BAPI-006 Floriculture and Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Agriculture Landscaping

Block 1 CUT FLOWERS UNIT 1 Major Cut Flower 5 UNIT 2 Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus 46 UNIT 3 Orchids and Anthurium 78 UNIT 4 Alstroemeria and Gladiolus 115 UNIT 5 Tuberrose and Tulip 138 Programme and Course Design Committee Dr. K. Prathapan Dr. Harpal Singh Mission Director, State Horticulture Mission-Kerala Principal Scientist (Rtd.),G-20/A, Kiran Garden, (Govt. of Kerala), Sunny Dale, Mead’s lane, Main Najafgarh Road, Uttam Nagar Palayam, Trivandrum-695034 (Kerala) New Delhi

Dr. Room Singh Dr. S.V.S. Rathore Principal Scientist (Rtd.),HIG-II/110 B-39, HIG, Near Paschim Crossing, Swarn Jayanti Nagar, Ramghat Road, Shastri Puram Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh) Agra (Uttar Pradesh)

Dr. S.S. Sindhu Dr. R.L. Mishra Principal Scientist, Department of Floriculture and C-04, Brahma Apartment,Plot-7 Landscaping, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Sector-7, Dwarka, Pusa,New Delhi-110012 (Delhi) New Delhi

Dr. Prabhat Kumar Dr. Neera Kapoor Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, Professor, Life Science,School of Science, College of Agriculure, G. B. Pant IGNOU,Maidan Garhi University of Agriculture and Technology, New Delhi Pantnagar, Dist. US Nagar (Uttarakhand) Faculty from School of Agriculture Dr. M.K. Sheikh Prof. B.S. Hansra, Director Head & Professor, Horticulture College of Prof. M.K. Salooja, Professor Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences Dr. S.K. Yadav, Reader P.B. No.-18, Bijapur (Karnataka) Dr. P.K. Jain, Lecturer Dr. P. Vijayakumar, Lecturer Dr. P.K. Jain Er. Mukesh Kumar, Lecturer Professor & Head, Department of Horticulture, Dr. Mita Sinhamahapatra, Lecturer Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Viswavidyala Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) Programme & Course Coordinator : Dr. S.K. Yadav Block Preparation Team Writers Editor Dr. S.S. Sindhu, (Unit 1) Prof. Ranjan Srivastava, (Unit 1) Principal Scientist, Head, Department of Horticulture Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand Pusa, New Delhi Dr. S.S. Sindhu, (Unit 2-5) Dr. R.L. Mishra, (Unit 2-5) Principal Scientist, Department of Floriculture Floriculture Co-ordinator (Rtd.) and Landscaping, Indian Agricultural Research C-4, Brahma Apartments, Plot No-7, Institute (IARI), Pusa,New Delhi Sec. No-7, Dwarka, New Delhi PRODUCTION TEAM Mr. Kulwant Singh Mr. Hemant Parida Assistant Registrar (P) Section Officer (P) MPDD, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi

January, 2021 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020 ISBN : 978-93-90496-97-6 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi. Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi. Laser Typeset by Raj Printers, A-9, Sector B-2, Tronica City, Loni (Gzb.) Printed at : Raj Printers, A-9, Sector B-2, Tronica City, Loni (Gzb.) BLOCK 1 CUT FLOWERS

We all know the significance of cut flower for business and aesthetic purposes. Only few flowers are put under cut flower. The cut flowers have good business avenues compared to non-cut flowers. Their production and types of species are discussed under this block. Some cut flowers such as Tulip and Anthurium are quite expensive and have now well adapted under Indian ecosystem. Their demand for preparation of bouquet and other similar decorations is increasing day by day.

There are 05 units in this block. Every unit is dedicated to a particular cut flower. You will learn the package of practices of major cut flowers in this block. Cut Flowers

