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Lucy Phd Thesis Submitted August 2014

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From Southern Africa to the Great Lakes Region: Challenges to Tanzanian Foreign Policy and Conflict Resolution in Sub- Saharan Africa Lucy Shule BA (Hons), MA This thesis is submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Newcastle, Australia June 2014 ii Statement of Originality I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis is the result of original research and has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other University or Institution, and to the best of my knowledge, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where reference has been made. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide, when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Signed: Date: 27 June 2014 iii Acknowledgements This thesis involved the assistance of many individuals and institutions. I am grateful to all who helped me in various ways and in different capacities. My deep appreciation is to my supervisors Prof. Wayne Reynolds and Dr. Robert Imre who moulded me to write and argue logically. I am specifically grateful for their encouragement, support and guidance in all the stages of this work. Discussions with them, detailed comments, suggestions and even criticisms prompted my thinking and made this work possible. I am most indebted to the University of Newcastle through the Social Change and Development shared scholarship coordinated by Mr. David Wise. Without this sponsorship I would neither have an opportunity to pursue my programme at Newcastle nor would I have taken a short time to complete. I am also thankful to the Southern African Defence and Security Management (SADSEM) and colleagues in the Network. In 2006 the Network’s internship programme offered by the Centre for Defence and Security (CDSM) at the Wits University provided an opportunity to sharpen my research methodology skills and develop further the research topic; this culminated in my work. Early drafts of the proposal were strengthened immeasurably by comments from several individuals. I should single out and thank Prof. Andre du Pisani (University of Namibia), Prof. Anthoni van Nieuwkerk (CDSM); Prof. Nestor Luanda, Amb. Prof. Abillah Omari, and Amb. Dr. Mohammed Maundi. Their academic inputs largely contributed to the writing of this thesis. I would also like to thank Amb. Dr. Salim Ahmed Salim and Prof. Gaudens Mpangala for sparing time to permit me discuss with them about this study. I am humbly grateful to Prof. Hamudi Majamba, Dr. Laurean Ndumbaro and Amb. Dr. Ahmed Kiwanuka, who curiously kept on reading several drafts of this thesis. Dr. Norbert Mtavangu and Dr. Gastor Mapunda provided professional editorial advice for the final draft. Since this work is largely a result of documentary analysis, I would like to thank the following individuals and staff members of the following institutions for their assistance; the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) library, the East African Community (EAC) library, the Centre for Foreign Relations library, the University of Dar es Salaam library, the University of Newcastle (Australia) library, staff members of the Department of National Archives and Records Management, Parliament offices, particularly Dr. Thomas D. Kashililah and Mr. Emmanuel Mpanda. I am also grateful to my colleagues and friends, particularly Emily Ondondo and Aley Nassor. I owe deep emotional gratitude to my family. Thanks to parents Scholastica Ferdinand and John Shule for teaching us to strive for knowledge. And thanks to mama for inculcating in us the values of hard working and perseverance. I am grateful to Edward, Mary, Safari, Margareth and Rosina; nieces and nephews. I immensely value their steadfast support. Finally, Dr. Vicensia Shule and Lukio – you know why! I dedicate this work to my parents and our beloved late sister, Rose Diana (Eng.), who inspired us into the academics. iv Table of Contents Statement of Originality ............................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. iii Abstract ................................................................................................................... vii Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... viii Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 Evolution of conflict resolution .......................................................................................... 4 Sources of conflict in sub-Saharan Africa ............................................................................ 8 Conflict resolution in Africa .............................................................................................. 11 Literature review: Tanzania’s participation in conflict resolution ...................................... 14 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................... 22 Theoretical framework ..................................................................................................... 31 Methodology ................................................................................................................... 38 Structure .......................................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................. 43 The building of Tanzania and conflict resolution strategies ...................................... 43 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 43 Independence and nation-building ................................................................................... 48 Post-independence issues: Relations with the major powers and international institutions ........................................................................................................................................ 60 Conflict resolution strategies: Support for liberation struggles ......................................... 71 Coercive diplomacy and military strategies ...................................................................... 75 A blend of diplomatic, material support and the armed struggle strategies ...................... 79 Other conflict resolution strategies .................................................................................. 82 Diplomatic ambiguities: Union with Zanzibar and the recognition of Biafra ...................... 84 Beyond the State: Support for regionalism ....................................................................... 90 Other players involved in conflict resolution .................................................................... 98 Challenges faced by Tanzania ......................................................................................... 100 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 102 Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................... 105 Towards the end of the Cold War: Tanzania’s shifting agenda of conflict resolution .............................................................................................................................. 105 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 105 Debates on the causes and implications of the end of the Cold War ............................... 107 International politics and conflict resolution .................................................................. 110 Leadership and governance issues .................................................................................. 117 Regional politics and conflict resolution ......................................................................... 119 v Challenges to international and regional conflict resolution ........................................... 122 Leadership change and the adoption of economic liberalisation policies ........................ 124 The philosophy and the role of Tanzania in conflict resolution ....................................... 129 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 134 Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................... 136 The role of Tanzania in Mozambique’s conflict resolution ...................................... 136 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 136 Liberation struggles (1950s-1975) ................................................................................... 138 Post-independence conflict resolution (1975-1990s) ...................................................... 146 The peace talks .............................................................................................................. 150 Global players, Tanzanian foreign policy and the involvement in Mozambique
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