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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-51972-4 - Accounting for Ministers: Scandal and Survival in British Government 1945–2007 Samuel Berlinski, Torun Dewan and Keith Dowding Index More information

Index

Adonis, Andrew 37 forced exits 121, 125, 127, 128, adverse selection 7–8, 10, 11, 12, 14 131, 132, 140, 147, 149 Afghanistan 49 main issues 107–8 age (ministers’) 55, 59, 65, 67, 68, Blunkett, David 118, 141, 143, 144, 150, 174 147, 149 hazard rates 79 Bofors Scandal (India 1980s) 118 agency model (elections) 8–12, 13, 14 Boothby, Robert 131 empirical evidence 12 Bray, Jeremy 147, 148 parliamentary democracy, Brayley, Lord 141, 142–3 application in 15–20, 21 British Aerospace 146 Aitken, Jonathan 143–4, 149 British Constitution 24 Al-Fayed, Mohammed 143, 144 British Empire 49, 89 Anne, Queen 22 British government, structure of 21–53 Asquith, H. H. 131 constitutional requirements 21–6 assistant whips 33 see also cabinet; House of Atkins, Humphrey 136 Commons; House of Lords; Attlee administration 5, 28, 47, 49, 52, ministers 53, 64, 92, 103, 112, 115 British Guiana 94 Attlee’s cabinet style 90, 98 Brittan, Leon 144, 145–6 forced exits 119, 121, 141 Broadcasting Act (1990) 139 main issues 89–90 Brown, George 41, 98 Australia 97, 122 Brown, Gordon 5, 25, 41, 107, 108, Ayas, Mr 144 109 Butler,R.A.24, 25, 92, 94–5, 96 Balogh, Professor Thomas (later Lord) Byers, Stephen 137–8 98 Bank of England 107, 141 cabinet 26–30 Barber, Anthony 100 collective responsibility 2, 21, 29, Bauwens, Mona 140 32, 33, 42, 44–6, 117, 118, 119, Belcher, John 141 121, 132, 133, 137, 148, 163, Benn, Tony 42 168, 172, 176 Bevin, Ernest 90 ‘core of the core executive’ 27 Bill of Rights (1689) 22 establishment and power 22 Black Wednesday (16 September 1992) incentives, system of 17–19, 21 105 parliamentary democracy, and Blair administration 5, 25, 26, 29, 37, 13–14 39, 41, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, reshufﬂes 38–9, 43, 44, 81, 88, 95, 61–4, 73 99, 109, 122, 123–4 Blair’s cabinet style 108–9 shadow cabinet 30

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-51972-4 - Accounting for Ministers: Scandal and Survival in British Government 1945–2007 Samuel Berlinski, Torun Dewan and Keith Dowding Index More information

Index 191

see also committee system (cabinet); Civil War (1642–51) 22 ministers; prime minister’s Clarke, Kenneth 106 relationship with cabinet Clegg, Nick 25 Cabinet Ofﬁce 26, 36, 52, 95, 145 committee system (cabinet) 26, 31, 32, Cabinet Secretariat 52 33, 104, 108, 143, 145 Cabinet Secretary 143, 144 Select Committee on Estimates 36 Caithness, Earl of 147 Select Committee on Public Callaghan, James (Heath Administration 47 administration) 142 communism 89, 90 Callaghan administration 25, 26, 97, Conservative Central Ofﬁce 117 98, 176 Conservative Party 24, 37, 41, 96, Callaghan’s cabinet style 102 100, 104, 105, 106, 108, 115, forced exits 125 129, 138, 140, 145 main issues 101–2 Cook, Robin 131, 132 Campbell, Alastair 119 corruption see scandals Canning Town Glass investigation Cousins, Frank 36, 37 (1974) 142 Crichel Down affair (1954) 82, 135–6 Captain of the Honourable Corps of Criminal Justice Bill 139 Gentlemen-at-Arms 33 Cripps, Stafford 90 Captain of the Queen’s Bodyguard of Cruikshank, Harry 92 the Yeoman of the Guard 33 Currie, Edwina 140, 144, 146 career politicians 15, 16, 35, 54, 152 Cyprus 94 Carlisle, Mark 104 Carrington, Lord 23, 102, 136 Daily Mirror 94 ‘cash for questions’ affair (1990s) Daily Telegraph 121 143 Dalton, Hugh 90, 118, 144–5 Central Policy Review Staff 52 Davies, Ron 140–1 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster de Gaulle, Charles 94, 97 31, 49, 145 de Sancha, Antonia 139 Chancellor of the Exchequer 31, 49, deputy prime minister 25, 29, 50 91, 95, 102, 104–5, 118, 136, DNA Bioscience 143 140, 145 Douglas-Home administration 23, 24, characteristics (ministers’) 61–5, 150, 25, 100, 106, 133 151, 173 Douglas-Home’s cabinet style 96–7 separating the effect of 76–8, main issues 96 174 Driberg, Tom 131 Chief Secretary to the Treasury 31, 48, Dugdale, Sir Thomas 135–6 49, 105, 144 durability (ministers’) 44, 67, 68, 79, Chief Whip 24, 30, 32, 37, 48, 50, 91, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 99, 119, 120, 100, 131, 138 122, 163 Churchill administration 24, 26, 72, duration (ministers’) see longevity of 90, 99, 108, 110, 132 service (ministers’) Churchill’s cabinet style 91–2 Duration Models see hazard rates main issues 90–1 (ministers’) citizen-candidate model (elections) 10–11 Economist, The 146 civil service 30, 34, 47, 98, 104, 107, Eden administration 24, 25, 92, 95, 164 97, 128, 132, 137 reform 97, 103 Eden’s cabinet style 93 Civil Service Yearbook 53 main issues 92–3

