THE MOHAMMEDAN WORLD OF TO-DAY

Being papers read at the First Missionary Conference on behalf of the Mohammedan World held at Cairo April 4th-9th, r9o6

EDITED BY S. M. ZWEMER, F. R. G. S., E. M. WHERRY, D. D. JAMES L. BARTON, D. D.

(Reproduction of a very rare Arabic Christian coin from the Crusaders' period, discovered by Rev. W. K. Eddy of Sidon, The inscriptions read: "The l<'alher,the Son, and the Holy Spirit, One God''; "One God, one Faith, one Baptism." The original is now in the British Museum, The significanceof the inscription is evident to the student of history,)

NEW YORK CHICAGO TORONTO Fleming H. Revell Company LONDON AND EDINBURGH Copyright, 1906, by FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY SECOJID EDITION

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTORY PAPER II Re-u. H. H. Jmup, D. D. II. JstAM IN EGYPT ZI Reff• .Andrew Watson, D. D. III. JsLAM IN WEST AFRICA 41 Dr. W. R. Miller IV. lsLAM IN TuRKEY 51 .Anatolfrtu

V. ISLAM IN SYRIA AND PALJ,:STlNE Re-u. W. K. Eddy 59

VI. JsLAM IN ARABIA • Re-u. J. C. Y,ung, M. D. 79

VII. ISLAM IN ARABIA Re-u. S. M. Zwemer, D. D. 99 VIII. !SLAM IN PERSIA • 113 Ref/, W. St. Clair Tisdal!,M. A., D.D. IX. }SLAM IN BALUCHISTAN 131 Ref!• .A. Duncan Dixey x. lsLAM IN NoRTH INDIA 1 Ref/, E. M. Wherry, D. D. 47 XI. lsLAM IN SOUTH INDIA 1 3 Refl, M. G. Goldsmith, M. A. 7 XII. THa NEW lsLAM IN INDIA 185 New York: 158 Fifth A venue Rer,. H. U. Weitbrecht, Ph.D., D. D. Chicago: Wabash Avenue Toronto: 25So Richmond Street, W. XIII. !SLAM IN SUMATRA 205 London: 2 t Paternoster Square Re-u. G. K. Simon Edinburgh: 100 Princes Street 1 8 Contents XIV. ISLAM IN }AVA 2 Rer,. C. Albers, Jr. 33 Rer1. ]. Verhoeven, Sr. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv. IsLAM IN BoKHARA AND CHINESE TURKESTAN 2 1 Reo. E. J,hn Laru11 4 Faci'ttg-pap XVI. ' ISLAM IN CHINA 247 Pu.GRIMS AROUND THE KAABA IN THE SACRED MOSQUE Rer,, W, Gilbert Walshe, M. A. AT MECCA Title XVII. How TO AaousE THE CHURCH AT HoME TO ENTRANCE TO THE MosQUE EL AzaAR, CA1Ro 32 THE NEEDS OF IsLAM 26 A MosLEM CoNVERT AND EvANGELisT (EGYPT) 36 Robert E. Speer, M. A. 5 MosLEMS AT PRAYER (EGYPT) 36 XVIII. COMPARATIVE SURVEY OF MOSQUE OF ST. SOPHIA • STA TISTlCAL AND 54 lsLAM IN AFRlCA A OMAN OF 279 w MECCA 8z Rev. Chas. R. Wat;on, D. D. A TYPICAL ARAB OF yEMEN 88 THE XIX. STATISTICAL AND COMPARATIVE SURVEY OF MOURNERS ON ANNIVERSARY OF HUSSEIN'S DEATH, lsLAM IN As1A WITH TOTALS FOR THE EN- TEHERAN, PERSIA 114 TIRE WoRLD 289 TYPES SEEN IN THE CAUCASUS • 122 Reo. S. M, Zwemer, D. D. A MosLEM CONVERT, PERSIA • 126 PROFESSORS AND STUDENTS, FORMAN CHRISTIAN COLLEGE A1' LAHORE 166 A MOSLEM DERISH (SINGING) • 222 MECCA PILGRIMS FROM CEtEBES z 3 8 MECCA PILGRIMS FROM DJAPARA, }AVA 238 TRA'1ELLING DERISHEs FROM BoKHARA 244 INTERIOR OF A MOHAMMEDAN MOSQUE 260 Foua M1sSIONARY MARTYRS OF ARABIA 272

MAPS AND STATISTICAL CHARTS MAP OF ARABIA IOI MAP OF AFRICA 282 STATISTICAL SURVEY OF ISLAM IN AFRICA 285 MAP OF ASIA 288 DuoRAMS OF MosLEM POPULATION 292 STATISTICAL SURVEY OF JsLAM IN AFRICA 295 9 I Introductory Paper Rev. H. H. Jessup, D. D. I Introductory Paper

RECENTLY through the courtesy of a mutual friend, I visited the house of a Sheikh, whose fam­ ily claims to be the only one in Cairo lineally de­ 11 The sword of :Mohammed and the Koran are the moststub� scended from Mohammed. He is a venerable man born enemies of civili�tion, liberty a.nd truth which the world hasyet known. 11-Sir Wm. .Muir. living in a house hundreds of years old, whose " And who is he that overoometb the world, but he that be� architecture, carvings, inscriptions and decorations, lieveth that Jesusis the Son ol GodP ''-1 Jokn 5: 5. are all expressions of the faith of Islam. But the 11 Father, the hour is oome; glorifyThy Son that Thy Son numerous rooms are unoccupied. The only son, may glorify Thee."-John 17: 1, the heir of the lineage, died ten years ago in early manhood, and since then the mother has lived near the Citadel, in order to be near his tomb, given over to inconsolable grief. The aged Sheikh is courteous and affable-a fine specimen of patri­ archal dignity. But the shadow of that bereave­ ment has not been lightened. The sight of that mansion seemed to take one back through the ages of Islam. And I have been thinking of that mightiest system of monotheism the world has ever known, " shadowing with wings," the great continents of Asia and Africa, having in its progress stamped out of existence tens of thousands of Christian churches, and riveted upon200,000,000 of men, its doctrines, polity, cere­ monial, and code of laws, and imbedded itself in 13 Introductory Paper 15 14 The Mohammedan World of To-Day ness are almost unknown. They regard their cere­ the Arabic language like the nummulite fossils in monial righteousness as complete, and they are the ledges of J ebel Mokattam, until it stands to-day satisfied. Even where spiritual longing for peace like a towering mountain range, whose summits with God is felt, there is nothing in Islam to sat­ are gilded with the light of the great truths of isfy it. Some of the most eminent men in the his­ God's existence and unity, and whose foothills run tory of Islam have vainly sought it and died in de­ down into the sloughs of polygamy and oppression spair. I know of no work in Arabic or English and degradation of women. which presents this unsatisfied longing of the Mos­ Most people are somewhat familiar with the fa­ lem heart, more vividly than the Kusbah-el Huda vourable and unfavourable features of this system. ila Sir el Fida-" The Torch of Guidance to the They know something of its vast proportions, its Mystery of Redemption," by the author of the prodigious strength, and its power of propagation. Bakurat and translated into English by the la­ But very few even among Christians are aware of mented Sir William Muir, and published by the the great spiritual needs of Islam. Nor is the Religious Tract Society of London. The author Church at large awake to the fact that the Moham­ quotes from Mohammedan authors accounts of the medan world has suffered this destitution because last hours of the companions of Mohammed, viz. : of her past neglect, and that presentopen doors are Abu Bekr, Ali, Muawia, Solian el Thuri and Omar a challenge to her faith and faithfulness. These ibn el Khattab, and their dying utterances of donbt subjects embrace so wide a field that it will be and despair. impossible to do more than allude to the salient Abn Bekr said : "This is the day of my release points. and obtaining of my desert; if gladness, it will be lasting; if sorrow, it will never cease." I. THE SPIRITUAL DESTITUTION OF lsLill Ali said : "Alas, alas, provision for the journey (a) In general, Mohammedans need what all is small and its risks so dangerous l " men need-salvation through Jesus Christ. They Mua wia said to his son Yezid : " When I die, need to feel their need as lost sinners. This is take some of the hair and nails of the prophet and what they almost universally fail to experience. place them upon my eyes and in my mouth and Their conceit, arising from the old Semitic or Ju­ throat; then spread the prophet's shirt along the daistic idea of their essential superiority to all coffin; if anything could bring a blessing this other men, is a serious obstacle to their acceptance would." And Yezid at his funeral said, " If the of the Christian faith. Almighty forgive him, it will be because of His (b) Spiritual hunger and thirst after righteous- The Mohammedan World of To-Day Introductory Paper 17 mercy ; if He take vengeance upon him, it will be (d) They need the Bible in their own language, for his transgressions." and wise Christian literature. This has already Solianel Thuri, as death approached, said : "I am been done in most Mohammedan countries. Dur­ troubled because I am going on a way I know not ing the last year 46,000,000 of pages of the Arabic of, to appear before the Lord whom I have never Scriptures have been printed at the press in seen." Beirut.- (e) Omar ibn el Khattab, one of the greatest and They need an apostle from their own ranks ; best of the Caliphs, was greatly depressed in view a Mohammedan scholar, enlightened, renewed by of death, and said, " Whom are ye trying to de­ God's Spirit, thoroughly converted to faith in ceive ? Had I the whole East and the West, gladly Jesus, the Son of Mary, as the only Redeemer, who would I give up all, to be delivered from this awful will proclaim that the set time to favour Islam has terror that is hanging over me ! Would that I come and that they are all called to accept Christ. never had existed ! Would that my mother never Foreigners cannot do it : "a tree must be cut down had borne me ! " by one of its own branches." The Babi (Bel,ai) The Sufis might be regarded as an exception, movement in Persia shows what a tremendous but their highest aspiration is reunion with God or influence one man can exert in breaking up the absorption into the nature of Him from whom men solidarity of Islam. Let us pray that God will are but emanations. They are absolute fatalists, raise np such leaders in Egypt and Arabia, in denying that man is free in his actions. Their Syria and India. chief occupation is meditation on the unity of God, (f) They need a clear statement of the Chris­ the Zikr, or repeating the names of God, and ad­ tian doctrine of the Trinity, to disabuse their minds vancement in the Tariqa or Journey of life, so as of the misrepresentations and perversions of their to attain unification with God. Sufismis regarded teachers for ages-that Christians believe that as "au adaptation from the Vedanta school of God the Father married a wife and begat a Son ; Hindu philosophers." a doctrine which no Christian believes or has ever (c) They need to understand that Christians are taught. The metaphysical difficulty of believing not their enemies. The wars and conflictsof 1,200 the doctrine of the Trinity and Christ's divine and years with Christians, have put them into an atti­ human natures, cannot be solved by reasoning. It tude of political hostility to Christianity. This can is pnrely a doctrine of Revelation, and unless aided only be overcome by patience, kindness and the by the Holy Spirit, no Moslem can accept Jesus presentation of Christ as the only Redeemer. Christ as a Divine Saviour. 18 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Introductory Paper 19 II. been converted,and say the effort is useless. They PAST NEGLEOT OF THE CHUBOH have not taken pains to read of 16,000 converted The whole Church of Christ hM certainly great in the East Indies, and 5,000 in India ; of such ueglect to confess : (a) The Church hM over­ cases as !mad ud · Din and Kami! Aietany. We looked Islam, as a negligible quantity. In con­ should not despair of success until we have tried, templating the 800,000,000 of heathen and pagans, done our best, and persevere patiently in the Islam has been thought to be of secondary im­ d work. In Turkey, Christians are looked on as the portance. Only within the last thirty years has political foes of Islam, and it is difficult for any the Church found out the prodigious numerical Mohammedan to receive instruction from an strength of Islam, and its rapid progress in Asia enemy. The present attitude of missionaries in and Africa. Turkey towards Islam is that of educating the (b) Many in the Christian Church have been led to think of Islatn as a mild Oriental Uni­ young, distributing the Scriptures, earnestly pray­ to tarianism, well enough adapted to As.iatics· and ing for the day of religious liberty, and trying Africans, and have been satisfied to let the Moslems exhibit the religion of Christ by Jiving a Christ­ alone. This has come about largely through the like life. misrepresentations of men like Bosworth Smith, Ill. THE CHALLENGE OF OPEN DOORS who would have us believe that Islam has little to learn or gain from Christianity. The evils of 1. It is a fact not to be ignored or lightly re­ polygamy, the harem seclus.ion of woman, facility garded that almost the only really open doors to of divorce, exclusiveness and hatred of other sects reach Islam, are in countries where Moslems are under Christian or non-Moslem rule. The Turkish -these and other features have been ignored or defended. Much may be said in approval of Empire, Western Arabia, Persia, Turkestan, Af­ Islamic doctrines which are borrowed from Chris­ ghanistan, Tripoli (Africa), and Morocco, under tianity, but vital doctrinal errors, and corrupting Moslem rule, are virtually sealed against liberty social and moral teachings, especially in the degra­ of conscience and belief. On the other hand, in dation of woman, are too great to allow any India, the East Indies, North west China, Egypt, thoughtful Christian to be satisfied with Islam. Tunis, and Algiers, the door may be regarded as (o) Another cause of past neglect has been open, so that about 140,000,000 are in a measure despair. The conversion of Islam has been access.ible to the Christian missionary. thought a hopeless task. Christians at home and 2. God has given us many noble examples of travellers abroad inquire how many Moslems have the true conversion of Moslems to the evangelical 20 The Mohammedan World of To-Day faith, in India, Persia, Syria and Egypt,-as Kamil of Beirut, Imad ud Din and others of India and Mirza Ibrahim of Tabriz. 3. The increase of the desire for education, especially for the education of girls, in Moslem lands, is very encouraging. However defective the edu­ cation may be, it is a great advance when the mothers are able to read.' And the fact that there are 100 Moslem young men in the Syrian Protes­ tant College in Beirut, and many in the mission schools of Egypt, is full of hope. II 4. The movement for the emancipation of woman in Egypt and elsewhere will, no doubt, Islam m Egypt extend to other lands. 5, The translation of the Bible into Arabic, and Rev. Andrew Watson, D. D. many other languages spoken by Moslems, and the preparation of a growing literature :-El Km dy, El Bakwrat, Hi na� ul Haqq, .Mizan ul Ha qq, and other works are also causes for praise and thanks­ giving.

1 The M.oslems of Beirut have nine schoolsfor girls in thatone city. II Islam in Egypt

THE Mohammedans nnder Amr Ibn-El-As took Egypt in the year of our Lord 640. Egypt was then a Christian country ruled by a Mu kawkas "In Lower Egypt the Moslems form about ninety-eight per under appointment of the emperor. There was, oent. of the population, and in Upper Egyptabout eighty�eight however, a division among the Christians ; one per cent. party siding with the civil ruler ; the other, under "At a glance therefore we can see that the need of the country the influence of Egyptian national aspirations, was is the need of the MoslemB, and although some consider the best way to reach them, is by working amongst the Christians until desirous for his overthrow. This division made the reproach of a nominal Christianity is rolled away, yet we the entrance of the Arab invaders easy ; indeed, it cannot but feel that this and many succeeding generations of our is generally believed that the national party wel­ brethren, the followers of the false prophet, must perish without comed the Mohammedan leader as a means of light or possibility of it, if their evangelization await this most desirable coasuwwation."-J, Martin Cleaver. deliverance from the Imperialists. If they did, it was not long before they had abundant reason for repentance. At the time of the Mohammedan invasion, the Egyptian church had wandered far from the sim­ plicity of the Christian religion as taught in the four gospels and the writings of the apostles, and had practically adopted a method of salvation manifestly at variance with the doctrine of sal va­ tion by free grace, as was the case with nearly all the Christian churches of the East. From the time the Mohammedans added Egypt to their conquests, the defection of Egyptian Christians to Islam began, and it continued all down the cen­ turies until the days of Moha=ed Ali ; indeed, 23 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Egypt it cannot be said to have ceased up to the present This will make the percentage of Moham­ time, for no year has passed during my residence medans 92.23, or about thirteen times the num­ of forty-four years in the Nile valley without my ber of Christians. The proportion must be much hearing of several instances of defection. The the same at the present time ; any change is likely causes are chiefly, the hope of worldly gain of to be in favour of the Christians. The smallest various kinds, severe and continued persecution, proportion of Mohammedans is probably to be exposure to the cruelty and rapacity of Moslem found in the cities of Alexandria and Cairo and neighbours, and personal indignities as well as the province of Assiut. political disabilities of various kinds. Mrs. Butcher in her book on the Egyptian church has told us II. SOOIAL CONDITIONS some of the sad and cruel experiences of the Speaking generally, this is the saddest phase of Christians of Egypt under the dominion of Islam. my subject. With few exceptions the women are Indeed, it is a wonder that any one bearing a either the slaves or the playthings of the men, Christian name could have lived here up to the and oftenest by far the former. Excluding the eighteenth century. Before that time, no amount highest strata of society, a man generally marries of Christian testimony could condemn a Moham­ in order to secure a permanent servant for himself medan. Christians were not allowed to ride and his immediate family relations ; and if the horses, or wear a seal on their finger, or wear wife does not fill the bill, she is either divorced to a white turban, and, in title deeds conveying prop­ make room for another or a second wife is added. erty from or to a Christian, he was described as A prominent Moslem has said, in conversation, that the "accursed one." But it is not Islam in Egypt not more than five per cent. of Mohammedans in in the past of which I write. I write of Islam in Egypt retain the first wife to the day of her death. Egypt as it exists at the present time. Divorces are as frequent as they ever were, but in fewer oases is there a plurality of wives. I. NUMBER AND PROPORTION In the homes, the women occupy one part of The population of Egypt at the last census, the house and the men another ; generally the taken some time after the British occupation was : men eat first, then the women, and then the serv­ ants. Outside of the family circle there is no com­ Mohammedans 8,978,775 mingling of the sexes, above a certain age, at a Christians 730,162 Jews 25,200 common meal or for an evening sociable. Even Diverse 268 at funerals and marriages, the separation is strictly The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Egypt 27 observed. At marriages, both men and women properly to their religious system, especially as witness the same obscene motions of the danc­ regards the prerogatives of men and their authority ing girls, and listen to the same immoral chant­ over their wives and other female members of the ing, though from different positions on the household, bas effectually prevented any reforma­ premises. tion of the kadi's court. Marriages are often legalized when the bride­ The use of opium and hashish is wide-spread, groom is less than sixteen and the bride less than and in the cities and large towns the use of western thirteen, and the arrangements are all made and intoxicants is becoming more and more common, carried out by their nearest relatives, and some­ especially among government officialsand servants. times in spite of the opposition of one of the I have been told by well-informed Mohammedans couple. At their first marriage the parties can, that neither learned nor unlearned, rich nor poor, therefore, have no idea of the responsibilities and high nor low, regard it as a sin to take opium in cares incident to married life ; it is no wonder that some of its forms. so many are nnbappy in their homes. One reason, and perhaps the chief reason, for early marriages III. POLITICAL ISLAM is to prevent the youth from falling into vices Though Egypt is nominally a part of the Mo­ which are very prevalent and caused no doubt by hammedan Empire of the Sultan of Constanti­ the reading or relating of vile stories in the hear­ nople, paying a heavy tribute to the imperial ing of children, and by the generally nncbaste exchequer, yet it has been free to govern itself character of the conversation of the people. from the time of Mohammed Ali until the British The canse of dil•orce may be anything, and occupation in 1882. During its independence often nothing more than the man's wish to get under the rule of this energetic prince and his rid of bis wife in order to be able to secnre an­ successors, Egypt was governed on Mohammedan other. The legal allowance for divorced women, principles modified somewhat by European in­ for even the limited legal time, is often only fluences proceeding from the western officials em­ collected from the man when the woman bas ployed in many departments of State. Arbitrary powerful friends to plead her cause before the and unjust rule bad full sway during the reign of kadi. One of the saddest sights in Egypt is the Ismail the first Khedive, and the people were environs of the kadi's court where divorced women despoiled of money and lands in order to carry out and widows come to plead in vain for justice. The his ambitious designs, and a debt was contracted jealousy of Mohammedans for all that pertains which still weighs heavily on the people. But The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in lgypt 19 with all his tyranny and extravagance, Ismail quired Christian lawyers to be present and pre­ initiated enterprises and carried out improvements vented them from attending their church services. which have in no small degree benefited the A number of the Christian lawyers waited on the country. authorities and petitioned them to have these sit­ Since the British occupation, Islam has governed tings on some other day of the week than Sunday Egypt only indirectly. The real ruler has been or Friday. The arrangement was agreed to, and Lord Cromer with his staff of British officials,who preparations were set on foot to carry it out, but plan, direct, restrain, and control in all the de­ the Mohammedan papers made such a stir over the partments of the government-Finance, Interior, matter that it was annulled. It was represented Justice, Public Works, and Public Instruction. as the Christian holiday and a step towards des­ Notwithstanding this, Islam has no little influence troying the Mohammedan holiday, whereas it was politically, exercised through the Khedive, his only a just arrangement to allow the Christians ministers, the executive officials throughout the employed in the courts the opportunity of attend­ country, and the press. The Khedive's ministers ing divine worship, without in the least interfering are all Moslems except one, and all matters of with the holiday of the Moslems. importance are passed upon by them, though pre­ The influence of Islam is very great in the pared and presented by the British officialsin each courts, as the majority of the judges are in almost department. Certain matters also come up before all cases Mohammedans. The closest inspection is a consultative assembly, very few of whose mem­ necessary in the interests of justice, especially in bers are Christians. No little power is exerted on cases where one party is Mohammedan and the the minds of the British authorities by Moham­ other of some other religion. I have known medan journals, some of which have a very wide several oases of glaring injustice, to one of which circulation. I called the attention of the controlling author­ Of course, the ultimate authority rests with the ities. A young man had been accustomedto meet representative of the British government, but it with others, some of them Moslems and others often appears to outsiders that he is especially Christians, for friendly conversation on religious favourable to Mohammedan interests, paying un­ subjects. As the Koran was often referred to, the due respect to Moslem prejudices, at the expense young man purchased a copy for his personal use of Christian interests. The following item of and made annotations on the margin. The book recent history is an example : The public pleadings fell into the hands of a Moslem, who took it to the· in the native courts were on Sunday. This re- 'kadi, who advised that a oa.se be presented against The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Egypt 31 the young man for attempting to change the Koran tate to say that the British occupation instead of The case was taken up by the court and the young weakening Islam has strengthened it. man was found guilty and sentenced to one year in the penitentiary. He appealed the case and the IV. ISLAM: INTELLECTUALLY court of appeal confirmed the judgment. At my It is generally understood that Christians and instauce the higher authorities looked into the Jews, in proportion to their numbers, stand higher matter and found a case of gross injustice, and than Mohammedans in competitive examination, after four months' imprisonment and ill treatment perhaps because in the case of the former the stim­ in prison, the young man was pardoned by the ulus is greater, and the hope of outside help less. Khedive. Other cases quite as glaring as this have There is so much in favour of the latter-the influ­ come under my notice. ence of their immense majority,of powerful friends, It must be remembered, too, in order to measure and the expected favour of the British ofllcials,­ the influence of Islam in Egypt, that the executive that the yonng Moslem has little fear of failure to part of the administration is in the hands of Mo­ secure a position or occupation, even if he does not hammedans : such as governors and deputy-gov­ obtain the best marks, because Christians are not ernors of the provinces, mayors of the chief cities, eligible to many of the places in the government chief officers of police in the various divisions of service. the provinces, and nearly all the umdas and sheikhs Moslems as well as Christians have greatly ad­ of the numerous towns and villages. This gives vanced in knowledge and intellectual pursuits dur­ Islam a mighty power even under the British occu­ ing the last twenty years. It is surprising how pation, when we remember the amount of prejudice many newspapers, da.Hy, weekly and monthly, have that still remains, and the fact that these Eastern been started, and the increase in these journals has people bring their religion into all the relations of been as great perhaps among Moslems as among human life and make it a chief reason in the decision Christians. The Ko eyyid, edited by Sheikh Ali of all questions, and a principal moving power in Yusef, is a first class daily, and has a larger circula­ all actions. It is true that when glaring cases of tion than any other paper in Egypt. Its leading ar­ injustice are brought to the notice of the British ticles do not equal, however, in intellectual grasp, or authorities, they are not slow in righting the sound reasoning, or useful information, those in the . wrongs as far as it is possible, but, through fear, it Ko kattam and some other papers edited by C}iris­ is very seldom that an Egyptian will dare to com­ tians, which every Egyptian ought to read. As plain of those who oppress them. I do not hesi- far as I know, the Mohammedans have no histor· 32 The Mohammedan World of To-Day ical and scientific monthly ; certainly none to be compared with the M1tktatif, or the Hilal, or the Mohit-all magazines conducted by Christians. The Moslems are behind the Christians on most of the fields of literature. The reason may be found in their home training, and especial!y in the method of education, by which the memory and not the intellectual powers are developed. It is notorious that the methods used in the Azhar, the great Mo­ hammedan university where thousands are yearly enrolled as scholars, have been the very worst, cal­ culated indeed to discourage and retard the learner. An attempt was made by the late intelligent Mufti to bring about a reformation, and for a time great hopes were entertained that a new regime would be established, but jealousy, prejudice, and per­ sonal antipathy thwarted all the best effortsof this sincere reformer. To complete a course in the Azhar requires about twelve years. The curriculum includes ju­ risprudence, theology, exegesis, grammar, syntax, rhetoric, logic and the traditions of Mohammed.' The late Mufti added geography, history and chirography. The first order of the learnedmen receive, be­ sides rations of bread, from four pounds to six pounds a month ; the second three pounds ; the third one and a-half pounds. Students receive their bread and some of them a monthly allowance

1 JJ'ikh, tlfflled-din, mulettafsir, nahu, sarf, balagha, man'tak,and theliaditk. Islam in Egypt 33 besides, not exceeding three shillings. The chief sheikh of the Azhar receives ninety pounds a month. The proportion of Moslems who can read and write was, at the last census, eight out of a hun­ dred.