4 UNIT 1 MAJOR CUT FLOWERS Major Cut Flower

Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Important Cut Flower Crops - Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Statics and Rose 1.2 Carnation 1.2.1 Introduction 1.2.2 Climate 1.2.3 Soil 1.2.4 Propagation 1.2.5 Planting 1.2.6 Season and cycle 1.2.7 Carnation growing period 1.2.8 Irrigation 1.2.9 Fertilization 1.2.10 Support nets 1.2.11 Pinching and Disbudding 1.2.12 Harvesting and Post harvest handling of cut flower 1.2.13 Propagation 1.2.14 Insect, Pest, Disease and Physiological disorders 1.3 Chrysanthemum 1.3.1 Taxonomy 1.3.2 History 1.3.3 Use of Chrysanthemum 1.3.4 Classification of Chrysanthemum 1.3.5 Cultivars for land and pot Culture 1.3.6 Soil Preparation 1.3.7 Essential Environmental factors 1.3.8 Planting and month wise operations 1.3.9 Irrigation 1.3.10 Nutrition 1.3.11 Propagation 1.3.12 Growth Substance 1.3.13 Harvesting and Storage of Flowers 1.3.14 Plant Protection 1.4 Gerbera 1.4.1 Growing environment 1.4.2 Commercial varieties 1.4.3 Soil and growing medium 1.4.4 Disinfection or sterilization of soil 1.4.5 Transplanting 1.4.6 Watering or Irrigation of Gerbera 1.4.7 Nutritional requirement 5 Cut Flowers 1.4.8 Propagation of Gerbera 1.4.9 Harvesting of Flowers 1.4.10 Yield of cut flowers 1.4.11 Plant Protection 1.5 Statice 1.5.1 Species 1.5.2 Soil and climate 1.5.3 Seed sowing and planting 1.5.4 Varieties 1.5.5 Irrigation 1.5.6 Propagation 1.5.7 Fertilizer 1.5.8 Plant Protection 1.5.9 Harvesting of flowers 1.6 Rose 1.6.1 Botanical description 1.6.2 Propagation 1.6.3 Varieties 1.6.4 Soil 1.6.5 Essential Environmental Factors 1.6.6 Production Factors 1.6.7 Pruning, Bending, development of bush, Disbudding and De-shooting 1.6.8 Manuring, Fertilization and Irrigation 1.6.9 Harvesting and Post Harvest Management of Flower 1.6.10 Plant Protection 1.7 Let Us Sum Up 1.8 Key Words 1.9 Further References 1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 1.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to: explain the purpose and utility of growing cut flowers, to assess the different growing components, explain the production techniques for cut flower, post harvest management of cut flowers, and marketing strategy of cut flower crops. 1.1 IMPORTANT CUT FLOWER CROPS – CARNATION, CHRYSANTHEMUM, GERBERA, STATICS AND ROSE

Flowers have been associated with the human life since the time immemorial. 6 These are symbol of peace and love. Their uses on various occasions i.e. festivals, social and family functions and religious ceremonies are known since generations. Major Cut Flower Cut flowers provide aesthetic environment indoor. In the modern stressful life, importance of cut flowers is further increased as these help in releasing stress by creating natural and energetic environment. These five flowers are very important cut flowers out of ten cut flower crops and have long self vase life under water.

Frequent changes of water and re-cutting the stem ends will ensure a good steady flow of water up the stem. If flower foods are not used one should change the water and re-cut the stems every two days. In case of use of flower foods re- cutting every five days is enough. Watering the foam daily is required if arrangement is in foam, as it dries out quickly. Now you will study each cut flower crop one by one in detail as follow:

1.2 CARNATION

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant, belonging to the family Caryophyllaceae. It has been under cultivation by man for over 2000 years.

There are about 250-300 species of Dianthus comprises annuals and evergreen perennials but only a few are cultivated. The most common cultivated species are D. caryophyllus, D. barbatus and D. chinensis.

The D. chinensis (Annual Carnation) is commonly known as Indian pink, Chinensis or Japanese pink.

The species D. barbatus (Biennial Carnation) is commonly known as Sweet William, grows mostly from seeds and prefers warm climate. The stems are glabrous; leaves are opposite, broad and flat. The flowers are solitary.