192 Index

education (ministers’) 64, 65–6, 78, First World War 52 79, 82, 156 Fletcher-Cooke, Charles 144, 145 longevity of service, effect on 55, 70, forced exits (ministers’) 4–5, 33, 34, 72, 83–4, 174 37–8, 43–4, 87, 107, 117–49, EEC see European Economic 151, 152, 153, 154, 164 Community (EEC) conclusions 148–9 Egypt 92–3, 99 introduction 117–19 see also Suez Canal crisis prime ministers, differences between elections 127–32 1945, in 90 proximate causes 132–48, 173; 1950, in 90 departmental error 135–6; ‘other 1959, in 94 controversies’ 121, 144, 147–8; 1966, in 97 performance 136–8, 140; personal 1970, in 97 error 135, 137, 138, 140, 144–7, 1974 (February), in 24 149; personality clash 133, 137; 1974 (October), in 24, 100 policy disagreement 132–5, 137, 1979, in 102 148, 173; scandal see scandals 1983, in 102, 123 resignation issues 43, 44, 117, 1992, in 105 119–27, 132–48, 161, 173 2001, in 108 resignations and non-resignations 2005, in 108 119–27, 148 elite theory 56–7 ‘sacrificial’ responsibility 43, 44, Elizabeth II, Queen 23, 24, 26, 33, 96, 135, 136, 164, 171–2 105 unforced exits 44 EU see European Union (EU) Foreign Office 34, 47, 48, 49, 95, 100, European Community 137 136 European Economic Community Foreign Secretary 23, 25, 37, 49, 90, (EEC) 97, 99, 101 92, 95, 102, 105, 147 European Exchange Rate Mechanism Formosa (Taiwan) 119 106 Fourth Republic (France) 86 European Union (EU) 27, 29, 34, 41, France 92–3 49, 94, 103, 105–6 Fraser, Tom 137 executive see cabinet Fulton Report (1968) 97 experience (ministers’) 3, 55, 59, 61, 65–8, 74–6, 86, 98, 150, 153, Galbraith, Tom 144, 145 156, 166, 174 gender (ministers’) 55, 56, 59, 61–4, hazard rates 68, 69, 70, 79–81, 85 73–4, 79, 150, 156, 174 longevity of service, effect on 70, George VI, King 25 74–5, 85, 150 German Socialist Party 56 Gibson, George 141 factions 40–1, 45, 67, 81, 95, 98, 103, Godfather, The 41 133, 177 Great Reform Act (1832) 22 Fairbairn, Nicholas 138–9, 144, Great Train Robbery (1963) 96 145 Gresham’s Law 7 Falconer, Charlie 108 Guardian 144 Falklands War 82, 102, 103, 136 Hailsham, Lord 25, 96 ‘fire alarm’ procedures 17 Hamilton, Neil 141, 143, 144, First Division Association 149 108 Harvey, Ian 131