V. SPEOIAL DEVELOPMENTS IN !SLAM The most notable development among :Moham­ medans in Egypt in recent years is that which was initiated and carried on until his death, by the liberal-minded Mufti, recently deceased and greatly lamented. A man of scholarly intuitions and wide reading, of broad sympathies and worthy impulses, deprecating the ignorance of his co-religionists and their bitter hatred to all who are of another faith, he attempted in many ways to bring about a ref­ ormation among them. He occupied various posi­ tions of honour and responsibility in the State and in his religious community, and performed the du­ ties of these relations with faithfulness and intelli­ gence. In the great Mohammedan. university, he brought order out of chaos, both in its material af­ fairs and its administration, and in the matter and method of instruction. By his intelligence, sim­ plicity and earnestness, he attracted many to his lectures in the university. He deprecated the ac­ cumulations of tradition, and strove to lead the peo­ ple to simpler faith and a more humane service. Through his efforts, the consultative Parliament was transformed from a position of antagonism to Islam in Egypt 35 34 The Mohammedan World of To-Day has been reported in some places, to labour among the British administration into more or less friendly the various Christian sects especially, but to preach cooperation with it. During his last days, he was and teach the pure gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ engaged in an examination of the condition of the to Jews, Moslems and nominal Christians where religious courts, and in drawing up a scheme of and when opportunity offered. It so happened thorough reformation where corruption is rampant. that God in His providence opened the door to Through him and others, a great impetus has been the Copts, who, it would be easy to prove, were at given to education. Societies have been formed the time in great ignorance of the Word of God. and committees appointed many places for rais­ in Instead of beating at the bolted and barred doors money to establish schools of various grades, ing of Islam, at a time when there was no religious partly to prevent the Mohammedan children from liberty, the missionaries entered at the open doors attending Christian institutions and partly from a of "the lost sheep of Israel." laudable desire to spread knowledge among them, Yet from the very beginning of the mission and thus prepare them to improve their worldly there were many opportunities of reaching the prospects. Societies have also been formed in the Moslems indirectly. Through all the history of interests of their religion, and hooks and tracts the mission, many Bibles and other religious have been published and circulated, some attaoking books were sold to them, and for many years the Christian faith, and others in defense of their past, over 2,000 Moslem pupils have attended its own faith against the attacks of Christian authors. schools ; last year there were 3,067, of whom Contrary to impressions created by some western 2,446 were boys and 621 girls. Perhaps thirty journals, I have not been able to discover the ex­ years ago, the mission published one book on the istence of any Moslem society formed in Egypt for Mohammedan controversy called Sh ahadet Et­ the express purpose of sending men to the interior Ko ran and also a number of small tracts. When of Africa or to other lands for the propagation of El Ki ndy and Hizwn, 'lit Haqq were published in Islam. England, the mission circulated many copies of both books in an unobtrusive way. During the VI. MISSION WORK AMONG MosLEMS more recent years, the fonr exhaustive volumes of 1. The oldest mission in Egypt is the United El Hada'fl a have been published in reply to several Presbyterian mission of North America. Its first books attacking the Christian religion. During missionaries arrived on the field in 1854, a few the last four years, two evenings a week in Cairo years after the Church Missionary Society had have been devoted to the public discussion of the left it. The purpose of the mission was not a.s 36 The Mohammedan Worldof To-Day various points of difference between Christianity and Islam. These meetings have often been at­ tended by large numbers of Mohammedans and opportunity is generally given to one of them to reply. Our physicians at Assiut and Tanta have many opportunities in the homes of the people as well as in the hospitals, to give important testimony to the saving power of the Great Physician. They are often called to treat the sick and suffering in Mohammedan homes. As to results, the mission reports abont 140 converts from Mohammedanism dnring its history. In 1900, there were six ; in 1901, there were also six ; in 1902, there were eight ; in 1903, there were fourteen ; in 1904, there were twelve. Two of these have defected to Islam through the threats of friends and Moslem officials. One of the con­ verts is now a snccessful medical missionary in China. 2. Tlie Ch urch .Mi ssionary Society mission tu Mohammedans in Egypt was begun in 1882, when Rev. F. A. Klein started work, chiefly ed uca­ tional and literary. A medical department was started in 1889, in which year also, educational work for girls was begun. During the last few years, four branches of work have been distinctly strengthened ; medical work, boys' schools, girls' schools, and evangelistic work in the city and in the villages, in which one Islam in Egypt 37 station is about to be occupied. The whole of this work is directly among Moslems. There are no special difficulties, for probably Egypt is as open as any Mohammedan land in the world and the opportunities are obvious. The methods have been sufficiently suggested by the enumeration of the branches of work. It should be added that evangelistic work comprises preach­ ing within doors, visiting, and literary endeavours. There is also a book depot from which books are sold, and in which personal work is done. Tracts on a variety of subjects are distributed and a weekly journal, especially adapted to Moslems, is published. Direct results are the conversion and baptism of some men and some girls-" all too few." The indirect results are the gradual familiarizing of many people and many classes with the ideas of the gospel. 3. There is also a small Dutch mission with its centre at Calioub, about eight miles north of Cairo. It has schools in several places conducted on mission lines and having pupils of various re­ ligions. Evangelistic work is carried on in the villages by means of colporteurs. There is also an orphanage for boys in which the children of Mohammedans as well as children of Christians are received. I might mention, too, the schools of the Estab­ lished Church of Scotland in Alexandria, and of The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Egypt 39 the Gel'man Church in Cail'o, but there is no mis­ jeot the conversion of Mohammedans. At present sionary connected with these efforts, who knows it has its centres in Alexandria and Shahin El­ the vernacular, and therefore, no direct work is Kom. Three missionaries labour at the former done among the Moslems. place and two at the latter. The means adopted 4. The Egypt General Mi ssion entered Egypt have been for the most part schools for boys and in the year 1898. Its chief object is the con ver­ for girls, in which the gospel is regularly taught. sion of Mohammedans. It has its location in the Bible women are also employed to visit the women Delta and Suez. It has boys' and girls' schools in their homes and read to them as opportunity not only for teaching the truths of Christianity to offers. There are also meetings in the evening the pupils, but also as a means of opening the during the week for the study of the Word and homes for teaching the adults. It also employs prayer. The missionaries have made system­ itineracy and has regular services on the Sabbath atic visitation of Mohammedans in the Protestant and during the week. Much good work has been hospital in Alexandria, and they have visited the done in book depots, where there is free perusal of villages for evangelistic work and the circulation Arabic books on questions concerning Islam and of the Scriptures and religious tracts. Five Mo­ where there is the best opportunity for informal hammedans, having made a public profession of meetings at night and for personal work. Scores their faith in Christ, have been baptized, while of Mohammedans have been dealt with in these many have been instructed in the way of salva­ depots, though but few have made a definite pro­ tion, but have not taken a stand for Christ. fession of their faith in Christ. There have been several baptisms. The case of a Mohammedan VII. DIFFICULTIES OF THE MISSIONS sheikh from Morocco, related in a small tract In Egypt there is only one special difficulty in entitled "The Story of a Moslem Sheikh," is in­ missions to Moslems, and that is to find employ­ tensely interesting and shows us how unexpectedly ment for the converts, as the M;ohammedan com­ the Spirit sometimes moves upon souls (Ind brings munity always boycotts the converts, and the them to the light and life which are only to be family disowns and casts them out of their homes. found in Jesus Christ. This mission has also a Generally Mohammedan relatives, however near, monthly paper especially adapted to the needs of prefer to see their friends die rather than to see Moslem readers and circulating widely in Egypt. them become Christians. 5. The Nm ·th Af,·ican Mission was begun in 1892, and has for its special, though not sole ob- III Islam in West Africa Dr. W. R. Miller III Islam in West Africa THE population of West Africa, similarly to that of the Eastern Sudan during the time of the Mah­ di's and Khalifa's rule, has suffered terribly from the fiendish oppression, internecine fighting and "Poeeibly most important of all the leatnres ofthe problem slave raiding which always accompany these out­ presented by Islam is its organized aggressiveness. Islam in i&I bursts of Mohammedan euergy. Hence all statis­ African stronghold is a growing and virile force.''-WilBon 8. tics and estimates of population made by travellers Naylm, during the early Victorian period are wholly un­ reliable now. It is impossible, at least at present, even roughly to estimate (e. g., in the Hausa states), what the population is, but I should seriously doubt whether it is one-half-probably nearer one­ third-of that recorded by Clapperton or Barth. I base this surmise, principally on observations, both of myself and of government officers travel­ ling in the great states of Zaria, N upe, and Ada­ mawa where the most appa:llingbarbarities perhaps ever perpetrated in the slave traffichave been com­ mitted for now more than sixty years. When the great Fulani dynasty was founded by the conquests of Othman Shefu Dan Rodin, for some years afterwards war was made on all the heathen, and some Mohammedan states, until a large part of the West and Central Sudan was con­ quered and incorporated into the Fulani Empire, 43 44 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in West Africa 45 including a large part of the Yoruba country in divisions amongst the Mohammedans of West the south (the llorin Province now Mohammedan), Africa. The emissaries of the strong dervish or­ Adamawa and Bornu in the east, Gando and part ders from Morocco, who were mostly responsible of the French Sudan in the west, and part of the in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and on­ Tuareg and Zinder country in the north. Within wards for the introduction of Islam, were probably twenty years after these conquests, and soon after content with teaching the simpler tenets of the the death of the founder, the lust for gain, slaves faith. Although the main mass undoubtedly are and power, took the place of the religious Jehad, Sunnis, it is questionable whether any but a few of and the wars degenerated into the merest man­ the leading .Moulvis (or " JJ£a llams ") know much hunting slave-raids, in no way worthy of being of the controversy. The Senoussi influence has called religious wars. These have been kept up been small or nil ; and the followers of the Wah�bis until four years ago when the complete subjuga­ are probably confinedto some of the more fanatical tion of the country under Sir F. Lugard put an end and devoted Fulani families as the Tijanis. They to them. As a result of these wars Islam was all recognize the Sultan of Turkey as supreme, but more firmly established in the great states of Kano, the devotion, veneration, almost worship of Oth­ Zamfara, Socoto, Gobir, Gando, Katsena, Hadeja man the founder of this dynasty have invested the and Katagum, wh�re already the conquered had emperors of Soooto with a sanctity so great that, been partially followers of Islam : Ilorin, Nupe and being nearer, they quite overshadow the greater, Borgu were later subjugated and Islam stamped but more distant, Turkish ruler. on them in a very debased form. Except in the Probably now, if the British government, which hig walled cities and capitals, however, very little is supreme in all the principal Mohammedan states progress was made in the heathen states of Zaria, of West Africa with which this paper is concerned, Adamawa, Bauohi, Kontagora, etc. To-day we were to adhere to a true neutrality, i. e., entire find these lands dotted over with cities where all prohibition of, or total removal of all obstacles to, are Mohammedans, but a large part of the village the free preaching of both Christianity and Islam, country is still pagan, or is only nominally Moslem. the latter would not make much further progress For here the pagan tribes entrenched themselves in north and south Nigeria. So great is the hatred in forests and rocks, and although in many oases of the pagans towards all propagators of Islam, on willing to pay tribute in order to a void constant account of the cruelty of past years, that were raids, they never became followers of the prophet. there sufficientChristian missionaries any struggle Mo hammedan SectB. There is but little trace of would be principally a duel between heathenism The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in West Africa 47 and Christianity, where Islam was not already es· Repairing broken down mosques by order, sub­ tablished. But the woes which follow and have scriptions to Mohammedan feasts, forcible circum­ followed in the track of lslam will soon be forgiven cision of heathen soldiers on enlistment, etc., etc., and forgotten, and a peaceful Islam under British are some of the ways in which the general trend rule, free to proselytize while Christian mission­ is indicated. aries are hampered, will be a greater power. It has been seen that the chief set of influences The British government does not take that atti­ which brought Islam to West Africa were Moslem tude. While professing to be purely neutral, it missions from Morocco and the more uni versa! forgets that the Mohammedan has been, and is, Je had by the Fulanis. .A. constant influence has the aggressive invader in all this country, once also emanated from Egypt and Tripoli through pagan ; and it allows the Moslem a free hand trade, returning pilgrims from Mecca, and mission­ to go anywhere and spread his faith. The objection aries from these countries of Islam. that will, I know, be raised to this is, "Notso, the Islam seems to be spreading in Lagos, the Yoruba British government gives both Moslem and Christian country, Sierra Leone and the French Sudan ; but a free field amongst heathen, but refuses to allow in most of these places as also in the Nupe country, attempts at proselytizing by Christians amongst it is of a very low order, and in the presence of a Moslems." It is easy to see how to answer this vigorous Christian propaganda it will not add contention, but this does not lie within the scope strength finally to Islam. Still the number of of this paper. Moslems is undoubtedly increasing greatly. Islam The scarcity of money for administrating the and Christianity between them are spoiling heath­ countries, and the difficulties in obtaining men (for enism and will probably divide the pagan peoples the bad climate renders it impossible to rule in less than fifty years. directly by white men) causes the administration All Moslems are of course taught Arabic and in largely to be left in the hands of Mohammedan all the Hausa States, in towns, and large villages Emirs. These men while ruthless, cruel tyrants there are a multitude of schools where the Koran are nevertheless rulers in the sense that they can and later the traditions and chief works, classical command men in numbers and keep up some form and legendary of Islam are taught. As, however, of power and authority. The government seeing trading and agriculture chiefly occupy the people, this, and also the disintegrating influences of a the majority of boys leave school at fourteen years, tribal heathenism, becomes involved in backing up and become utterly ignorant and illiterate. They Islam politically, and inevitably religiously also. are given no education but a mere recital of the The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in West Africa 49 Suras of the Koran after learning the Arabic al­ nooent, none pure. Boys and girls grow up in the phabet. A percentage however continue. In the densest atmosphere of sin, where there is hardly a large towns, however, perhaps about three per redeeming feature, and this all under the strictest cent. or a little more, continue their studies, and adherence to the outward laws of Islam. these really become Arabic students, reading any The whited sepulchre is full of bones. Immo­ Arabic writings with ease. The absence of printed rality of every sort is rife and there is little shame ; matter with them is an obstacle, bnt after a while adultery and fornication are not reduced through the more intelligent snrmonnt this, and can read men having many wives. It is rare to finda woman and translate fairly well the Testament, or any sim­ past the prime of life living with her husband. ple new work in Arabic. One would therefore expect to find that progress The effect of this illiteracy is, of course, to 'make is ruled out, and that the glance is backward, not the social condition low. Arts, building, literature, forward, to "the things our fathers knew and culture, and crafts are, generally speaking, neg­ did." The inevitable fruits of a slave ridden land, lected. laziness, oppression, dirt, have fallen upon West Yet who has not heard of Kano and Zaria leather? Africa, and only where Christianity, as in Sierra The work of these people in leather, iron, brass, Leone, Lagos, etc., has had a long time to affect etc., is admired by Europeans. The intelligence of the character and condition, do we see progress. the Hausa in the great cities is proverbial, and one Islam has not and will not in West Africa do any­ feels with them as if in converse with an Arab thing for progress. rather than a negro. The lack of all home life ; the A very significant change has perceptibly come utter prostitution of virtue ; the total disregard of over the Moslem in West Africa and is apparent morals, all these have brought moral ruin to the to a careful observer. From triumphant arrogance people and made West Africa a seething sink of he has come to have a haunting fear and a cringing gross iniquity. Woman, although allowed much subservience. The overthrow of the Fulani power more freedom than in North Africa, is neverthe­ is probably one of the greatest blows to Islam in less the "thing " of men ; polygamy of course the world, next to the recovery of the Egyptian is the Jaw ; only lack of wealth prevents men from Sudan, if not even greater than that. The one having four wives and as many concubines as pos­ hope left is the Mahdi who of course is always sible. Divorce for anything is possible ; a quarrel, coming and never comes, or comes and is annihi­ sickness, infirmity, poverty, or worse. The young­ lated ; but meanwhile an air of frightened expect­ est girls are taught the worst vices ; no one is in- ancy and even a tendency to see what Christianity 50 The Mohammedan World of To-Day may have to say regarding the end of the world seems to have prevailed. I believe the time is ripe for a tremendous propaganda to a broken spirited but still proud people. I think missionaries gen· erally in West Africa will agree that this has been the change of the last few, say ten or five years, and that it is chiefly political, but fraught with great possibilities spiritually.

IV Islam in Turkey

Anatolicus IV Islam in Turkey THE ruling race of the Ottoman Empire has been Mohammedan from its origin. Indeed the Seljuk Turks, from whom the Ottomans sprang, "Turkey skillfully and systematically represses what Chril­ tian nations make it their business tonurture in all mankind aa were Mohammedans from their origin among the manhood, In her cities there are magnificent palooes for her Turkoman tribes of Central Asia. We can hardly sultans and her favourites, But one looksin vain through her trace them farther back than the eleventh century realm for statues of pnblio benefaotora. Not a book in any Ian· A. D., and it was at least a century earlier that all gnage can crossher borders without permission of public officers. Art is scorned, Education is bound. Freedom is a orime. The those tribes of West Central and Western Asia taxgatherer is omnipotent. L&w is a fa.roe. Turkeyhas prisons embraced Islam. instead ofpublic halls for the education of her people.-1716 Qm. The religion of the Ottoman Turks, is not, like g-,,gotioMlilll, April 8, 1897, that of some other tribes to be mentioned hereafter, a composite cultus. The hereditary faith is Sunni Islam, pure and simple ; and as a hereditary faith, its hold upon the people is unchallenged, except by thosepro fessed Mohammedans, the various sects of Dervishes which flourish in all Mohammedan countries. These form a disintegrating element, which may well excite the anxious solicitude of faithful Mohammedans, although they furnish lit­ tle cause of hope to Christian missionaries. The vast majority of the Ottoman people, who number about twelve million souls, are doubtless sincere believers in the Koran as the veritable word of God, and in Mohammed as the last and greatest prophet and apostle of God. Of course 53 Islam in Turkey 55 this applies to nearly all Moslem raoes in the Ottoman Empire except the Arabs-is that the Turk does uot know the language of his sacred book. The Koran is as much a sealed book to the Turk as the Bible is to the peasant Roman Catholic of Central Europe. He knows, even if he is a peasant, many Arabic words and phrases, but although he may read the Koran, he cannot understand it; and it is, to the Mohammedan, a greater impiety to attempt to translate the Koran from the Arabic, than it was, till r00\jlltyears, in the eyes of the faithful but ignorant Romanist to translate the Latin Bible into French or German. This ignorance of Arabic is a fact even among the more or less educated Turks of the capital and the coast cities: It is very rare to find one who can read Arabic intelligently, and who speaks it oorrectly. Some years ago, when K-- Effendi", a learned Arab Kurd, who had embraced Chris­ tianity, was called before the highest Mohammedan court, his perfect knowledge of Arabic, of the Koran and of Mohammedan law and traditions completely confounded and silenced those who would have been his judges. It is now many years that the Bible is accessible to Turks in their own language, and in a form which is intelligible and acceptable to them; and the fact that they buy thousands of copies of Scripture portions every year shows that they appreciate the facility put in their way for reading a sacred book and understanding it. The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Turkey 57 cont What was said above concerning Islam as the n:ian rol is nearly equal to the entire popula­ hereditary faith of the Ottoman Turk does not tion, Moslem and Christian, now directly under Turkish domination. hold true _of th_e other Moslem races of Turkey. Kurds, Circassians, Albanians-nearly half as The Turks are largely an agricultural and many, all together, as the Turks-are, at best, but peasant population, and among them polygamy and concubinage are rare. Among Turks of hal� Mohammedan. To a large extent the pro­ fession of Islam by Kurds and Circassians is purely wealth in the capital, the coast cities and the capitals outward and formal, while their esoteric faith is a of provinces, both polygamy and con­ mixture of Mohammedanism, Christianity and cubinage are common. Slavery also exists, though heathenism. In grouping and generalization we veiled. In those centres social morality is low and it is doubtful if the marked relaxation, � cannot go farther than the statement just made. of the rigidity of law and custom Take the Kurds alone. There is almost infinite recent years variety in their religious beliefs and superstitions. touching the seclusion of women has, as yet, bet­ tered woman's condition, except where the desire It is well known that there are whole villages for the education of girls has begun to work a rad­ among them ready to declare themselves Chris­ ical change in the popular conception of what con­ tians, could they be assured of protection in so stitutes woman's position in society. It is difficult doing. The Moslem Albanians-somewhat more to give even an approximate statement concerning than half the race-are more bigoted and violent the percentage of illiteracy among Moslems in Mohammedans than the Turks, just as the Janis­ Turkey. Till very recent years Turks able to saries, likewise of Christian origin, who were com­ read were less than ten per cent. of the population ; pelled from childhood to embrace Islam, out­ women able to read, perhaps two per cent., and Heroded Herod in the fanaticism of their anti­ among Kurds and Circassians still less. But in Christian zeal. the capital and chief cities of the empire great With the exception of the Albanians, Islam has, progress has lately been made, even among Mos­ in all the centuries of the reign of the Ottoman lems, in what may, by courtesy, be called general Power over these lands, made very slight gains education. In these centres the percentage of from the Christian races. The number of Greek, illiteracy among Turks-men-would probably Armenian, Bulgarian, Roumanian, Servian, Bos­ not exceed forty per cent., while of women under nian or Montenegrin Mohammedans is insignificant. forty years of age we might fairly estimate the Of these seven races, for hundreds of years under percentage of illiteracy as under sixty per cent. Moslem sway, the number to-day free from Otto- V Islam in Syria and Palestine Rev. W. K. Eddy V Islam in Syria and Palestine THE population of these districts is abont, and possibly somewhat over, two million. Exactness is impossible, for the Moslems strive to conceal numbers in order to escape conscription, and Chris­ tians do the same to lighten the military poll tax. In some districts no accurate census has been at­ tempted till lately, and the returns of the last census are not yet available. In Mt. Lebanon we must depend upon the official figures of 1863. I give therefore official figures and also estimated ones nearer the truth.

Vilayet of Syria Official Esti,nated Moslems and Druzes 260,034 All Christians 44,058 304,092 350, 000 Vi layet of Beirul Moslems 262,834 Christians 68,325 331,159 375,000 Mt, Lebanon Moslems and Druzes .19,520 Christians 90,278 109,798 200,000 Jerusa lem District Moslems 50,000 Christians 25,000 75,000 75,000 As the figures given are for males alone, we 61 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Syria and Palestine double them for the total population, and add erly our children or care for our homes as they Jews 100,000, foreigners 50,000 of all nationali­ . should." ties. Early marriages are the rule and the social evil is Moslems are seventy-two per cent. and Chris­ rare; but unnatural vice is common and hardly rep­ tians twenty-eight per cent. of the totals thus robated. The seclusion of women is more strictly given. enforced in towns than in villages, and cases of The social condition of Moslems is below that of marital infidelity are not frequent. While women the Christians and fa,r from ideal. The tenets of are not allowed to go to the mosques they are Islam and the customs of the East combine to faithful to hours of prayer in their homes. Their degrade woman. In the cities she is a household influence is conservative and acts to restrain any drudge with uncertain tenure of office, and in the liberalism which men from their freer contact country districts, an unpaid labourer. Entitled to with Christians might favour. only one-eighth of her husband's estate after his Men are of three grades : (1) Those who from death, she is tempted to sell household stores to superficial education or contact with others are so accumulate a fund for use in case of being divorced lax as to be practically skeptics. (2) Those who or widowed. Some cripple their husbands finan­ · are trained and educated as religious fanatics. cially that another wife may not be added to the (3) The great mass of peasants and the Bedouin harem. An absence of home life leads men to who know little beyond· the fact that being true spend their leisure together in coffee houses. believers in God and His apostle, they should de­ Thus they miss the refining influence of women spise all others. Among the better class there is a and their thoughts are sensual and conversation growing sentiment against polygamy and reckless gross. divorce as injurious to the social order. Children are welcomed and loved but not well Politics are unknown in the sense that leads cared for; so that infant mortality is much higher different ci vii parties to strive to control govern­ than among Christians. The indifference of Mos­ ment policy or that gives rise to divergent views lems to vaccination, and carelessness as to proper as to the best methods for improving the condi­ precautions in times of epidemic is largely due to tion of the people. To run for office is to run for their belief in fate. Children are not well trained Constantinople, bribe influential persons in the and apt to grow up willful and passionate. An palace, and then to work the position thus secured intelligent Moslem said to me, " We cannotpros­ for all that it is worth. per, for our wives are too ignorant to train prop- Promotion is legally and officially regulated by The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Syria and Palestine the efficiency shown in collecting and increasing their present situation. Emigration, which has the Imperial revenues, but practically by paying a taken tens of thousan

Monogamy would, to a large extent, do away with prostitution and that more unnatural vice so common in every Mohammedan country. When first I went to Arabia, it was common in our village. Politically the whole of Arabia may be said to be in a state of unrest. In the Yemen, the Turks have once more got the upper hand and the crushed but not wholly subdued Arabs have been compelled to nurse the wrongs they would fain avenge. Great tracts of country have been laid waste and everything spells ruin where once the hardy peasant sowed his grain and reaped his fields. Because of neglect to repair it, a dam built on the Euphrates at a cost of 80,000 Turkish pounds is useless, leaving that great river, even in the spring flood, a very little stream, while the whole of the surrounding country is turned into a marsh. For 200 miles along the Euphrates to its junction with the Tigris, the whole stretch of country is little more than a dismal swamp, through which a stream runs too shallow to float any steamer. Consequently only light draught sailboats are found on the river, in which travellers are afraid to venture because the inhabitants of the marshes, having become robbers, kill the crews and rob the passing boats. The Turkish officials wink at the matter, while a few thousand pounds ex­ pended on drainage would render the land arable and make the river safe for traffic. The .Rev. John Van Ess, who was the first The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Arabia foreigner in modern times to cross the great tance from the town, these men, whose time had triangle bounded by the Tigris, the Euphrates and expired nearly two years before, were armed, Shatt el Hai, says that, owing to Turkish misrule, given a little food and sent away to stamp out the this vast tract of land, inhabited by the savage rebellion. Three days after we saw many of and bloodthirsty Ma'adan Arabs, who live by them that had been wounded in battle brought piracy, has become utterly waste, although less back in open boats and deposited like bales of than a day's journey from the governor's head­ cloth on the shore, where they lay for hours in a quarters. The people there, and in every part of scorching sun till a little donkey-cart was brought Arabia under Turkish rule, have reason to fear to pick them up and take them to the hospital, if the emissaries of the government, as the tax the dirty shanty to which they were taken could collector comes down and takes away most, if not be called by that name. all, the crops which the peasant has toiled hard to Throughout Arabia military conscription is raise. Consequently peasant and shepherd alike rigidly carried out except on the payment of fifty often leave everything in the officer'shands, and pounds as ransom ; but in this, as in everything turn their attention to robbery and pillage. Such else, bribery is common, for Mr. Van Ess says, " I a result must be expected in a land where offices am personally acquainted with a Turkish doctor with only a nominal salary attached to them are who has become rich by declaring men drawn for openly sold to the highest bidder, it being fully military service to be physically unfit. As the understood that the recipient thereof will not only said medico has an itching palm, a dead conscience, open his hands for bribes to live upon, but also for and the hunger of a crab, he has to be bribed by favours with which to pay old debts and make the same conscript for many years." provision for the time when he shall be no longer The old confederation of tribes in Mesopotamia steward. From the first he recognizes the fact seems to bave been broken up except in name. that such a time will surely come, as the term of Most of the sheikhs have been pensioned or given his office depends upon his ability to satisfy the the title of Pasha and told to keep quiet even caprice or greed of the man above him in rank. when their flocks and herds are taken for supplies When I was in Hodeidah some years ago, the to feed the troops. A few tribes are still up in town swarmed with starved soldiery waiting for arms and follow a life of brigandage or keep up vessels to take them back to Turkey. The poor their martial spirit with intertribal warfare. There fellows were in rags and in a most unsanitary con­ are two tribes on the Euphrates which annually dition ; but as an insurrection broke out some dis- lose hundreds of men in such a strife, the primal Islam in Arabia 86 The Mohammedan World of To-Day often been surprised with the sharpness of an cause of which was a quarrel over a fish eight Arab's intelligence and the grasp that he takes years ago. of the subject in hand. As a rule, however, Bahrein is a British Protectorate and conse­ there is little ambition to learn anything more quently there is much greater freedom than there than how to read the Koran, write a short letter, used to be when first the Arabian Mission began and do simple arithmetic. In the Persian Gulf work in the island. nearly fifteen per cent. of those who dwell in Hassa is a Turkish province holding rather an towns can read and write; but among the tribes anomalous position as it is separated both by sea two per cent. is a high figure. This is partly and land from other Turkish territory. Conse­ owing to the fact that in some towns the Turkish quently a much larger military force is required to Government provides free education, teaching keep it in proper subjection than if it were possible such subjects as physiology, algebra, physical and to march troops from the surrounding district. political geography, the elements of physics, and The Pirate Coast and Oman are much influenced Turkish, Persian, Arabic and French. But very by their nearness to India, consequently towns few except the merchant class and those study­ both large and prosperous are found all along the ing theology ever stay longer at school than to coast. In N ejd, a peace has been patched up but learn to read the Koran. This is the case even I fear that it is only temporary, since the heredi­ in Oman, where the Abadhi sect of Islam pre­ tary hatred between Ibn Saud and Ibn Rashid vails, and illiteracy is comparatively speaking sooner or later will be manifested in the same way uncommon even among women. as year after year in the past. As there is practically no native church in In the Hadramaut there is quietness for the Arabia, one can scarcely speak of Islam's atti­ present; but as the sheikh of Makulla still feels tude towards it, although in Aden and the sur­ galled by his late defeat, one fears that it is not rounding districts there have been many perver­ likely to last, and the probability is that for sions from the Latin and Abyssinian church owing many years no other than a medical mission can to the pressure put upon nominally Christian hope to settle in that country. traders in :Makulla by the Sultan, and on the The intellectual condition, on the whole, is of a working men in Aden and Sheikh Othman by high order, except that there is lack of ambition their fellow workmen. Many Abyssinians and and applicative power. When however these Gallas, in order to avoid this persecution, call faculties are aroused, an Arab is able to hold themselves by Moslem names when they come to his own with most of the Eastern races and I have 88 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Aden to work and revert to their old names when they leave Aden. The first time I went to a village in the interior, I had to pay a large sum of money for a few hours shelter from the sun. The next time a .guard was put round our tents when we went to the village to prevent our having intercourse with the people. But the third time the chief men came over to bid us welcome, and sat with us day after day discussing the great questions of sin and salvation. Then when we left they gave us a hearty send-off, begged us to hasten back again, and tied a basket of fowls to the pack camel's load as a present for the doctor. On the whole then, one can say that as a rule the Moslem here is not bitterly antagonistic to Protestant Christianity, although he fears it more than he does those corrupted forms in which the images of Mary and the other saints play such an important part that may offend his convictions. Of special developments in Islam, I can say little. In the Aden district and neighbouring coun­ tries there are none, unless one mentions a grow­ ing carelessness towards any and every form of religion, together with a tendency towards rank infidelity which I heard more of in Hodeidah than in Aden. Wahabism, Sufism, and the other minor sects are practically unknown in South Arabia nowadays, but when one goes up among the mountains tribes, he finds worship of dead saints and similar superstitions very common. Islam in Arabia In one village I found that all sheikhs' graves had a headstone in which there was a place for a light and a receptacle for the food which the devotees bring and offer to the dead saint for his intercession. Even in Sheikh Othman, while the children's heads are usually shaved there is always a little lock left on the crown that is devoted to the Wa ly (Saint) and kept there until the boy's marriage day. Then he slaughters a sheep, prays to the Wa ly, has his head shaved, and gives a present to the Sheikh for the upkeep of the Wa ly's tomb. There are now four different societies at work in Arabia and at least three others that are act­ ing indirectly. The oldest society is the Church Missionary Society which broke ground at Bagdad in the year 1882, carrying on the work as a branch of its Persian .Mission. This was a natural develop­ ment because Bagdad is close to the sacred places of the Shiite :Mohammedans, to which people annually flock from all parts of Persia. In 1887 medical mission work was begun and in 1898 the connection with the Persian :Mission was dissolved, the independent mission being called the Turkish Arabia :Mission. Two years later :Mosul was oc­ cupied as a branch station near the site of ancient Nineveh. Like its two sister missions the Church .Mission­ ary Society has suffered much from the unhealthi­ ness of the region and has consecrated its work with the lives of those who died in harness. Islam in Arabia 91 90 The Mohammedan World of To-Day "Though God buries His workers, He still carries at Busrah. N asariyeh on the Euphrates, and Am­ on His work," and in Bagdad there are four mis­ ara on the Tigris are occupied as out stations. sionaries at work. In Mosul there are also four Three years ago the National Church of Den­ missionaries. mark began a mission at Maknlla but its mission­ ary was expelled by the Sultan, and while be was :n the year 1885 the Hon. I?n Keith Falconer, third son of the late Earl of Kmtore, went out to waiting for a way to be opened into Hadramaut, Aden to see if he could start a mission there. The it was agreed that a portion of' the work in Sheikh following year saw him back with a fully qualified Othman should be carried on by the Danish medical man to assist him. Before he could do Church, a plan which has now worked harmoniously much more than settle down to work, however, the for more than two years. The societies working Lord called him to higher service, and his place indirectly are : The British and Foreign Bible was taken by others. The mission he founded has Society in Aden, Bagdad, Busrab, etc. ; the Ameri­ ever since been carried on in his name by the can Bible Society in the Persian Gulf ; the Bible Free Church of Scotland (now called the United Lands Mission Aid Society, which aids by cash Free Church) which has also erected a church, appropriations. called the Keith-Falconer Memorial Presbyterian SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES OR OPPORTUNITIES Church, in Steamer Point, for the Presbyterian soldiers stationed there. Under the British governmentone has no special The staff at present consists of two ordained difficulties to contend with, but the case is different medical missionaries. immediately Turkish territory is entered. The third society to take the field was the Throughout Turkish Arabia bazaar preaching and Arabian Mission of the Reformed Church in open discussion are forbidden. In and around Aden America. This society was organized in 1889, and there is no restriction, although one has always to Busrah was occupied in 1891, Muscat in 1893 and be careful not to offend the susceptibilities of the Bahrein in 1892, as stations of that mission. The people by using strong language. Even if converts missionary force consists of five missionaries, two were thus gained, life would be made unbearable for of them with their wives, and two unmarried mis­ them in a way that no government could prevent. sionary women at Bahrain (two of the missionaries For many years, in any case, converts must expect being physicians), and one medical missionary and persecution, but an honest, earnest Christian life bis wife, who is also a physician, two ordained would, through time, be freed therefrom and open missionaries, and one unmarried missionary woman the way for others to follow. The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Arabia 92 93 In Turkish Arabia military conscription often the mission hospitals and dispensaries for treat­ makes men feign to be inquirers in the hope that ment and so give the missionaries an opportunity they will be helped to flee the country. It is very of reaching places that they could never hope to hard to distinguish the false from the true, when visit in person. both appear to be anxiously seeking the truth. In East Arabia, now, the missionaries are sure The Rev. James Cantine saysthat in Oman there of a warm welcome wherever they go, and places are special difficulties : "The scattered population, that hut a few years ago were closed are now open the poverty of the people, and their notable licen­ for the gospel. In Southeast Arabia the Rev. tiousness, as well as interference with work inland James Cantine says there is " an almost universally by occasional tribal warfare." cordial reception inland, and in large coast towns Every mission in Arabia too has the following the people are not at all fanatical. There is prac­ difficulties to contend with ; viz. (1) .A. hot and tically no interference from the Sultan " (of Oman). unhealthy climate without any near place to which "Work among the soldier class," says the Rev. the missionary could go in order to rest and re­ John Yan Ess, "presents two prime advantages : cruit after fever. (2) The great expense of keep· it finds a field peculiarly fallow because of the ing up a mission. .A.s a rule prices are twice or loneliness of the soldier's life, and the constant thrice what they are in India, and assistants, col­ shifting of regiments carries the gospel into regions porteurs aud evangelists require to have at least closed to oolportage." three times the pay that is given in India. It is impossible to tabulate the results of faithful In Turkish Arabia, too, all medical men are re-­ work in these different parts of Arabia ; but all of quired to proceed to Constantinople and pass an us must rejoice that first fruits have been gathered examination there either in Turkish or French be­ in from every field,although not from every sta­ fore they are allowed to practice as medical mis­ tion. Prejudices have been broken down and now sionaries. there is not only a tolerance of Christian teaching, Special opportunities for work are : The mis· but a real interest in and a better appreciation of sion stations are so located that there are very few true Christianity. Several thousand scriptures are districts in Arabia which cannot be reached through sold every year along with very many educational indirect channels. Every village of any size at works and not a few religious papers and contro­ one time or another sends its representative to versial tracts are given to the people on their way Bagdad, Busrah, Bahrain, :Muscat or .A.den, while to the interior. In Sheikh Othman, where the at­ from far in the interior sick ones are brought to tendances at the dispensary have risen from two 94 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Arabia 95 thousand to above forty thousand., we are about to possess. Very few Moslem children have any erect a hospital; and an application has been made sense of modesty as we understand the word, and to government for a site on which to build mission it is our duty to awaken this, if we can, and also premises at Dthala, a place nearly 100 miles north to show them the real distinction between truth of Aden and just on the border of Turkish ter­ and falsehood, while we make plain to them the ritory. necessity of being honest with God. All Moslem From the very first the Keith-Falconer Mission children come to our schools with certain precon­ had a fully qualified medical missionary on its ceived ideas and religious beliefs, which we should staff, and experience taught the other societies the aim to get rid of without injuring the faith of the necessity for healing the sick as well as preaching scholar. I have found that a strong light cast the gospel. Consequently now there are dispen­ upon a properly made and properly placed globe saries and rudimentary or properly built hospitals has had a spendid educational effect on both old in Mosul, Bagdad, Busrah, Bahrain and Sheikh Moslems and young, for it shows that the com­ Othman, Aden, while from each of these centres mand to keep Ramadhan is not of God, since in the medical missionaries go out on tour and pave certain countries it could not be obeyed. This the way for evangelistic effort and colportage. can usually be done in the routine work of the All of these medical missions are known far and day, and for this reason, if for no other, I think it near, and sometimes drawpatients hundreds even is always advisable in teaching geography to have thousands of miles for treatment. That at Sheikh at least one globe in the school. A statistical map Othman has bad patients coming (and bringing let­ is also helpful, showing the countries that are ters with them from old patients) from farther Moslem and those that are Christian, and how north than Mecca and Medina, from Abyssinia, Protestant Christian countries have flourished Somaliland and Hadramaut. I am told that at while Moslem countries have decayed. Bahrain, Busrah and Bagdad, patients from the in­ The magic lantern or stereopticon is largely land Riadh and Hail are frequent. used in some parts of Arabia ; for though Moslems Under the head of educational work I not only say that "angels never enter a house where there include the keeping open of a school in which are pictures or dogs," the average Moslem of the Bible instruction is given synchronously with present day will gaze with wonder on, and be secular education, but also efforts to educate the quickly attracted to a lantern lecture. Experi­ moral sense and create within the children higher ence has, however, taught me that nude or semi­ desires and nobler aspirations than any of them nude figures should never be shown on the screen Islam in Arabia 96 The Mohammedan World of To-Day 97 and rarely if ever should a fanciful representation conquest, and rarely if ever has there been any of our Saviour be shown. From such pictures as other instrument in bis hand than the Word of the children of Israel crossing the Jordan, Joseph God, although surgical operations, medical attend­ before Pharoab, Ruth declining to leave Naomi ance, school lessons, kindly interference on behalf and Solomon pronouncing judgment, the conver­ of the oppressed, and a warm interest in the sation can be so turned that "a good word for people's welfare, may have tended to clear, and in Jesus " may be spoken. At any rate lantern dem­ my opinion often, have cleared the way for the onstrations please the people and make them more man and his message. Consequently in all the friendly with the missionary, opening up a way missions these are used as auxiliaries. for both man and message. In all the missions in Arabia the colporteur is to be seen at work, and every year several thou­ sand copies of God's word in whole or in part, are sold by those who carry the books from house to house. A shop too in the village or town where the missionary dwells is usually rented as a book­ shop and discussion-room into which all are in­ vited, quietly to read the newspapers and religions periodicals placed there. Our experience is that this room should be made as attractive as possible, and that no effort should be made to force the conversation into a religious groove until the stranger has learned to trust the one who speaks. Bazaar preaching may be carried on but our experience is that far more good is done by per­ sonal dealings with individuals than in speaking to multitudes. This brings me to say that all the different methods named must be kept subordinate to real evangelistic work. For nothing but the "Man of God " thoroughly alive with the love of God has ever been the agent of real missionary VII Islam in Arabia (Tke Wa kabis) Rev. S. M. Zwemer, D. D. "It so.relyis not withont a purpose that thiswide-spread and powerful race [the Arabs] has been kept these four thousand years, unsubdued and undegenerate, preserving still the vigour and simplicity of its character. It is certainly capable of a great future ; and M certainl y a, great future lies before it. It may be among the laat · peoples of Southwestern Asia to yield to the transforming influences of Christianity and a Christian. civiliza­ tion. But to those influencesit will assuredly yield in the full­ ness of time/'-Edsoo L. 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) VII