The present day perpetual Carnation was developed from cross between D. caryophyllus (female parent) and D. chinensis (male parent). They are grouped into standard and spray types on the basis of flower size. The standard type produces large single flowers on a longer sturdy stem. They suffer from diseases when grown under warm humid climates. The spray or miniature types produce many flowers of a smaller size on a short stem and are suitable to warm climates. The most common varieties of carnation are: Arthur Sim, Sunrise, Lemon drop, Pink Dona, Master, Liberty, Tempo, Lavender, Searia, Santiago, Granda, Raggio di sole etc. 1.2.1 Introduction Nearby your area you might have seen, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Statice and Roses. The cut flowers stands the use of flowers after detachment. These are the common top ten cut flowers worldwide. Cut flowers means the flowers which have large strength and long was life more than seven days, after flower harvesting. Flowers of these crops are valued for its keeping quality, wide array of colours and forms and ability to rehyderate after long transportation. These qualities form the basis of many floral arrangements and mixed bouquets. Carnations have many characteristics which suit today’s consumers and markets, including larger blooms, pleasant clove-scented fragrance and a long vase life. 7 Cut Flowers Carnation flowers are also used for bedding, pots, rock gardens, window boxes and edging. Owing to its ever increasing demand in the world market, high quality Carnations are also being cultivated in India. The major production centers are located around Pune and Bangalore. Carnations are now being commercially grown in Solan, Shimla, Mandi, Kullu, Chamba and Bilaspur districts in Himachal Pradesh, perls of Punjab, Uttarakhand, southern states. Chrysanthemums, often called ‘mums’, are a genus Chrysanthemum of about 30 species of perennial flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, native to Asia and northeastern Europe. Now, botanically it belongs to Dendranthema grandiflora. Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) is commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Berbrton Daisy or African daisy, produces very attractive long stalk cut flowers. Its flowers are of various colours and forms, suitable for different flower arrangements. Its cut blooms have 7-12 day vase life. Apart from upcoming huge domestic consumption it has got great potential in export also. Several species of statice are popular garden flowers; they are generally known to gardeners as statices. They are grown both for their flowers, and for the appearance of the calyx, which remains on the plant after the true flowers have fallen, and are known as “everlasting flowers”. The rose is one of the oldest flowers having been grown for over 7000 years. It is the most favourite gift on special occasions, like Birth Days, X-MAS, Day, Happy New Year, and Valentine’s Day. World consumption of roses has crossed 40 billion marks today and the Western Europe consumes more than half of this quantity. Holland is the biggest auction center (Alsmeer with 750000 M2 floor areas). In India too, the commercial floriculture has come a long way. Starting from a few units in Pune and Bangalore, the industry now boasts of over 200 units opting for export. 1.2.2 Climate There are three climatic major factors essential for carnation growth. i) Light : Carnations perform best in relatively cool climate. It is a long day plant requires approximately 21.5 K lux sunshine for at least 8 hours a day. High light intensity is detrimental to a young crop and may cause leaf burning and weak foliage. It leads to infection of parasites such as red spider mites. ii) Temperature : Temperature is a major factor that influences the growth and flowering, colour, grade and the quality of cut flowers. The location having a day temperature of 10°C is good for high quality Carnations. The optimum temperature for production of standard Carnation is 18-23°C. High temperature produce inferior quality flowers. iii) Humidity: The optimum humidity for growing Carnation is between 50-65 %. When humidity is higher; plants become susceptible to fungal diseases like Alternaria and Botrytis. Very low humidity is detrimental to a young crop and may cause leaf burning and weak foliage and infection of parasites such as red spider mites. 1.2.3 Soil Selection of site is very important for successful Carnation cultivation. Since roots of Carnation are highly susceptible to poor drainage conditions, it needs 8 well drained and aerated soil. The growth of roots in heavy soil is very much Major Cut Flower restricted and adversely affects the growth of plants and quality of flowers.

A rich sandy loam or loam soil is ideal for its cultivation. Soils having higher silt or clay content should be amended by incorporating organic matter or compost. The pH 6-7 and EC 0.8-1.6 ms/cm at 25°C is ideal. Both higher and lower pH has been found to show adverse effects on flower production. The site selected for plantation should be free from weeds, nematodes or soil borne pathogens. Pre-plant sterilization with stem, sun or 5 % formalin is beneficial. Reused soils may contain many pathogens especially Fusarium, which makes some beds unsuitable for Carnation cultivation even after disinfection. 1.2.4 Propagation The carnations are propagated through seed and by cutting.

Perpetual flowering Carnations are multiplied vegetatively by means of soft terminal cuttings while seed propagation is normally practiced for the purpose of hybridization. Terminal cuttings are harvested with 4-5 pairs of leaves. Rooting of cutting varied according to planting time but root formation was always better during cooler month with or without mist. The most suitable time for collecting cuttings in during early summer or autumn. Treatment of cutting with NAA (500- 1000 ppm) for half-an-hour improves rooting the main propagating season of carnations extend from November to March. For successful cut flower production, choose Carnations with well developed roots having minimum four leaves and not developed any flower bud. Cuttings should be of about 10-15 cm long for standard cultivars and 8-10 cm long for spray types, disease free and of best commercial variety. Leaves should be free from any fungal spot. Carnations are also multiplied through micro-propagation through shoot tips. i) Propagation by Seed : Commonly grown chaubad and Marquerite carnation are propagated by seed. The nursery of these spray type carnations raised in well prepared 15 cm high raised bed of 2 x 10 ft. The 1 cm deep row of sterilized beds are sown with seeds from 15th August to 15th September in the northern plains and August - October and March - April in the Hills. October - December has been found to be the best time for South India. Seedling usually get ready for transplanting in the beds after 8 weeks of sowing. Normally it takes, 5-6 months to flower after transplanting. ii) Propagation by cutting : The standard or Sim’s carnation are commercially propagated by cutting. A terminal vegetative cutting 10-15 cm long having four to five pair to leaves are broken from the stock plant by hand. Use of knife is likely to spread disease through the wounded edge. Cutting are prepared for rooting plantation by removing the basal pair of leaves. Sterilized sand has been found to be very useful for rooting medium. Along with sand, other available material like well roston and sterilized leaf mold, shredded coconut fiber or sphagnum moss may also be used. The medium must be kept moist with misting of water but rooting beds with frequent misting will be very harmful and induce rooting of cuttings. Carnation cuttings may stand dryness but not over watering. Raised rooting beds should be located under airy and shady place.