Index 193

hazard rates (ministers’) 68–72, 74–5, Jellicoe, Lord 131 120, 157, 161, 172 John Bull magazine 95 determinants 78–83 Joint Parliamentary Secretary to the estimates 165–70 Ministry of Technology 148 Heath administration 24, 26, 29, Joint Under Secretary of State 145 49, 53, 70, 95, 96, 97, 103, 104, junior ministers 3, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36, 142 38, 42, 52, 61, 65, 66, 81, 82, 85, Heath’s cabinet style 100 95, 97, 120, 125, 132, 136 main issues 99–100 hereditary peers (ministers) 23, 38, 56, Kaldor, Professor Nicholas (later Lord) 64, 65, 66, 82, 96, 107, 163 98 hazard rates 82 Kaufman, Gerald 98 Life Peerages Act (1958) 23 Keeler, Christine 131, 138 Peerage Act (1963) 96 Kilmuir, David 95 Heseltine, Michael 25, 104, 105, 106, Korean War 91, 119 132, 145–6 Hinduja, Srichand 118 Labour Party 24, 25, 29, 37, 50, 97, Hitler, Adolf 147 98, 101, 102–3, 107, 108, 129, Home Ofﬁce 34, 47, 95, 118, 142, 143 145, 166 National Executive Committee Home Secretary 34, 49, 51, 118, 135, (NEC) 98 136, 142, 155 Lambton, Lord 131 House of Commons 22–3, 30, 31, 33, Lamont, Norman 106, 107, 133, 35, 37, 44, 70, 85, 94, 95, 106, 140 108, 118, 121, 138, 141, 143, Lawson, Nigel 105 144, 146, 147 Liberal Party 13, 24, 25, 100, 103 House of Lords 22–3, 30, 31, 32, 33, Life Peerages Act (1958) 23 82, 85, 97, 108, 148 Lilley, Peter 41 House of Lords Act (1999) 23, Lloyd, Selwyn 95 107 lobby groups 9, 118, 144 Howard, Michael 41 Local Government Act (1972) 99 Howe, Geoffrey 102 longevity of service (ministers’) 1, 54, Hughes, Beverley 144, 147 55, 59–61, 64, 65–76, 80–1, hydrogen bomb test 94 83–6, 87, 150, 173 conclusions 83–6 incentives 46, 54, 151, 154, 155, 178 political effects 76 cabinet as system of 17–19, 21, 167 see also age (ministers’); misalignment of incentives 152–3 characteristics (ministers’); principal–agent relations 3, 6, 7–10, education (ministers’); experience 12, 14, 15 (ministers’); forced exits Independent Television News (ITN) (ministers’); hazard rates 146 (ministers’); performance and Industrial Relations Act (1971) tenure (ministers’); who serves as 99 ministers; women (ministers) informational asymmetry 9, 16–17, 19, Lord President of the Council 31 153–4, 175 Lord Privy Seal 31, 49 IRA 106 Lords in Waiting 33 Iraq War 49, 107, 132 Lords of the Treasury 33 Irvine, Derry 108 loyalty 40, 82, 85, 90, 91, 98, 105, Israel 89, 92–3, 99 108, 111, 118, 136

194 Index

Luce, Richard 136 full cabinet ministers 31, 36, 38, 42, Lynskey tribunal (1948) 141 48, 61, 66, 132 ministers of cabinet rank 31–2, 36, Maastricht Treaty (1992) 106 42, 52 MacLeod, Iain 95, 96, 100, motivation 15–16, 17, 18 133 pay 11, 12, 18 Macmillan, Lady Dorothy 131 public service 16, 18 Macmillan administration 24, 25, 52, role 30, 33–6, 42, 91 61, 90, 91, 106, 112, 115, 133 shadow ministers 37 Macmillan’s cabinet style 94–6 types 34–5 main issues 93–4 see also age (ministers’); cabinet; Magna Carta (1215) 22 characteristics (ministers’); Major administration 25, 41, 53, 61, education (ministers’); experience 72, 108, 110, 112–15, 137 (ministers’); forced exits forced exits 14, 127, 128, 129, 133, (ministers’); gender (ministers’); 139, 140, 144, 147 hereditary peers (ministers); junior main issues 105–6 ministers; longevity of service Major’s cabinet style 106–7 (ministers’); performance and Malaya 94 tenure (ministers’); prime Mandelson, Peter 118–19, 141, 143, minister’s relationship with 144, 147, 149 ministers; resignation, calls for; Mates, Michael 144, 147 responsibility (ministers’); Maudling, Reginald 95, 96, 141–2 scandals; who serves as ministers media 4, 5, 9, 35, 82, 87, 96, 106, 108, ministers of state 30, 31–2, 33, 36, 48, 118, 119, 120, 121, 127, 164 61 forced exits and 130–1, 133, 135, Monckton, Walter 93 138, 139–40, 144, 145, 146, 147, moral hazard 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14 148–9, 175 Morris, Estelle 138 Mellor, David 106, 138, 139–40, Morrison, Herbert 90 147 Metropolitan Police 142 Nadir, Asil 147 Millennium Dome 118 National Farmers’ Union 146 miners’ strike National Health Service 90 1974, in 99, 100 New Statesman 142 1984–5, in 103 New Zealand 97, 122 Minister of State for Citizenship and Nigeria 97 Counter Terrorism 147 1922 Committee 146 Minister of State for Europe 48, 49 no conﬁdence vote 26, 59, Minister of State for Higher Education 152 31, 37 North Sea oil 101 Minister of State for the Home Ofﬁce Northern Ireland 97, 99, 100 47 Downing Street Declaration (1993) Ministerial and Other Salaries Act 106 (1975) 31 Good Friday Agreement (1998) Ministerial Code of Conduct 143 108 ministers 30–46 Stormont Government (Northern categories 30–3 Ireland) 49 Code of Conduct 143 Northern Ireland Act (1998) 49 different prime ministers, survival Nott, John 118, 136 functions under 109–15, 149, 175 nuclear weapons 89, 92, 94, 97