Islam in Arabia

IN writing on this land the first difficulty, and one that can hardly be avoided, is that we must deal so largely with unknown quantities. Not only from a geographical but also from a religious point of view the great peninsula still awaits ex­ ploration. The latest authority on this subject, David George Hogarth, F. R. G. S., writes in his book, The Penetration of Arabia : "From certain scientific points of view hardly anything in Arabia is known. Not a hundredth part of the peninsula has been mathematically sur­ veyed ; the altitude of scarcely a single point even on the littoral has been fixed by an exact process, and we depend on little more than guesses for all points in the interior. Between the inner­ most points reached by Europeans in their at­ tempts to penetrate it intervenes a dark space of 650 miles span from north to south, and 850 from west to east. This unseen area covers considerably more than half a million square miles, or not much less than half the whole superficies of Arabia." Of the real condition of this part of the penin­ sula we are therefore in ignorance except for hear­ say and native report. The Dahna may hold semi-pagan tribes of Arabs or remnants of ab- 101 Islam m Arabia 103 102 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Arabian, and because of its vast and lasting in­ origines like the Shikhuh in northern Oman. fluence worthy of special note, is that of the Arabia was not always a Mohammedan land, nor Wahabis. To study their origin, history, tenets is it wholly a Mohammedan land to-day. There and influence is to have a good insight into Islam are Jews in Yemen and Irak to the number of at as it is to-day in Arabia. least 150,000, wbile in the Busrah and Bagdad The rise of innumerable heresies as the result vilayets there are 12,850 oriental Christians . . of philosophical speculation, the spread of mysti­ Whether the semi-pagan tribes of eastern Ha­ cism among the learned classes, and the return to dramaut, who on the testimony of travellers know many heathen superstitions on the part of the nothing of Islam except the name of Mohammed, masses, made Islam ripe for reform at the middle are to be counted as Moslems is an open question. of the eighteenth century. Add to this that there Taking the boundary of Arabia on the north as was a general decadence of morals under the the thirtieth parallel of latitude the area of the Ottoman Caliphate, and that there had been a lull country is a million of square miles. This large in Moslem conquest. Except for a temporary region, according to the careful estimates of revival of missionary activity on the part of the Dr. Hubert Janseu, has a population of 6,290,860 ; 1 l\foslems of China and the spread of Islam among he estimates that of these 6,153,193 are Moslems. the Barbary Tartars, the eighteenth century saw Of this number 1,184,500 are in Turkish Arabia little advance for the Crescent. Instead of con­ in the Provinces of Hejaz, Y emeu, and Hassa, quest there was controversy. The germs of 3,500,000 in Independent Arabia, and 1,606,360 idolatry left by Mohammed in his system bore in what Jansen calls Arabia under British pro­ fruit also in Arabia. Saint-worship became com­ tection-i.'e., Aden, Bahrein, and Oman. In my mon. The Shiahs had made Kerbela the rival of opinion these estimates are not wide of the truth. Mecca and Medina as a place of pilgrimage. All four of the orthodox sects of Islam are There were local shrines of holy men near every represented in Arabia. In the Turkish provinces village, and stone and tree-worship were not at all the Hanafis ; in Yemen there are many Shafis ; in uncommon. The whole world of thought was the interior Malekis and Hanbalis. The Shiah honeycombed with superstitions, and the old-time sect is found on the east coast, and is strong in simplicity of morals and life had given way to Mesopotamia ; while the Abadhi sect, of Shiah luxury and sensuality. Burckhardt testifies re­ origin, is found in many parts of Oman. garding Mecca itself (which has always been to the The one sect, however, which is distinctly pious Moslem the cynosure of his faith) that, just 1 Verbreit-ungdes Islams. Berlin, 1897. 104 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Arabia 105 before the time of the Wahabi reformation, de­ hammed bin Saud, and then the religious warfare bauchery was fearfully common, and that harlotry for the truth began. To give the history in detail and even unnatural vices were perpetrated openly of the rise of the Wahabi state, and its bloody in the sacred city. Almsgiving had grown obso­ conflicts, first with the Arabs and afterwards lete ; justice was neither swift nor impartial ; against the Turks and the Egyptians, as well effeminacy had displaced the martial spirit ; and as the history of the two British campaigns the conduct of the pilgrim-caravans was scandalous from India against the Wahabi pirates of Oman, in the extreme. is impossible in the narrow limits of this paper. Such was the condition of Arabia when Mo­ A brief account and a list of the literature hammed Bin Abd ul Wahab bin Musherrif was on this subject can be found in the Jo urnal of the born at Wasit in Nejd, 1691 A. D. Before his Vi ctoria, In stitute for 1901. death this great reformer, earnest as Luther, and Because Wahabi teaching has modified Islam all zealous as Cromwell, saw his doctrines accepted over the Arabian peninsula, and still exercises a and his laws obeyed from the Persian Gulf to the mighty influence on thought and politics, it is im­ Yemen frontier. As a result of his teaching there portant to note on what points a thoroughgoing sprang up in the short space of fifty years not Wahabi differs from an orthodox Moslem : only a new, widely extended, and important Mos­ 1. They do not receive the dogmatic decisions lem sect, but an independent and powerful state. of the four Imams, reject lj ma,'a,, i. e., the unani­ Abd ul Wahab was a whirl wind of puritan­ mous consent of the theologians, and profess to hold ism against the prevailing apostasy of the Moslems the right of private judgment in interpreting the of his day. His sect was a protest against idolatry Koran. and superstition. It stood for no new teaching, 2. Their monotheism is absolute. Prayers may but was a call back to the original Islam. It was not b� offered in the name of any prophet, wali, an honest attempt at an Arabian reformation or saint. Palgrave's famous description of Allah which was intended to repristinate the entire is a true picture of the Waha bi doctrine of God. Moslem world. Yet, so far from giving a pro­ They are fatalists. gressive impulse to Moslem thought, it has proved 3. Together with this absolute monotheism they the most reactionary element in the history of are accused, and not without reason, of having Islam. crude and anthropomorphic ideas of deity. They In the year 1740, the preacher of reform made understand the words, " sitting " and " Hand of an alliance with the powerful Arab chief, Mo- God " in a strictly literal sense. 106 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Arabia 107 4. They hold that Mohammed cannot intercede faith with carnal weapons is a command of God now, but that he may on the last day. In this never to be abrogated. In all their bloody battles they differ from all other Moslem sects. they never were known to grant quarter to a 5. They think it wrong to build cupolas over Turk. They keep Mohammed's precept diligently, graves, or to honour the dead by illuminations or "Kill the unbelievers wherever ye find them." the visiting of tombs, etc. A careful survey of these and other points of 6. They are accused of holding that certain difference leaves no donbt of the reactionary char­ portions of the original Koran were abstracted by acter of this reform movement. It is an advance Othman out of envy when he had made his recen­ backward and progress towards an impasse. And sion superseding all other copies.' yet if ever a reform had promise of success it was 7. They observe only four festivals in the the Wahabi revival in Arabia. Mohammed bin calendar year. Abd nl Wahab understood the strength and the 8. They forbid the nse of the rosary, and count weakness of Islam as no one before him did. Saud the names of God and their prayers on the knuckles the founder of the Wahabi state was a great man. of the hand instead. Though at the head of a powerful military govern­ 9. In the matter of dress they advocate sim­ ment, he appears never (outside the laws of relig­ plicity. All silk, jewels, silver and gold, and other ion) to have encroached npon the legitimate · than Arabian dress are an abomination to God freedom of his subjects. The great principle of and to His prophet. separating the judicial from the executive branch 10. All drngs that benumb or stupefy, and of government he understood not only, but faith­ especially tobacco, are strictly forbidden and put fully carried out. The Wahabi judges of those nnder the category of greater sins. The weed is days were noted for their impartiality ; they were known by the name of " the shameful " or by a so well paid from the public treasury that they did still worse and untranslatable epithet which im­ not need bribes for bread. Robbery met with the plies a purely Satanic origin for the plant. swift old-time punishment of chopping offthe hand 11. Wahabi mosques are built with the greatest of the culprit. We are told, " The people lay down simplicity, and no minarets are allowed nor orna­ to sleep at night with no fear that their cattle ment in the place of prayer. would be stolen in the morning ; and a single 12. The sect lays great stress on the doctrine merchant with his camel load of wares could travel of Jiliad or religious warfare. To fight for the in safety from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea." 1 See Badger's History of Oman, pp. 252, 253. To-day even a well-armed caravan dares to travel 108 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Arabia 10<) only by daylight through Turkish Hassa and their accessibility on spiritual lines, once the way Yemen. is opened to their hearts. Public education had no mean place in the Negatively, Wahabism is a strong argument that Wahabi state. Schools were everywhere estab­ Islam, even when reformed into its original prin­ lished and teachers sent even to the Bedouins ; and ciples and practices, has no power to save a people although instruction was very elementary, its or introduce permanent progress. There is no bet­ wide-spread results are apparent in N ejd and ter polemic against Islam than a presentation of Y emama to this day. the present intellectual, social, and moral condition Of the influence of the Wahabi revival on Islam of Arabia. Cradled at Mecca, fostered at Medina, in India and in Africa and on the rise of the mod­ and reformed in the Nejd, the creed of Islam has ern Moslem Brotherhoods there is no space here to had indisputed possession of the peninsula almost write. In Arabia the chief strongholds of the sect since its birth. In other lands, such as Syria and are along the coast of the Persian Gulf in Oman Egypt, it remained in contact with a more or less and in 'Ajman and the Wady Doasir. In the lat­ corrupt form of Christianity, or, as in India and ter place they still preserve all their old-time be­ in China, in conflict with cultured paganism, and liefs and fanaticism so as to be a proverb among there is no doubt that in both cases there were and the Arabs. are mutual concessions and influences. But in its The effect of the Wahabi movement has influ­ native Arabian soil the tree planted by the prophet enced all Arabian thought. It has built a wall of has grown with wild freedom and brought forth fanaticism arouud the old Wahabi states, and post­ fruit after its kind. As regards morality Arabia poned the opening of doors to civilization and is on a low plane. Slavery and concubinage exist Christianity in that part of the peninsula. On the everywhere ; while polygamy and divorce are fear­ other hand some positive and negative results of fully common. The conscience is petrified ; legal­ the revival have, I think, favoured Christian ity is the highest form of worship ; virtue is to be missions. like the prophet Mohammed. Intellectually there Islam in its primitive teaching is nearer the truth has been scant progress since "the time of igno­ than Islam with all its added superstitions and ad­ rance " when all the Arab tribes used to gather at ditions of a later date. The Koran can more easily Okatz to compete in poetry and eloquence. The be made our ally iu the battle for the gospel than Bedouins are nearly all illiterate and, in spite of the interpretations of the four Imams. My deal­ the Wahabi revival and the attempt of Turkish ings with the Wahabis have impressed me with officials to open schools, there is little that deserves 110 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Arabia 111 the name of education in even the larger towns. have shown elsewhere.' To the outside observer Kufa, which was once the Oxford of Arabia, now there seems no doubt that her policy is aggressive has one day school with twelve pupils ; Fatalism, in the hinterland of Aden, and that all the Arabs the philosophy of the masses, has paralyzed prog­ welcome it. On the littoral of Hadramaut and ress, and injustice is often stoically accepted. Oman, British influence is the only preserver of the Cruelty is common, lying is a fine art, and rohbery peace, and her gunboats alone prevent piracy. In a science. Islam and the Wahabis have made the the Persian Gulf British prestige is gaining ground noble, free-hearted and hospitable Arabs hostile to slowly but surely. What is the aim of British Christians and wary of all strangers. Doughty policy in Arabia ? He who can answer that ques­ and Palgrave, who both crossed the heart of tion can read the future of a large part of the dark Arabia, have given it as their verdict that there is peninsula. no hope for this land in Islam. It has been tried The third factor is Christian missions. While it zealously for thirteen hundred years and piteously is inevitable that the advent of Western civiliza­ failed. tion through British commerce and politics will As regards the future of Islam in Arabia there modify Moslem thought even in Arabia as it has are three factors. The old independent spirit in in India and Egypt, it is not to be taken for granted N ejd and Yemen, not to omit even Hejaz, is rest­ that either of these harbingers of progress are less under the rule of Turkey. Rebellion has be­ necessarily in conflict with Islam. But Christian come chronic and threatens to be revolution. The missions exist to propagate Christianity. They proposed rail way from Damascus to Mecca and the have only recently entered Arabia, and yet the re­ south is really a challenge to the other powers sults prove their efficiency and potency to a degree on the part of the Sultan to keep hands offArabia. above the hopes of many. The United Free But the railway, when opened, may prove an open Church of Scotland has a very strong medical mis­ door to more than Turkish troops. This long and sion at Sheikh Othman, a school for Moslem chil­ never ending conflict between the Arab and the dren, and does itinerating inland. The medical Turk in Arabia is the first factor of the future work of the Church Missionary Society Mission at problem. Bagdad is known far inland in the villages and The second and more important factor is British cities of N ejd, and has already borne rich spiritual policy in Arabia. That the whole country owes fruit after years of self-denying toil in relieving past I an immense debt to Great Britain in the 1 Tke Oradle of I81a>n, pp. 218-232. 1 1 z The Mohammedan World of To-Day suffering. Their school at Bagdad has 150 pupils. The American Mission in the Persian Gulf has six­ teen missionaries with three stations and three out. stations. Over 4,000 Scriptures were sold last year to Moslems and 31,355 patients treated at onr two dispensaries. Seventy-five per cent. of these were Moslems. At Bahrain there is a fully equipped mission hospital, and we are building a chapel and school. In each of these three missions there have been converts and baptisms. The outlook for mis­ sions in Arabia may demand a strong faith and a VIII zeal that knows no discouragement, bnt it is de­ cidedly hopeful, and is growing more hopeful year Islam in Persia by year. For obvious reasons it would be unwise to give further details of missions in a land still so Rev. W. St. Clair Tisdal!, M. A., D. D. largely under the power of the Koran and its in­ tolerant spirit. "What tesMmony moreover could be ao oogent as this to the inadequacy of Islam to meet the wants of the soul? Mohammed refused to believe in a crucified Christ, but hli! followers trust to the cleansing power of tears shed (or hIBmurdered grandson. Do 1 not tbese frantio cries call for the gospel of the Cross ? '- Wm. A. Sltedd1 D.D. VIII

Islam in Persia

EVER since the Arabian conquest of Persia, about the year 640 of our era, the dominant re­ ligion of the country has been the Mohammedan, which was established by the sword. The Shiah form of Islam became supreme in the country during the tenth century. Although the Sunni faith was declared the religion of Persia under Nadir Shah in 1736, yet Agha Mohammed, the founder of the present Qajar dynasty restored the supremacy of the Shiah faith in 1796. There is no such thing as a census in Persia and hence it is impossible to form accurate estimates of the population. Lord Curzon believes that it is between eight and ten millions. Of these some 750,000 or 800,000 are said to be Sunnis, though I consider this estimate too high. The Behais claim to number 1,000,000 adherents, and are certainly very numerous. There are some 10,000 Parsis, chiefly in Yezd and Kerman ; about 20,000 Jews in Ispahan, Teheran, Ramadan and other large cities ; 53,000 Armenians in the Armenian prov­ inces and in Julfa (new) and its neighbourhood, and 30,000 Nestorians about Urmia. All the rest of the population are nominally Shiites, though the Bakhtiyaris and the nomad tribes know little us 116 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Persia 117 of Islam, and the educated classes are mostly Sufi in Ispahan during my residence in Persia. Mar­ free-thinkers. The leading sects are the Ismailis, riage often takes place when the girl is seven or the Ali-Ilahis (especially among the Kurds), the nine years of age, in accordance with Mohammed's Akhbaris and the Shaikhis. It is from the latter example in his marriage with Ayesha. The evil sect that the Babis and Behais sprang. The Babis results of this are well known. The muta}ah are now few in number, most of them having ( called in Persia Bigheh) system of temporary mar­ become followers of the Baba. riages prevails under religious sanction among the The social condition of Moslems in Persia can­ Shiites, in accordance with traditions which they not be said to be a high one. Women hold a very accept and the Sunnis reject. Hence at Qum and low position and have few rights. They are closely other "holy " cities to which crowds of pilgrims veiled when they go abroad, even in the lowest resort there are large numbers of women who classes, except among the nomad tribes, whose have devoted themselves to this kind of life, the women enjoy much greater liberty. Religiously, Mullas and Mujtahids there draw a large part of few privileges are granted them. ,They are not their income from the fees they receive for cele­ encouraged to attend service in the mosques, but brating these temporary marriages. It is rare to in some instances have their own small places of find a woman who can read. It is hardly neces­ worship. I have heard of a case in which a woman sary to point out that such treatment of women acted as the Imam to a small gathering of her has tended to the moral and social degradation of own sex. The well-known Mohammedan law of the other sex. Immorality is one of the great polygamy and divorce holds in Persia as in other vices of Persia. Lying has been elevated to the Mohammedan lands and hence a woman has prac­ dignity of a fine art, owing to the doctrine of tically no social rights. Jealousy frequently leads Ki tm®-ud-din which is held by the Shiah relig­ to murder and suicide on the part of woman. Men ious community. have been known to murder their wives with im­ The Behais are far superior in morality to the punity and with hardly an effort to conceal their mass of the Moslems of Persia. Except when the guilt, and that for no crime even alleged. In case first wife has no children, a man is not allowed a of adultery, the husband and his wife's male rela­ second wife during her lifetime. Even under these tives not infrequently punish the guilty woman circumstances, he is not thought of highly should with death. Of course adultery on the husband's he take a second wife. Divorce is permitted only part goes unpunished. For murdering her hus­ for a wife's adultery. The Behais profess to place band, a woman was crucified and then strangled the Old and New Testaments on the same level as I 18 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Persia 119 the Koran and their own books. They are more know but little of Arabic, and nothing of any liberal in their views with regard to women's edu­ other language but their vernacular. The secular cation, and some Behai women have risen high in authorities are not anxious for the education of the esteem of the members of the sect. Some their subjects, and the Mullas fear education lest have become Behai missionaries to their own sect. their people should "become infidels." Modern There is no political liberty in Persia. The peo­ Persian literature is scanty and inferior. Yet the ple are not allowed to take any part in politics. people themselves have great respect for learning, The Shah is an absolute monarch and his decrees and take delight in hearing a book of any kind are the secular law of the country, the only secular read aloud. This affords a great opening for the law in force. The religious law of Islam is put in circulation of the Bible and of Christian literature force by the Mullas, so far as they have power and in general. The language is copious and well deem it saf\l to do so. At times the secular rulers adapted for the dissemination of Christian truth. have to yield to them and there is al ways a great One of the greatest obstacles to the spread of the distrust of one another between the religious and gospel, however, is the great ignorance of the peo­ the secular authorities. Although two systems of ple at large_ " Orthodox " Mohammedanism law are in force, justice is not to be obtained under whether Shiite or Sunni, has al ways been opposed either. Every important position under govern­ to intellectual progress, since it has been felt that ment is sold year by year. No Persian subject's such progress would be fatal to Islam. life or property is secure. Oppression is found The relation in which Islam in Persia stands to everywhere ; tyranny and injustice are so common Christianity is that of unceasing opposition. The as to occasion no surprise. But in these and other Koranic law which dooms to death any Moslem respects Persia resembles most other Mohammedan who embraces any other religion is in force, theo­ countries. There are no public works. The coun­ retically at least. The late Shah of Persia at dif­ try is steadily retrograding towards barbarism, ferent times published three edicts in favour of re­ though European influence in some slight degree ligious toleration, but the Mullas compelled them tends in another direction. to be virtually annnlled, since they said that no The people are intelligent and capable but there one could repeal the Divine law above referred to. is no national system of education. The propor­ But of recent years the spread of belief in the tion of those who can read and write is very small gospel has resulted in the falling into abeyance of and even men in high position have but an imper­ this Koranic law, at least to a great extent. The fect knowledge of orthography- Even the Mullas Moslems of Persia believe Christianity, as it. exists 120 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Persia 121 at present, to be an idolatrous and corrupt system erted in the direction of destroying faith in Islam. of religion. They hold that the gospel has been Ali is practically more revered than Mohammed, repealed by the " descent " of the Koran upon and in his name not a few ideas have been intro­ Mohammed, and fancy that our Bible has been duced which are very different from ordinary willfully corrupted both by Jews and Christians. Mohammedan beliefs. The opposition between We are accused of worshipping three Gods. Their the secular and the religious authorities tends to knowledge of Christianity has, until comparatively prevent the former from seconding, with any recently, been in large measure derived from the zeal, the efforts of the latter to stamp out Chris­ commentators on the Koran, and from what they tianity. All these matters have to be considered have seen of the worship of the Oriental and in attempting to define the attitude of Moslems Roman Churches. But Protestant missiouaries in Persia towards the Christian faith. of the American Presbyterian Church and of the The greatest event in the recent religious history Church Missionary Society have already to some of the country is the rise of the Babi or as we may extent succeeded in showing them that Evangel­ now call it the Behai, faith. The Behais, gen­ ical Christianity is not idolatrous. Hence the erally speaking, are more or less friendly towards Persians are gradually coming to make a distinc­ Christians, being themselves liable to persecution. tion between the two kinds of Christianity with Their use of the Bible has done much to spread which they have thus become acquainted; an

1 Compiled partly from personal experience of three years' itineration among Pathans, Baluchis, and Brabnis, and from the Census Report of Mr. Hughes-Buller. t Mr. Hughes-Buller thinks that there are indications that both Baluchis and Brshuis were at one time Shiahs ; Baluchistan, in old days, having been a province of Persia, Shi.Rh influence must have been felt. 133 Islam in Baluchistan 1 134 The Mohammedan World of To-Day 35 the British Government, of whose trol ; viz., British territory, Administered territory, the fear of _ · es have had unpleasant experience Tribal areas, and Kelat territory. The first two power the t1:'? di visions are really one, since they are governed when expeditions have been sent against them. by British agents and the laws are practically the These tribes are all fanaticalMoslems, and the life same as in India. The government is, of course, of a convert to Christ would not besafeamong them. neutral on religious questions, but occasionally in­ Preaching is not allowed, so that at present the dividual agents seem to favour Islam by support­ ?nly means of reaching the tribes is through med- ing schools in which the Koran is taught. The 10al work. The government has arranged to furnish government has occasionally given assistance an escort to those visiting these tribes and the peo­ to the medical work of the missionaries, and agents ple themselves have requested me never to leave have sometimes shown much sympathy with the camp without some one to accompany me. work of the mission. The exact period at which the tribes of The Khan of Kelat is an independent Moham­ Baluchistan first came into contact with Moham­ medan chief, who ranks high among the princes medanism must remain buried in obscurity. It is of India. In his own country he is nominally su­ probable, however, that they did so early in the preme, but is kept under control by a British po­ Mohammedan era. Seistan, which touches the litical agent. In general, law and order reign, and western border of the province, was conquered as violent crimes are not numerous. The govern­ early as 81 A. H., and about 665 (44 A. H.) ment, according to native law and custom, is tem­ :Muhallat, son of Abu Safra brought the countries pered to some extent by the influence of Islam. of Kabul and Zahn! under submission. In '714 Although orders have been given that armed es­ :Mohammed, son of Kasim, set out from Shiraz to corts should accompany one when itinerating, there conquer Sind, and on his way passed Makran. is not much danger in Kelat from fanaticism. In the tenth century a certain writer mentions t?at the Governor of Khozdar (near the present Preaching, in the ordinary sense, is not, however' considered advisable. village of Kelat) was Muin bin Ahmed, and that the The Tribal areas are occupied by wild tribes of Kh utba was read in the name of the Caliph only. Baluchis, who are practically independent ; but are Early graves in Baluchistan do not point the di. kept from fighting and crimes of violence by oc­ rection of Mecca, showing, probably, that the early casional visits of a political agent, and by subsidies inhabitants were Zoroastrians. I believe that the which are withheld in case of the least disturbance. number of Moslems is increasing, as many lives to The chief deterrent to crime seems to be, however, must have been saved owing the cessation of Islam in Baluchistan 136 The Mohammedan World of To-Day 137 tribal wars, looting, and raids during the last finish their education. The government has es­ fifteen to twenty years, and the gradual intro­ tablished schools in several centres, and occasion­ duction of law and order under the British Govern­ ally these are attended by Pathans, but the ment. Immigration and peace have also brought Hindus seem to predominate ; the Banyan evi­ about settlement in many districts at one period dently realizing the importance of education. uninhabited. At the same time many Baluchis Outside of the imported population of Hindus have gone to Sind and the Punjab, finding it im­ and Sikhs living in the two or three government possible to live among the barren mountains and centres, among :Mohammedans only 117 per 1,000, sandy deserts of Baluchistan without recourse to and among the women only twenty-three per 1,000 looting. are literate. In many cases even these do not .Although the Brahui people are perhaps the understand what they are reading. In three years most numerous, yet as they do not all use the we have found only three or four :Mullas who Brahui language, many speaking Persian, Ba­ were willing or able to answer arguments. The luchi, and Sindhi, Pushtu probably stands numer­ following table, referring to Quetta, the govern­ ically first among the languages, and then Brahui, ment centre, where the majority of the imported Baluchi, Sindhi, and Persian. Urdu is understood · population live, may be interesting. It shows the by nearly all chiefs and by many Hindu Banyans proportion per 1,000 of the people who can read.