Application of root promoting hormone is beneficial in hastening rooting of carnation giving more and firm root. A quick dip of basal end up to 2 cm in 9 Cut Flowers 500 ppm of NAA (Napthalene acetic acid) is recommended. Rootex or Seradix No.1 and 2 has also given vary satisfactory results when basal wet end upto 2 cm dip in this powder before planting of cuttings. These rooting hormones should be used very carefully, when used at too high concentrations can damage the cuttings. Rooting bed should be drenched with 0.2 % saluting of fungicide namely Bavistin or Benlate or Captan before planting the cutting. The cuttings should be removed from propagation beds when the roots are about 2 cm long. There is no advantage in leaving them to develop a large mass of roots which can be damaged at the time of planting. The optimal temperature for rooting of cutting are around 23-25°C. It was observed that in northern India, the best period of rooting of cutting lies between October - February.

The optimum planting time of rooted cutting in the beds for getting is August- September to get production of flower in the winter and spring. In view of this arrangements of planting material (rooted cutting) are required to be made at that time. Cuttings taken in March-April from the stock plants and wrapped in plastic bags stored well under cold storage (4-6°C) for three months, and could be rooted easily in late July for planting in August - September. Arrangement can also be made to obtain planting material from areas specially developed for this purposed at 6,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea level in suitable location in Himalayas.

1.2.5 Planting

Soft terminal cuttings from healthy mother plant having vigorous root should be planted at shallow depth. Deep planting of cuttings may cause root and stem rot. During planting keep the base of the cutting above the soil level as they were in the rooting medium to ensure rapid development. To obtain the maximum no. of flowers, planting time and plant density are very important. When planted for commercial scale, raised beds of 30 cm height, 1.05 m width and convenient length are preferred. A planting density of around 25-32 plants/m2 (15 x 20 cm to 20 x 20 cm spacing) is generally recommended for 2 years production. When it is planted in pots, a single plant can be planted in 7.5 cm pots containing a potting mixture of equal parts of soil & well rotten F.Y.M. and half part of sand. 1.2.6 Season and Cycle Planting schedule is important to produce the maximum number of excellent quality cut flowers. Carnation produces heavy flush of flowers during a short period of time, which is not desirable for commercial production. Therefore it is regulated through planting time, planting density and method of pinching of plants. In Northern plains of India planting is done during mid September - November, which produces flower during February - April. In hilly areas where there is no snowfall, October - February planting is suitable to obtain flowers during mid - April to mid July and in hilly areas having seasonal snowfall, planting is done during February - April to get flowers from August - October. In protected conditions, Carnations can be planted round the year. 1.2.7 Carnation Growing Period Carnation flowers take approx. 150-180 days from planting to flower under open conditions and 120-150 days under protected conditions depending upon the season. Perpetual Carnations are mostly planted on a 2 years cycle after which 10 their yield decreases. A basal dose of Super phosphate (200 g/m2), Muriatic of Major Cut Flower Potash (150 g/m2), magnesium sulphate (50 g/m2) and Borax (2 g/m2) is applied. 1.2.8 Irrigation Rooted cuttings should be watered immediately after planting. Spraying of water through misting has been found to be more effective than the surface watering for early establishment of the cuttings. After three weeks of planting, drip irrigation has to be adopted. Frequency of watering depends on the weather conditions and the soil type. Stagnation of water should be avoided to minimize the incidence of diseases. 1.2.9 Fertilization Carnation plants need regular supply of nutrients for continuous production of flowers. Therefore, the application of nutrients in smaller doses but at regular interval favours better growth and yield. Low level of nitrogen and boron may cause calyx splitting. In the first three weeks after planting, no chemical fertilizers are applied. A total nutrition of 5-10 kg of FYM/m2 (basal), 30 gm N/m2, 20 gm 2 P2O5 and 10 gm K/m (monthly interval) is applied for standard Carnation while same dose is applied for spray types except the Nitrogen @ 40 gm/ m2. Spray of

0.1 % urea and potassium nitrate (KNO3) and 1 ppm Boron at 10 days interval till flowering produces good quality flowers.