Index 195

O’Brien, Mike 118 poll tax (Community Charge) 103, O’Donnell, Gus 143 105, 107, 137, 147 Oxford Union 70 Portillo, Michael 41 Poulson, John 141–42 Palestine 89 Powell, Enoch 96, 133 Palestine Liberation Organization power relations in government 140 56–61 Parliament Act (1949) 23 elite theory 56–7 parliamentary democracy 2, 6, 7, political dynasties 57–9 13–14, 56, 87, 173 PPSs see Parliamentary Private agency model, application of 15–20, Secretaries (PPSs) 21 Prescott, John 25, 29, 50 executive, and 13–14 press see media power relations in 56–61; elite Press Complaints Commission 139 theory 56–7; political dynasties prime minister 57–9 delegation 14, 16, 39 parliamentary private secretaries imperfect information 9, 16–17, 19, (PPSs) 29, 32, 33, 37, 42, 95 153–4, 175 parliamentary secretaries see junior Question Time 95 ministers role 14, 17, 22, 42, 52, 86, 151 Parliamentary Secretary to the Board Royal Prerogative 46–7 of Trade 141 see also prime ministerial style; Parliamentary Secretary to the prime minister’s relationship with Treasury 32 cabinet; prime minister’s parliamentary undersecretaries of state relationship with ministers see junior ministers prime ministerial style 89–116, 151, Paymaster General 31, 93 175 Peel, Robert 13, 45 see also under individual prime Peerage Act (1963) 96 ministers peers of the realm see hereditary peers Prime Minister’s Ofﬁce (PMO) 53, (ministers) 131 People, The 139–40 prime minister’s relationship with performance and tenure (ministers’) 1, cabinet 14, 15–20, 87–116 150–72, 173, 174, 175 survival functions under different assumptions 150–4; imperfect prime ministers 109–15, 149, 175 information 9, 16–17, 19, see also prime ministerial style 153–4, 175; ministerial motives prime minister’s relationship with 152; misalignment of incentives ministers 14, 15–20 152–3 appointment and dismissal 17, 18, conclusions 170–2 19, 37, 42, 46, 67, 87, 173, 174, descriptive analysis 157–60 176–8 empirical strategy 160–5 choosing ministers 17, 18, 19, forced exits 136–8, 140 37–42 introduction 150–2 departmental changes 46–53 performance indicators, resignation principal–agent model 39, 42, 151, calls as 1, 151, 154–7, 174 154, 177 see also hazard rates (ministers’) see also forced exits (ministers’); PMO see Prime Minister’s Ofﬁce performance and tenure (PMO) (ministers’); prime ministerial ‘police patrol’ procedures 17 style