and is rapidly spreading in places where the Ma les. Females. people come in contact with the government. :Moslems 86 • 17 Persian is evidently the favourite language of the Christians 1 778 - 755 upper classes, and almost every man who makes Hindus ­ 372 • 64 pretense to education wilt usually include Persian Sikhs 514 - - 191 as one of his accomplishments. Very few, even Polygamy is not very common among the com­ of the :Mullas, really understand Arabic. mon Moslem people. The purchase of wives The government report says that the bulk of being in vogue, poverty prevents the possession of the population has received and is receiving no more than one wife, except among the wealthier education whatever. Even those few who learn classes. All the chiefs and many :Mnllas with the Koran do not understand its meaning. A few sons of chiefs may have received some instruction 1 The only plaoe where Christians live in Baluchistan. The in Urdu and Persian, and a few have been trained Protestant native Christians nearly all belong tothe imported to be :Mullas by being sent to Kandahar to popula.tiou and number about 270. 138 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Baluchistan 139 whom I have come into contact, have possessed many appear to be in a very miserable condition. more than one wife, and several as many as five The children often wear but a few rags and many or six. The price of girls varies, being highest of them go entirely naked. Different forms of among Pathans, where, according to reports, there venereal disease are common both among adults is the greatest paucity of women. Prices have and children. risen of recent years, as men find they can now The women, both free and slave, are given all claim payment in oourt, whereas in old days, in the degrading work and bear the heavy burdens, many oases, the money was never fully paid up, while the men often sit in idleness. Throughout or one relative perhaps was balanced against the country both in British territory, in the Kelat another. State, and the Marri and Bugti Tribal areas are to Concubinage exists more especially among the be found hundreds of Hazara women, who during Baluohi chiefs in districts where the Treaty pro­ the late Hazara revolt in Afghanistan, were taken hibits us from interfering with their women. I by the Amir from their homes, and sold by Pa­ know of several chiefs who have thirty, forty, thans all over Baluchistan. In every large village, fifty, or sixty women, but whether they all occupy in some districts, these women are to be found, the position of concubines it is difficult to say. and every chief possesses numbers of them. Many seem to be domestic slaves, and are often Their owners speak of buying them as one might given by the chief to his followers or to male refer to buying cattle. In Kelat State the great alaves. But from medioal experience and reports, blot is the court of the Khan, where vile orgies it seems that in many cases there is no marriage are enacted, which it is impossible to describe. It hond, or it is often broken. Women stolen from is said that some of the boys have died from the India or enticed away under false pretenses, ap­ treatment received. The first chapter of Romans pear to be living lives of common prostitution in is a true picture of the conditions existing among the large villages of the Baluchi chiefs. Many of Brahuis, Pathans, and Baluchis to-day. Scarcely the tribes in the past were border robbers, and it a day passes but medical experience testifies to is only during the last twenty years that their the truth of the worst reports. Taking the first raiding has heen stopped. They formerly im­ 450 cases treated recently on a tour among the ported slaves, and occasionally on looting expedi­ Marri and Bugti Baluchis, fourteen per cent. were tions they took women away with their other due to the sensuality of the people. Almost loot. The descendants of these slaves to-day form every chief and many Mullas are sufferingfrom a numerous body in some of the larger villages,and the effects of impurity. So many Mullas are 140 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Baluchistan treated at our hospital and on itineration for Seclusion of women is not practiced except by syphilis, that it is often spoken of as the Mulla's the most important Sirdars and chiefs. Here and disease. These conditions in some of the villages there, where the people have come more into are no doubt partly due to slavery, many of the contact with Indian customs, one finds the system slaves being really common prostitutes. The being established, but it is exceptional. The fol­ Bazaars which are the outcome of our occupation lowing extract on the position of women in Balu­ of the frontier, have also very much to answer chistan is from the government census report : for in the spread of venereal disease. Govern-­ " Throughout the province, more especially ment reports state that immorality among women among Afghans and Brahuis, the position of is common, and that in spite of the requirements woman is one of extreme degradation. She is of the Koran with regard to witnesses, death is, ac­ not only a mere household drudge but she is the cording to the tribal custom of Balucbis and slave of man in all his needs, and her life is one of Brahuis, the only punishment for an unfaithful continual and abject toil. No sooner is a girl fit woman and her lover when caught. But to-day a for work than her parents send her to tend the man, in order to secure money, will often accuse cattle, and she is compelled to take her part in all his wife of adultery when her only fault may be the ordinary household duties. Owing to the that she does not please her husband. The death system of buying wives, in vogue among Afghans, penalty for adultery has been abolished in British a girl as soon as she reaches nubile age is, for all territory. The reports say, on the other hand, practical purposes, put up for auction and sold to that among Afghans immorality on the part of a the highest bidder. Her father discourses in the wife is winked at by her husband, and that even market on her beauty or ability as a housekeeper, when the matter has become a public scandal, the and invites offers from those who desire a wife. injured husband is generally willing to overlook Even the more wealthy and more respectable it on payment of a few rupees and one or two Afghans are not above thus landing the female girls. Among Baluchis the feeling in regard to wares which they have for sale. Even the be­ adultery is said to be very severe. From per­ trothal of girls who are not yet born is frequent. sonal experience, however, living among these It is also usual for compensation for blood to be tribes, in their villages, in their houses and encamp­ ordered to . be paid in the shape of girls, some of ments, there seems to be nowhere more open whom are living whilst others are yet unborn. prostitution, than in the capitals of the Baluchi Woman in Baluchistan is regarded as little more chiefs. than a chattel or machine. Is it surprising then 142 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Baluchistan 143 to find that woman is considered only as a means The only way in which whole tribes were saved for increasing man's comforts or as an object for from extermination was by the universal custom the gratification of his animal passions P A wife of never killing women, or boys who had not yet must not only carry water, prepare food, and at­ put on trousers." tend to all ordinary household duties, but she In a recent tour through the Marri and Bugti must take flocks out to graze, groom her hus­ country, I saw many more thousands of graves band's horse, and assist in cultivation. than I saw men. These were a striking testimony "Among the tribes in Zhob, a married woman to the constant state of war which, till quite re­ must even provide means, by her own labour, for cently, was ever waged both among themselves clothing herself, her children, and her husband, and against surrounding tribes. If to-morrow the from whom she receives no assistance, monetary British Government should withdraw from this or otherwise. Among Afghans and their neigh­ province, the tribes would doubtless return to the bours polygamy is only limited by the purchasing old condition of continual civil war. To-day, after ability of the man, and a wife is looked on as a twenty-five years of the gradual growth of law better investment than cattle; for in a country and order, there is here and there evident improve­ where drought and scarcity are continually pres­ ment in the condition of the people. The govern­ ent, the risk of loss in animals is great, whilst the ment has built a few dispensaries and schools, and female offspring of a woman will fetch a high there are some 545 miles of metalled roads. But price. Woman's tutelage does not end with the people have not yet realized the need of effort widowhood. In the household of a deceased on their part, and instead of utilizing land and Afghan she is looked on as an asset in the divi­ water for systematic cultivation, they seem content sion of his property. It is no uncommon thing to to remain on the verge of starvation so long as they find a son willing to sell his own mother." 1 can grow a little wheat or millet with a small As to material progress, "Till 1875," says Sir amount of labour, Even wells for irrigation are Herbert Edwards, in a government report, "amid neglected where water exists. the ebb and flow of might, right, possession, and Brahuis and Baluchis are largely nomadic in spoliation, there was no security of life or prop­ their habits, and mauy Pathans annually move erty, and practically no communications existed. from mountain to plain, or mee versa according to • This is from the Census Report and is from information ob� tho season of the year, for purposes of trade. tained by government. I cantestily toits truth from experienoe. To sum up, I will again quote from a govern­ Conditions among the Baluahis ate still wome. , ment report : 144 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Baluchistan 145 " When the British entered the country they religious instruction. Afghans, Baluchis, and found a population which had been cut ofl':from Brahuis, are all extremely ignorant about their re­ the outside world, which Jed a nomadic existence ligion, especially the Brahuis. The worship of among vast solitudes of nature, and whose relaxa­ saints is one of the chief features of their religion, tions consisted in continual internecine conflicts. and superstition is a more appropriate term for the The natural result was a very backward state of ordinary belief of the people than the name of re­ oi vilization, and the country possessed character­ ligion. Ordeal by fire still exists, and only last istics which differed materially from those of its week I had an instance of this brought to my Indian neighbours. notice. I have seen native liquor in Baluchi vil­ "In twenty-five years this primitive oondition lages, which I was told was drunk by Baluchis. has been modified but has not disappeared, and The use of bhanrJis also not uncommon. barbarian prejudice and pugnacity are still factors There have been changes in the attitude of Mos­ which have to be constantly reckoned with." lems towards Christianity. In Q.uetta where for Many Brahuis and Baluchis among the moun­ ten or fifteen years missionary work has been car­ tains have never even heard of the people called ried on, the wall of prejudice and superstition is Christians ; but usually after we have been in a gradually being broken down. But outside of district a short time, some M:ulla (who is nearly Quetta, at present, the attitude of the people gen­ always a Pa.than) explains to the people that we erally, when our mission is known, is one of oppo­ are Kafo rs (blasphemers of God) and warns the sition. On several occasions Mullas have told me people to avoid us. Brahuis do not appear to be that it was a pity these dogs of Christians could so bigoted, but the reason seems to be that they not be killed. are not so religiously minded as either Pathans or Mission work centres in Quetta, which is the Baluchis. Among Pathans and Baluchis the stated government centre, with 20,000 population besides times of prayer are very generally observed, and 60,000 to 80,000 who pass through the city yearly the Fast of Ramadhan ; but I have not found that for purposes of trade, etc. Here there are two the Brahui is so careful in this respect. Fanatical hospitals, one for men and one for women, a outrages sometimes take place, more especially church, two schools, and Zenana work. On the among Pathans and Baluchis, but the number is staff are two physicians, one clergyman, one lady often exaggerated. In four years there have been physician, and two lady missionaries. thirteen such cases known to me. It is necessary to be on one's guard in giving X Islam in North India Rev. E. M. Wherry, D. D. X Islam in North India SoAROELY more than five decades had passed by since the death of Mohammed when the conquer­ ing hosts of Islam reached the borders of India. '' It was flrefs the bad example of themoulvies ; second, the It was in the year 711 A. D. that Mohammed fatal system of modern Purdah, with its restrictionson the intel­ Kasim overran Sindh in the name of Walid I of leotual development of woman ; thirdly, the constantand silent Damascus. withdrawal of the most pious and moral Moslems into a life of private prayer and devotion i and, lastly, the doctrine of necessity Forty years later the Rajputs succeeded in over­ that brought about our own downfall. I say it was, in my throwing the Moslem power in Sindh and main­ opinion, these four causes that brought Moslem societydown to its tained control for 150 years. But the religion was present low and degrading level of intellect and chamoter.-A not disturbed and continued to make material f fr Mo,ieno Pro ...,,,. omAUgarA. advances even beyond the regions under Moslem sway. Elliot in his History of In dia tells us of certain Sindhian princes, who became Mohamme­ dans at this time, assuming Arab names.' But all of the earlier invasions of India were characterized as predatory incursions, in which the invaders were more anxious to secure plunder than to convert the infidels. Even as late as the time of the great champion of Islam, Mahmud of Ghazni (l019 A. D.) the "proselyting sword " seems "to have served no other purpose than that of sending infidels to hell." ' Seventeen times did this zealot overrun North India, extending his empire from Persia to

• Elliot, Vol. I, pp. 124, 125. • Arnold's Pre®king of .l8lam, p, 210. 149 I 50 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India 151 the Ganges. During all these centuries, multi­ tudes of the people, some to save their lives and 1707, when the power of the Moguls became es­ property, some to share the honours and booty of tablished throughout India, that the religion of the new regime, others to escape the tyranny and Islam made its most brilliant and extended con­ contempt of their Hindu rulers embraced the quests. Then it was that those grand monu­ ments of art and literature were erected, of which re!igion of their �onquerors. B� intermarriage with these, the foreign Moslems became domiciled Moslems may well be proud, and which still lend in India and the religion became rooted in the so much lustre to the Moslem rule in India. At soil. Towards the close of the twelfth century the close of the reign of Aurangzeb, the political (1176-1206) Mohammed Ghori invaded India and power of the Moslems rapidly began to wane and set up an Afghan vice-royalty at Delhi under his eventually gave place to the Christian dominion of favourite slave Kutb-ud-din. At the death of his Great Britain. Christian conquest brought to all master, Kutb-ud-din established himself as the classes religious liberty ; and so the Christians be­ Sultan of North India with Delhi as his capital. came deliverers to the Moslems who were being ' It was at about this time (1206-1288)that another oppressed by their Hindu and Sikh conquerors. of the great generals of 'Mohammed Ghori, Bakhti­ Under the peaceful rule of the Christians, Islam is yar Khan, having conquered Bengal, set himself enabled to reorganize its forces and to propagate its up as an independent Sultan with his capital at tenets among the people without let or hindrance. Gaur. The multitudes of low caste aborigines in­ The advance which Islam has made in India habiting this province seem to have welcomed their during its twelve centuries of conquest and mis­ new rulers, and readily to have accepted the new sionary effort, may be seen by reference to the faith. census reports for 1901. These show a total Mo­ It was from Delhi and Agra that the various hammedan population aggregating 62,458,077, be­ Moslem rulers extended their dominion. Dynas­ ing almost one-fowrtk of the entire population, ex­ ties were overthrown amid scenes of war and blood­ cluding Burma. Of this immense total, 25,265,342 shed. India was carved up into a number of inde­ Moslems belong to Bengal, 10,825,698 to the Pun­ jab, 6,731,034 pendent sovereignties, but during all this turmoil, belong to the United Provinces, 1,957,777 the religion of the Mohammedans was being estab­ to the Northwest Frontier Province, and 339,446 This makes a lis.hed with greater or lesser success from Afghan­ to the Central Provinces. istan to the Bay of Bengal, and from the Himalayas total of 45,119,297 for North India. The remain­ to Cape Comorin. It was during the period 1525- ing 17,339,780 belong to the Deccan, Central, West and South India. When it is noted that Bombay 152 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India 153 and Madras together, sum up only 6,227,526 Mo­ her among them many of the most learned and in­ hammedans, it is clear that a considerable portion telligent Moslems of North India. The interest­ of the eleven millions remaining should he reck­ ing feature of the movement is the readiness to oned as belonging to Behar, Rajputana and other give reason a place in the discussion of religious States lying within the precincts of North India. questions. May we say in round numbers that the Moslem The other sect to which we have referred is that population of North India aggregates 50,000,000. founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed of Qadian in the Punjab. This sect styles itself as Ahmadiyyah. MOSLEM SECTS The founder styles himself as the Mahdi-Messiah The Mohammedans of North India are for of the twentieth century. He claims to be a the most part Sunnis or Orthodox. The Shiahs prophet and the Messiah of the last times. This do not number more than 5,000,000 for all India. sect seems to be rather alliedto that of the Ba.bis Most of them belong to North India, having their in Persia. Like that of the "New Islam" this stronghold in Oudh, with headquarters in Luck­ movement is regarded by all Moslems, whether now. There are still a few who boast of their Sunni or Shlah, aa heretical. The movement has faith in Mohammed lbn Abd ul Wahhab, but influenced a multitude of educated men, but per­ their influence has lost its power and the sect is haps this may be accounted for by its offering a likely to be reabsorbed into that of the Sunnis. refuge for men who can no longer continue with All the ordinary divisions of Islam, based upon the the orthodox schools. various schools of philosophy and theology, have their place in India, but of these we need not make METHODS OF PROPAGATION OF lSLAlll any special mention. As always elsewhere, so in India the main in­ In quite recent years, two movements among strument in the extension of the faith has been Moslems in North India have attracted a great "the Proselyting Sword." For more than ten deal of attention and have given rise to two bodies centuries the power of the sword and the legisla­ of Moslems which are regarded as sects. One of tion of Mohammedan governments were used with­ these bodies was founded by the late Sir Sayed out restraint to bring unbelievers under the yoke Ahmed Khan, K. 0. S. I., of Aligarh, known as of Islam. This claim is confirmed by a study of the New Islam. It is, however, rather a restora­ the map of India, in the light of the census. The tion of the rationalism of the Mutazillas of the great mass of Mohammedans is found among the olden time. Its followers are progressive and num- inhabitants of North India, especially in the West- 154 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India 155 ern seetions and in the regions adjacent to the cen­ this the new converts were immediately placed tres of Moslem government in the united Provinces under the instruction of some one who as Mul­ of Agra and Oudh. The apparent, · exception is lah undertook to impart a knowledge of the es­ that of eastern and northern Bengal, where the sential doctrine and practice of Islam. Accord­ sword had little to do with proselytism. The ex­ ingly, the official establishment of the church was ception, however, is only apparent, beeause the always a sequel to the conquest of the state. These simple aboriginal and Hindu population, like the Mullas were zealous propagandists, and used low caste people of the whole Indian peninsula, every form of influence to make converts of the had nothing to gain by warring against their Mos­ people. Traders and travellers also zealously lem conquerors. Nor had they any strong religious spread the faith. Officersof government, whether principles to defend. On the contrary the Mos­ civil or military, were in a position to advance the lems came as deliverers from Hindu tyranny and interests of Islam. The emoluments of office, caste contempt, offering them social recognition, landed rights, political and social equality were and constituting them the recognized cultivators freely offered as inducements to enter upon the of the lands of which they had been mere serfs Moslem way of life and immortality. Thus it was under Hindu rule. The purpose of "the prose­ that in Bengal and Behar, as well as many other lyting sword " was the same whether wielded by parts of India, the work of proselyting continued a Mahmud of Ghazni or a Bakhtiyar Khan. It even after the sword had been sheathed, and also meant submission to the rule of Islam and a formal �mid the misfortunes of war. This state of things recognition of Allah as God and Mohammed as the continues in India at the present time, whereby prophet of God. A study of the early wars of many converts to Islam are made from among the Islam will convince any one that they were carried low castes. on in accord with the command of Mohammed Another instrumentality for the propagation of himself. Christians and Jews were required to Mohammedanism was the Moslem dervish, who recognize the supreme control of Islam and pay consecrates himself to the one purpose of teaching tribute as the price of peace and liberty to worship and preaching Islam. The Moslem historians God in their own way. All others were required speak of the work and influence of these men from to acknowledge Islam as the true religion and to the days of the first incursion of Moslems into embrace it by repeating the KaUma.1 Along with India. By their tact and intelligence they have 1 The Mohammedan profession of belief in Allah the one God not only been the shepherds of their scattered co­ andin Mohammed asthe apostle of God. religionists, or the theological teachers of those 156 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India 157 who were to become Mullas but by their aus­ THE CONDITION OF MOSLElllS IN NORTH INDIA terities they drew many idolaters to them and per­ When we consider the fact that for many cen­ suaded them to accept Islam as their religion. turies the Moslems held the supreme power in The influence of such men accounts for the fact India, especially in the great political and literary that in many places in India the Moslem faith has centres of North India, we should naturally have maintained itself amid persecution and much suffer­ expected them to have held a leading position un­ ing when in the fortune of war the Moslem power der the new regime inaugurated by the British gave way to Hindu rule. This same influence to conquest. That such is not the case requires some some extent accounts for the propagation of the explanation. The first influence operating against faith in India to-day. Moslem advancement was the unprogressi ve char­ A more powerful agency is the Anjuman-i-Islam acter of their religion. Everything is cast in a or Moslem Association for the defense and prop­ mould. The mould is believed to have been made agation of Islam. This society establishes schools upon a Divine pattern in consequence of which the and colleges, publishes a considerable literature idea of possible development or improvement is, in and supports a band of preachers-in short a mis­ the nature of the case, impious. Everything nec­ sion, equipped to some extent after the pattern of essary to Moslem perfection is found in the Christian missions. Their great work is to prevent Koran, the Traditions and the Deliverances of the the Christianization of Moslems, and at the same Mujtahiddin. History proves that the progressive time to secure the apostasy of Christian converts movements of the Caliphs of Bagdad and Cordova, from Islam. This is the preaching of Islam, of or of the Mogul Emperors of Delhi, were made in which Prof. T. W. Arnold has written so full and spite of the teachings of Orthodox Islam. Ac­ so flattering an account. The zeal of the Moslem cordingly, what was accomplished in the artistic propaganda is well described in the words of the and literary age, that is to say, in the reigns of Apostle Paul : " They have a zeal for God, but Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, was in great not according to knowledge ; for being ignorant measure undone by the fierce repressive measures of God's righteousness and seeking to establish of Aurangzeb. The empire dissolved with the their own righteousness, they have not subjected close of his reign, and the disunited fragments themselves to the righteousness of God " (Rom. were unable to contend against the onslaught of 10 : 2, 8). the Mahrattas in the south and the Sikhs in the north. A long period of internecine warfare and anarchy resulted in breaking up the social and in- 158 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India 159 tellectual fabric of the Moslems. Eduoatiou was the schools, and that when a monthly stipend was limited to . the schools of a very fewcentres and given to the pupil. When, later on, the govern­ the teaching of the Mullas in the local Mnsjids. ment undertook to establish a system of public in­ The range of instruction given was that of reading struction, and pledged the people that there would and writing the Arabic character, with a knowl­ be no religious instruction given, many, who had edge of Persian necessary for the duties of public\ refused to send their boys to the mission schools, office. In the higher schools at Delhi, Agra, and were ready to patronize the secular schools of gov­ Lucknow, education was along the lines of the ernment for the sake of the knowledge which seven sciences-Language, Logic, Mathematics, would fit for government office. But those who Rhetoric, Jurisprudence, Theology and Exegesis. patronized the secular schools formed a small mi­ Most of these had relation to the propagation of nority, even in the cities, while in the country the the religion of Islam. Secular knowledge, espe­ mass preferred to bring np their sons to the agri­ cially of science, has al ways been regarded by cultural calling of their fathers, or to induce them orthodox Mohammedans as dangerous to the faith, to take service in the army or police corps. and for this reason has been discouraged. In the Thus it came about that schools were for the disturbed state of the country in the two centuries most part patronized by the Hindu and Christian preceding the establishment of British rule, the population rather than by Mohammedans. Con­ amount of education given, even along these nar­ sequently, the numerous offices, open to those who row lines, was naturally very small. At the same had acquired the necessary English education, were time the ignorance of the mass of the Mullas led closed to Moslems, who had refused to qualify for to extreme narrowness of thought and intense. them. Hindus and Christians took the lead. To bigotry among the people. amend this state of things, aud to avoid the sec­ This leads up to another influence operating ularizing influences of government schools, the against the social and intellectual progress of Moslems organized numerous schools under the Moslems in North India. When the way was be­ direction of the Anjuman-i-Islam, the society for ing opened np by missionaries to give the people . the defense of Islam. These schools undertook to of India the advantages of Western science and impart a knowledge of the English language and knowledge, the Mohammedan Mullas everywhere of Western science as taught in the Indian gov­ discouraged the people from sending their chil­ ernment schools, and at the same time to instill dren to mission schools. Only a few of the poorer into the minds of the pupils a knowledge of the people were willing to allow their boys to attend Arabic language and the tenets of Islam. These 160 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India schools have rarely exhibited the efficiency of the naturally inspired others to seek for education in rival schools, but on the whole, they have done the mission schools. Many Mohammedan parents much to advance the social condition of Moslems. preferred, and still prefer, to patronize mission, They have done much to arouse a more progressive rather than government schools, because they were spirit, and while their value to orthodox Moham­ sure their boys would receive a sound moral and medanism may be questioned, they have raised np religious training, which they rightly believed to a class of men who have secured some of the emol­ be better than the godless training of the govern­ uments of office, and the influence which office ment schools. They also observed that the supe­ and wealth usually bring with them. Perhaps rior training of students in mission schools enabled the institution which has done most to further the them more readily to secure appointments in the social and material interests of Mohammedans in public offices, than the training in the less efficient North India, is the college at Aligarh, founded by Moslem schools. Hence it has been found that the the late Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan, who was most alumni of our Christian schools prefer to patronize liberally aided by Sir William Muir, then lieuten­ the mission institutions, and often do so in spite of ant governor of the Northwest Provinces. For a the pressure brought upon them by their co-relig­ long time this college was discredited by the ortho­ ionists. Under these new conditions the Moslem dox leaders because of the liberal views of Sir community is making progress in material and Sayed Ahmed Khan, but the liberal spirit bred social life ; while in religious life many are pre­ through English education in mission and govern­ pared to study the claims of Christianity, and ment schools has rapidly grown, so that to-day all some have openly identified themselves with the educated Mohammedans are proud of their great Christian church. college, which is likely to become the Moslem The education received by Moslem youth in University of India. It should be here noted that North India is for the most part imparted through mission schools sbonld have some of the credit for the Urdu language. Persian is also taught as a bringing about this important change in the mate­ second language necessary to a proper knowledge rial and social life of Moslems. The sons of the of Urdu. Arabic is taught as a classic. All higher weavers, cooks and tailors, who were among the education in the mission and public schools is im­ firststudents of the mission schools in North India, parted through the English language. And yet it were thereby enabled to secure lucrative positions remains trne that the Moslems speak every lan­ in the public service, or to become masters in the guage in India, and many of them can only be mission and government schools. Their success reached through a provincial tongue. This is 162 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India especially true of the Mohammedans of Bengal, sense a movement of orthodox Islam, but grow out the Punjab, and the Northwest Frontier province. of the liberalizing influence of Western education For the reasons already mentioned, illiteracy among and the impact of Protestant Christianity. But Mohammedans is very great, the percentage of lit­ we believe the new Islam has come to stay and erates given by the last census being about 3.27 that it will continue to draw to itself educated per cent. In the average village, the adult popu­ .Mohammedans, especially those who have lost lation is almost entirely ignorant of even the faith in the doctrines taught by the orthodox alphabet. The boys who learn to read in the .Mullas and Moulvies, and who cannot accept the public schools rarely continue in the callings of Christian religion. The eccentric movement led their fathers, but find their way into the army, by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian in the Punjab the police or the public office. The various educa­ has been made a side track for some who had tional institutions are, however, rapidly educating practically abandoned the faith of their fathers, the boys. At the same time there is a growing but it gives no promise of permanence. The most desire among Mohammedans to educate their wives that can be said for such movements is that they and daughters. The .Mohammedancustom of se­ indicate a growing desire for something better cluding the women in the harem, while not so than the religion of Islam can give. rigid in India as in Turkey, nevertheless operates against female education. The social and family .MISSIONS TO .MosLEMS IN NORTH INDIA system is also affected most unfavourably by po­ We are now prepared to note what has been lygamy, divorce, and concubinage, and there is done towards the evangelization of Moslems in little to induce women to desire education. These North India. It is just three hundred and seven customs also affect the moral life of Moslems in years since the Jesuit missionary Ilieronymo India very unfavourably and so stand in the way Xavier came to Lahore from Goa in South India of racial, material, social, and religious develop­ and received permission "to teach the Christians," ment. It is not surprising therefore to find some and to live the life of "one of those who have left of the most prominent men ready to reform these the world and all its lusts, wealth, and pleasures, customs to the extent of abolishing the seclusion with the view of teaching man the way to ever­ of women. Such men also advocate the abolition lasting salvation." The work was mainly accom­ of polygamy and concubinage, claiming that the plished by private conversation and discussion and ideal of the Koran is monogamy. It g6es without by the publication of books. Three books were saying that these reform movements are in no published, a life of Christ, a life of St. Peter, 164 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India and a disquisition on the religion of Islam. Some­ thing was done to enlighten the Moslems respect­ ers of Islam. He was followed by the Rev. C. G. ing the doctrines of Christianity as taught by the Pfander who in 1829 was obliged to leave Persia Catholic church. The main points discussed were where he had already laboured for some four or the mystery of the Trinity in unity, the divinity five years, writing in the Persian language that of Jesus Christ our Lord, the integrity of the noble work The Balance ef Tr uth (l,fizan uZ Scriptures and the non-abrogation of the same. Ha qq_.) Coming to India he began his work by These books exerted sufficient influence to call translating his book into the Urdu language adding forth a Moslem reply entitled, Divine Rays in to it The Wa y of Life (Tariq uZ Haydt) and the Refutation of Christian Error, by Ahmed Ibn Ke y to the Mysteries (Miftahrulr.Asrdr). These Zain-al-abidin. An examination of these books books led to a long continued controversy with . ' wh10h have been brought to light by Prof. S. Lee, the moulvies of Delhi, Agra and Lucknow. Sev­ D. D., M. R. A. S., of the Cambridge University eral public discussions were held, with the result discloses the fact that the issues of the contr; that many Mohammedans were disturbed in their versy between Moslem and Christian were then faith, while a few were led into the Christian practically the same as now. The chief difference church. This controversy was taken up by Chris­ lies in the fact that the Protestant missionary does tian converts from Islam among whom the not have to apologize for the idolatrous teaching most notable are Sayad Mulvie Safdar Ali, Mulvie of the RomanCatholic Church. The signal failure Imad-ud-din, Sayad Abdulla Athim, E. A. C., the of Roman Catholic missions among Moslems may Rev. G. L. Thakur Dass, Babu Ram Chandra, be accounted for mainly by this teaching. Un­ Munshi :Mohammed Hanif, Mr. Akbar Masih, Dr. fortunately the laboured efforts on the part of Ro­ Almad Shah Shaiq, Mulvie Hisam-ud-din, the Rev. man Catholic missionaries to justify Mariolatry, Imam Masih, Dr. Barkhurdar Khan and Mulvie the worship of images and relics of the saints, and Rajjab Ali. Among European writers upon this the recognition of sacred places, served to mis­ controversy the following should be mentioned : represent the pure Christianity of the gospels. The Right Rev. Bishop French, the Right Rev. The next stage in the efforts of Christians to Bishop Lefroy, the Rev. James Wilson, the Rev. J. evangelize Moslems in North India began with the Smith, Rev. S. Leupolt, the Rev. T. P. Hughes, work of Henry Martyn, whose translation of the D. D., Dr. H. Martyn Clark, Rev. C. W. Forman, New Testament into Urdu and Persian laid the D. D., Rev. Samuel Knowles, Rev. Dr. Murray foundation for aggressive work among the follow- Mitchell, the Rev. G. H. Rouse, D. D., the Rev. J. Bates, the Rev. W. St. Clair Tisdal!, D. D., the Islam in North India 166 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Mohammedan boys and young men, all of whom Rev. W. Brodhead, D. D., and the Rev. E. M. were obliged to study the Scriptures, and to listen Wherry, D. D. Among laymen who have added to addresses and lectures upon Christian faith and to the literature of the Moslem controversy are life. If we examine the catalogues of the publica­ Capt. W. R. Aikman and Sir Wm. Muir. Perhaps tions of the Book and Tract Societies, we findthat no writer in modern times has done so much for the the list includes a considerable literature written controversy with Moslems as the last mentioned specially for Moslem readers. And in any ac­ writer. Much more might be said as to the litera­ count of woman's work in North India, we read ture published in the interest of Moslem evangel­ of Zenanas visited and Moslem women and chil­ ization, but time forbids any further statement ex­ dren being taught. cepting this, that those who have laboured for the The societies engaged in mission work in North translation and revision of the Holy Scriptures India are English, American and Australian. into languages read by Mohammedans have placed They are the Church Missionary Society, the So­ all workers under obligation. Without the Scrip­ ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Lon­ tures little could be done to make Moslems ac­ don Missionary Society, the English Baptist Mis­ quainted with the "former Scriptures " mentioned sionary Society, the Church of Scotland's Mission, in the Koran. the Free Church of Scotland, and the United Pres­ The first Protestant missionaries in North India byterian Church of Scotland Missions (recently and especially in the North west Province and the united as the United Free Church of Scotland), the Punjab early found themselves engaged in Moslem American Presbyterian, and the United Presby­ evangelization. The ordinary languages of court terian (American), the Canadian Presbyterian, the and commerce were the Persian and the Urdu, the American Methodist Episcopal, the Reformed Pres­ languages of the Mohammedans. Accordingly, we byterian and the Australian Baptist Missionary find that among the early converts and members Societies. In almost all of the principal cities of of the churches were a goodly number bearing North India organized work is being carried on Moslem names. An examination of the mission re­ for all classes, and in many ways with special ref­ ports discloses the fact that among the firstteachers erence to the Mohammedan population. The vil­ and preachers were Moslem converts. The story lages everywhere are visited by Christian evan­ of preaching in the bazaars and chapels invaria­ gelists and preachers, and many of these villages bly includes statements as to the active opposition are Mohammedan. of Mohammedans. In the schools and colleges In recent years many missionaries have felt that established are found enrolled a large number of 168 The Mohammedan World of To-Day some men should be set apart for a special study of Islam in order to be able the better to meet Moslem antagonists. The late Dr. Murdoch, by his facile pen, promoted such specialization, and in consequence several societies have set men apart for this work. This measure will greatly increase the efilciency of this branch of missionary effort. Much will be gained by a change of attitude, for while it is true that the great mass of Indian Mos­ lems is as idolatrous as many of the Hindu tribes, still it will not do to approach them as if they were the votaries of an idolatrous religion. Chris­ tianity suffers from the stigma of idolatry and superstition, which the Roman Catholic and Greek churches have fastened upon it. It is not the idol­ atry and superstition of Islam, that must be met, but its claim to be the only true religion, follow­ ing the Christian dispensation, as the last dispen­ sation of all. To do this efficiently, the Moslem mnst be met by men thoroughly trained not only in the languages of the Christian Scriptures, but also in the language of the Koran; not only in Christian theology and philosophy, but in the phi­ losophy and theology of the Moslem Mullas and Mulvies. Men with this kind of training can get the respect of the scholarly men among Moham­ medans, and thus touch the centres of influence in the Moslem community. This is what has been planned, and we believe that another generation will see the result and record a great advance in the evangelization of Moslems. Islam in North India 169 The foregoing sketch of missions to Moslems doubtless impresses upon one the thought that India presents a field of missionary labour for Mos­ lem evangelization of very unique interest. Unless it be the Dutch East Indies, no other sphere affords to the Christian in this age so many opportunities of approaching the Moslem. It is also evident that no 'other fieldhas been so widely cultivated. Such being the case, it should be possible to show that in no other fieldhas there been so great suc­ cess in winning converts from Islam. The fact that the work done hasbeen thus far general, and so conducted as to approach all classes of the peo­ ple, has served to conceal from the ordinary ob­ server the real success of the Church in gathering in converts from this particular class. Nor is it possible to learn from the statistics of mission re­ ports just how many Mohammedans have been won over to Christianity. There are some facts which will show that the Lord has blessed the work of His servants who have sought to save the :Mohammedans. In 1893 the late Mulvie Imad­ ud-din, D. D., in a paper read before the Parlia­ ment of Religions, held at Chicago, gave a list of over fifty :Moslem converts, prominent in the mis­ sionary work in India. The long list of Indian Christian authors given in this paper, most of whom bear :Moslem names, attests the statement of Dr. Imad-ud-din. If we examinetherollsofmembership of the churches at Peshawar, Srinagar, and other frontier stations, Lahore, Amritsar, Hoshyarpur, 170 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in North India 171 Ludhiana, Delhi, Allahabad, Lucknow, Krishnagar, correspondingly great. The great need of the etc., we shall be surprised to findhow many are of present moment is a pentecostal outpouring of the Moslem origin. Perhaps the most striking indica­ Spirit. Then we may see presented to Moslems tion of the inroads being made upon the Moslem the undeniable miracle of the new creature made ranks is the increasingly large number of Christian in the likeness of Jesus, Son of God and Saviour preachers and teachers who were once the follow­ of the world. ers of Islam. An examination of a few of our mission reports for 1904 shows the following numbers of ministers, catechists, and teachers who carry Moslem names -most of them converts (and the remainder chil­ dren of converts) from Islam :

American Presbyterian Mission, Punjab ...... 33 American United Presbyterian Mission1 Punjab . . . 14 The Cambridge Mission, Delhi (S. P. G.) . . . • •. 5 The Methodist Episcopal Mission, North India . . . 45 The Church of England (C. M. S.), Unitied Province . 15 The English Baptist Mission, North India .....10 The C. M. S. Punjab and NorthwestFrontier Province 39 Church of Scotland's Mission, North India .....21 United Free Church Scotland's Mission ...... 12