Some micronutrients like Fe, Zn, Mn, Mo and B may also be required depending upon the soil type, mineral content of irrigation water and leaf analysis of plant sample. 1.2.10 Support Nets In order to obtain straight stems and to prevent lodging of plants, Carnation needs supporting nets of 4-5 layers. These plants are planted within the net of mesh size 7.5 x 7.5 cm. Nets are gradually raised with plant growth. For every 2.5 to 3.0 m, the metal wires or nylon rope should be supported with poles. The first net should be fixed at 12.0 cm above the bed. The remaining nets, whose squares should be 12.5 x 12.5 cm or 15 x 15 cm are placed over the first net. These nets are placed at 15 cm apart. 1.2.11 Pinching and Disbudding These are very important operation to produce quality blooms. i) Pinching : For successful production of top quality Carnations, pinching is an important operation. During pinching, the tip of the stem is removed to encourage the growth of the standard or Sim Carnations. Only 4-6 well grown lateral shoots will be allowed to grow. Pinching is done after 30-35 days of planting leaving only 6 pairs of basal leaves. If too many leaf pairs remain, stem and flower quality may be reduced considerably. Similarly, production will decrease if few leaf pairs will be left. There are three types of pinching methods generally followed.

Single pinching : In single pinch, apical portion measuring 5-7 cm is pinched off to give about 4-5 lateral shoots, which produces flower. This is done for early crop.

11 Cut Flowers Pinch and-a-half : This method involves single pinching of the main stem to give 4-5 side shoots. Only half of total numbers of lateral shoots are pinched when they are about 5 cm long. This method reduces the load of first crop and provides a steady supply of flowers throughout the year.

Double pinch : In this method all the lateral shoots arising from the first pinch are again pinched when they are 8-10 cm in length at 2-3 nodes. It is done approximately 5-6 weeks after first pinch. This is generally done for late harvesting or delaying the flowering period. Approximately 8-10 shoots are retained. This method produces large number of flower bearing shoots and poor quality flowers hence not preferred.

ii) Disbudding : Disbudding is the removal of unwanted buds. It is practiced in Carnation to obtain good quality flowers. Buds are taken away before they get too big, as they will considerably reduce the flower size. In case of standard Carnation, the lateral flower buds are removed leaving only the terminal or main flower bud. In spray or miniature Carnation, the terminal or main flower buds are removed, to encourage lateral flower buds. Disbudding help to produce quality bloom in standard carnation. 1.2.12 Harvesting and Post Harvesting Handling of Cut Flower Harvesting of Carnation flowers depend on the size of bud and growth of petals. Standard Carnations are harvested when they are half open and the first petal lays horizontally or at paint brush stage. Spray types are harvested when at least two flowers have opened and remaining buds are showing colour.

Flowers are best harvested during the morning hours when they are turgid. Keep the flowers in fresh, clean water or preservative solution for about 4-6 hours and then place in cold store at 4-6°C. Do not cut the flowers too deeply as this may adversely affect production during the next season.

Grading of flowers is based on stem length; flower diameter and physical conditions like stem sturdiness, freedom from pest, diseases and physiological abnormality. They are grouped in bundles of 20 and kept at 0-2°C for 12-14 hours and then packed in corrugated cardboard boxes.

Vase life and storability of flowers can be increased by placing flowers in 10 % sucrose + 1 mm STS for 8-10 hours. Carnation flowers are very sensitive to ethylene gas. Now day’s anti-ethylene compound 1-MCP (1-methyl cyclopropene) is being used as floral preservative. 1.2.13 Propagation The carnation is propagated using the seeds of the plant. Nursery raising is preferred before the transplanting. 1.2.14 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders a) Insect-pests : The most common insects attacking the Carnation are aphids, thrips and red spider mite.

i) Aphids (Myzus persicae) suck the sap from new shoots and leaves. They leave sticky substances on leaves and flower buds. Foliar spray of Rogor (2 ml / litre) or 0.25 % demeton-methyl found to be effective. 12 ii) Thrips (Thrips tabaci) also suck the sap of leaves and turn them yellow Major Cut Flower and patchy. Under severe attack they also cause streaks and spots on flowers and stems. Pink and red cultivars are more susceptible. Malathion or Rogor (dimethoate) or dichlorovos, all at 0.1-0.2 % gave the best control of Carnation thrips.

iii) Red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) is the most serious pest of Carnation. They are very small red coloured insects mostly feeding on the lower sides of leaf and suck the sap. Leaves become yellow with dusty coating and fine webs on their surface.

