James Fenimore Coopers Indianerbild: the Last of the Mohicans Und the Pioneers

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James Fenimore Coopers Indianerbild: the Last of the Mohicans Und the Pioneers James Fenimore Coopers Indianerbild: The Last of the Mohicans und The Pioneers von Sirinya Pakditawan Erstauflage disserta Verlag 2015 Verlag C.H. Beck im Internet: www.beck.de ISBN 978 3 95425 894 9 schnell und portofrei erhältlich bei beck-shop.de DIE FACHBUCHHANDLUNG Leseprobe Textprobe: Kapitel 2.2.2, Der Missionar Heckewelder: In basing his [Cooper’s] early Indian characters (…) upon Heckewelder, he was following, according to his belief, the most reliable authority known at that time. Im Vorwort zu den Leatherstocking Tales von 1850 offenbart Cooper seine Wertschätzung von Heckewelders Kenntnissen der Indianer. Zugleich verteidigt er dabei seine eigene idealisierte Darstellung des nordamerikanischen Ureinwohners als grundlegendes Recht des Dichters und bekennt sich somit auch dazu, Indianer fiktionalisiert zu haben: It has been objected to these books [the Leatherstocking Tales] that they give a more favourable picture of the red man than he deserves. The writer apprehends that much of this objection arises from the habits of those who have made it. One of his critics (…) objected that its ‘characters were Indians of the school of Heckewelder, rather than of the school of nature.’ These words (…) contain the substance of the true answer to the objection. Heckewelder was an ardent, benevolent missionary, bent on the good of the red man, and seeing in him one who had the soul, reason, and characteristics of a fellow-being. (…) It is the privilege of all writers of fiction (…) to present the beau-idéal of their characters to the reader. (Mohicans, Preface to the Leatherstocking Tales [1850], S. 398; Hervorhebung SP). Da Cooper von Heckewelders Zuverlässigkeit überzeugt war, gebrauchte er dessen Werk Indian Nations als Hauptquelle für seine eigene Darstellung des Indianers in den frühen Lederstrumpf- Romanen The Pioneers und The Last of the Mohicans. Dennoch wird durchaus sichtbar, dass Cooper Heckewelders Verherrlichung der Indianer erkannt (er bezeichnet Heckewelder nämlich als ‘an ardent, benevolent missionary’) und dem somit auch bewusst distanziert gegenübergestanden hat. Von Heckewelder hat Cooper dennoch den historisch sehr detaillierten Mythos von den ‘bösen’ Indianern, den Irokesen oder ‘Mingos’, und den ‘guten’ Delawaren übernommen. Der Mährische Bruder Heckewelder, der nahezu sein ganzes Leben bei den Delawaren zubrachte, unterscheidet sich jedoch grundlegend von anderen Autoren, die zu seiner Zeit über Indianer berichteten, aufgrund seiner inneren Verbundenheit mit diesen Menschen. Dementsprechend berichtet er authentisch über ihre Geschichte, Sitten und Gebräuche. Auf diese Weise schildert er einfühlsam und wohlwollend seine Begegnung mit den ihm human und edel anmutenden Delawaren. Jedoch verteufelt er die Feinde der Delawaren, die Irokesen, wobei er bei seiner negativen Darstellung des Indianers dennoch weniger auf persönliche Erfahrung als auf Erzählungen von Weißen und anderen Indianern zurückgreift. Dies führt dazu, dass er die Irokesen als Stamm zwar ablehnt, einzelne Stammesangehörige jedoch durchaus schätzt. Indem Heckewelder einerseits christianisierte ‘edle Wilde’, andererseits heidnische ‘teuflische Wilde’ zeigt, wird deutlich, dass er bereits ein stereotypisiertes Bild des Indianers präsentierte, da er sie selbst vor einem bestimmten kulturellen, theologischen Hintergrund betrachtete. Gemäß seiner Hauptinformationsquelle stellt Cooper den ‘guten’ Delawaren die ‘bösen’ Irokesen in The Last of the Mohicans gegenüber, was seiner dichterischen Auffassung vom Wesen der Indianer am nächsten kam. Auf diese Art übernimmt Cooper beispielsweise Heckewelders Ausführungen über die Namen sowie über die Allianzen der indianischen Stämme, weshalb man ihm auf den ersten Blick ein unkritisches Vorgehen und gar grobe Vereinfachung vorwerfen könnte. Genau wie Heckewelder gebraucht Cooper somit Bezeichnungen für die unterschiedlichen Stämme, die zur Verwirrung beim Leser beitragen können. Auf diese Weise differenziert er ebenso wenig wie Heckewelder zwischen Mahicans (Algonkins beiderseits des Hudsons) und Mohegans (Pequots in Connecticut), wobei es sich bei Letzteren um die Vorbilder für Coopers Mohikaner handelt, die er jedoch als Zweig der Delawaren verstanden wissen möchte. Aus diesem Grund erscheinen Coopers Mohikaner als Produkt einer Verschmelzung dieser beiden Stämme der Algonkin. Dementsprechend bezeichnet er sowohl Chingachgook als auch Uncas in The Last of the Mohicans abwechselnd als Delaware, Mohican und Mohegan. Diese Simplifizierung erklärt Cooper in der Einleitung zu The Last of the Mohicans von 1831 wie folgt: (…) the term used in the title of this book [Mohicans] has undergone the changes of Mahicanni, Mohicans, and