194 These statistics are incomplete, but they err on the side of understating the facts. They are, however, significant. Indeed there is hardly a Christian community or congregation that does not have some members, who have come in from the ranks of Islam. Every year, too, witnesses further accessions. When the Christian Church in India arises to a proper sense of its duty to Moslems, and presents to them the life and conduct of the true Christian, the number of accessions will become XI Islam in South India Rev. M. G. Goldsmith, M. A. XI Islam in South India THE Mohammedans of South India form six per cent. of the whole population, and, according to the census report, may be classified !IS: (a) Immigrants or pure blooded descendants of "India alsoshared in the misery&Jid poverty which bad befal• len the reat of the Moslem world ; while the political dowDlall immigrants. of the Indian Mussulmans about the middle of the last century (b) Offspring of immigrant men by Hindu still further aggravated their sufferings. A darkness, blacker women. than the Cimmerian dl\rknessitself, pervaded Mussnlman eooiety (c) Full blooded natives, converted to Islam. from one end of the country t,o the other ; and when all other 1. The first class are found in all the larger races and oommunities were advancing in every direction with giant strides, deathlike stftgnation, at onoo the most calm and cities, such as Madras, Bangalore, Mysore, Vellore, the most thorough, charaoter.ized the life of the Indian Mussul· Masulipatam and Ellore, and throughout the mans.11 -TAe Anj'fffl«l1fri..Himaget+lllam. Haidarabad state. They are descendants of those from the north, who first of all at the close of the thirteenth century, invaded the south, and gradually pushed forward their conquests over the greater part of the country. They have not much intermarried with the people they found there, at least not in recent times, and proudly keep up Persian and Arabic as their classical languages and colloquially use a corruption of the Urdu (camp language) which their ancestors invented in Delhi, but adopted in South India as the twin of syntax found in the Dravidian languages, and which is called "Hindustani " to distinguish it from the purer Urdu. Their comparative igno­ rance of the Hindu vernaculars has been a hin 175 176 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in South India 177 drance to their getting employment under govern­ The Sunni Moslems of this class are three times ment, and has been a problem in the way of their as numerous as the Shiahs. In Masulipatam the advancement. Their prejudice against the Eng­ old ruling family, now pensioned, is Shiah. The lish language has been a still more serious ob­ Sunnis belong to the Hanifi sect. In Haidara­ stacle, which is hut slowly being overcome during bad there are some thousands of Arabs, chiefly the last forty years. It was considered by the employed ashonsehold troops to the nobles, drawn grandfathers of the present generation as likely to from Sheher in Hadramaut, Arabia. imperil their faith, if English (and Christian) 2. Alongside with . this class, are races called literature should be understood and studied. In (a) Labbe ; and Ohowya, found more especially on order to encourage them to join government and the southeast Tamil coast. They are said to have aided schools, the educational department gener­ come from Iraq, having been driven out in the ously treated them as a "backward class," with early part of the eighth century by the tyrant the privilege of paying only half the school fees Hajjaj Bin Yusuf, governor of Iraq. They belong levied from others. Various governors of Madras to the house of Hashim. Crossing over to India and other kindly-hearted o:flicials,have from time they settled to the east of Cape Comorin. Other to time made special efforts on their behalf, offer­ acconnts describe the Labbe as having originally ing them special appointments in the army and been Arab traders who were wrecked on the civil service. Indian coast and obliged to settle there. Not In 1856 the Church Missionary Society was led understanding the language of the country, they to take a direct part in Hindustani work by replied "Labbaik" by way of assent to the queries receiving a liberal legacy for the establishment of of the natives, who therefore gave them the name a special school for Mohammedans. Seringapatam of Labbe. They now talk Tamil, indicating that was first thought of, but, owing to its unhealthi­ they intermarried with the natives and that the ness, the Mohammedan quarter (Triplicane) of children learned Tamil from their mothers; but Madras was chosen, and the " Harris High School " they a have a peculiar written character of their for close on fiftyyears has been doing what it can. own which is called Arab-Tamil, being Tamil It has educated representatives from the dynasties words written with an adaptation of Arabic char­ of Chanda Sahib, Tippoo Sahib, and the Carnatic acters. A convert from them enabled us to put and Karnul families, and some of its students have the Gospel of St. Mark into Arab-Tamil character. successfully won good appointments under the As a rule they are rough and uneducated, though Madras and Haidarabad governments. industrious as merchants in hides, tailors, etc. I 78 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in South India 179 The Labbes number 406,793, and other branches hy ra1smg some regiments of them, but their of the same race 87,835 more. The Oholiyas turbulent nature has prevented the experiment seem of the same descent, but take np weaving as from being an unqualified success. They write in a trade, and are said not to intermarry with the the :Malayalamlanguage, but have little literature of Labbe. any kind. Their history dates back to one of their (b) The Navayatis may have come to India number who visited Mecca and was well treated about the same time as the Labbe, but are fair in there, coming back with abundant religious zeal. complexion, aristocratic and well educated. The They are now energetic in propagating Islam, and story about them is that they are natives of their numbers have increased from 612,789 in Medina, who were caught in the act of tunneling 1871, to 912,920 in l 901. Some allowance of to get into the shrine of the prophet with the ob­ course must be made for the terrorism inspired ject of carrying off his remains to their own place amongst their wealthier Hindu neighbours, who and there to raise a new shrine for their own must constantly find adhesion to Islam the safest benefit. They were in consequence expelled from course to avoid molestation. Another means of Arabia. The census report states they are sub­ proselyting, which Hindus state has often been divided into five families : Kureshi, Mehkeri, employed all over India, when armed force was Chida, Gheas, :Mohagir ; but they are compara­ not used, was to break the caste of Hindus either tively small in number (2,042). by compelling them to eat or drink from the Mos­ (c) The Kapilla (ordinarily pronounced and lems, or by the rougher way of spitting down their written Moplas) are on the west coast, with head­ throats I In either of such oases the victims found quarters at Cananore, and are a similar race to the themselves outcast from their compatriots, and as Labbe. " They do not speak Hindustani, but have a life under such conditions was intolerable, they pawis of their own. They rarely avail themselves would cast in their lot with the :Moslems as being of the advantages of education offered by govern­ the less of two evils. It is thought by some who ment. They are proud, fierce, and bigoted, but know the west coast that in a few years the whole physically a finer race than their countrymen on of the lower races will become :Mohammedanunless. the eastern side ; troublesome withal, to the they are soon Christianized. authorities, and too free in the use of the Mapilla The Labbe, Navayati and :Mapille and similar knife, till government some years ago forbade its (but smaller) branches of Choliyas, Kailan, Marak­ being worn as a constant appendage." The gov­ kayars, etc. (who probably only reproduce the In­ ernment has tried to utilize their fighting qualities dian· idea of caste grafted into Islam), are all 180 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in South India Sunnis and followers of Imam-es-Shafi, while the them : so they had to migrate. Lord Harris Sunnis of Class I are followers of Imam-ibn­ granted them a settlement in Channapatam. Hanifa. The only apparent differences are in They have many peculiar customs and no regular minor details : for instance, at a certain point in mosque but only a jamaat-khana (assembly room) the daily prayers the Shafi crosses his hands on since they consider India a IJar-ul,.Harb (land of his chest, while the Hanifite crosses them on his war) and not a Moslem territory. stomach. Again, if the Shafi be interrogated W ahahis exist, known as 'Amil bil Hadith, and about his faith, he replies, " I am a Moslem, if are not numerous. They are protestants in a quiet God wills it" (Insh' Allahu Ta'ala), which doubt­ way against all modern accretions of superstition. ful way of putting it appears blasphemy (Kufr ) to A possible important factor in the future is the a Hanifite, who would rather reply, "Praise God " sect that follows Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, (Al hamda lillah). If praying together in the who called himself the Messiah. Though de­ same mosque, the sect (mazhab) of the majority nounced as a heretic by orthodox Moslems, he has has to be followed for the time being. thousands of disciples in differentparts of India, In the Mysore province, at Channapatam, an off­ some of them in Haidarabad city and in some of shoot of the Shiahs called IJair-e-wate or Ha hadvi the districts. is found. In the year 1444 (A. H. 847) a man called The distribution of the Mohammedan population Sayed Ahmad was horn in Gujrat. He claimed in South India is as follows : to be the expected Mahdi, and preached in the dominions of the Nizam of Haidarabad and other MadrasPresidenoy proper ...••••••2,467 ,351 Coorg . • . . . . • • . . . • • • • • . . 13,654 places. He died in 1504 and his followers were Haidarabad (Deccan) .•....•....1,155,750 driven by persecution into Haidarabad and to the Coobinand Travanoore ...... 265,580 Mysore province. Their watchword was "Imam Mysore . 289,697 Mahdi came and went away : he who does not be­ Total • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • 4,192,032 lieve this is an infidel." This offended the Sunnis The Madras census report (1901) says that the and at the time of Tippoo Sahib, when the Mahda­ Moslems are nine and one-tenth per cent. more vis during a certain Ramazan were shouting their numerous than at the census of 1891, while India watchword through the streets of Seringapatam, Christians have increased nineteen per cent. (and they were attacked and put to flight. A few years in thirty years ninety-nine per cent. and four or ago one of them in Haidarabad mortally stabbed fivetimes as fast as the population generally). the tutor of the Nizam for writing a book against Results of Christian missions have been very 182 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in South India small. One here and another there has come out In Haidarabad rich money inducements have of Islam and joined the Christian Church. There always been at hand to encourage apostasy. An have been converts in two or more distinct places, anti-Christian society, the Anjuman--i-Islam, was besides many more who have been scattered en. formed thirteen years ago and recorded consider. quirers. Hitherto this seems to have been the able numbers of converts from Hinduism and Chris­ peculiar feature of the work. The Church Mis. tianity, but lately it has been said to be defunct. sionary Society has more definitely paid attention to work among Moslems than any other mission, and has had Hindustani missionaries in Madras and Haidarabad ; hut one or two of other sooie· ties in South India have studied Hindustani with a view of influencing Moslems. Those Moslems who speak Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, or Malayalam, have been to some extent reached by missionaries in those languages ; but it is generally felt that the Moslem requires very different and special dealing. The Church of England Zenana Mission has done a great deal in reaching Moslem women and girls, and some of these have been brought to Christ. One of the earliest converts was in a "Faith Mission " in Panruti. Small Hindustani congregations meet in Bangalore and Haidarabad, and these include a few whose vernacular is Hin. dustani, but who were Hindus by birth. It is a sad fact that many who have been bap­ tized have subsequently gone hack, or disappeared in a way that seemed to show that they had not "counted the cost." Some such have been hos· tile but in most cases they become unsettled and unhappy. XII The New Islam in India

Rev. H. U. Weitbrecht, Ph. D., D. D. XII The New Islam m India THE rigidity and unprogressive character of Islam has often been insisted on by Christian writers, and it is true enough that, as a system, it has shown itself singularly insusceptible to the in­ "The most notable movement Rinong Indian Moelems is that fluences of the modern world during the last four of the New Islam, founded by Sir Sa.yud Ahmad Khan of Aligarh. centuries. Not that there has been no develop­ This is, however, merely symptomatic of a much wider move­ ment of thought or life in the Moslem community ment. Educated Moslems everywhere have revolted from the since its primitive age. Far from it; but all these intelleotual bondage of orthodoxy. It is, therefore, exceedingly important to carefully study this situation. It is the opening changes took place within the limits of the Koran of the doorto a rational consideration of the claims of the gospel. and the scholastic philosophy which was accepted It is full of hopelulness."-E, M. Wherry, D. D. as the vehicle of its exposition, and on the basis of a community life which accepted the Shari'at and its ordinances. But the last century saw Islam pass under new conditions and enter a dif­ ferent atmosphere, in which her scholastic age has seen the beginning of the end. The discovery of America and of the Cape route to the East at the end of the fifteenth cen­ tury diverted the ancient Mediterranean trade routes, thus helping to transfer commerce and colonization' into the hands of the nations of Christendom; and since then the decay of Mohammedan political power in east and west has brought the Moslem nations under the sway of Christian peoples, so that now scarcely more 187 188 The Mohammedan World of To-Day The New Islam in India 189 than a third of the Moslem population of the world sents a modified form of the schisms connected realizes the ideal of theocratic rule, which wasthe with the true lmamate. Wahabism is a :Mo­ original and long-maintained standard of its polity. hammedan Puritanism appealing to its scripture To these other influences we have to add, in the to support a sterner orthodoxy and more rigorous nineteenth century, the slow, yet progressive effect standard of life than that of current Islam ; the of direct Christian evangelism. great religious orders that have grown up since To illustrate what I have said, let me refer Abd ul Kadir Ghilani (561 A. H.) have built up the briefly to the chief former religious movements in religious organization of Islam on the side of Islam, which have their analogies in the historyof monasticism. All these movements, however, the Christian Church. The primitive teachers of were within the limits of the Moslem state. Now Islam, who bade the faithful believe bila kaifa, the mind of Islam at last has to meet with the without inquiring how it came about, were soon thought and culture of the outside world on a followed by the professors of kalam, i. e., dialectic basis of equality of civil rights, for the Moslem theology, who, indeed, were indispensable, however subject of a Christian state is neither oppressed much they might be regarded with suspicion, nor favoured ; he is simply protected and bound in order to meet the growing heresies and specu­ by the same law as others. This process is going lations. To say nothing of the orthodox dis­ on to the greatest extent and under the most puters about free will and fate, and the like, there favourable conditions in British India ; and it is of was the great heresy of the Mutazila or secession, the development of a new phase of Islam in India which denied the eternity of the Koran and found that I propose to treat. favour for a while in the highest places ; and The Mohammedan population of the world is there was the pantheistic Sufism which began variously estimated at from 180,000,000 to 210,- with Hallaj in the fourth century A. H. The 000,000 ; that of India is not far from 60,000,000, Mutaziia was crushed by the decree issued under i. e., one-third or two-sevenths of the entire Moslem the Caliph Muta wakkil in 234 A. H., and the Sufi community. When the last great flood of nations mysticism was modified and incorporated into burst forth from inner Asia in the later middle Moslem theology by the great divine Ghazzali two ages the Turks turned their faces westward, the centuries later. With him closes the productive Moguls eastward, and to the latter India owed the period of Mohammedan theology. The Moslem greatest imperial development which it had seen schoolmen, like their Christian fellows were since Asoka. Following on a series of Pathan and Pseudo-Aristotelian philosophers. Babism repre- other dynasties since the eleventh century, the 190 The Mohammedan World of To-Day The New Islam in India 191 Mogul emperors held India from the sixteenth to useful service, and was rewarded with promotion. the eighteenth century, and left it with an ad­ On a visit to England in 1869-'i0, he was pre­ ministration and a U..gua jr anoa (Urdu), which sented to the Queen and the Prince of Wales, and British rule has only had to develop. Almost a carefully observed English life and manners, edu­ century and a half have passed since the battle of cation and industry. On his return to India Sayad Pla.ssy left the Mogul province of Bengal, grad­ Ahmad started a journal, the Ta hdb ul Akhlaq, or ually followed by the rest of India, in the hands Reform of Mo rals. A. collection of essays gath­ of the British power. But during the first 100 ered from this forms the chief exposition of his years of this time the condition of the Mohamme­ views. He saw that his fellow Moslems in India dan part of the population of India had not im­ were in an extremel v backward state as compared proved in anything like the same degree as that of with their Hindu f;llow subjects, in respect both the Hindus, whom only a short while before they of education and of material progress and of share had held in subjection. The erstwhile rulers had in administration. Instead of clamouring for gov­ held back from taking advantage of the education ernment patronage, or cursing the change of times, freely offered them, and about the middle of the Sayed Ahmed set to preaching that God would last century observant ones among them began to help those who helped themselves, and told his co­ notice that in the race for wealth and position Moslems that they would deserve to remain im­ they were now far behind their Hindu fellow­ poverished and slighted unless they set themselves subjeots. From the perception of this fact the to remedy their own condition by means of edu­ Moslem reform movement in India received the cation. Amid all the success and honour that impulse which gave it definite shape. The initi­ attended his further career, Sayed Ahmed devoted ation and first leadership of this movement belong himself consistently to this object. In 1818, he indisputably to one man, Sir SayedAhmed Khan, succeeded in starting, with the countenance and of Aligarh. This zealous reformer was born in liberal assistance of the government, an Anglo­ 181'2', of a pure-blooded family (as the term Sayed Mohammedan College at Aligarh. From 1879-83 -Lord-implies), of lineal descendants of Moham­ -having been made Knight Commander of the med. At the age of twenty-one he entered the Star of India-Sir Sayed served as a member of civil service of the Northwest Provinces, and in the Viceroy's Legislative Council, and later on he addition to his energy as an olll.cer, he soon de­ was a member of the Provincial Legislature of the veloped considerable literary activity. During the Northwest Provinces. In 1886, he set on foot an troubles of the mutiny Sayed Ahmed rendered 11,11nual Educational Conference for the Mohamme- 192 The Mohammedan World of To-Day The New Islam in India 1 93 rums of India. This and the Aligarh College re­ thought (system we cannot call it) is more in­ main as the two outstanding fruits of Sir Sayed's fluenced by the conceptions of conscience and life work, the one as an intellectual centre, the nature. Conscience, he says, is the condition of other as a focus of practical effortfor progressive man's character which results from training and Islam in India. Over both, and over other varied reflection. It may rightly be called his true guide. interests of his community, Sir Sayad watched and his real prophet. Still, it is liable to mutabil­ most sedulously till his much lamented death in ity, and needs to be corrected from time to time 1898. by historic prophets. To test a prophet we must We cannot call Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan a syste­ compare the principles of his teaching with the matic reformer. He had a literary, and to some laws of nature. If it agrees with these we are to extent a scholarly bent, but unfortunately his en­ accept it, and he quotes with approval the remark ergetic pursuit of important practical ends left him of a French writer, that Islam, which lays no no time for a thorough acquisition of the English claim to miraculous powers on the part of its language, which would have been the best means founder, is the truly rationalistic religion. Mo­ for attaining those ends; and this lack effectually hammed, he claims, set forth the Divine unity with prevented him from really taking in hand an in­ the greatest possible clearness and simplicity : first, tellectual reconciliation between modern thought, Unity of Essence, which he promulgated afresh; as such, and the religion of Islam. His intellec­ second, Unity of Attributes, which the Christians tual starting-point is the backward and impover­ had wrongly hypostatized in their doctrine of the ished condition of the Indian Mussuhnan. If he Trinity; third, Unity of Worship in the uni­ is to escape from this condition he must give up versal and uniform rendering of that devotion thoughtless conservatism (taqlid) and take to free­ which is due to God alone, thus securing the doc­ dom of thought (azadi i rei). In some respects trine of the Unity against all practical encroach­ Sayed Ahmed resembles the ancient rationalists ments through corrupt observances. of Islam ; indeed, his remarks on the Divine at­ It is obvious that in trying to delineate a move­ tributes and their relation to the Divine nature re­ ment of this kind, which in many respects resem­ minds one not a little of the Mutazilite school ; bles that of the Broad Church school in England, and like them, he puts forth a modified theory of it is not possible to give statistics of adherents, inspiration ; not every part of a sacred book there being no formal organization into a sect. must be equally inspired, we may acknowledge in There are, however, the two organizations already it a human element aswell as a.Divine. But his mentioned which represent the reform movement The New Islam in India 195 194 The Mohammedan World of To-Day The Educational Conference meets annually started by Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan-the Anglo­ during the Christmas holidays (the great season Mohammedan College at Aligarh, and the annual for such gatherings in India) for the discussion Mohammedan Educational Conference. The for­ of educational and social topics, and leads the mer has passed through some vicissitudes, espe­ efforts of progressive Moslems in these directions. cially by reason of the embezzlement of a consider­ One of the most remarkable utterances of its able portion of its endowment fund; but it has speakers latterly was the speech of the Agha had a series of excellent and able principles in the Khan, the leader of the Bora community of Bom­ persons of English university men who have suc­ bay, a wealthy mercantile tribe. In his capacity ceeded in impressing something of the ethos of of president, this gentleman spoke very tren­ English pnblic school and university life on the chantly of the chief barriers to progress in the Mos­ alumni of the high school and college. The in­ lem world. These in his opinion were (1) the stitution now contains, by the last report, 340 seclusion of women which results in keeping half students in the college department, and 364 in the the community in ignorance and degradation, and school.' Its first graduate was a Hindu student. thus hindering the progress of the whole. (2) From 1898-1902 out of 478 Mohammedan grad­ The spirit of self-aggrandizement, and lack of uates in India, 116 were from Aligarh College. esprit de corps, preventing efforts for the com­ The promoters have for some years past been mon good. (3) Fatalism, which acts as a paralyz. moving for the advancement of the college to the ing factor against all healthy initiative and de­ status of an Anglo-Mohammedan University. One velopment. (4) Formalism, with reference to the of them describes the object of the institution as multitude of unproductive and ignorant persons the complete transformation of the present type who encumber the community with pretensions of Mulla, a consummation devoutly to be wished. of superior holiness while they are nothing but a As far as one can judge, the tone of the college burden on its resources. By this he meant, of is somewhat secular though a Mulvi was appointed course the mass of fakirs and keepers of spurious as " Dean " in 1895. At any rate the Co llege Maga­ shrines who flourish in idleness on the alms of In­ zine does not record much of the religious side. dian Moslems. The Agha Khan appealed urgently The members of the cricket team whom I met at for the establishment of an Indian Moslem Uni­ Simla in the summer of 1904 gave the impression versity, begging liberal believers "to consider of cultivated manly young fellows of good breeding. whether it is not more in accordance with the 1 These figures in.elude flfty--one and thirty-.seven Hindus re.. commands and example of the prophet to help speotively. 196 The Mohammedan World of To-Day The New Islam in India 197 their Moslem brethren than to undertake pilgrim­ ages and celebrate costly anniversaries." Proba­ with Christians ; this prejudice the progressfre bly the educated mercantile Moslem of Bombay have entirely set aside, and not a few others are following them in this ; but there still remain the who comes into constant oontact with the west­ 1 ern world is more advanced in such matters than barriers of habit and of race. others, even among his progressive brethren. The general influence of the reform movement But at any rate the controversy as to seclusion of is seen most clearly in literature. Idiomatic women and polygamy is still proceeding with translations of the Koran (instead of the baldly some liveliness. Polygamy is defended by mulvis literal one of Abd ul Kadir hitherto the only of the old school with the crudest and coarsest concession to the right of the vernacular reader arguments, viewed solely from the side of male to understand the sacred book) are being published, rights of enjoyment, while the reformers vindicate e. fl., by the well-known novelist and lecturer the rights of women in a thoroughly modern and Mui vi Nazir Ahmed. The use of fiction to em­ almost Christian spirit. Others endeavour to body religious and social ideas and to advocate mediate between the two positions ; all equally ap­ them, is rapidly extending ; and .Nawal (novel) has pealing to the Koran. Meanwhile, in Haidarabad become a recognized Urdu word. The periodical (Deccan), Calcutta, and elsewhere, progressive magazine has come to stay, no less than the Moslems are in a few cases breaking through the weekly and daily newspaper ; and periodicals such restrictions of custom, and going about with their as the Makhzan (Treasury ; a monthly literary re­ wives and daughters unveiled, which genera,lly view), the ObBerver, an English weekly news­ also means in European dress. For men among paper ; the Paisa Akhbar (Farthing Journal ; a the progressive section this has become as good dally newspaper), are quietly and unobtrusively as universal : but indeed it has spread far beyond promoting liberal views and broadening the outlook them, and is common among educated men of all of the Indian Moslem. The proprietor of the last classes, nor only among educated ones. The pro­ named journal has started a children's paper, the gressive Moslem, however, draws the line at the title of which is indicative of the new age. Jn. hat ; and favours the fez, unmindful of the fact stead of a high-flown Arabic or Persian phrase, that it had a Christian or a heathen origin. In suggesting as little as possible the nature of the matters of social intercourse the Indian Moslem has, in the lapse of centuries, become strongly 1 The last meeting of the Educational Conference set on foot imbued with Hindu notions as to common meals a training aohool for female teachers which UJ being started at Aligarh. 198 The Mohammedan World of To-Day The New Islam in India 199 contents, it has the plain every-day Urdu title, mentions as one of the chief symptoms of this HO/m are Baohohe (Our Children). tendency the establishment of the Na wwat ul Sir Sayed Ahmed's Cornrnentary on the Bible, mama (College of Divines). It has its headquar­ though it is merely a fragment oflittle theological ters at Lucknow, and consists of a number of value, has helped to convince the educated Mos­ Mulvis, who come together every year, and are lem that the ordinary view of the Christian Scrip­ . joined very largely by the educated party. They tures as having been falsified with polemic intent have established a (theological) seminary on a large subsequent to the advent of Mohammed is ground­ scale, which aims at being an improvement on the less. Not only is the Bible being read with more work at Deoband, though on the same lines. They open mind than before, but in some instances it is are trying to multiply such institutions elsewhere. studied and commented upon with some degree of A branch has already been established at Shah­ thoughtfulness. Of one such student an Indian in­ jahanpur (in the United Provinces). From the last formant writes : "By an independent research he report to hand of this body it would seem that it passed on from the Koran to the Bible, and from the suffers much from internal dissensions. In Lahore Bible to the Pentateuch alone, holding the directly there is the Anjurnan i Naurnania, which has inspired portion of the latter (i. e., the parts contain­ succeeded in founding a seminary, at present car­ ing direct utterances of Jehovah) to be the only ried on in the Shahi Mosque, and receiving consid­ parts to be accepted as the Word of God, to the erable support from many Mussulmans who have exclusion of the rest of the Bible and of all other received a university education ; the results of the · books." reform movement are thus being felt in efforts to In the opinion of competent Indian observers provide a more enlightened education for the Mo­ the rationalism of Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan is not hammedan clergy (if we may so call a body of at present being developed. One writes : "As a teachers between whom and the "laity " the di­ religious movement it was of a negative nature, viding line is most indistinct), but without the and its chief strength lay in denying whatever rationalistic element of Sir Sayed's teaching. could not be defended. Having no vitality in it­ It remains to mention one other movement self it has practically lapsed into a sort of social which endeavours to combine modern progress and political reform movement." Another says, with Moslem orthodoxy. I refer to the sect started "Just at present, there is a marked indication, by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed of Qadian in the Punjab. The Ahrnadi a, to adopt the self-chosen sty le of ev�n among the educated Mussulmans, mainly to yy drift back to the old school of thought." He further this new sect, represents the endeavour to find, in 200 The Mohammedan World of To-Day The New Islam in India 201 the face of the irresistible advance of modern cul­ Polygamy, veiling of women and divorce, are per­ ture, a via media between the more advanced re­ missions or regulations of the inspired legislator, form and an impossible return to the old stand­ given to prevent worse evils. The Ahmadiyya, point. Mirza Ghulam Ahmed is now nearing sev­ like the Arya Samaj, is bitterly anti-Christian, enty years of age, and his claims to religious lead­ while both are fiercely opposed to each other. It ership date from twenty years back. He is, I be­ is difficult to estimate exactly the number of ad­ lieve, a man in whom religious zeal and conviction herents of this sect, but they may be supposed to are combined with a very large proportion of per­ run into the tens of thousands, of whom a few are sonal motives, and there is no doubt that he has educated in the modern sense. The Mirza and his employed fraud, if not worse means, for the ac­ councillors, however, understand the power of the complishment of his ends. Disquieted by the press and of education, and he has established a progress which Christianity was making among high school, intended to be developed into a col­ Mohammedans of the Central Punjab, he felt that lege, and' a printing press ; and English and Urdu a new prophet was needed ; was he not the man P newspapers are published in Qadian.' However, as Mohammed was the last of the From the bare sketch given so far it is evident prophets, he could not claim strictly to he a N

In all these activities I need not say that Indian Christians are concerned equally with the foreign missionary. Indeed, we have no little cause for thankfulness to God, that some of the most efficient work (notably in literature) is being done by them. If there is much need for the specialized mission­ ary, there is more for the educated Indian Chris, tian inspired with apostolic zeal.

XIII Islam in Sumatra Rev. G. K. Simon (Missionary

It is not Islam, but the Dutch Government, that is aJl its teaching, and thereby draws out and to say,a Christian power, which has done much for strengthens the mental powers of its disciples. the elevation of the people by means of schools. This aspect of the work of Christianity in ele­ When we examine Islam in districts of Sumatra vating the popular intelligence is not without its which have not this incentive from without, the effect upon Islam. Our Christian schools are open intellect of the Moslem community is seen to be to young Moslems and a certain number attend below the level of pagan intelligence. them. Some have seriously objected to this on What Islam substituted for the old system of the supposition that we thus elevate the Moslems and put weapons in their hands wherewith to fight ideas among the Bataks has remained an exotic to growth. It has brought to them new rites of wor­ us, and that we impart them the fruits of Euro­ ship, certain formulas of prayer, a few. names of pean and Christian civilization to which, on their religious offices, all in the garb of unintelligible level, they have no right. But it is not the intelli­ Arabic words. In addition to this, the laity are gent, educated Mohammedan whom we have to taught ad nauseam that their religious leaders and fear, so much as the ignorant man who is open to Mecca pilgrims can do all that is necessary for the the incitements of fanaticism. The danger which salvation of their souls. Hierarchical despotism threatens us, is that the Moslem population, hav­ on the part of the leaders and fatalism on the part ing once imbibed a genuine Arabic education of the populace are an acute poison for the intel­ will thereby be made permanently inaccessible t� lect of a nation. To keep the mass in a condi­ European culture. Owing, however, to the schools tion of intellectual stagnation is a principle of started by government and by the missions Islam. Arabic culture has as yet but little influence o� It would be an interesting task, were it not out­ the Mohammedan population. side the limits of our subject, to draw out;in detail The only Christian body with which Sumatra the deep distinction between Christianity and Moslems come into contact is the adolescent Batak Islam from this side of the question. Christianity church ; the Protestant Colonial church in Suma­ does not trample on the ancient notions of the tra is out of account, since the visits of its clergy people but it gives something better in their stead. only extend to European families or communities Islam surrounds itself with a halo of mystery, in­ and are rare at that. All the more lively is the comprehensibility and strangeness ; Christianity contact between Islam and the Batak Christian opens the " book of books " and seeks clearness and community ; nor have efforts been lacking on the truth in its explanation, in its illustration, and in part of the Moslems to draw over our people, on 218 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Sumatra 219 the whole unsuccessful. Islam has not succeeded it is only the adoption of Islam which has guaran­ in increasing its boundaries at the expense of teed the power of their formulas. They receive churches among the pagans. It only succeeds in considerable payments, and in return for this pro­ making proselytes in certain territories which are fess to make their disciples invulnerable, perma­ still quite pagan. By this I do not mean that nently strong, and free from the attacks of spirits. Christian converts from Islam never relapse to They furnish love philtres and amulets to ward off their old faith. We have to confess that very few magic. This ilmu to a great extent acts as a com,. Christians who live entirely surrounded by Mo­ pensation for certain sacrifices demanded of them hammedans are able to hold out against the terror­ by Islam, especially the renunciation of swine's ism which presses upon them. The Mohammedan flesh. The Moslems declare that ilmu is a special simply refuses the Christian immigrant the means gift of the grace of God to the faithful, granted by of life, shelter, food, or, if he have provisions, the intercession of Mohammed, to make the cooking utensils to prepare them. The pagan is heathen understand that Islam is truly sent by hospitably entertained, hut not the Christian. The God. The fact that Christians are without these opposition of Islam is especially hurtful to Chris­ gifts of magic is a clear proof that they are not ob­ tians on account of the differences which it makes jects of the divine favour. The most highly in carrying out church discipline. Disobedient esteemed of the Moslem leaders carry on the pro­ members of the flock, or chieftains who desire li­ fession of magic. (b) Accommodation of Islam to cense are always ready to threaten that they will paganism. We are distinctly against the opinion go over to Islam if their faults are not overlooked that the survival of pagan elements in Islam is a by their Christian pastors. This obstructs the de­ hopeful factor in respect to evangelism. We know velopment of the Christian life, and tests the tact that magic and belief in spirits exists everywhere and wisdom of those who have to guide the among Moslems, more especially in countries where churches. Moslem fanaticism is at its highest, as in Arabia Certain features deserve mention which have and Egypt. In Sumatra the people have kept to made Islam more particularly attractive to the the places of pilgrimage which they used to visit Batak people. (a) Magic. This has been a chief in the pagan period, only bestowing on them Mo­ attraction offered by Islam in our parts. The hammedan names. They continue to worship the Arabic Mohammedan doctrine of magic is locally spirits of their ancestors and the Mohammedan known as ilmu. Teachers of magic are much teachers tell the people that the ancestral saint, sought after, and they very generally maintain that that is to say the spirit of their chief ancestor, has 220 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Sumatra 221 already embraced Islam and is earnestly desiring souls of the people. Again the Batak knows some­ the day when his descendants and worshippers thing of an inevitable fate which it is supposed the should accept the same religion, The firstgenera­ human spirit requested from God in a previous tion of Moslems without hesitation, on entering existence; in fact he is a fatalist. Furthermore, the Moslem faith, take with them their entire doc­ the Batak paganism is not without parallels in the trine of spirits and sacrifices,nor does anybody put Moslem doctrine of another life, of which so much a hindrance in their way. The same person who is made in Sumatra. The pagan believes that the acted as medium in connectionwith the spirits of spirit continues to live after death only he cannot the pagan times, now acts in connection with the tell where and how. He only knows that the Moslem magicians. spirits of great men have a high position in another It is thus quite natural that in cases of sickness world. In one dialect of the Bataks we even find and especially of demoniacal possession, the people a word that designates the condition after death. should use the same magic formulas, and try to It is thus easy for Islam to bring in its doctrine of drive away the spirits causing disease by the same judgment and heaven and hell ; and it is clear horrible noises as when they were pagans. Indeed that · the three chief doctrines of popular Islam, the Moslem teachers are the leaders on such occa­ namely, the unity of God, fate, and the day of sions, for there by they maintain their influence judgment have points of contact with the pagan over the people. belief. The great stress laid upon the doctrine of Considerable indulgence is shown even to the future life is perhaps especially used iu oppo­ offenses of a grave nature against the ceremonial sition to Christianity. The latter, intellectually law ; if, for instance, a man has eaten swine's flesh the higher religion, is moreover that of the rulers he can purify himself by washing with lime and of the land. But, says the Moslem, it is only in lemon juice. this world that the faithful are inferior in wisdom (c) Features common among Batak pagans, and position ; in the world to come God will which favour the Mohammedan propaganda. The torture the Christians, and burn them in a pit seven relations of similarity between these systems times heated, while the Moslem will be blessed. As naturally form a bridge between them. As a compared with this doctrine, the doctrine of one pagan the Batak knows something about the being God is very much in the background. Even the who is good, just, and omnipotent. The conception universal formula " God is great," though repeated is vague, and so distorted by his belief in spirits as daily in prayer, is an unintelligible magical formula to be almost unrecognizable. Yet it lives in the which is especially recommended for use after a 222 The Mohammedan World of To-Day death in order to procure safe passage for the soul through the hosts of hostile spirits.