The most effective chemical against mite is vertimec (0.4 ml/l) or Thiovat (2 g/l), which is effective against adults, eggs and larvae. b) Diseases : Carnations are attacked by a number of diseases like Fusarium, Alternaria, Bacterial wilt, Rust, Rhizoctonia, and stem rot.

i) Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. Sp. dianthi, also known as vascular wilt, is one of the most serious diseases of Carnation. It is soil born, invades the plant through roots and damages stem tissues resulting in wilting and death of plant. Soil fumigation and treating the beds with Bavistin (0.1 %) and Dithan M-45 (0.1 %) at regular interval is effective.

ii) Leaf spot caused by Alternaria dianthi is another serious air-born disease. It is characterized by grayish-brown spots on leaf and stem. High temperature and humidity favours the disease spread. Removal of infected leaves and foliar spray of Mancozeb (Dithan M-45) @ 0.2 % or Bavistin 0.1 % controls this disease.

iii) Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas caryophylli) is prevalent at high temperatures. It is soil born disease attacking older plants. Production of grayish green foliage, rotting of roots and deep longitudinal cracks on internodes are the major symptoms. Soil sterilization, treating the plant material with 0.01 % streptocycline and using disease free plants helps in reducing the incidence. c) Sleepiness : It causes huge loss in cut carnation and could be temporary (reversible), or permanent (irreversible). It is caused because of exposure of flower to ethylene or water stress. The storage of flowers for long or exposure to high temperature increases the incidence.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) What are the propagation methods of carnation ? ...... 13 Cut Flowers 2) Why the staking is important in greenhouse production of carnation ? ...... 3) Discuss the importance of pinching and disbudding...... 4) What are major disease problems of carnation ? ......

1.3 CHRYSANTHEMUM

The species of Chrysanthemum are herbaceous perennial plants growing to 50- 150 cm tall, with deeply lobed leaves and large flower heads, white, yellow or pink in the wild species. 1.3.1 Taxonomy The genus once included many more species, but was split several decades ago into several genera; the naming of the genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) in 1999 resulted in the defining species of the genus being changed to Chrysanthemum indicum, thereby restoring the economically important florist’s chrysanthemum to the genus Chrysanthemum. These species were after the splitting of the genus but before the ICBN ruling, commonly treated under the genus name Dendranthema. 1.3.2 History Cultivated chrysanthemum can be yellow, white, or even bright red and many other Historical painting of Chrysanthemums from the New International Encyclopedia 1902. Chrysanthemums were cultivated in China as a flowering herb as early as the 15th century BC. The flower was introduced into Japan probably in the 8th century AD, and the Emperor adopted the flower as his official seal. There is a “Festival of Happiness” in Japan that celebrates the flower. The 14 flower was brought to Europe in the 17th century. 1.3.3 Uses of Chrysanthemum Major Cut Flower i) Ornamental uses of Chrysanthemum : Modern chrysanthemums are more showy than their wild relatives. The flowers occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like, decorative, pompons or buttons. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colours are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is Chrysanthemum x morifolium (syn. C. x grandiflorum), derived primarily from Chrysanthemum indicum but also involving other species.

Chrysanthemums are divided into two basic groups, Garden Hardy types and Exhibition types. Garden hardy mums are perennials capable of being wintered over in the ground in most northern latitudes. Exhibition varieties are not usually as sturdy. Garden verities hardies are defined by their ability to produce an abundance of small blooms which grow without staking or little staking and exhibition varieties on the other hand require staking.

The Exhibition varieties can be used to create many amazing plant forms; Large disbudded blooms, spray forms, as well as many artistically trained forms, such as: Thousand Bloom, Standard (trees), Fans, Hanging Baskets, Topiary, Bonsai, and Cascades. ii. Environmental uses & Medicinal uses : Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the NASA Clean Air Study.

Extracts of Chrysanthemum plants (stem and flower) have been shown to have a wide variety of potential medicinal properties, including anti-HIV, antibacterial and antimycotic. iii) Cultural significance and symbolism : In some countries of Europe (e.g., France, Poland, Croatia), white chrysanthemums are symbolic of death and are only used for funerals or on graves - similarly, in China, white chrysanthemums are symbolic of lamentation and/or grief. In some other countries, it represents honesty. In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful. iv) Insecticidal & culinary uses : Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a natural source of insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components called pyrethrins, contained in the seed cases, are extracted and sold in the form of an oleoresin. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all insects, and inhibit female mosquitoes from biting. When not present in amounts fatal to insects, they still appear to have an insect repellent effect. They are considered to be amongst the safest insecticides for use around food. (Pyrethroids are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum, e.g., permethrin).

Dried chrysanthemum flowers, yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers are boiled to make a sweet drink in some parts of Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as “chrysanthemum tea” Júhuâ Chá, in Chinese. Chrysanthemum tea has many medicinal uses, including an aid in recovery from influenza. In Korea, a rice wine flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called Gukhwaju. 15 Cut Flowers Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine.