Mohegans; the latter being the word commonly used by the Whites. When it is remembered that the Dutch (…), the English, and the French, all gave appellations to the tribes that dwelt within the country which is the scene of this story, and that the Indians (…) gave different names (…) to themselves, the cause of the confusion will be understood. In these pages, Lenni-Lenape, Lenope, Delawares, Wapanachki, and Mohicans, all mean the same people, or tribes of the same stock. (Mohicans, Introduction [1831], S. 8f.) Es wird deutlich, dass Cooper offenbar im Bewusstsein des mangelnden Kenntnisstandes seiner Leser im Ganzen wenig um Korrektheit bei der Verwendung originalsprachlicher Formen bemüht gewesen ist, die Heckewelder aber bereits vermerkt hat. Somit ist bezeichnend, dass Heckewelder schon feststellt, der Name ‘Delaware’ sei bei dem damit bezeichneten Volk als Beschimpfung empfunden worden. Dennoch nennen sich bei Cooper die Lenni Lenape und auch die Mohikaner häufig selbst Delaware. Ein Beispiel dafür ist die entscheidende Szene, in der Uncas nach der Sprache seiner Gebete gefragt wird und ‘like his fathers (…) with the tongue of a Delaware’ (Mohicans, Kap. XXX, S. 346) antwortet. Oder die Lenni Lenape bezeichnen sich bei Cooper auch als ‘Wapanachki’ (Mohicans, Kap. XXXIII, S. 388), obwohl Heckewelder zu berichten weiß: ‘These people [the Lenni Lenape] are known and called by all the western, northern, and some of the southern nations, by the name of Wapanachki’. Diesen Namen gaben sich die Lenape also nicht selber, sondern er wurde ihnen von anderen gegeben. Aufgrund von Coopers undifferenzierter Verwendung von Bezeichnungen für die indianischen Stämme, scheint es, dass er mehr noch als sein Vorbild Heckewelder zur Simplifizierung und Stereotypisierung beigetragen hat. Diese Ungenauigkeit ermöglichte Cooper jedoch, darüber hinaus auch die historischen Allianzen der Stämme zu verkehren und somit dem gespaltenen Bild, das die Weißen zu jener Zeit vom Indianer hatten, einen grundlegenden Ausdruck zu verleihen. Indem Cooper im French and Indian War proenglische Delawaren profranzösische Huronen gegenüberstellt, drückt er eine durchaus problembewusste Haltung hinsichtlich der rassischen Stereotypisierung aus. Dies erscheint auch deshalb gerechtfertigt zu sagen, zumal diese Verkehrung nicht auf Heckewelder zurückgeht. Vom historischen Standpunkt aus war es nur natürlich, dass die Delawaren tatsächlich auf der Seite der Franzosen standen. Denn dies ermöglichte ihnen, ihre Erzfeinde, die Irokesen, zu bekämpfen. Darüber hinaus ist aber auch interessant zu bemerken, dass bei der Belagerung von Fort William Henry die meisten Irokesen offiziell neutral, tatsächlich aber zumeist probritisch waren, während die Delawaren offiziell neutral waren, jedoch meist auf französischer Seite standen. Indem Cooper die Indianer aber strikt auf zwei Blöcke analog zu dem Konflikt zwischen Engländern und Franzosen reduzierte, obwohl ihm die historischen Fakten geläufig waren, führte er gleichzeitig ein bereits existierendes Stereotyp fort. Dennoch muss in diesem Kontext beachtet werden, dass Cooper in einem Roman, der es ablehnt, ein ‘imaginary and romantic picture of things which never had an existence’ (Mohicans, Preface [1826], S. 3) zu geben, die Allianzen nur aufgrund gewisser Beziehungen zwischen Charakteren veränderte. Auf diese Weise mussten die Delawaren Chingachgook und Uncas unbedingt auf der Seite der Briten stehen, da der weiße Protagonist Hawkeye kaum neben denjenigen kämpfen konnte, die bald besiegt werden sollten. Somit lässt sich der wahre Grund für Coopers ‘fiktionale’ historische Vereinigungen im französisch-indianischen Krieg vollständig erfassen. Auf ähnliche Weise geht Cooper auch mit den indianischen Eigennamen um, die er zwar meist von Heckewelder übernahm, jedoch verschob und so zu seinen eigenen, ‘fiktionalen’ Namen machen konnte. Ein Beispiel dafür ist der Name des ehrwürdigen Greises Tamenund, dem Uncas in The Last of the Mohicans die Errettung vom Marterpfahl verdankt. In Indian Nations widmet Heckewelder den beiden bekannten Delaware-Häuptlingen Tamanend und Tadeuskund ein eigenes Kapitel. Bei Cooper fließen ihre Namen zu ‘Tamenund’ zusammen, so dass diese Indianergestalt zwei historische Vorbilder besitzt. Von einem weiteren geschichtlichen Vorbild stammt auch der Name des letzten Mohikaners, vom Mohegan-Häuptling Uncas, der als Pequot- Renegat mit seiner Gruppe auf Seiten der Engländer gegen Metacom gekämpft hatte, von einem good Indian also, der sich in den Dienst der Briten gestellt hat. Durch diese Assoziation wird Uncas also unmittelbar als ‘guter’ Indianer gekennzeichnet. Demgegenüber trägt sein huronischer Gegner den Namen Magua (Le Renard Subtil), der nach Heckewelder ein Schimpfwort der Delawaren für die Irokesen darstellt (maquas). Auf diese Weise wird Magua also von
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