MISSIONS TO MoHAi1nrnoANS IN SUMATRA Of societies working directly we have three Dutch, and one German in Mandailing (the south­ ern Batak country) . TheDutch Mennonite Mission­ ary Society has been working in three stations since 1871. It has now about 100 converts. The Nether­ lands Missionary Society has a station on the east coast. The Java Committee, also a Dutch Society, has three stations in Northern Mandailing founded in 1860, with about 500 converts. Next to this comes the territory of the German Rhenish Mission­ ary Society. Out of thirty-six stations worked by this society, four have converts from amongst the Mohammedans only. Four other stations have mixed congregations. All together these eight stations with sixty-seven out-stations have won about 6,000 converts from the Mohammedans, and now have 1,150 catechumens. In 1895 the Rhenish Mission began work among the tribes on the east coast of Sumatra among w horn Islam was tending to spread. The mission stations have been pushed on eastwards from the interior to within a day's march of the coast, and near the coast a certain amount of work is being done amongst Mohamme­ dans. Besides these societies, the British and Foreign Bible Society maintains a colporteur in the terri- A MOSLEJ[ DERVISI:I (SING1NR} Islam in Sumatra 223 tory of the Rhenish :Mission who sells Scriptures in Mohammedan as well as in pagan districts. In the sixties of last century the missionary work was much hindered by the unfriendly attitude of the government, which went so far as to forbid or at least delay for months .the erection of Christian chapels. The officials were loth to irritate the Moslem population, and the chiefs, who were en­ tirely in the hands of the government, were thus encouraged to work against the missions. Another influence in this direction was that of the native subordinate officials, whom government formerly used to select from among Mohammedans only. Be•ides this for years they gave judicial powers to Mohammedans and Malay chiefs in law-suits among the Bataks. Thus the Christian Batak came more and more under the power of Malays and Moham­ medans. This is still the case to a considerable extent on the east coast of Sumatra. Another factor which favours Islam is the wide­ spread use of the Malay language in the whole Indian Archipelago. This language is the tongue of the educated Moslem throughout that territory, and its general use gives him easy access to the pagans. Moreover :Malay is the language of the courts under the Dutch government, and this of course gives to the pure Malay, who is a Moham­ medan, a greater influence than bis fellow subjects possess who are unacquainted with the Malay language. It also tends to mark the Malay nation­ ality, and the religion of Islam as the chief, if not 224 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Sumatra the only medium of civilization, education, and them usually prove very profitable. But Christi­ culture. anity is now barring his road and exposing his The chief hindrance to Christian missions is the wiles. No wonder that he is ready to adopt any influence of the Mecca pilgrims or hajia. These means to thwart the Christian missionary. are venerated by the common people as the true The present attitude of the Dutch Colonial Gov­ leaders of Islam. Amongst them there are people ernment as regards Islam differsfrom what ·it once who are entirely illiterate, but there are others, was. Christianity now finds a protection against too, whose education is beyond that of the primary the usurpations of Islam. Christian chiefs are schools. Whatever their intellectual equipment, given a share in judicial administration so as to however, they are sworn enemies to Christianity. counteract the oppression of the Moslems, and They have accumulated a mass of stories about Christian missions desiring to begin work in terri­ the moral corruptions of Christians which they tories still pagan or threatened with Mohammedan continually put into circulation. They have almost propaganda are assisted by the government. a weird power over the people, and even seem able Grants in aid of educational and medical work are to make them shudder before the missionary. In now made without burdensome restrictions, and Mandailing their control of the people is increased individual missionaries who use medicines amongst by the fact that they are largely related to the rul­ the people are supplied by government. The au­ ing families. The practice of worship is to these thorities deem missions a factor in civilization, es­ haJi8 a trade. Any instruction or religious knowl­ pecially in the matter of education. In regions edge has to be heavily paid for. They make fre­ where Islam is entirely in the ascendant, schools quent tours through the country to offertheir in­ have to be provided by the governmentat a heavy tercessions to such as desire them, and in return expense. Yet such schools in Mohammedan terri­ for them, they collect large sums. The haji now tory have not become nearly so popular as the perceives that Christianity threatens to destroy simple mission schools are in Christian territory. this convenient means of gain, and thus to relig­ This commends missionary education in the eyes ious fanaticism is added the spirit of bitter com­ of the government, and, although our chief task mercial competition. It has to be remembered is the spiritual conquest of Islam, we value the as­ that many a haji has borrowed money in order to sistance thus rendered by the authorities. makethe pilgrimage to Mecca. His relatives have The most important part of our work is ob­ probably been working for him, and his journeys viously the building up of Christian churches among the pagans for the purpose of converting among the pagan Bataks. It is this which has 226 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Sumatra 227 provided the real backbone of the work among Moslems acknowledge the unity of doctrine Mohammedan Bataks. Our great missionary in· amongst the Christian preachers. stitutions, the two seminaries for the training of The future prospects of Islam and Christianity school-teachers, the college for native clergy, the in Sumatra constitute a question of great practical hospitals, the leper asylum, the Missionary Asso­ importance. Our position is the reverse of that in , ciation of Christian Bataks, all have an influence Northern Africa, where the complaint is made that upon the Mohammedan Bataks, and Islam is now the vigorous inland tribes have adopted Islam, conscious that Christianity is a power in the while the enervated tribes of the coast remain as country. From this a further result of great im­ a field for Christian missionaries. In Sumatra it portance follows, namely that we can now meet is the vigorous inland tribe of the Toba Bataks­ Islam with preachers and other helpers taken from that is to say about half the Batak population­ amongst their own number. At first our mission­ which is in the course of accepting Christianity, aries were keenly sensible that natives felt more while far more than half the Moslem Bataks be­ drawn to the Malay than to the European. We long to the enervated coast tribes. know to this day that the same situation exists ; Furthermore the natural customs of the Bataks but now that we have helpers from amongst the favour Christianity. Islam, by degrading woman Mohammedans, all can see that Christianity is not and lowering the Batak principles on marriage and merely a European religion, but is suited to natives divorce, has lost the sympathy of the patriotic also. Batak who has become conscious that it destroys The band of native helpers forms a compact his national characteristics whereas Christianity community just as the missionaries do. There are develops and ennobles them. A wave of national no perceptible differences in doctrine or in practice feeling is at present going through the people and and this fact is an important element in the superi­ influencing even Mohammedan districts. Pagans ority of Christianity to Islam. The hajis often often reply to the Mohammedan proselytizer that fight one another bitterly over questions intimately they desire to be what their fellow tribesmen have connected with the daily life ; for instance, the become, that is Christians. True there are re­ cleanness or uncleanness of food. Oases have been gions where this national feeling is in abeyance, known in which the hajis have been brought before for instance on the east coast. There the native the Dutch authorities on charges of false doctrine often prefers to be a Malay in modern clothing preferred by brothers of their own faith. But rather than a pork-eating Batak. This gives Islam 228 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Sumatra 229 a certain advantage. Clearly it is for missionaries Occasionally these are in the form of plantations to keep their eyes open and seize opportunities now belonging to the church. offering. The Christianity of our converts from :Moham­ The direct result of our work among the :Mo­ medanism is without question more deeply con­ hammedans, consists of the 6,500 Christians and scientious than that of the churches made up en­ 1,150 oatechumens who have been gathered in from tirely of converts from paganism. The congrega­ among them. These Christians are organized into tions are not burdened by many useless members, congregations and church life is being developed because friction with Islam has weeded out or amongst them. They have about eighty churches kept away inferior elements. Among these Chris­ and chapels in which, besides the European mis­ tians are many who still have to suffercontinuous sionaries, five native pastors and seventy lay oppositions and persecution from their :Mohamme­ preachers trained in our seminaries, are working dan relatives. Hence their religious life shows with the assistance of some sixty leaders. Each many a ripe fruit. congregation is ruled by a session under the presi-. An especially noticeable feature in the once :Mo­ dency of the schoolmaster or preacher; and the .hammedan Christians is the concentration of their Christian chiefs of the village are members of this religious life upon Christ. The contrast between Church session. The zealous participation of these Christ and the false prophet, who was a sinful man chiefs in the work of the church is a very hopeful like ourselves, brings out more strongly belief in sign for our cause. In one circuit for instance out the crucified and risen Saviour. They also have of eighty-one chiefs twenty-five are Christians. more interest in the Christian eschatology than do The congregations have a regular system of church converts from paganism. Eternity and judgment discipline and collect a portion of their current ex­ were truths already impressed upon them. It is a penses by means of a tax on rice, or in money or welcome sign of Christian life that these people in labour. The schools and churches and dwell­ have already furnished the Church with a number ings of the preachers are almost always erected by of efficient helpers. The most noteworthy among the congregations. In some cases :Mohammedans these is Pastor Pandita Marcus Siregar, now an also contribute to the building in order to have a old man. He has spent most of his life amidst school in their village. In 1904 the congregations great privations and hardships among the :Mo­ raised a sum of 5,772 marks. In some cases en­ hammedan mountain tribe of Bolak, first as a dowments have been secured, the interest of which useful evangelist, and afterwards as a trusty assist­ provides for a part of the annual expenditure. ant and councillor of the missionary. He was a 230 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in Sumatra man who rejoiced in his God and was full of love for the European knowledge thus imparted bars and sympathy with his degraded people. Even the way for Arab education. Moreover Moham­ the Mohammedans had a high esteem for him. medan children in school learn to regard the His working days alas are past I world with Christian eyes, and it is impossible for As regards the more indirect results of the work the same narrow and fanatical spirit to be devel­ I would mention a change in the disposition of the oped in them as in orthodolt Moslems. Most of Moslems. It means a great deal for Islam to con­ the Mohammedan children in our schools volun­ fess, as a result of the superiority of Christian tarily receive religious instruction also. It is very people, that Christianity really is a religion ; and difficult to say how far this has direct result ; but this makes conversion easier for not a few. There at any rate the children receive an impression of is a strong trend towards Christianity in many Christianity which afterwards must exclude the Mohammedan circles, and in suoh cases a small proud contempt with which Mohammedans gener­ impetus is sufficient to produce a change. This is ally regard everything that has to do with Chris­ illustrated by the fact that in the case of marriages tianity. it is very usual for the Mohammedan party to ac­ The work of medical missions brings the mis­ cept Christianity. The impetus which was lacking sionary into continual contact with the Moslem was given by such an occasion. population, and when Mohammedans are willing As to the methods used, the usual Sunday to take medicines from the accursed Christian this sermon, or evening worship, or occasional dis­ is in itself a result. The leaders of Islam being by profession medicine-men, it is necessary for mis­ ?ourses often furnish the occasion for enquiry m the case of Mohammedan visitors who hap­ sionaries to take up medical work, otherwise the pen to attend our services. Moreover the ordi­ sick among their converts would be at once taken nary work of the church in schools, care of to the Mohammedan priest. The charitable work souls, etc., has the same elfeot, and we hardly of the missionaries, in which their helpers take use any methods for the conversion of Mos­ part, is a thorn in the flesh of the Moslem leaders. lems which are peculiar to them. Two great To get out of the difficulty they say that Allah influences, however, which react upon them are has ordered Christians togive help to Mohamme­ Christian charitable work and popular education. dans, acting as their slaves ; but by its contrast In Mohammedan districts fifty per cent. of the with the selfish course of the lwjia, the unselfish children in our schools are Mohammedans. Even efforts of the medical mission to heal the sick secular education works in favour of Christianity, makes a deep impression on the Mohammedan • 232 The Mohammedan World of To-Day world. Thus, while there is no speoial method in use for evangelizing Mohammedans, every oppor­ tunity which offers itself is used. The hospitality used among the Bataks gives an especially good occasion for such efforts, since the missionaries and their helpers are often invited to festivals. If they have to spend a night in villages they are usually the guests of the chief, and the custom of the country demands that after the meal is over XIV the guests should deliver a short speech. On such Islam in Java occasions even Mohammedans are willing to hear Christian truth set forth. Rev. C. Albers, Jr. We are hampered by the scarcity of suitable Rev. J. Verhoeven, Sr. native helpers. This prevents us from entering ( Tra nslated) on a more systematic evangelization by the use of native workers. Nevertheless, the Batak Mis­ sionary Society, which our Christians formed at the beginning of the century, maintains two evangel­ ists for work among Mohammedans. For the present the chief task of the Rhenish Missionary Society must be to bring into the church the mass of pagans as yet untouched by Islam, and, while there is yet time, to send work­ ers to regions which are in danger of being brought over to Mohammedanism. XIV Islam in Java ( Tra,..lat,edfrom the Dutch) THE Dutch East Indies are politically divided 11 We have been tooapt togauge the result of missions among into : Mohammedans by the meagre returns that have come tous from (1) Java and Madura, (2) The other islands, Turkey. But we must remember that in the Turkish Empire it is a crime against the State for a Mohammedan to embmce an­ known as the outside possessions. other religion. In countries, however, where Islam is not forti­ This division suits the purpose of this paper fied by the civil power, the Mohammedans are by no means a well, because the 4,500,000 inhabitants of this hopelessclass for Christian workers, and asthe politfoal power of latter ruvision are mostly pagan, except about the Crescentwanes, which ia now rapidly taking place, we expect tosee a turning of the hosts of Islam to the banner of the Cross." 25,000 followers of Islam, who live along the -J. H. WyckoU', D, D, coasts of the islands, for trade with the natives. On these islaD

l\:H::cc.A 'P]LfaU'.\lR FllOM DJAPAHA, .JAVA. Islam in Java 239 ply is decreasing while the population increases. So when in one village of the 4-0,000 a family be­ comes Christian, it is cast out. These cast out families in turn go together and form villages of their own. The missionaries aim to get eligible sites for these new villages, so that converts may enjoy mutual help and encouragement. It is unnecessary to speak of the difficulties of reaching Mohammedans with the gospel. Our ex­ perience in Java is that Islam with its unscriptural doctrine of God, can never be a bridge over the gulf that separates the heathen from Christianity, nor bring them nearer to God the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. On the contrary it is an or­ ganized power under the direct influenceof Satan, to enable him to destroy the souls of men, turning them away from the Light of the World, Jesus Christ the Son of God. xv Islam m Bokhara and Chinese Turkestan Rev. E. John Larsen xv Islam in Bokhara and Chinese Turkestan

I AM glad of the opportunity to write a few words about the Moslems in Turkestan and other countries in Central Asia. Statistics show that in the Russian dominions there are about thirteen million Moslems and in China probably thirty mil­ lion. The most of the Moslems of Russia Jive on the field where I work. In the Trans-Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian Seas, are 3,000,000 Tartars. In Turkestan, Bokhara, Khiva, and Rus­ sian Turkestan, together are about six million. The capital city of Bokhara, which is a state vassal to Russia, is a stronghold at present for the spir­ itual power of Islam in Central Asia. From all Moslem countries iu Central A.sia young men come for their higher education to the celebrated Mos­ lem schools of Bokhara. Generally there are sev­ eral thousands of students in these schools. Bok­ hara is one of the most interesting cities in the Orient. It is remarkable that a large proportion of the Moslems in the city can read. The reason, I think, is the number of schools. The great Russian Trans-Caspian railroad through those lands facilitates travel in Central Asia, and we use it. In our work we try to get the Moslems under the influence and power of the • 043 244 The Mohammedan World of To-Day gospel of Christ by preaching, conversation, and distribution of the Scriptures. The Bible has shown itself the best missionary among Moslems here, A number of Moslems have been converted and baptized iu the Caucasus and in Bokhara. For this we praise the Lord. Many have found a peace and a salvation which they sought in vain in their own religion. Once I remained in Bokbara two months. From our hook store in the city, our native helpers distributed the New Testament even among the people of Afghanistan. One old professor in the high school of Bokhara received from us the Bible in Arabic. He was very tb.ank­ ful and early in the morning he used to come to visit us for reading, prayer and conversation. One morning be said, "I am convinced that Jesus Christ will conquer Mohammed. There is no doubt about it because Obrist is king in heaven and on the earth, and His kingdom fills heaven and will soon fill the earth." Let us pray and work with hope for the future and also remember in prayer the Moslems in Russia and Central Asia. In November, 1891, the Swedish Missionary Society sent two of its workers to Kashgar in Chinese Turkestan, to see if a mission could be started in Western China. Pastor J. Awetaranian, who is a converted Mos­ lem from Turkey, remained and began work at Kashgar in the service of our society. In the year 1894 Rev. Hogberg was sent to Chinese Turkestan and he is still working in Kashgar. Pastor A wetar- Islam in Bokhara and Chinese Turkestan 245 anian had in the meantime translated the four gospels into the Turkish dialect spoken in Kash­ gar. This the British and Foreign Bible Society printed, sending out two thousand copies for dis­ tribution by our mission. Pastor A wetaranian went to Sweden in 1897 and afterwards translated the whole New Testament into Kashgar Turkish. This will probably be printed this year. The Swedish Mission has at present seven mis­ sionaries in Chinese Turkestan, in the cities of Kashgar and Yarkand. One of the missionaries , is a physician and gives all his time to medical work. This year new missionaries will be sent from Sweden to this field and I think Khotan, near the border of Tibet, will be taken up as a third station. In this part of the world the MoB­ lemB are very ignorant, but several of them have been converted and baptized. The outlook is hopeful for the Moslem Mission and the work among the Chinese population is much blessed. The need is exceedingly urgent in Central Asia and Wastern China, since these lands have been BO long neglected and are BO isolated. XVI Islam in China Rev. W. Gilbert Walshe, M. A. XVI Islam in China THE story of Mohammedanism in China goes back to the days of Mohammed himself ; the in­ troduction of the religion into China being attrib­ 11 It seemsvery doubtful whether a bodyof men who for many uted by Chinese Mohammedans to Wahab Abi centuries have oonformed to customs repugnant to the true Kabcha, an uncle of the prophet, who was ac­ Moslem oan ever become the political foroe which, it is said, Rus­ sia fears they may become or are at all likely toprove a hostile credited as envoy to the Chinese court, and arrived power in the future developmente of the Chineee Empire. "­ in the country some six years after the Hejira, a.non Edward &II. about 628. This was in the days of the great T'ang dynasty which has been described as "one of the most brilliant epochs in the history of China," and under the auspices of an Emperor (T'ai Tsung) who may be regarded as the most ac­ complished in the Chinese annals,-famed alike for "his wisdom and nobleness ; his conquests and good government ; his temperance, cultivated tastes, and patronage of literary men." At this period China was probably the most civilized country in existence, whilst Europe was enveloped in the darkness and degradation of the middle ages. Great schools were, at this time, be­ ing established throughout China ; the examination system which has only just been abrogated, after enjoying an unchallenged reign of nearly 1,300 years, was now, for the firsttime, instituted as the necessary method of entrance upon 'official life ; 249 250 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in China 251 the confines of the empire were extended to the borders of Persia and the Caspian Sea, and em­ ligion, built in Canton mosques, and were aug­ braced large territories in Central Asia. The great mented from time to time, by fresh arrivals from work to which T'ai Tsung addressed himself was Arabia who travelled by caravans through Central the consolidation of his empire ; and in the process, Asia, or came by sea to the great ports on the he was brought into relations with some of the southeast of China. Turkish tribes on his frontier, whom he endeav­ The envoy himself, after a few years' residence oured to propitiate by a policy of concession and in China, retnrned to Arabia ; but, whether the religious tolerance. He welcomed scholars of every death of his distinguished nephew, which had school of thought who gave promise of contribut­ taken place in the meantime, made any change in ing something to the literature which he was his fortunes, or the glamour of the Farthest East amassing, and religious professors of many coun­ had thrown its spell over him, as in many an tries flocked to his court. instance even in the present unromantic days; or whatever may have been the circumstances which This was an age of toleration. The Nestorian priest, Olopun, was favourably received by the influenced him, we are informed that he returned emperor in 635. Some of the Scriptures brought to China, and ended his days there, about the year by him were translated in the library of the palace ; 643 ; his tomb being still preserved outside the and special orders were issued for the propagation great North Gate of the eity of Canton. Two of of the religion which had thus secured the imperial the mosques whose erection is attributed to Wahab approval, as we learn from the Nestorian tablet, Abi Kaboha still exist, after many restorations ; discovered in 1625 in the city of Chang-an in Shen­ and one of them, known as the " Square Pagoda," si-a monument which was erected in 781, before is an object of special interest to visitors to the close of the same dynasty. Canton. It was, then, at a most propitious time that the The early Mohammedan arrivals in China, it Mohammedan envoy and his followers arrived in should be remembered, were influenced by motives China, and the imperial patronage and conde­ not entirely religious, and it would appear that commerce was the primary object of their enter­ scension, afterwards extended to the Nestorians and other foreigners, were enjoyed by the new arrL prise ; but it can hardly be supposed that so near a vals. They visited the emperor at his capital, Si­ relative of the prophet coming from such scenes ngan, in the modern Province of Shen-si, obtained as were being enacted in Arabia at the time would the imperial sanction for the exercise of their re- be content with permission to worship in his own way, without being allowed to extend his religion 252 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in China 253 among the "infidels " in whose midst he found lead a vast army against the Turkish and Tartar himself. We may suppose that proselytizing was nations on the Northwest Frontier. carried on to some extent, judging by the pro­ The commander-in-chief had, however, other de.. portions to which the .Mohammedan community in signs in view, and in this year (755) proolaimed his China grew in the course of time ; but the propa­ independence of the reigning Dynasty, with the ganda appears to have lacked much of that vigour result that the emperor was forced to call in the which characterized the campaign in Arabia and assistanceof such mercenariesas the .Moslemtroops was exemplified in the later assaults upon the which the Caliph was ready to despatch. These Christian strongholds in Africa and Europe. It having performed their part with great credit, were seems evident, from the character of the Moham­ allowed to establish themselves in the country and medans who appeared upon the scene during the intermarry with the natives. These soldier-colo­ years which followed,that everything was subordi­ nists we may regard as the fathers of the present­ nated to the lust for wealth. This was indicated day Mohammedan population in China. The in their commercial relations; the luxury with which merchant class, however, still continued to arri�e they surrounded themselves ; and the lax morality in large numbers at the seaports, and had their of their social conditions. There is very little of own consuls to defend their interests ; and it is a missionary character in the fragmentary notices recorded that, on the occasion of a rebellious move­ which we have of this period. ment at Canton which took place in 850, a vast The .Mohammedans who came and went do not number of Mohammedans, Jews, Christians and seem to have entertained any idea of settling in Parsees were massacred by the Chinese authorities ; the country, but returned to their distant homes in _ some 120,000 persons being put to death, of whom, due course, having attained the object of their we may suppose, the majority were Moslems. The desires and with little intention of enrolling them- ' result of this catastrophe was to discourage the selves in the "Noble Army of martyrs. » advent of Arab traders during the years that fol­ The first body of settlers, properly so-called, was lowed, and we know for a fact that the influence a .Mohammedan contingent of 4,000 soldiers de­ which had so long been exercised by the followers spatched by the Caliph Abu J afer, in 755, to the of Islam waned and practically became extinct assistance of the Emperor Hsuan-Tsung, who was until the rise of a new dynasty, that of the Mongols, assailed .by his favourite commander, A Lo Shan in the beginning of the thirteenth century. (or Ngan Luh-Shan), a man of Turkish or Tartar With regard to the position of Moslems in China descent,who had been appointed by the emperor to under the T'ang dynasty it may be said that, 254 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in China 255 although welcomed at first by the broad-minded pire in 1280, had many points in common with the and tolerant T'ai Tsung, succeeding emperors did earliest patron of Islam in China, and like him was not regard the presence of the "foreigner " in engaged in the problem of consolidating an em­ their midst with the same equanimity. Active pire, and harmonizing the discordant elements proselytism was, no doubt, discouraged, for such which were thus brought together. He adopted has ever been a cause of offensein Chinese eyes ; an attitude of broad toleration towards all religious as the representative of Confucianism plainly opinions, a.nd recognizing the milita.ry qualities of stated at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago : the Mohammedans in his new territory of Kara "It is evident that whoever carries under his arm Jang, the modern province of Yun-nan, he sought a system of doctrines, and crosses over into the to gain their adherence and assistance. Accord­ territory of another state for the purpose of gain­ ingly, he permitted the Moslem Governor Omar, ing proselytes, in reality sets up as a higher being whom he found in office, to retain his position un­ than his fellows. By assuming the role of a moral der the new regime. The result of this renewed propagandist he cannot escape the imputation that attitude of encouragement was that large num hers he looks down upon the people and nation as of Arabs flocked to China and settled themselves irreligious." The exhibition of a spirit of inde­ iu Fuh-kien, Cheh-kiang, and Kiang-su ; the centre pendence or national conservatism was strongly of trade having shifted from Canton to Foochow. deprecated, and continual pressure was exerted The province of Yun-nan became largely Mo­ with a view to de-nationalize the foreigners, by dis­ hammedan, and in other provinces individual couraging relations with their ancestral homes ; Moslems were promoted to high office. We read forbidding the much desired pilgrimages to Mecca, of Mussulmans who managed the artillery, other and the introduction of foreignMullas. The observ­ compatriots who farmed the taxes, and in later ance of their religious rites was frequently cur­ times we find them paramount in matters astro­ tailed, and the erection of mosques interdicted. So nomical and astrological. Settlers crowded into oppressive were these restrictions that many Shen-si and Kan-su, and other parts of the empire. Moslems retired to the Island of Hainan ; a larger It would seem, however, that these new accessions number returned to their native lands ; and as has were as little eager to advance the faith of Islam been said, Mohammedanism in China became among their pagan neighbours as their predeces­ practically moribund until the rise of the Mongol sors had been. Had they possessed but a modicum dynasty under Kublai Khan (1260-1295). This of the fierce fanatical spirit of their co-religionists monarch, who became master of the Chinese Em- in other countriesit is more than possible China 256 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in China 257 would have been, if not wholly converted to Cheh-kiang, Fuh-kien, and Kwang-tung, which Islam, at all events much more deeply affected by were for so long the scenes of their greatest com­ it than the event hasproved. mercial activity. It should be borne in mind that The passing of the :Mongols, and the restoration of this 50,000, possibly none at all would have sur­ of a Chinese line of rulers, brought about a 'IJolte­ vived had their ancestors not compounded for face very similar to that which was witnessed their life by sacrificing their religion. Under the in the days of the T'ang dynasty. It may have present :Manchu dynasty, they seem to have fared been that the :Ming dynasty (the new line of little better, and a long-continued system of re­ rulers) carrying on an almost incessant warfare pression and outrage has driven the Moslems of with the Tartars, could not regard with equanimity the far west, probably men of a more heroic cast the presence of a powerful " third party " in the than the traders of the southeast, to revolt and re­ empire ; a party which by its numerical strength, taliation. · In 1817, as a result of official injustice, military character, and independent spirit could intolerance, and murder, the oppressed Moham­ not with safety be regarded as a negligible quan­ medans in the west took up arms against their tor­ tity. Perhaps the prevailing dislike to the for­ mentors, and were driven by the Imperialist troops eigners who had ruled them for so long fostered into the fastnesses of the savage tribes on the the very natural prejudice which was felt with re­ frontier, with the loss of many of their number. gard to other Turks, the common designation of At Mong-Mien another outbreak was induced by both Tartars and :Moslems. Whatever causes the slaughter of more than 16,000 men, women may have been operative, we know for a fact that and children, who were murdered like sheep at the successive proclamations, during this dynasty, instance of the Chinese offloials. In 1855 another served to warn them of the precarious character rebellion in Yun-nan was stimulated by a fearful of their footing in the country, and they were even massacre of :Mohammedans, following on a petty forced at one time to leave Canton and retire to quarrel, and was continued for some eighteen their ships. The severity of this policy of repres­ years. The British government was approached sion may be illustrated by the fact that, at the on behalf of the insurgents (in 1872) but declined present day, 500 years after the date of the first to render any assistance. Despairing of success edict of expulsion, there are only some 21,000 the brave commander Tu-wen-hsin surrendered :Moslems in the whole province of Kwang-tung to the Chinese, having first swallowed a dose of (Canton), where once they were so numerous ; and poison. Seventeen of his officers, who were in­ only 50,000 in the three southeasterly provinces of vited to partake of a banquet with the Imperialist 258 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in China 259 leaders, were treacherously beheaded at a given 3,500,000 in Yun-nan in the extreme southwest. signal, and "Hell was let loose " upon the surviv­ Thus nearly nineteen millions out of the twenty ing Moslems, with the result that within three are to be found in the most distant provinces of days, out of the 50,000 inhabitants of the city the empire, and thus may be said to be practically (Ta-li-fn) and district, some 30,000 were put to exiled and kept out of striking distance. The the sword. remaining one million, odd, are scattered through­ A somewhat similar event took place in Shen-si out the other provinces, and therefore rendered in 1861, when the Chinese were incited to the innocuous. That such a large number, represent­ massacre of the whole Mohammedan population. ing an alien religion, is at all tolerated is due to The latter took up arms in defense of their Jives, the fact that Mohammedans in China, at least in and the "rebellion," which extended over an im­ fifteen out of the eighteen provinces, have become mense area, was only suppressed after twelve years' merged in the Chinese population, and are hardly fighting-the Chinese general refusing to stay bis distinguishable from their neighbours. They speak hand until the Moslem population in many districts the language of the country in which they live, was, practically, annihilated. The province of and wear its costume ; there are some physical Shen-si to this day bears soars of the a wfnl punish­ features by which they may be differentiated, ment then inflicted, large tracts of fertile country their cheek bones being generally more prominent, still lying fallow and waiting for the cultivators and their noses better shaped than the majority of who are to succeed the slaughtered myriads. the Chinese, and they have a habit of clipping the These historical specimens may serve to indicate mustache whiqh the Chinese do not follow. They that, in spite of the Chinese character for religious do not intermarry with the Chinese, but frequently toleration, any show of independence of thought, adopt native children into their families. They or national segregation, or military prowess on the make no attempt to convert their Chinese neigh­ part of the "Barbarians "admitted to reside within bours, and the religious opinions which they hold the borders of the empire, was regarded with are, to a great extent, unknown to outsiders. suspicion and rigorously suppressed. Mosques are to be found in many cities ; in Can­ At the present moment there are said to be some ton alone there are four, but there is apparently twenty million Mohammedans in China, the largest little interest taken in the services, which are nomi­ number "being in Kan-sn, in the extreme north­ nally modelled after the pattern of other Moham­ west, where 8,350,000 are reported. Some 6,500,- medan countries. Tb.e male members of tbe com­ 000 are said to live in Shen-si in the north, and munity seldom attend except during the Ram- 260 The Mohammedan World of To-Day adhan ; and it might be said that, as regards out­ ward observances, the distinguishing features of Mohammedans in China are their abstention from idol-worship, and their observance of the prohibi­ tion against the eating of pork. In the North, where Moslems are numerous, especially in Peking, where there are said to be 100,000 of them, hawk­ ers of cakes, etc., have the characters Hui Hui, the Chinese name for Islam, painted upon the trays they carry, in order to assure Mohammedan pur­ chasers that their wares are innocent of pork fat. Other important tenets, such as circumcision, almsgiving and fasting are also observed, but there appears to be an entire absence of that fanaticism, proud exclusiveness, uncompromising orthodoxy, and thirst for proselytism which so distinguish the Moslem in countries nearer home. There is a considerable body of Mohammedan literature in Chinese ; some works being published under the imprimatur of the emperor ; but the strict law which forbids the translation of the Koran into Chinese, has no doubt had some bearing upon the lack of influence which Islam has exhibited in China, not only as regards its missionary charac­ ter, but also in its relation to individuals within tbe pale. Mohammedans iu China, instead of posing as the proud champions of a heaven-sent faith, have consented to the process of absorption which is the common fate of all religions systems in China, the Chinese dragon swallowing all and sundry without apology or effort. One "foreign "

