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“Messengers of Justice and of Wrath”: the Captivity ―Messengers of Justice and of Wrath‖: The Captivity-Revenge Cycle in the American Frontier Romance A dissertation presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Brian P. Elliott June 2011 © 2011 Brian P. Elliott. All Rights Reserved. 2 This dissertation titled ―Messengers of Justice and of Wrath‖: The Captivity-Revenge Cycle in the American Frontier Romance by BRIAN P. ELLIOTT has been approved for the Department of English and the College of Arts and Sciences by Paul C. Jones Associate Professor of English Benjamin M. Ogles Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3 ABSTRACT ELLIOTT, BRIAN P., Ph.D., June 2011, English ―Messengers of Justice and of Wrath‖: The Captivity-Revenge Cycle in the American Frontier Romance Director of Dissertation: Paul C. Jones This project explores the central importance of captivity and revenge to four novels in the genre of frontier romance: Charles Brockden Brown‘s Edgar Huntly (1799), James Fenimore Cooper‘s Last of the Mohicans (1826), Catharine Maria Sedgwick‘s Hope Leslie (1827), and Robert Montgomery Bird‘s Nick of the Woods (1837). Although a fundamental plot aspect of nearly every work in the genre, the threat of captivity and the necessity of revenge are rarely approached as topics of inquiry, despite their deep connection to the structure and action of the texts. Perhaps most importantly, as critics Jeremy Engels and Greg Goodale note, these twin tropes serve as a way of unifying disparate social groups and creating order; in essence, such depictions function as a form of what Michel Foucault terms ―governmentality,‖ logics of control that originate from non-governmental sources but promote systems of governance. For works in the genre of frontier romance, the cyclical recurrences of captivity and revenge violence—what I term the ―captivity-revenge cycle‖—become the rhetorical embodiment of the contemporary sociopolitical discourses on proper citizenship, government, and morality. With these ideas in mind, I examine the role of the captivity-revenge cycle as depicted in the texts studied here. In each novel, the centrality of forms of captivity— male domestic or economic disempowerment and isolation, female abduction and 4 physical captivity—combine with their accompanying acts of vengeance to create a vision of frontier society that is structured around this cyclical violence; the societies depicted represent a form of participation in the era‘s sociopolitical discourses on topics like expansion, citizenship, proper republican morality, and justice. By reinvestigating a genre often dismissed as overly conventional and lowbrow, this project displays the way that frontier romances serve as vehicles for the rhetoric of sociopolitical organization, revealing important cultural work in the contributions of popular literature to the emerging United States. Approved: _____________________________________________________________ Paul C. Jones Associate Professor of English 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to offer my sincere thanks to Paul Jones, whose excellent advice on this project was only surpassed by his cheerful willingness to field all manner of bizarre questions. Additionally, many thanks go to my dissertation committee of Nicole Reynolds, Thomas Scanlan, and Jessica Roney for their helpful suggestions and scholarly guidance. Lastly, a warm thank you to the entire family of the Ohio University English Department. My time here has been nothing short of amazing; I can only hope my next stop is half so wonderful and rewarding an experience. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Captivity-Revenge Cycle: The Example of Jane McCrea ................................................................................................................................ 7 Chapter 2: Edgar Huntly: The Roots of Captivity and Revenge in the ―Land of Pits‖ ... 57 Chapter 3: Nick of the Woods: Revenge and National Foundation on the ―Dark and Bloody Ground‖ .............................................................................................................. 108 Chapter 4: The Last of the Mohicans: Old World Failures and the New World Gift of Revenge........................................................................................................................... 156 Chapter 5: Hope Leslie: Parallel Histories and the Captivity-Revenge Cycle of ―The Early Times in the Massachusetts‖ ................................................................................. 213 Afterword: The Captivity-Revenge Cycle beyond the Frontier Romance .................... 263 Works Cited .................................................................................................................... 270 7 CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CAPTIVITY-REVENGE CYCLE: THE EXAMPLE OF JANE MCCREA Americans! revenge your country's wrongs; To you the honour of this deed belongs, Your arms did once this sinking land sustain, And sav'd those climes where Freedom yet must reign — Your bleeding soil this ardent task demands, Expel yon' thieves from these polluted lands… -Philip Freneau, ―America Independent and Her Everlasting Deliverance from British Tyranny and Oppression‖ In their 2009 article ―‗Our Battle Cry Will Be: Remember Jenny McCrea!‘ A Précis on the Rhetoric of Revenge,‖ authors Jeremy Engels and Greg Goodale examine one of the most enduring myths of early America: the murder of Jane McCrea by Indians1 serving British General John Burgoyne. What was initially an unfortunate incident became legend in a flurry of retellings that elaborated on and deviated from the sketchy details of the historical facts; the untimely death of Ms. McCrea in 1777 was immediately appropriated and recast into a national atrocity, not only to embellish and enliven it but to make it serve the various agendas of the story‘s retellers. The focus of Engels and Goodale‘s article explores the tale‘s use as a political tool, particularly one for rallying the people, a ―battle cry‖: The state thus learned to gain a manner of control over the demos by filling them with hatred for the nation‘s ―enemies‖ and then encouraging them to release this hatred in explosive acts of imperialist violence. As 1 I use the term Indian throughout this study because of its historical appropriateness and because it carries important cultural connotations that are pertinent to the project. I therefore use the term with a full recognition of its implications; the standard Native American is used when deemed more appropriate. 8 time passed, and as the public sphere expanded, circulating stories in public memory ensured that these wounds never healed. As Americans told and retold, dramatized and visualized, performed and produced the story of Jane McCrea, they acted as unconscious agents of state power. (95) The notion that a random event like the murder of Jane McCrea could be turned into a symbolic act around which people could rally is nothing new; what is intriguing, however, is the way that the story of Jane McCrea‘s murder becomes conventionalized, recast into more or less standard forms that could be easily communicated and would instantly elicit the ―appropriate‖ responses of shock, horror, and desire for retributive justice from potential audiences. Those audiences have been unexpectedly diverse, ranging from the Revolutionary militia using her death as a rallying point, to the readers of sentimental novels, and even the viewers of a small town play loosely based on the events.2 Rather than simply being an example of the mechanisms by which a singular event is manipulated to create multiple forms for popular consumption, however, the multiple versions of Jane McCrea‘s death are all directed by conventionalized representation to serve one primary end: to inspire revenge against her murderers and the forces they represent. As Engels and Goodale so aptly remark, ―though prior analyses 2 Michelle Burnham notes of the spread of stories about McCrea‘s death: ―its effect on public consensus for the war was immediate, for it reportedly motivated the largest enlistment of patriot soldiers during the Revolutionary War‖ (75). This was especially notable because the Hudson Valley had many British supporters who were immediately alienated by Burgoyne‘s failure to assure their safety from his own forces. For more on this see Namias, White Captives (118-9). McCrea‘s death was first converted to sentimental novel form by René Michel Hilliard d‘Auberteuil in 1784 as Miss McCrea: A Novel of the American Revolution. Philip Henry Carroll created Jane McCrea: A Tragedy in Five Acts for the 150-year anniversary of her death in 1927. 9 illuminate various facets of the McCrea myth, we feel that they miss an important component—for McCrea‘s death was first and foremost a revenge story‖ (94). That one of the earliest American legends would be a revenge story should also be no surprise; American literature is filled with tales of revenge, many of them constructed from the same materials as McCrea‘s story. In the genre of the American frontier romance, for instance, beautiful women are continually threatened with the same conventional Indian violence used in the McCrea stories; their lovers,
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