1.3.4 Classification of Chrysanthemum (as per the National Chrysanthemum Society of USA)

i) Irregular Incurve : Giant blooms in which petals are loosely incurve and make fully closed winter. The lower petals present an irregular appearance and may give a skirted effect.

ii) Reflex : The disk florets are concealed and the ray florets reflex outwards to create a mop like appearance.

iii) Regular Incurve : Similar to the irregular incurves, only usually smaller blooms, with nearly perfect globular form. Disc florets are completely concealed. They used to be called ‘Chinese’.

iv) Decorative : Similar to reflex blooms without the mop like appearance. Disc florets are completely concealed, ray florets usually don’t radiate at more than a 90 degree angle to the stem.

v) Intermediate Incurve : These blooms are in-between the Irregular and Regular incurves in both size and form. They usually have broader florets and a more loosely composed bloom. Again, the disc florets are completely concealed.

vi) Pompon : The blooms are fully double, of small size, and almost completely globular in form. 16 vii) Single/Semi-Double : These blooms have completely exposed disc florets, Major Cut Flower with between 1 and 7 rows of ray florets, usually radiating at not more than a 90 degree angle to the stem. viii) Anemone : The disc florets are prominently featured, quite often raised and overshadowing the ray florets. ix) Spoon : The disc florets are visible and the long tubular ray florets are spatulate. Central disc in this flower is round and visible. x) Quill : The disc florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube like. xi) Spider : The disc florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube like with hooked or barbed ends, hanging loosely around the stem. xii) Brush or Thistle : The disc florets may be visible. The ray florets are often tube like, and project all around the flower head, or project parallel to the stem. xiii) Unusual or Exotic : These blooms defy classification as they possess the attributes of more than one of the other twelve bloom types. 1.3.5 Cultivars for Land and Pot Culture There are two type of Chrysanthemum can be grown in land as well as in pots. i) Large Flower : Beauty, Snow Ball, William Turner, Innocence, white, Green Godess, Chandrama, Super Giant, Sonar Bangla, Pink Cloud, Shirley, Perfection, Classic Beauty, Pink Turner, Brave, Distinction, Alfred, Autumn Blaze etc. ii) Small Flower : Mercury, Jyotsna, Birbal Sahni, Himani, Topaz, Archana, Basanti, Nanako, Sujata, Kundan, Nilima, Alison, Jaya, Gem, Jean etc. Chrysanthemum culture in pot requires very strict time bound monthly intercultural practices with precise operation. Selection of disease free and high quality planting material is ideal for commercial growers. Pot culture includes soil preparation and selection of proper size pot for it. 1.3.6 Soil preparation i) Soil preparation for pots : Ideal soil composition for growing healthy chrysanthemum plants in pot includes one part of clay soil, one part of leaf mold and 2 part of rotten cow dung manure. Fertilizer is also mixed at this stage which includes Bone meal one part, Super phosphate one part, Di - ammonium phosphate one part and Neem Cake one part i.e. in the ratio of (1:1:1:1). The mixture should be kept as a heap and spread for solar treatment and for proper sun drying prior to filling of pots. For filling 100 pots. 5kg bone meal, neem cake and fertilizer mixture is required to mix in the hundred pot’s mixture soil. Soil is prepared well in advance i.e. a month prior to planting. A small amount of Malathion powder is added in the soil to get rid from insect. ii) Filled Soil preparation : To grow Chrysanthemum in the field, it required sandy loam soils, retain sufficient moisture and provide sufficient aeration 17 Cut Flowers essential for proper root growth. Therefore, these are ideal for chrysanthemum growing. Chrysanthemum thrives best in slightly acidic soils with pH ranging between 6.2 and 6.7.

iii) Fertilizers : Higher flower yield can be obtained at 80 Kg. N, 160 Kg P and 80 Kg K per hectare. 1.3.7 Essential Environmental Factors Environment has great influence on growth and flowering of chrysanthemum. The major factors light, temperature, relative humidity and air composition.

i) Light : It is well known that chrysanthemum plants continue to grow vegetative till the nights are shorter than critical level 6½ hrs in most of the traditional varieties. Flourescent light of very high intensity given only for one minute every night completely inhibits the flowering. It has been reported that a minimum of 3-5 days are necessary for bud initiation. It has been observed that day-length of 14-14½ hrs could initiate flower buds, but their development occurred only when day-length was of 13-13½ hrs.

ii) Temperature : The growth rate in chrysanthemum remains at low level at or below 10°C. As the temperature is raised to 15°C, the growth rate increase rapidly. A constant temperature of 16°C has been found to be the best for rooting of cuttings. On the basis of their response to temperature regarding flowering, the varieties have been grouped into 3 classes by Cathey. a) Thermozero : Flowering at any temperature between 10°C and 27°C temperature. b) Thermopositive : At temperature higher than 27°C bud initiation is rapid but flowering is delayed. c) Thermonegative : Bud initiation occurs at low to high temperature between 10°C and 27°C, but continuous high temperature delays bud development. iii) Relative Humidity : A relative humidity between 70 and 90 per cent is optimum for the growth of chrysanthemum. iv) Air Composition : In temperate regions, chrysanthemum grown in

glasshouses. During the day time, the required amount of O2 is available as a result of photosynthesis. During night proper ventilation is necessary for ensuring sufficient oxygen supply. Production has been found to increase

significantly by artificially enriching the greenhouse atmosphere with CO2.