196 Index

principal–agent relations Salisbury, Lord (1916–2003) 24, 95 adverse selection 7–8, 10, 11, 12, scandals 1, 4, 17, 19, 33, 38, 40, 43, 14 106, 117, 123, 127, 147, 149, citizen-candidate model 10–11 157, 162, 173, 174, 175 incentive 3, 6, 7–10, 12, 14, 15 financial 40, 106, 118, 121, 127, introduction 6–7 132, 138, 140, 141–4, 149 moral hazard 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14 security 96, 103, 131 parliamentary democracy 15–20, sexual 40, 106, 121, 129–31, 140–1, 21 148 principal–agent view 7–8 spy 103, 145 see also agency model (elections); see also Profumo affair (1963) cabinet Scargill, Arthur 103 principal–agent view (elections) 7–8 Scotland, Patricia (Baroness Scotland privatization 103, 106 of Asthal) 47 Privy Council 22 Second World War 5, 25, 52 Profumo affair (1963) 96, 131, 138, secretaries of state 31, 51, 117, 136, 144 142 public office 6, 7, 16, 56 Secretary of State for Defence 51, 118, public sector strike (1979) 102 136 public service (ministers’) 16, 18 Secretary of State for Education 104, 138 Question Time (parliament) 95 Secretary of State for National Heritage 138 rank, hazard rates in relation to 81–2, Secretary of State for Trade and 84 Industry 96, 145, 146 Redwood, John 106 Security Council (UN) 92 reform 23 Selective Employment Tax (1967) 97 civil service 97, 103 Serious Fraud Squad 147 Great Reform Act (1832) 22 shadow cabinet 30 House of Lords Act (1999) 23, 107 shadow ministers 37 Register of Members’ Interests 143 Shore, Peter 98 resignation, calls for Short, Clare 132 performance indicators, as 1, 151, Six Point Group 119 154–7, 174 Smith, John 107 see also forced exits (ministers’) Smith, Tim 141, 143, 144, 149 responsibility (ministers’) 5, 19, 42–6 social choice theory 6 collective see cabinet Social Democrats (party) 103 individual 2, 21, 29, 38, 42–4, 117, Solicitor General (England and Wales) 122, 132, 133, 148, 163–4, 172, 146 176; ‘sacrificial’ responsibility Solicitor General for Scotland 138 43–4, 135, 136, 164, 171–2 South Africa 97, 99 Rhodesia 97, 99, 102 Spectator 146 Ridley, Nicholas 144, 146–7 Speed, Keith 117–18, 136 Ritz Hotel (Paris) 143, 144 Stanley, Sydney 141 Robinson, Geoffrey 141, 143 Stanley, Venetia 131 Royal Prerogative 46–7 Stewart, Allan 144, 147 Stoddart, David (Baron Stoddart of Sainsbury, Lord 141, 143 Swindon) 47 Salisbury, Lord (1830–1903) 23, Suez Canal crisis (1956) 92–3, 94–5 45 Summerskill, Edith 119

Index 197

Sunday Times 142, 144 United States 93, 99, 107 Symons, Liz 108 congressional careers 54, 57–9 Homeland Security Department 47 tenure see longevity of service terrorist attacks (2001) 47, 107 (ministers’); performance and tenure (ministers’) Vassall spy case (1962) 145 terrorism 89, 100 Victoria, Queen 22 11 September 2001 attacks (USA) 47, 107 Walker, Patrick Gordon 37, 147–48 Thatcher administration 25, 27, 39, Westland affair (1986) 132, 41, 53, 61, 100, 105, 106, 108, 145–6 111, 115, 139, 147 Whigs (political party) 13 forced exits 118, 122, 123–4, 125, whips 3, 29, 30, 32–3, 37, 42, 61, 65, 128, 136, 137, 138, 145–6 66, 81, 107, 120, 132 main issues 102–3 see also assistant whips; Chief Whip Thatcher’s cabinet style 103–5 Whitehall see British government, Times, The 120, 131, 142, 145, 146 structure of Tory Party 13 Whitelaw, William 104 see also Conservative Party Whitty, Larry 108 trade unions 37, 99, 103, 120 who serves as ministers 54, 55–65 see also miners’ strike conclusions 83–6 Trades Union Congress 97 introduction 54–5 Treasury 35, 41, 42, 47, 49, 98, 100, political effects 76 102, 105, 107, 108, 166 power relations in government ‘star chamber’ 104–5 56–61; elite theory 56–7; political dynasties 57–9 Ulster Unionist Party (Northern see also characteristics (ministers’); Ireland political party) 24 longevity of service (ministers’) Under Secretary of State for Defence Wigg, George 98 142 Williams, Marcia 98, 132 Under Secretary of State for Defence Wilson administration 24, 25, 36, 37, for the Army 142 41–2, 102, 108, 111, 112 Under Secretary of State for Defence forced exits 123, 125, 127, 128, for the Navy 117 136, 142, 148 Under Secretary of State for Northern main issues 97, 100–1 Ireland 147 Wilson’s cabinet style 97–9, 101 Under Secretary of State for Scotland women (ministers) 55, 56, 59, 61–4, 145 73–4, 79, 150, 156, 174 unions see trade unions hazard rates 79, 83–4