘frontier’ Hawthorne and Melville. Whitman also background area and familiar characters that appreciates nature but he prefers to be are often heard in the area, and the theme of anthropocentric. For him, nature can be used the ideas of a new republic (Walker, 1962, p. for the benefit of man. Although Whitman has 120). a noble purpose to meet his Lord in the journey to the east like in “Passage to India,” Cooper is regarded as “the first American he has a dominant admiration to technological writer to express a sense of concern for the developments for the sake of the people. The wanton destruction of the environment.” eco-centric attitude of Cooper in The Cooper’s love for the natural world began Leatherstocking Tales has a broader level, as when he was always close to nature, and Cooper describes the physical elements of familiarity with the nature made him miss it, nature such as flora, fauna and humans in a so he did not like the activities of eviction of unity that are justified by ecological forest, flora and fauna undertaken by migrants principles. Cooper has a tight defense against (Franklin, 2007, p. 12). The benefits provided living natural elements. by the universe are actually traceable in his memory. His attention to the flora and fauna Thus, it can be said that the ideals of Walt was born for the longing to the quiet time in Whitman at the time were being fought by the the beautiful American wilderness that was migrants, which makes America as a modern once his playground. Untouched American country, advanced in technology, although in a nature in his childhood has been cultivating way damaging the environment, such as the his love of flora and fauna so that changes that extinction of Mohican tribe, as well as the occurred when flora and fauna started to be cutting of trees for amassing wealth as was evicted led to hatred against the frontiersmen.

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persistence in facing many challenges as a The cacophony of the activities of the writer in the era of early America, the frontiersman had been disturbing the peace of challenges in his personal life, his concern for flora and fauna, which he had acquired in the the condition of American literature, the wilds of America. “Cooper was indeed intention with the spirit of patriotism and making a social and moral issue out his own concern for the environment, the flora, fauna sense of loss. The loss was visual, as his and humans in America even around the emphasis on the ugliness of the frontiers the world in general. stump-strewn landscape suggest” (Franklin, 2007, pp. 12-13).Cooper’s knowledge on how As the first American writer who cares about to treat the natural and human environment the environmental damage and presenting the was a value that was very expensive to have ideas of environmental preservation in The in this new nation which was officially formed Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841), he on July 4th, 1776. This is in accordance with became viable as an environmentalist in the principles of ecology that emphasizes the America when this work was recognized as a absolute dependence of each other between all monumental work. It was necessary to warn the elements that exist on the earth (Odum, the Americans, even all of humankind to the 1971, pp. 1-3). dangers of environmental destruction. Historically, eco-criticism in America refers to The dream of the settlers that a new world is a works that glorify ‘nature’ from the place that promises a better life has resulted in ‘transcendentalists’ in 1840s which are the the exploitation of the environment such as; works of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the cutting of trees to be used to build Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), as well as settlements as well as a commodity to be Margaret Fuller (1810 -1850), while in the marketed to countries in Europe and the UK in the works of William Wordsworth in killing of animals for the use of their leather the English Romantic period in the 1790s and fur which will be sold in Europe as well (Barry, 2002, p. 250). as for fun for the newcomers are the environmental issues portrayed by James Eco-criticism applies a ‘natural science’ Fenimore Cooper. When such exploitation concept which is different from the makes the quality of the environment domination of other criticisms that do not unstable, and when it is not addressed, it will accommodate these fields in analyzing maintain an un-commendable attitude of the literature (Dodd, 2014).Cooper’s intelligence newcomers towards the environment. Since in the work is not limited to providing very early, Cooper had dreams to straighten admiration for the natural beauty but more in the migrants to ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of the issues that arise in the present period as happiness’ which contains values of hatred against pollution (The Prairie, 1827, p. environmental sustainability. 674), as well as the concept of alive habitat, when he is worrying about the life of the The success of Cooper’s observation of the fauna habitat being destroyed in the forest urgency of his country’s future was projected (The Pioneers, 1823, p. 250). This thinking from the state of super abundance has emerged in the period prior to the accompanied by a strong self-belief that ‘Transcendentalist.’ This factor qualifies the superior European settlers were a work of Cooper The Leatherstocking Tales is consequence of a superior quality. That an embryo of eco-criticism. The other reason quality is reflected in the nature of Cooper’s is that, historically, the work appears before