lNTEl{!OR OF A MoHAMME!')AN Musq�JE. Islam in China 261 religion after another has disappeared in the process, Nestorianism, Judaism, Buddhism, Mohammedan­ ism, and one might almost add Roman Catholi­ cism, for it, too, in its earlier propagation was assim­ ilated and passed out of sight. The life has been squeezed out of them ; the erowviffi remain. Of N estorianism nothing survives bnt a record, of supreme interest indeed, bnt altogether unrelated to the present, except as serving to show how the earlier Buddhism, and perhaps Taoism had en­ riched themselves at the expense of the Christian faith thus introduced. Judaism has nothing to show but a miserable remnant in the city of K'ai­ fung, the burial place of Confucius, in the province of Ho-nan, possessed of some Hebrew manuscripts indeed but unable to read them ; without places of assembly or meetings for worship, and number­ ing only some 300 souls, the survivors of a colony some 2,000 years old. Buddhism " has a name to live but is dead," all the essential features of the faith of Sakya Muni having disappeared in the ac­ cretions which a too conciliatory attitude on the part of its professors has induced, throughout the long ages of its domicile. Mohammedanism is a thing invertebrate, impersonal ; a social eccentric­ ity rather than a vital religious force ; making no effort to extend its "sphere of influence," content with permission to exist in the midst of " infidels," and making no attempt at remonstrance against the customs or beliefs of its neighbours ; submitting to all forms of social observance ; conforming to 262 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Islam in China � o�cial ceremonies, even to the worship of the the standpoint of re�igion they are regarded by the 1mper1al tablet asa means to qualifying for office · mass of the people much the same light as the consenting to the erection in the mosques of a� votaries of the manyin secret sects found throughout inscription in letters of gold, in acknowledgment the country, whose doctrines and ceremonials are of the imperial patronage, to this effect : "May equally unknown to outsiders and uninteresting. the emperor reign 10,000 years." In all these Mohammedans in China are much more ac­ ways they suppress national and religious individ­ cessible to Christian missionaries than in other uality, so that in an authoritative pamphlet by a countries, as the common ground of monotheistic Chinese official it is said, "None can point out who belief invites an attitude of mutual friendliness. is a Mohammedan ; they do not reside in separate But the doctrine of the Son of God is, as else­ districts," etc. Another writer says, "Islam in where, regarded as a difficulty almost insuperable, China has bent itself to the national ideals, and has and a negation of the foundation truth of the become Chinese, not only in habits and manners, Divine Unity. Hence conversions from their but in patriotism and ch!lracter." Again, as a liv­ number have been somewh!lt rare. Signs are not ing writer puts it, "The Mussulmans in north lacking, however, of a change to a more receptive China are never in the least interfered with be­ mood, as the Truth of Christ is more clearly com­ cause they have the good sense to fall in with pop­ prehended. A remark quoted by Dr. A.rthnr ular feeling and Jet things be." In Canton we are Smith may be cited in this connection, " One of informed " They findno difficulty in going through their Mullas recently made the remark in regard all the forms of the idolatrous ritual which are re­ to a mission station in his city, that until it was quired on the part of candidates for office, and can founded the Mohammedans were like a jar of pure conform to almost all the Chinese customs, except water, but that on the advent of the Jesus relig­ the eating of pork," which, of course, is not a neces­ ion, the jar had been so stirred with a stick asto sary part of any Chinese religious or social cere­ make the water appear turbid." By this he meant mony. Cases are not unknown where even this tbat in comparison with Chinese religions Moham­ "self-denying ordinance " has been relaxed on occa­ medanism made an excellent showing, but that it sion. In fact the Moslems in China are regarded as could not hold its own against Christianity. no more "foreign " than the Manchu rulers of the Amongst Mohammedans in China are found country, who, like themselves, do not intermarry representatives of each of the principal schools, with the people, but in other respects are scarcely Sunnis and Shiites. But it would appear that the to be distinguished from the native Chinese. From differences between them are not so marked as in 264 The Mohammedan World of To-Day other parts of the world ; perhaps the spirit of compromise and accommodation, which they ex­ hibit in their relations with the pagans, may ac­ count for the apparent absence of sectarian feel­ ing among themselves. With regard to Christian missionary work among Moslems in China, it may be said that there is, at present, no specially organized effort on the part of individuals or societies, and indeed XVII nothing on a large scale has ever been attempted by Protestant missions. How to Arouse the Church at Home to There is, therefore, very little in the way of the Needs of Islam evidence as to the possibilities of missionary work among them. Such work would require specially Robert E. Speer, M. A. qualified agents, and a distinctive literature pre­ pared for the use of Mohammedans. In the ab­ sence of these, and indeed, of any organized at­ tempts to evangelize the Chinese Moslems, it is little wonder. that conversions have been few, and that the attitude of Mohammedans towards the gospel is still largely a matter of speculation. If the recognition of these facts alone should lead to the establishment of a mission to Moslems in China, or some more definite effort to evangelize them, this paper will not have been written in vain. XVII

How to Arouse the Church at Home to the Needs of Islam

IT appears to be assumed in this inquiry that the ehurch is not aroused. That assumption is un­ doubtedly just. The Church is not as aroused as it ought to be to any part of its missionary duty, but the two sections of the mission field to which it is least drawn out at present are the Roman Catholic and the Mohammedan lands. The work in the Roman Catholic countries is somewhat known, because these countries are near the lands which are the source of the missionary effort. But the work in Mohammedan lands is known scarcely at all. The history of missionary effort for Mos­ lems in the past is largely an unread history. Raymond Lull's name is the name of a stranger. I have almost never met a Christian minister who knew who Raymond Lull was. :Mohammedanism itself is a mystery to the average Christian in America, and even to Christians of far more than average intelligence. They have never read the Koran. They do not know what :Mohammed taught or what kind of a man he was, and they have little or no idea of the history of Mohammed­ anism or of its doctrinal character and ethical in- 267 268 The Mohammedan World of To-Day How to Arouse the Church at Home 26g fluence. Popular ideas of the Moslem lands and churches are not aroused to the promise and people are grotesque in their crude ignorance. obligation of it. They are profoundly interested Where Persia lies and what its political character to-day in Japan and China because they know is are almost utterly unknown to ordinary Chris­ about these fields and the work that is going on tians, and of the tangle of races and languages there, in them. The magazines are full of accounts of of the political and ecclesiastical situation, of the the missionary enterprise there. The missionaries natnre of the people and their religions opinions come home speaking earnestly and openly of it and needs they know nothing. In addition to and summoning the church to her duty. But no great general ignorance about Mohammedanism such propaganda is carried on in behalf of mis­ and the Mohammedan lands, the impression sions to the Moslems. It is true that there are prevails that Islam is the next best religion to few missionaries to the Mohammedans in com­ Christianity in its knowledge of God, and that parison with the host in Japan and Korea and its adherents are so devoted to it as to be uncon­ China, but it is also true that once there were vertible to the Christian faith. no more in these countries than there are now What are the causes of this condition of igno­ among Moslems, and that they would not have in­ rance and nninterest ? (1) One cause is the em­ creased as they have, if they had not so persist­ bargo laid upon the home workers for missions by ently worked to arouse the home church, and so missionaries among the Mohammedans. Many of energetically and openly laid the facts before her the missionaries are entirely reticent about their and summoned her to her duty. work for Moslems, and others who write to their (2) In the second place, even in Moslem lands, societies or friends at home do so with the ex­ or among Moslem people in lands not ruled by plicit injunction that what they write is not to be Mohammedan governors, the missionaries have published or otherwise publicly used. Mission­ devoted a relatively small part of their time and aries in India working for Moslems usually feel strength to the Moslem work. In Egypt, Syria, free to write with freedom, and what they write Turkey and Persia, the greater portion of the is freely printed ; but missionaries in lands under energy of the missionaries has been devoted Moslem rule are very reserved, fearing, of conrse, to work for Copts, Maronites, Greeks, Armenians, the effect of the reports of their work in case Jews and Nestorians. Apart from the schools they came back to the land where the mission­ (and the number of Mohammedan pupils in schools aries are working. Now without knowledge of in Turkey is almost inconsiderably small), com­ the work it is not unnatural that the home paratively little has been done. Through medical 270 The Mohammedan World of To-Day How to Arouse the Church at Home 271 missionaries many have been made accessible and tians at home to warrant the idea that the home some have been reached ; but we do not have and Churches as a whole are neglecting the Moslems have not had for years a systematic and aggres­ through any idea. that the Oriental Churches sive, though tactful and quiet, campaign for the ought to care for them. Yet this idea may ac­ evangelization of :Moslems. It is not the place of count for some of the neglect of the problem. this paper to examine this question, but I believe The early missions to the Oriental Churches one reason why the Church at home is not aroused were undertaken with a view to reforming them is because missions on the field are not aroused to for the sake of the work of evangelization among the immediate duty and urgency of the work. Mohammedans. Dr. Perkins and Dr. Grant were Even in India where there is a free field, very few sent to the Nestorians " to enable the Nestorian missionaries are special students of the Moham­ Church through the grace of God to exert a com­ medan problem. In North India, where there are manding influence in the spiritual regeneration of more :Moslems three times over than in the whole Asia " ; and Smith and Dwight planned the mis­ Turkish Empire, a small minority of the missiona­ sion with direct reference to the :Moslems. Mr. ries are specially equipped or endeavour specially Smith was himself greatly drawn to the project. to equip themselves to deal with :Mohammedans. " For myself," he wrote, " I felt a stronger desire The :Mohammedan issue does not even occur to to settle among them (the Nestorians) as a mission­ many missionaries in other parts of India. Dr. ary than among any people I have seen," and Jones calls his admirable book on India, In aia'a though he pointed out that it would be a lonely Problem, Kr ishna or Ohrist, and there are not position with no Europeans near and Constanti­ two pages in the whole book on Mohammedanism. nople eleven hundred miles away by land, and Treb­ In the Index there are only two references to the izond, on the Black Sea, fivehundred, and also that religion whioh holds the allegiance of one fifth of it would be very dangerous, yet he added, "We the population of the land. It has been true that must not calculate too closely the chances of life," the Church at home has been negligent of her duty, and he was sure that the missionary who should but the attention devoted to Islam by missionaries come here would " feel the ad vantage of his po­ to :Mohammedan lands has not always indicated sition ; that he has found a prop upon which to to the home Church that the work was necessary rest the lever that will overturn the whole system and urgent and feasible. of Mohammedan delusion, in the centre of which (3) The Oriental Christian Churches are hardly he has fixed himself ; that he is lighting a fire well enough known to the great mass of Chris- which will shine out upon the corruptions of the 272 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Persian on the one side, and npon the barbarities of the Kurd ou the other, until all shall come to be enlightened by its brightness ; and the triumph of faith will crown his labour of love." From the evangelical element created among the Nes­ torians and the Gregorian Armenians, some ardent and effective evangelists have gone out among the Moslems and more should go. Perhaps the Church at home would realize more clearly the duty of evangelizing the Moslems and the relation to this duty of the purification of the Oriental Churches, if the use of the Oriental Churches as an evangelizing force among the Mohammedans were made even more of a definite missionary policy by the missions working in Egypt, Turkey and Persia. (4) Not only is there great lack of published missionary news about work for Moslems, but there are too few books which can be put into the hands of home people. There are few enough for the use of missionaries in preparation for the work, but there are fewer still for popular use at home. There was no English biography of Ray­ mond Lull until 1902 when two appeared. We have now lives of Lull, Martyn, French, Keith Falconer, Kami!, and Turkish missionaries like Goodell and Hamlin,-but this about repre­ sents the list of English biographies. And there is great need of a strong popular book dealing with the whole subject fairly but unswervingly, as

FOUR MlSSIO::\'ARY l\!ARTVRS OP' ARAHlA How to Arouse the Church at Home 273 Dr. Kellogg has dealt with Buddhism in Tho Light of Asia and the Light of the Wo rld. (5) For,-to suggest one other reason for the Church's neglect-there is a- great ignorance of the real doctrine and moral character of Islam. Some think of it as a purely monotheistic system and see no need of attempting to proselytize its followers. Others think of it as next best to Christianity and perhaps the best practicable relig­ ion for the Africans and Arabs. Many who have never heard of Mr. Bosworth Smith and who have never so well formed their thoughts, yet feel, with him, that Mohammed was a great and true prophet of God, and that his religion, if not quite as good as Christianity is yet a great and good religion and well suited to the needs of a large section of the human race. Those who feel this way never have felt the glowing passion of Christ for souls. But the majority of members of the Church have never felt Christ's lov(l as a passion. Lukewarm towards Him, they are luke­ warm towards all the world. Now, on the other hand, there arecertaingreat advantages which we have in endeavouring to a wake the Church to a new effort to reach the Moslems. (1) In the first place, it is a hard and' dangerous work, and we can accordingly appeal to the courageous and heroic spirit. This is a great gain. To win youug men aud women, we need only to go to them in behalf of a perilous and 274 The Mohammedan World of To-Day How to Arouse the Church at Home 275 glorious cause. There are, of course, the timid tian missions to Mohammedans. The Church can and the fearful, and those who are not timid and be aroused to the duty to evangelize two hundred fearful themselves are often held back by those millions of people who read in their sacred book who are. But the timid and fearful appeal is of the leo-itimacy of four wives and unnumbered futile. It is the call to war, to hard effort concubine� and the righteousness of unlimited di­ which wins the best hearts. There are some vorce. who argue that one reason for the small number of (3) Furthermore, the Christian world bas well men entering the ministry in proportion to the _ nigh lost patience with the Mohammedan nat10ns. number pressing into medicine and scientific call­ It may be that these nations are what they are ings and business, is found in the financial ease of because of their racial character even more than the way into the ministry and in the mistaken because of their religion ; but those who know them argument advanced for the ministry by some foolish best think that their natural qualities are their advocates, that it is a position of comfort and social best qualities, and that their worst qualities are influence and self-respect. This draws no good those which spring from their religion. Which­ men. It repels them. They love the difficult and ever view is correct the world admits that the hard thing. The Moslem work can be surpassed Moslem people need something. They may not by none in its capacity to offer the chance for want it, but they need it ; and realizing this the courage and devotion and sacrifice. Church is accessible to the argument and appeal (2) In the second place, the attitude of Moham­ .that she must give it to them . . medanism towards women calls out the most /4) It is the sad feature of Islam that it knows · chivalrous instincts of the heart. It presents also Christ but supersedes and displaces Him. But a more effective argument in behalf of the evangel­ this very fact constitutes a powerful basis of ap­ ization of Moslems than the temper of the modern peal to Christians. Our Lord is annulled, His mind finds in behalf of the evangelization of Bud­ cross made of none effect, and the glory and purity dhists. Between Christianity and Buddhism, say of the spiritual faith and righteous life which He many, the difference is metaphysical. They are taught and made possible are beclouded and defiled a wrong, for Buddhism denies the possibility of by the base ideals and practices of the seventh But woman's salvation, unless reborn as a man. century Arabian civilization incorporated and per­ in the case of Islam a simple statement of the vile petuated in the Koran. The missionary appeal to provisions of the Koran regarding woman and di­ the Church in behalf of the Mohammedan world vorce is enough to silence the opposition to Chris- is an appeal to rescue Christ, to regain for Him the 276 The Mohammedan World of To-Day How to Arouse the Church at Home 277 place which is His alone but which another has to be said aloud about work for Moslems, then I usurped. No appeal can be made in behalf of do not know how the Church is to be moved or mission work among other races more cogent and how the nrissionsare to be maintained. You can­ more convincing than this. not keep up enthusiasm or self-sacrificing zeal over We can arouse the Church to the necessity and a clandestine enterprise not fed by the intelligent urgency of work for Moslems, by urging constantly interest and prayers of the Church. upon her the actual conditions which exist. The The Church must awake to her duty towards occasions of the Church's lack of interest must be Islam. Who will wake her and keep her wake dealt with one by one and removed. There should unless it be those who have heard the challenge of be more good books. Missionaries competent to Islam, and who going out against her have found do so should write on the Mohammedan fields, her armour decayed, her weapons antiquated and dealing specificallywith the Mohammedan mission­ her children, though proud and reticent, still un­ ary problems; and books on Mohammedanism happy; sta_tionary or retrogressive in a day of prog­ should be written, fair and just and generous in ress and hfe. Happy are we to have a share in their views, but also fearless and explicit and out­ this great movement. Woe unto us if we are timid spoken. The work for the Oriental Churches and fearful, on one hand, or tactless and impru­ should be seen by us clearly in its proper relation­ dent on the other. We are those who need wisdom ship to the evangelization of the Moslem world, and zeal-the wisdom that will do nothing unwise and we should keep this view clearly before the the zeal that will not let wisdom be so cautious a; home church and the Oriental Churches themselves. to do nothing. Missions to Moslem peoples should direct their policy towards the end of reaching the Moslems. Effort should not be absorbed in the secondary ac­ tivities of the missions while the primary ends are unreached. This will react upon the home church. If the evangelization of the Mohammedans is felt to be a necessary and urgent work by the missions it will be felt to be so at home. And some wa; must be found for informing the Church about the work and its successes and disappointments and difficulties. If this cannot be done, if nothing is 0 Lord God, to whom the sceptre ofrig ht be­ longeth, lift up Thy self, and travel in the great­ ness ofThy strength throughout the Mo hammedan lands of the East ; because ofthe anointing ofThy Son, Je sus Christ, as Thy true Prophet, Priest and XVIII King, destroy the sword ofIsla m, and break the Statistical and Comparative Survey of yoke ofthe fa lse prophet Mo hammedfr om offthe Islam in Africa necks ofEgyp t, Arabia, Tu rkey, Persia, and other Mo slem lands, that so there may be op ened through­ Rev. Chas. R. Watson, D. D out these lands a great door and effectual far the Gospel, that the Wo rd ofthe Lord may have free course and be glonjied, and the veil upon so many hearts may be removed, through Jesus Christ, our Lord. Amen. s. a;, C:1lf. CJI CU of.lt tr. XVIII Statistical and Comparative Survey of Islam in Africa

FROM the comparative statistics (placed at the end of this chapter for typographical reasons), a few broad generalizations may be made : 1. Ew­ " Thirteen centuries of oontinuous Afrioan heredity have made tent.-In point of numbers, Mohammedanism Ia1am native to the continent. This fact is of tremendous claims thirty-six per cent. of Africa's population, moment,. Add to this the numerical strength of Mohammedans or 58,864,587' souls out of a total population of in .Mrica and theproblem looDlS up with gigantic proportions.'' 163,736,683. -W, 8, Naylor. Of this Mohammedan population, the over­ whelming majority, or 54,790,879, are to be found north of the equator. Of these, again, two-fifths, roughly speaking, are north of twenty degrees north latitude, and three-fifths are south of that latitude. While in actual numbers, there are more Mohammedans between the latitude indicated and the equator than north of that latitude, yet, in proportion to the population of the countries involved, Mohammedanism is far stronger north of twenty degrees north latitude ; for, north of this latitude, the Mohammedans constitute ninety-one per cent. of the population, while between twenty degrees north latitude and the equator, the Mo­ hammedan population is only forty-two per cent. 281 282 The Mohammedan World of To-Day of the whole. The stronghold of Mohammedanism in Africa, lies, therefore, along the Mediterranean. 2. Governments.-Grouped according to the governments to which they are subject, we find the African Mohammedans divided as follows :

Subject to France ...... 27,849,580 " Great Britain ...... 17,920,330 " Germany . . . . 2,572,600 " •rurkey . . . 1,250,000 " Italy . . . . 452,177 :: Portugal . . . 140,000 Spain . . . . 130,000 Independent . 8,550,000

It may be said that the European governments generally adopt an attitude of neutrality or toler­ ation towards all religions, Mohammedanism among them. Yet it is to be noted that from country after country the report comes that, on political grounds, these nations are led to adopt a policy which specially favours Mohammedanism. 3. Language.-The language areas are very difficult to determine, especially in Africa ; bnt it may be safely asserted that one-half of the African Mohammedan world is Arabic speaking ; and it may be asserted with considerable emphasis, that acquaintance with Arabic may be taken as a gen­ eral measure of the intensity and depth of allegiance to Islam. Where Arabic wanes in Africa, Islam loses in intensity. The Hausa speaking Mohammedans alone seem to form an exception to this rule. 4. &ctB.-African Mohammedans are predom- Statistical Survey of Islam in Africa 283 inantly of the Sunni sect ; here and there only, a few Shiites are to be found. Where races have only recently or superficially accepted Moham­ medanism, distinctions of sect are not known. In North Africa, however, we find the Ma!akiya sect of the Sunnis probably in the lead, with the Shafi.ya sect a close second, while the other sects follow quite in the rear. 5. J)ate efEn tTanae.-Along the whole north­ ern coast of Africa, from Egypt to Morocco, the appearance of Islam dates back to the conquest wars of the seventh cent.ury, 640-665 A. D. The establishment of Islam in this territory wasby the sword and by purely religious campaigns. The advance of Islam southward is of far more recent date and its motive has been largely com­ mercial. The slave raider and trader have both contributed largely to the extension of Islam southward. In more than one instance (e. g., Gold Coast Protectorate), the pagan tribes were able to resist the encroachments of the Mohammedans nntil some foreign power coming in actually, even though unintentionally, broke down the resistance of the pagans and laid the country open to the entrance of the Mohammedan. 6. Is Xohammedanism lnareasing f-The ques­ tion is usually answered in the negative for North­ ern Africa and emphatically in the affirmative for West and East Africa. What has been printed concerning conditions in West-Central Sudan may be equally said of the 284 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Red Sea littoral, and West Africa : " When I came out in 1898, there were few Mohammedans to be seen below Idda. Now they are every· where, excepting below Abo, and at the present rate of progress, there will scarcely be a heathen village on the river banks by 1910." 'l. llliteracy.-The illiteracy of the Moham­ medan world in Africa is appalling. Seventy-five to one hundred per cent. is the record of illiteracy. 8. Social Oonditions.-Polygamy is a regular feature of Mohammedanism in Africa, although it is to be noted that owing to poverty very few are able to practice it. The divorce of the first wife is generally the rule. Concubinage is not so com­ mon, and slavery is generally abolished in the Mohammedan Africa, so far as slave raids are concerned ; but this is due solely to the influenceof European governments. 9. .Morality.-Immorality among African Mo­ hammedans is commonly indescribable. It is worse among the Arabs of the intensely Mohammedan countries to the north than it is among the Negro races to the south. 10. The Sea/Jusion of Woman is practiced chiefly in the North, rarely among the negroes. It is naturally observed with more strictness by those who do not have to work for bread. 11. Ma terial Progress.-With the single ex­ ception of the superior Hausa Mohammedans, the Mohammedans of Africa show deterioration and Statist:cal Survey of Islam m Africa

A B C E

To tal Mohamme­ I Language spoken Country. Population, da ns, G,v,:ment. by Mos/ems. I. Countries lying Nortk of 20 degrees N. Latt'tude ( mlJVing We stward )· I. Egypt 9,734,405 8,978,775 Anglo-Egyptian Arabic 2. Tripoli . 1,300,000 1,250,000 Turkish Arabic and Berber 3. Tunis 1,900,000 1,700,000 French Arabic and French 4. Algeria . 4,739,557 4,072,080 French Arabic and Berber 5. Morocco 6,000,000 5,6oo,ooo Independent Shiiba Arabic and { Berber 6. Rio de Oro 130,000 130,000 Spanish Arabic

Total 23,803,962 2 1,730,855

II. Countries lying North of Equator and South of 20 degrees N. Latitude. 7. Eritrea ...... 274,944 152,177 Italy Arabic and Hamitic 8, French Somaliland , 200,000 200,000 France Hamitic 9. British Somaliland 300,CXlO 300,000 British Hamitic 1 JO. Italian Somaliland . 400,000 Italian Hamitic I 1. British E. Africa Prat. , 4,000,000 British Arabic and Hamitic 12. Uganda Protectorate 4,000,300 200,000 British Dinka and Bantu 13. Abyssinia . 3,500,000 350,000�::=1' Independent Hamitic 14. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 2,000,000 1,000,000 British Arabic and Dinka I 5. Senegambia-Niger , 20,000,000 18,000,000 French Hamitic, Semitic, Neg. 16. Rio Muni . 140,000 Spanish 17. Kamerun . :4,000,000 2,000,000 German Bantu and Negro 18. Lagos Protectorate 1,500,000 50,CXX> British Negro 19. Nigeria 25,000,000 6,000,ex>o British Negro 20. Dahomey . 1,000,000 340,000 French Negro 2 I. Togoland ...... 1,500,000 72,500 German Negro 22, Gold Coast Protectorate 1,486,433 35,000 British Negro, Arabic 23. I vary Coast . 2,500,000 8oo,ooo French Negro 24. Liberia . 2,000,000 6oo,ooo Independent Negro Sierra Leone 1,076,655 333,000 British Negro 25.26. French Guinea 2,200,000 1,500,000 French Negro 27. Portuguese Guinea . 820,000 8o,ooo Portuguese Negro 28. Gambia Protectorate 163,7 18 147,347 British Negro 29. Senegal 107,826 IOO,OOO1 French Negrn i Total 3.3,060,024!

II I. Countries lying- South of Equator, but North of 20 degrees S. Latitude. 30. Zanzibar Protectorate . 200,000 180,ex>o British Bantu and Arabic 3 I. German East Africa 6,847,000 500,000 German Bantu and Arabic 32. Portuguese East Africa 3,120,000 60,000 Portuguese Bantu and Arabic 33. Central African Protec. 990,481 100,000 lhitish Bantu and Arabic 34. North East Rhodesia . 346,000 British Bantu and Arabic 35. Southern Rhodesia . 579,567 British Bantu and Arabic 36. North W. Rhodesia 1 ,074,433 British Bantu and Arabic 37. Congo Independ't State 25,000,000 2,000,000 Bantu and Arabic 38, French Congo . 10,000,000 1,000,000 French Bantu and Arabic 39. Angola 4, 119,000 Bantu and Arabic

2 2 8 o o o 1_,_ , , __J _T::..:.ot=• :cl_:_:,_:__:_.:_:_:c_:_:__,,5,:: '-'' "7_: 6,_, 4-c :_: _ .3,,_!_._4 ,__o ______c______

IV. Countries lying- South of 30tkgrus N. Latitude. 40. Transvaal Colony 1,268,716 20,000 British European 41, Swaziland 85,484 1,500 British European and Negro 42. Natal 1,039�787 15,000 British European and Asiatic 43. Basutoland 348,626 British European and Negro 44- Orange River Colony . 207,5°3 3,500 British European and Negro 45. Bechuanaland 120,776 British Bantu and Bushman 46. Cape of Good Hope 2,405,552 15,000 British European and Hol'tot 47. German S.-W. Africa 200,000 German European and Hot'tot Total 55,ooo

V.moving- Is landsfrom about E. toAf W.rica, 48. Seychelles 20,100 British 49, Mayotte and Comoro 58,640 5.2,5oo French 50. Madagascar . 3,000,000 70,000 French Malay 51, Mauritius .• 378,195 41;208 British 52, Reunion , . 173,315 15,000 French 53. St. Helena . . • 9,850 British 54. Ascension Island . 450 British 55. Fernando Po, etc. 21,946 Spanish 56. Cape Verde Islands 147,424 Portuguese

· Total 3,8o9,92Q Grand total NOTE,-Information, such as ls given in this table, was not avatl· able for aII parts of Mohammedan Africa. The most important sections of Northern Africa are covered ; conditions in the central and southern sections of Mohammedan Africa may be inferred from the fe w countries of those sections which appear in the following table F G H I J K L M N 0 p Q R s Moslem Attitude to Recent Changes Government At#tude Sects. Date I� lam Entered. In creasing or Decreasing. Illiteracy. Po lJ,gamy. Divorce. Concubinage. Slavery. Ir.murrality . Seclusion of Woman. Ma terial .Progress. Country. To ward Isla m. Ch ristianity. in attitude.

I. Countries lying North of 20 degrees N. Latltude Sunnis (Shafiya) 640 A, D. Increase by birth 88 % illiterate Common Exceedingly common Abolished Very common General Due to British occu. Fanatical, hostile Much improved I.( movingEgypt IFestward. Neutral pation 647-8 A. D. Stationary 90 % illiterate 25 % of marriages Very common Not common Almost none Very immoral Not 20% secluded Slight Toleration because of its 2. Tripoli Pro-Moslem Sunnis Malak, 3-5 Sunnis Hanaf, 1-5 material blessings Sunnis Kharij, 1-5 7 5 % illiterate Slight poverty Common Replaced by im- Abolishec! Appalling General None Fanati�al More tolerant Tunis Liberty with atheistic influ. Sunnis Hanaf, 1-17 647 A, D. Decrease per atheism 3· Malak, 16--17 morality Sunnis re Great deal In towns Sunnis chieflyMalak, 647 (665) A. D. Increase by births 90--95 % illiterate Slight poverty Very common Not practiced None general ; Some, due to French Fanatical More tolerant 4. Algeria Neutral country rare also Abad re Sunnis (Malakiya) 646-647 A. D. Decreasing go% illiterate Common Common Commou Yes Great deal General None Very hostile 5· Morocco Thoroughly pro-Moslem

II. Co untries lyi'ng },lorth of Equator and South of Almost universal Exists Rare Rare Abolished In higher classes Hostile 20Eritrea degrees N. Latitude...... Nominally neutral Inc. among Copts-Pagans 7. Very large Common Common Common Abolished Rampant Rare Indifferent Less opposition I 1. British E. Africa Prot. . Neutral Very slight increase About 1866 Stationary 99 % illiterate Very common Very rare Exists where af· Abolished Allowed None Make successful tra- Indifferent 12. Uganda Protectorate Neutral forded ders About 18oo Increasing 8o-90 % illiterate Rare n poverty General Prevails Abolished Like Pagans plus None Quite superior to Pa- Indifferent 21. Togoland Indifferent deceit and theft gans under British Increase by immigration go% illiterate Among wealthy Rare None Abo!ished No prostitution None Slight Indifferent Less opposition 22. Gold Coast Protectorate Neutral I 87 3-4,

II I. Countries lying Suuth of Equator, but No rth of About 18oo Stationary Very general As elsewhere As elsewhere As elsewhere Greatly decreasing General Among upper classes Indian Moslem supe· Respectful More tolerant 200. deZanzibargrees S, ProtectorateLatitude, Neutral Sunnis, 7-10 3 Shiites, 2-10 rior to Arab Moslem Wahabi, 1-10 Several hundred Nominally neutral years ago 38. French Congo Statistical Survey of Islam in Africa 285 lack of aggressiveness, except in so far as quick­ ening is brought through contact with European and Western nations. 12. TM.Attitude to Ohristianity.-This is gen­ erally hostile, often fanatical, except when bigotry is weakened under the influence of contact with foreigners. In some regions under French control, atheism has undermined Moslem fervour. 13. Oonvert8.-Accurate figures, showing the number of openly professed conversions from :Mohammedanism to Christianity, are not avail­ able. Yet careful inquiry would show less than five hundred living converts in Mohammedan Africa north of twenty degrees north latitude out of a population of some twenty-one million Moham­ medans. Such a statement proves two things : ( a) That the missionary problem of Africa is not paganism, which fast crumbles away before the Gospel of Christ, but Islam, which resists like adamant the appeals of the herald of the cross. (b) That the Christian Church has not yet attacked this problem with the seriousness and earnestness of loving witness which the undertaking requires. When she does this, her Lord will glorify His Church and Himself by crowning her efforts with success. XIX Statistical and Comparative Survey of Islam in Asia with Totals for the Entire World

Rev. S. M. Zwemer, D. D "And it came topass on the seventh day, that they roseearly about the dawning of the day, and compassed the city after the same manner seven times : only on that day they compassed the city seven times."-Joshua 6: 15. ''By faith the walls of Jericho fell down, after they were oom­ pasesd about seven daye."-Hebrews 11 : 30. / '"

,;

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Tllf.•.•M.CO, INDIA .,,. oo· ,.,.

XIX Statistical and Comparative Survey of Islam in Asia and the Entire W arid

TIIE authorities for the statistics as given at the end of this chapter, are the Statesman's Ye ar Book for 1905, and in some cases estimates sent by government officials or missionaries, carefully compared with those found in recent encyclo­ pedias and works of reference. That the total given for the whole Mohammedan world is a fairly accurate estimate will be seen by comparing it with other estimates made in recent years. The discrepancy in these estimates is due generally to disagreement regarding the Moslem population of China and of Central Africa. The total Moslem popnlation of the world was given :

Statesman's Year Book, 1890 ...... 203,600,000 Brockhaus' Oonvers-Lexikon, 1894 175,000,000 Hubert Jansen's Ve rbreitung des Is lams,..... 1897, 259,680,672 S. M. Zwemer (Missionary Review), 1898 . . 196,491,842 .Algemeine Missions Zeitschrift, 1902 . , ..175,290,000 H. Wichmann, in Justus Perthes' .Allas, 1903, 240,000,000 William Curtis, in Syria and Pale.nine, 1903, 300,000,000 Encyclopedia of Missions, 1904 . . . . 193,550,000

THE TOTALNOW OBTAINED, 1906 ...232, 966,170

Political .Divisions.-The political division of the Mohammedan world is a startling evidence of 289 290 The Mohammedan World of To-Day Statistical Survey of Islam in Asia 291 the finger of God in the history of the church aud UNDER OTHER MOSLEM: RULERS a challenge to our faith because of so many open Morocco ...... 5,600,000 Oman and Nejd, eto. . 3,500,000 doors in Moslem lands. It is as follows : Afghanistan . . 4,500,000 Persia .. . 8,800,000 TOTAL MOHAMMEDAN POPULATION UNDER Total ••• . 22,400,000 CHRISTIAN RULE OR PROTECTION Great Britain in Afrioa . . 17,920,330 This political division of the nearly two hundred Great Britain in Asia . . 63,633,783 and thirty-three million Mohammedans is shown Total .•.•• . 81,554,113 at a glance in the diagram opposite [A]. THE Franoe in Africa . . . · · · . . . . . 27,849,580 LANGUAGES SPOKEN BY MOSLEMS are shown in Franoe in Asia ...... • . 1,455,238 diagram [BJ, and it is remarkable that while the

Total , .....•...... 29 1304,818 Bible has been translated into nearly every lan­ guage nsed by Moslems the Koran speaks only to Germany in Africa ...... 2,572,500 Italy, Portugal and Spain,in Africa . . 722,177 those who can understand Arabic, less than one­ The United States, in Asia ...... 300 1 000 fourth of the Mohammedan world I This division The Netherlands, in Asia ...... 29,2891 440 Russia in Europe and Asia ...... 15,8891 420 is only approximate, but the estimate has been Other States in Europe, Greece, etc. . . 1 360 402 Australasiaand America . ' 68:ooo made as carefully as possible from the latest· data. Total ...... • • • • . . 161,060,8'70 Mo slem Secta.-Islam .is not a unit, but is UNDER NON-CHRISTIAN RULERS divided into many sects and schools of thought. 1 Africa .... . 2,950,000 The Sunni sect is the old orthodox party and has Chinese Empire . 30,000,000 Siam .... . 1,000,000 four divisions or schools of theology and juris­ Formosa .• . 25,600 prudence. All agree in doctrine, but differin their Total • . 33,976,500 Jnterpretation of ceremonial law and the ritual UNDER TURKISH RULE observances of Islam. Generally speaking, Central Europe . 2,050,000 Asia, Northern India, and the Turks everywhere Africa . . 1,250,000 are Hanifi.te ; lower Egypt, Southern India and Asia • . 12,228,800 the Malay :Moslems are Shafite; upper Egypt and Total . . 15,528,800 North Africa are Malikite, while the sect of

1 The latest estimates give 30,0001000 and not 20,000,000for Hanbalites exists only in central and eastern China- Arabia. 292 The Mohammedan World of To-Day The Shiah sect exists chiefly in Persia and India, but the influence of its teachings has pene­ Under 31 Mil lions trated everywhere and resulted in the philosoph­ Heathen Rulers Chinese. ical disintegration of Islam. Mysticism (the 32 Millions Indian U!l.9�CJ � 63 Millions Dervish orders) and Rationalism (New Islam) are Under Moslem Rulers 32 Mil lions widely prevalent and increasingly powerful move­ 22 Millions African ments. Under Tu rkish � The approximate division of the Moslem popu­ 16 Millions Tu rk:lsh 15 Millions lation according to sects is given in diagram [O.] 161 Millions The Wahabis are included among the Hanbalis in Malay.AO this division, as they generally call themselves by 45 Milltons 30 Millions that name even in Arabia. Oontinental Dvvision.-Of the total Moslem population nearly fifty-nine million are in Africa, A. Pol 1tical �n Qf t.b.itMoslem Worlc! B. Division of the Moslem WorldIW laQ gUdCjeS one hundred and sixty-nine million in Asia and about five million in Europe. Generally speaking, one­ seventh of the total-population of Asia, and of the world, is Mohammedan. The distribution of these Africa millions is shown in the statistical tables and 59 Millions also on the maps of the Mohammedan world. =1·3ofTotal Population The following large regions are still nearly or SUNNIS wholly unoccupiedby Christian missions : 221 Millions The four orthodox sects ot Sunnis are Hanifis 140 Millions Asia Afghanistan . • . • ...... 4,000,000 Baluchistan . . . . . • • • • . 50 0,000 Shafis 58 169 Millions Sulu Archipelago and Mindanao . 250,000 Malikis 16 = 1-7 of Tot al Population Southern Persia ...... a,000,000 Hanbalis 07 Southern, Western and Central Arabia 3,000,000 Bornu (Lake Chad) •.••• 5,000,000 Wadai (Central Africa) .•• 2,600,000 C -8.pwuximate Divisionof the Moslem Wo rld �9 Seds D. Continental DivisJOnof the Moslem World PopJmfun , Baghirmi (Central Africa) . • 1,500,000 Sokoto and feudatory states . 14,000,000 DIAGRAMS OF MOSLJ•::M POPULA'.rIOX Babara and French Sudan . 10,000,000 Bokhararegion . . . . 2,500,000 Russia in Caucasus . 2,000,000 Statistical Survey of Islam in Asia 293 Khiva ...... 700,000' RUS8ia in Central Asia ...... 3.000,000 Siberia, East and West ...... 6,100,000 China (unreaohed l!eOtioDS} • • • • • • 10,000,000 Eotlmated total of wholly unreached Moslem populations . . . . . , . 68,4501000 (Thatia nearly on&-thirdo! the:Mohammedan world.)

Strategic Oentrea OcCt!Pwd.-The following strategic points (including every Important city In the Moslem world of over 100,000 population in the order of population) are already the centres af missionary effortby printing-press,hospital, school or college : Calcutta, Constantinople, Bombay, Cairo, Haidara.bad, Alexandria, Teheran, .. Luck­ now, Rangoon, Damascus, Delhi, Lahore, Smyrna, Cawnpore, Agra, Tabriz, Allahabad, Tunis, Bag­ dad, Fez, Aleppo, and Beirut. And the efforts there carried on directly or indirectlyfor Moslems prove that the work Is possible under all condi­ tions everywhere. But from every one of these centresthe call is loud for more labourers. No­ w here are the efforts at all commensurate with the opportunities. Some Reaules.-The Bible has been translated into every language of the Mohammedan world, while the Koran speaks only to those 1vho oan read Arabic, less than one-fourth of the total popu­ lation. A large number of books especially intended for Mohammedans has been prepared in all the chief langnages of the Moslem world. Less than. a century ago there was not one Protestant 294 The Mohammedan World of To-Day worker in any Moslem land; at that time apostasy from Islam meant death to the apostate. Now there are Moslem converts in every land where work has been attempted, fanaticism has decreased and many converted Moslems are preaching the gospel. In North India t)lere are nearly two hundred Christian pastors, catechists or teachers who are converts or the children of converts from Islam. There is hardly a Christian congregation in the Punjab which does not have some members formerly in the ranks of Islam. Thousands of Moslem youth are receiving a Christian edu­ cation in Egypt, India, JaV0, and Sumatra. The Beirut Press since its foundation has issued for the American Bible Society, over a million portions of the Arabic Bible. In ten yearsthe attendance at the dispensary of the United Free Church of Scot­ land mission, near Aden, rose from 8,000 to 40,000 per annum. Villages that could not be reached safely in Arabia ten years ago now welcome the missionary. At J ulfa, Persia, on Easter Sunday, 1902, seventeen converts from Islam were at the Holy Communion, and this land, with other Mos­ lem lands, counts its martyrs to the faith. The late Dr. lmad-ud-din, formerly a Mohammedan and a determined opponent of Christianity, enu­ merated 117 Christian converts of distinction in India who forsook Islam for Christ as he did. In Sumatra and Java there are over 24,000 c.onverts organized into churches, and from 200 to 300 con­ verts from Islam are baptized annually. Th e out- Statistical Survey of Islam m Asia

A B C D E

To tal Mohamme­ Language sp oken Country. Population. da ns. Government. by Mo s/ems. ASIA.

A, UNDER FOREIGN RULE,

Bri'tish Empire. 1. Aden, Perim . . . . . 41 ,222 40,000 British Arabic, Somali 2. Sokota and Kuria Muria 12,000 1 2,000 British Arabic 3. Bahrein Is. , 6o, 100 ·00,000 British Arabic 4. British Borneo 200,000 50,000 British Malayan s. Ceylon 3,578,333 248,140 British Mixed 0_ Cyprus 237,022 51,209 British Turkish 7. Maldive Is. 30,000 30,000 British Indian 8. India . ... Aj mere-Merwara 476,9 1 2 72,031 British Urdu Adamans & Nicobars 24,649 4,207 British Urdu Assam . 6, 126,343 1,58 1,317 British Urdu and Bengali Baluchistan . Sm,746 765,368 British Baluchi, Urdu Bengal . 78,493,4 10 25,495,4 16 British Bengali, Urdu Berar 2,754,016 212,040 British Urdu, Marathi Bombay 25,468,209 4,6oo,876 British Gujerati and Urdu Burma ••••• 10,490,624 339,446 British Burmese Central Provinces 11,873,029 307,302 British Urdu Coorg 180,6o7 13,654 British Urdu Madras . . . . . 42,397,522 2,732,931 British Urdu N. W. Frontier Prov.. 2, 125,48o r,957,777 British Punjabi, Urdu Punjab 24,754,737 12,183,345 British Punjabi, Pushtu United Provinces 48,493,879 6,973,722 British Urdu Baroda 1,952,692 165,014 British Urdu Central India 8,628,78 1 528,833 British Urdu Haidarabad II,141,142 1, 1 55,75° British Urdu Kashmir 2,905,578 2,154,695 British Urdu and Kashmiri Mysore 5,539,399 289,697 British Urdu Rajputana 9,723,301 924,656 British Urdu Total for India · 62,458,077 9. Federated Malay States (Perak, etc.) .... , 300,000 British Chinese and Malayan rn. Straits Settlements 384,257 British Chinese and Malayan Total for Asia under Briti.oh rule • • . . • . 63,633,783 I I, American Colonies. The Philippines . 7,635,426 300,000 American Malayan Guan1 ..• . • 9,000 American Samoan Is. . 3,8oo American 12. Dutch East Indies, Java . 28,746,688 24,270,600 Dutch Sumatra 3, 168,312 3,263,000 Dutch Malayan with some Borneo 1, 129,889 345,750 Dutch Chinese and Arabic 1 000 Celebes, etc. 2,955,21 --1,410,-�Dutch Total 36,000,000 29,289,440 13. French Po;s;ssio�s. India (Pondichery) 273,700 24,835 French Annam ... 6, 124,000 375,000 French 1 Cambodia .. 1,500,000 40,000 French Chinese Cochin-China . 2,968,6oo 340,383 French and Tonkmg 10,000,000 675.000 French Malayan Laos 605,000 French Total ..•• 21,471,300 1 ,455,238 14. Russia in Asia. Northern Caucasia 3,732,556 1 Russian 1 Trans-Caucasia 5,516, 39 1 Russian Russian and Tartar (?} The Steppes 2,46 1,278 1,862,900 Russian with some Turkisfi Turkestan 4,888,213 3,989,683 Russian and Persian Western Siberia . 3,367,576 452,800 Russian Eastern Siberia 1,992,221 Russian Amur Region 339, 1 27 452,800 Russian .Total number of Moslemsin Rus­ sian Empire is given in Statu­ man's Yt ai- Book as 13,889,- 421, equals II.I per cent. of population; increase, IO per cent. The Jews are only 4,1 per cent. of population. 15. :Sokhara 1,250,000 1,200,000 Under Russian 8 000 16. Kniva 800,000 001 Suzerainty 17. Turkey in Asia, Asia Minor ...... 9,089,200 7,179,900 Turkish Turkish Armenia and Kurdistan . 2,470,900 1,795,Soo Turkish Kurdish Mesopotamia . . . . 1,398,200 1,200,000 Turkish Arabic Syria ...... 2, 890,400 1,053, 100 Turkish Arabic Arabia (Hejaz, Yemen) . 1,505,000 1,000,000 Turkish 1-----1 12,228,800 B. INDEPENDENT $TATES, Non-Turkish. Patriarchal and Sul_tanates of Arabic 18. Arabia 3,000,000 3,500,000 NeJd & Oman & Hadramaut 19, Afghanistan , 4,000,000 4,500,000 Monarchy Afghan, Pushtu 8,8oo,ooo Monarchy Persian 20. Persia 9,500,000 21, China and Chinese Turkestan 426,337,3oo 30,000,000 Imperial Chinese, Tllrkish 22. Japan and Formosa 46,732,841 25,500 Monarchy Chinese 23. Korea 8,000,000 Japanese Korean 24, Siam . 9,000,000 1,000,000 Monarchy Chinese ? & Malayan? 25. Nepal :,000,000 1 ,000 lnd'ent States Indian 26. Bhutan . 30,000 Ind'ent States EUROPE. 1 000 Turkish I, Turkey .... 6, 30,200 2,050, Monarchy 2, Russia in Europe (Statistics included under Asia) Russian (?) 3. Greece, Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria, etc. l 1,36o,402 Mostly Turkish AUSTRALIA AND AMERICA Among Chinese population and East Indian coolies in Coast cities there are a number of Moslems. I 68,ooo Indian and Chinese TOTALS FOR THE WORLD. Moslem population, Asia . , . , •• , • 170,623,1 81 Africa ...... 58,864,587 Europe i ..••.• 3,410,402 Australia and America 68,ooo Total .. l For details see Dr. Hubert Jansen's 9 Not including Russia which is reckonedVerbreitung with Asia.des Islams. NOTE.-In this comparative survey only t�pical or l�portant countries are given In some cases no information was available. F G I K L M A H J N 0 p Q R s T Ctnmtry. Government Attitude. Sects. Date of Entrance. In crease or Decrease. Illiteracy. Po/yg-amy. Divorce. Concubinage. Slavery. Immorality. &elution of Women. Material Progress. Attitude to Ch ristianity. Recent Sunni, Zeidi Increasing 90% Very common Uncommon Changes. Converts. 1. Aden and vicinity Not favourable Common outside Very common Common Considerable but More tolerant Converts from Islam in of British sphere Moslems are still ½ Shiah ½ Sunni Tolerated but de- Universal Exists India are numbered 3. Bahrein Islands Tolerant So% Very common Common c o n s i d e red a More tolerant Grer.tly im· by the thousands, some of 5 million 8_hiabs, the 711-1019 A. n. by Inc'g 8% in past decade According to last creasing ( except Common Common among None 8. Tolerant except in Greaterthanamong Relaxing but still "backward class " Confirmed intellectual proved in past especially in the the native states rest Sunnt. S o m e conquest (In Burma 33% in past census 95% in Baluchistan) the rich Hindus. In common by government antagonism ; in some decade India new Islam and other decade) 5 ,674,4 il- Punjab. Many are ( 9 99 Baluchistan ap- quarters friendly preachers and teach- sects literates) palling Increase Common °" 11. The Philippines Neutral 95% Common Exists Being abolished As among other Not common None Fanatical and hostile None None Moslems 12. The Dutch East Indies Formerly opposed to mis- Mostly Sunnis, some Increase Common Very common Not common None Greaterthanamong Common Slight I Aggressively hostile sects Much iwproved Over 24,000 converts. sions now favourable and other the heathen From 200 to 300hap· friendly Battaks Sunni except on Per­ Increase Common Common Not common tisms annually 14. Russia in Asia . Neutral None A few in Kashgar and sian borders Bokhara 17. Turkey in Asia Determinedly hostile and ¾ Sunni Hanifi, ¼ By conquest Decreasing slowly Common nearly Very common Less than Domestic slavery Common In towns unh-ersal None Palace hostile but peopl1 everywhere Much improved. N u m b e r unknown. suspicious other sects 632-1453 A.. D. formerly exists and there often friendly A spirit of in- Some died for the is still a slave quiry faith, Many secret market at Mecca believers 18. Independent Arabia Hostile or often indifferent Sunni (Hanifi and From 622-700 by Slight increase In Oman and Nejd Common Very common every- Comm�n among Sl�ve travestill ex- Appal!ing in some Uncommon among Very slight or none Traditionally fanatica Improved A few converts at Bah­ Maliki) many Wa- conquest 85 9o ; elsewhere where the rich 1sts. Slaveryalso secttons Bedouin. Else- and hostile, But on rein and Muscat habis and Abadhis 95% common where common· coasts more friendly 19. Afghanistan . Hostile to Christian mis- Sunnis divided into No increase 90% Common Very common Common by pur· Common Very common' Common " Spoliation, ex a c- Hostile None known sions Durranes and Ghil- chase from tion and embezzle- zais Baluchistan ment universal."­

No increase Not as common as Temporarymarriages Statesman's Ye ar 20. Persia Indifferent. At times Four-fifths Shiahs, Ala 90% Common among Domestic slavery Very common In cities but not in SlightBook and wholly Inquiringly tolerant. Much improved Perhaps one hundred friendly Ilahis, Babis Behais, formerly and divorce com- the rich common country districts due. to foreign in- Much investigation living converts etc. mon fluence some fanaticism 21, China Neutral "White . caps,"=Sunni Increase is doubtful 50% Common Not common Common Exists On par with the Like Chinese No apparent differ- Very friendly Improved Number unkrown "Red caps,"-Shiah heathen Chinese ence 22, Siam . Neutral Both Malay and Chi- From China and Ma. Increase doubtfW. Exists Common Being abolished Number unknown nese Moslems are lay archipelago by Sunni immigration 18th century Statistical Survey of Islam in Asia :295 look every;wwe iBnot hopeleBs,011,t hope ful, wnd {h e great task to which Ch rist callB Hi s church at the beginning of the twentieth century; iB the evwngeli- • 11atiin, 19 Lee, Prof. S., J63 Church Missionary Society, 34, Immorality, 49, 104, uo, nS Lefroy, Bishop, 164 36, 89, UI, 174 EDUCATED Moslems of India, Increase of Islam, 135, 179 Lepsius, Dr;, 122 Church not aroused, The, 267 142, 199 Indirect results of work, 230, 234 Leupolt, Rev. S., 164 Cities of the Moslem world, the Educatiohal Conference, A MO&· Injustice of courts in Egypt, 30 Literature for Chinese 'Moslems cbief, 295 lem, 188, 192 Inspiration, 195 needed, 264 Clas� Dr. H. Martyn, 164 Education in Egypt, 32 Intellectual bondageof Islam, 183 Literature for Moslems, 20, 35, Cleaver, J. Martin, 2a Edwards, Sir Herbert, 142 Intermarriage of Moslems in 38, 119, 164, 200 Colporteur, Th� 96 Egypt General Mission, 38 China, 259 Luga.rd, Sir F., 44 Commentary on the Bible by a Egypt, population of, 24 Islam, its strength, 13 Lull, Raymund, 272 Moslem, 195 Elliot's History of In dia, 133 Islam unprogressive, 141 Concubinage, 138 Emigration from Syria, 65 Ismailis, The, 116 MA'A.DAN AllABS, The, 84 Conquest, Moslem,in West Africa. Evangelization of the whole Mo- Ismail, The Khedive, 27 Madura, 235 hammedan world, 297 43 Ispa.han, 125 Magic in Sumatra, 218 Conquest of India, 133 Mahdi, The, 178, 197 Conquest of Syria, Moslem, 67 FANATICISM, 135, 144,217 JANISSARIES, 56 Mahmud of Ghazni, 133 Conscience as defined by a Mos- Fanaticism overcome, 88 Japanese War,The, The effect of, 212 Mak.ran, 133 lem, 190 Fatalism, 132, 192 Jesus, His coming expected, 73 Mala1 language, The, 223 Controversial books by Moslems, Forder. in Palestine, 71 Jews in Arabia, The, 102 Manchu dynasty, The, 257 163 French, Bishop, 164, �2 Jihad, or religious war, 107 Mandailing, 21 J Controversial writers in India,164 Fulani Empire, 43 Jordan, S. M., 128 Marriages, early, 117 Conversions to Islam, 237 Future of Islam, The 110, 227 Marriages in Egypt, 26 Converts from Islam, 19, 36, 38, KADI, the Moslem, 26, a7 Marril\ges, temporary, 82 39, 76, 126, 168, 18o, az8, 2:u, Goomr.LL, 272 Kalima, The, 138 Martyn, Henry, 12:z, 163, 272 228, 235, 237, 244, 285, 296 Government attitude in Sumatra. Kamil Aietany, 19, :172 Ma.snavi, The, 120 Corruption of the ScriptureS", 119 223 Kandahar, 136 Massacre of Moslems by the Chi· Cromer, Lor� .28 Government schools fur Moslems Kashgar, 243 nese, 257 Cross of Christ made of non ef� in Sumatra, 225 Keith Falconer, Ian, 90, 272 Material progress of Islam,284 feet by Islam, 275 Grant, Dr., 271 Kerbela, 103 Mecca and Meccan pilgrims, 47, Cruelty in Persia, n6 Griswold, the Rev. Dr,, 198 Khan of Kelat, 134 So, 102, .2Z4, 238 Khiva. 243 Medical missions, 36, 74, 93, 94, HADllAMAUT, 86, 175 Khotan to be occupied, 245 231 DANISH Mission to Arabia, 91 Haji, hajis (see Mecca) Kittnau-ud�Din, n7, 123 Mennonite Mission, 222 Dar-ul-Harb, 179 Hamlin, 272 Koran, The, 29, 55, 119, 194, Mesopotamia., 85 Death penalty on convert from Harris High Sch� 174 26o, 274 Methods of mission work for Islam, 119 Hassa, a Turkish province, 86 Kublai Khan, 254 Moslems, 127, 200, 230, 236 Decay ofpolitical power, 184 Hindustani language, The, 173 Kufa and its day-school, 110 Military conscription, 85 Defections from Christianity, 24, Hodeidah, 84, Kurds, The, 56 Mirza Chulam Ahmed, 137, 179, 180 Hogarth, David George, IOI Kutb-ud-din, 134 196 Deoband, 196 Hagberg, Pastor> 244 Misrule in Turkey, 52 Dervishes, The, 53, 68, 139 Hopelessness of Islam, The 110, LABBE race, 175 Missionary Societies working in Difficulties of work in Syria, 72 114, 199 Lagos, spread of Islam in, 47 North India, 166 Discontent in Syria, 64 Hui-Hui, the Chinese name for Lahore, 196 Missions to Moslems, 34-39, 7 l- Dispensary at Aden, The, 296 Modems, 26o Languages of Baluchistan, 136 76, 89-96, III, 112, 121-rnS, Divorce, 25, 207 Languages of the Mohammedan 146--155, 222-225, 235-237 Doctrine of God, Moslem, 239 IGNORANCE of Islam, The 268 world, 295 Mizan u1 Haqq, 35 Dress of progre5'ive M.oslems, 193 Ijma'a, 105 Index Index 301 Moguls, The, 135 PAGAN elements in lslam, 219, Reforms in Islam, 33, 68, 147 Statistics of lslam, 281-297 Mohammed Abd-ul-Wahab, 104 221 Mohammed, Ali, 23, a, Paganism, inroads of Islam on, Results of missions in Syria, 76 Stereopticon in Arabia, The, 95 Mohammedan University, A 188 205 Results of missions to Moslems, Strategic centres occupied by mis- Mohammed, Ghari, 34 228 sions, 295 1 Palgrave, William Gifford, So Rhenish Missionary Society, :Z02, Mohammed, Kasim, 133 Pandita, Marcus Siregar, 229 Strength ofIslam in Africa, 28o Moroe<:o, 47 Pella, battle of, 67 222 Sufis, The, 16, 116, 121, 185 Roads in Baluchistan, 143 Sultan of Turkey, The, 203, 209 Morocco, convert from, 38 Perkins, Dr., 271 Roman Catholic Church and Sunday in Egypt, 29 Moslem pupils in schools, 3S Persecution of converts, 39, US Mosul, 89 Islam, The, 163 Superstition, Moslem, 72, 89 Peter, the reformer, 68 Rouse, Rev. G. H., 164 Sword of Islam, The, 137, 283 Muawia, 15 Pfander, Dr., 122 Syphilis, called Mullah's disease, Muir, Sir William, 15, .144, 164 Pilgrims (see Mecca) Mukawkas, 23 SAINT·W0RSHIP, 103, 220 140 Plassy, battle of, 187 Sayed Ahmed Khan, Sir, 144, Syrian Protestant College, 20 Mullahs, The, ignorance of, 142 Political condition of Moslem Mulvi, Nazir Ahmed, 194 187 world, 19, 2.7, 46, 72, 110, n8 Sayed Ahmed, of Gujrat, 178 TABRIZ schools, 128 Murdoch, Dr., 167 Political danger of Islam, he, T Scarcity of native helpers, 232 Tartars, The, 256 Musbah-el-Huda, 15 208 Muta'ah or temporary marriage, Schools for Moslems, 230 Taylor's, Miss, schools, 7 t Political division of Islam in Schools in Arabia, Mission, 9S Terrorism against non-Moslems, 117 Africa, 282, 292 Schools in Persia, 128 218 Mutawakkil, 185 Politics in Syria, 63 Schools, Moslem, in Syria, 65 Theology, Moslem, 185 Mutazila heresy, The, 185 Polygamy, 25, 48, 57, 82, 116, Sects, Moslem, 44, 68, 102, 116, Tisdal!, Dr. St. Clair, 128, 164 137, 193, 284 133, 151-154, 178, 196-198, Tobacco, forbidden, 106 NADWAT•UL-UU.UA, 196 Popularity of missionaries in 263, 282, 293 Toleration in Persia, 119 Nasariyeb, 91 Persia, 125 Seistan, 135 Tribal warfare, 143 Navayatis, 176 Population of the Moslem world, Self.supportof converts, 228 Trinity, Moslem ideas of, 17, 67 Naylor, Wilson S., 40 291 Sell, Canon Edward, 247 Turkey, work in, 19 Prayer for the Mohammedan Senoussis, The, 4S Neglect of Mohammedan world, World, A, 278 Turkish rule in Arabia, 83 14, 18, 211, 245, 269, 270, 294 are Shabin·el-Kom, 39 Nestorian tablet, The, 250 Preachers of the gospel who Shafis, The, 177 UNITED PRESBYTERIANS, 34 Moslem converts, 169 Shathleyeh, The, 68 Neutrality of government in Balu- Prejudice against English Ian· Unity of God, The, 190 chistan, I 34 Shedd, William A., 114 Unity of Islam, 203 guage in India, 174 Shensi Massacre of Moslems, New Islam, The, 136 Presbyterian Mission in Persia, Unexplored regions in Arabia, 101 Newspapers, Mohammedan, 31 The, 258 Unoccupied regions, 294 121 Shensi province, 255 Newspapers in India, 194 Printing press at Julfa, 127 Urdu language, The, 173, 187 North Africa Mission, 38 Shiites, The, 82, I I 5 Urgency of the call, 270 Printing press at Beirut (see Bei- Sierra Leone, spread of Islam in, rut Press) 47 VAN Ess, JOHN, 81, 84, 85 0LOPUN, the Nestorian, 250 Propagation of Islam, 34 Slavery and slave.trade, S7, 138, Oman, education in, 82 Prostitution in Baluchistan, 140 Van Tassel, work among the 283 Bedouins, 71 Omar ibn el Khattab, 16 Protestants in Syria, 7 3 Smith, Dr. Arthur, 263 Opium.habit, The, 27 Purdah, The, a Moslem view of Smith and Dwight, 27 I WAHAB, ABl KABCHA, 249 Opportunities in Persia, 124 its evils, 132 not Ordeal by fire, 145 Social progress in Sumatra Wahabis, The, 4S, 103-110 QuADIAN sect, The, 137, 196 due to Islam, 212 Waly's tombs, 89 Oriental churches, The, and Quetta, 137 Sodomy, 139 Weakness of Islam in China, 261 Islam, &] Sofian el Thuri, 16 Wilson, Rev. James, 164 Oriental churches, work for, 276 RATIONALISM in Islam, 189 Soldiers, Turkish, 84 Orient Mission, The, 122 Reformed Church in America, Wilson, S., 128 Othman, Shefu Dan Rodin, 43 Spiritual destitution of Islam, 14 Women, Mohammedan, 25, 4,8, Mission in Arabia, 90 Stagnation of Moslem life, 172 62, 76, 81, I 16, 139, 207 Index 302 Wyckoff, Rev. J. H., 234 Yunnan, 255, 257 XAVIER, liIERONJl:Y"MO, 162 ZEAL of Moslem propaganda, 140 Zenana Mission, Church of Eng• YAR.KAND, 245 land, 18o Yezid, 16 Zhob, tribes of, 142 "Young Turkish " party, 64 Zoroastrianism, I 35 LATEST IMPORTANT WORKS ON MOHAMMEDANISM Tke Mohammedan World efToday A Sympcsium edited by JAMES L. BARTON, D.O., 8, M. ZWBMER, D.D. and E. M. WHERRY, D.D, Illustrated, 8 vo, Cldk, Ir.JO net Islam and Christianity The Irresponsible Conflict By E. M. WHERRY, D.D. CkJIN, $r.:1J Nd Our Moslem Sisters A Symposium edited by AN NIB VAN SOMMER $1.a.5 net , Arabia, Illuthestrated, Cradle ClfJtk, of Islam By s. M. ZWBMER, D.D., F. R, G. s. Illustrated, Cloth, l,a,oo Persian Life and Customs By SAMUEL G. WILSON, M.A. Cloth, l,1,as The llluEgypdra#onstian and Sudan Majs, By JOHN KELLY GIFFBN, 0,0, l,1,00 ml ConstantinopleIllustrated, Clot!,,and Its Problems By HENRY o. DwIGHT, LLD. Illu.strated, Clotk, $r.t1.5 net Henry Martyn First Modern Missfonary to Mokammedans By GEORGE SMITH illustrated, Clotk, t,r..50 net Missions and Modern History By ROBERT E. SPEER, M,A, a vols., 8 vo.. , Clotlt, t,4,00 net

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