36 Ceisy Nita Wuntu — James Fenimore Cooper and the Idea of Environmental Conservation in the Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841) the works of the ‘Transcendentalists’ which ed., Vol. 1.). W.W. Norton & appears after 1840, earlier than the effort to Company. New York. save the environment in the United States ______. (2003). Cherokee Memorials. In pioneered by John Muir, Theodore Roosevelt The Norton Anthology of American and Pinchot in the 1850s and emerged much Literature. (6th ed. Vol. B). W.W. earlier from the birth of the environmental Norton & Company. New York. 1029- legislation in the United States in September 1039. 1964. Cooper, J. F. (1985). The Leatherstocking Tales; Volume I (The Pioneer, The Conclusion Last of The Mohicans, The Prairie). The Library of America. USA. Cooper’s integrity in American literature has ______. (1985). The Leatherstocking Tales; been determined by the integrity to the natural Volume II (The Deerslayer, The environment, the state and nation, humanity Pathfinder). The Library of America. and to life. The relevance of the ideas of USA. Cooper, J. F. (1979). Introduction: The Last of environmental preservation in Cooper’s work The Mohicans. Dodd, Mead & The Leatherstocking Tales with current Company. New York. environmental issues has placed the work as a Dodd, E. (21 October 2014). Ecocriticism: monumental work in the world, from the Literary Studies in an Age of properties or nature of the world raised by Environmental Crisis. Natural Cooper, which can never be changed by time Resources and Environmental and is universal. Therefore, eco-criticism that Sciences Seminar Series. Kansas emerges in the era of post-modernism can still State University, Ackert 231. refer to the work of Cooper. Thoreau, Franklin, W. (2007). James Fennimore Emerson and Margaret Fuller mentioned as Cooper: The Early Years. Yale forerunners of eco-criticism in America have University Press. USA. actually been preceded by Cooper, and Glotfelty, C. and Fromm, H. (Eds). (1996). Cooper also preceded other American writers The Ecocriticism Reader Landmarks who wrote about nature like Hawthorne, in Literary Ecology. University of Melville, and Whitman. These factors can Georgia Press. Georgia. meant that the works of James Fennimore Lauter, P. (2009). The Arrival of The Whites. Cooper’s The Leatherstocking Tales as an In The Heath of Anthology of embryo of eco-criticism and can put Cooper American Literature (6th ed. Vol. A). in the category of environmentalists in Wadsworth. New York. pp. 74-79. America, together with Thoreau, Muir, Lembaga Alkitab Indonesia, Alkitab, Jakarta. Roosevelt and Pinchot. Lounsbery, T. (1886). James Fennimore Cooper. Houghton, Mifllin and References Company. New York. Mc Michael, G, et al (Eds). (1980). Anthology Barry, P. (2002). Beginning theory: An Of American Literature, (2nd ed., Vol. Introduction to Literary and Cultural 1). Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. Theory. Manchester university Press. New York. UK. Muir, J. (1985). The American Conservation Baym, N., et al. (Eds). (1989). The Norton Movement. The University of Anthology of American Literature (3rd Wisconsin Press. Wisconsin.

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Odum, E. P. (1971). Fundamentals of Spiller, R. E. (1965). James Fennimore Ecology. W. B. Saunders Company. Cooper. McGraw-Hill Book USA. Company. New York. Shanley, J. L. (ed.). (1971). Walden. Princeton Walker, W. S. (1862). James Fennimore University Press. New Jersey. Cooper: An Introduction and Smith, C. J. (1624). The General History of Interpretation. Barnes & Noble, Inc. Virginia. The Fourth Book. Wisconsin New York. Historical Society. Wisconsin. Whitman, W. (1900). A Passage To India. Spiller, R. E., Throp, W., Johnson, T.H., Retrieved from Canby, H.S, Ludwig, R.M., Gibson , http://www.bartleby.com/142/183.htm W.M. (Eds). (1974). Literary History l. of The United State. McMillan Publishing Co., Inc. New York.