Supplementary CO2 (700-900 ppm) produces longer stem length and early flowering. 1.3.8 Planting and Month Wise Operations Planting and month wise operation includes watering, fertigation, pinching, dis- budding removal of old and diseased leaf, protection from hot winds and excessive rains and staking. Intercultural practices from January - December for small and large flowered chrysanthemum are briefly explained. In the month of January and February, suckers are planted in earthen small size pots or beds and large flowered chrysanthemum is transplanted in 10 cm 18 pots. Small flowered chrysanthemum can be transplanted in well manured beds. Similarly few plant of large flowered chrysanthemum should be planted in beds Major Cut Flower to have cuttings from them in the month of July. In the month of April, in large flowered chrysanthemum beds regular watering is required and potted plants watering is restricted to check the growth. Small flowered chrysanthemum in beds requires more branching by pinching. This is the ideal time to pinch the plants back to 10 cm from ground level. In the month of May large flowered chrysanthemum should be protected from hot wind and repotting in 15 cm pot gives better results. Small flowered chrysanthemum requires second pinching in month of May. In June large flowered chrysanthemum requires protection from hot wind in the month of June. Small flowered chrysanthemum requires protection from hot winds during the month of June and this is the proper time for third pinching. The pinching should be done in first week of June. In the month of July Small flowered chrysanthemum should be lifted from beds and it should be planted in 25 cm pots. Large flowered chrysanthemum requires repotting in 20 cm pots in the month of July. This is the high time for taking cuttings for raising dwarf plant with superior blooms. In August chrysanthemum plants need protection from excessive rains. Disease foliage should be removed and fourth pinching is required in small flowered chrysanthemum.

In the month of September, rooted cuttings of large flowered chrysanthemum should be planted in 25 cm pots to check the growth. Lateral branches should be removed. Staking is required at this moment. Plants require neem cake feed. In the month of October, small flowered chrysanthemum needs final pinching and plant should be feeded with oil cake and super phosphate in this month. Diseased leaf should be removed from the plant. In October large flowered chrysanthemums requires De-shooting and dis-budding. Plant should be feeded with oil cake and super phosphate in this month. Dis-budding should be continued and plant should be feeded with potash. 1.3.9 Irrigation The crop is to be irrigated twice a week in the first month and subsequently at weekly intervals. Irrigation depends on soil and weather conditions. Weeding and hoeing’s generally done manually as and when required, normally 8-10 times. Besides control of weeds, it made the soil loose, porus to provide aeration. 1.3.10 Nutrition i) Dry fertigation: For dry fertigation Di-ammonium phosphate, super phosphate, bone meal and neem cake at ratio of (1:1:1:1) is mixed thoroughly. One tea spoon (10 g) of this mixture is applied at fifteen days interval in chrysanthemum pots for better growth and flowering. ii) Liquid fertigation: For better growth and quality flowering in chrysanthemum liquid fertigation is very essential. For making 100 ltr. of liquid fertigation following components are mixed in a big tank. Unripe cow dung………………………...... 5 kg DAP…………………………………………5 kg Super phosphate…………………………….5 kg Neem Cake………………………………….5 kg Calatropis leaf (Madar)……………………..10 kg 19 Cut Flowers The solution should be stirred well prior to use and kept for 15-20 days before use. Liquid fertigation should start from October and continued up to November at fortnight interval. This liquid should be diluted ten times before use. 1.3.11 Propagation Chrysanthemum is propagated by both vegetative and sexual methods.

A) Sexual method of propagation: It is by seed productions. This method is adopted by the breeder for the development of new varieties.

B) Asexual method of propagation or vegetative method of propagation : The vegetative method includes multiplication through suckers, cuttings and micro-propagation.

i) Sucker method: Profuse suckering occurs about a month after blooms fade. After separating the suckers from mother plants, they are planted directly in the field or for root formation in pots.

ii) Cutting method: Propagation through stem cuttings is the common method followed by the commercial growers. An ideal cutting is supposed to be 4-6 cm long with a diameter of 3.2 to 4.8 mm. The terminal cuttings are late June and July. Seradix B-1 or 2000 ppm IBA to 0.5 cm basal portion. The cuttings root between 3 and 4 weeks.

Preparation of cuttings Cuttings are prepared from mother plants during June to August. In case of early rains cuttings can be prepared in the end of June otherwise July to mid August is the ideal time for making cuttings. Stem cuttings from terminal portion is selected and its length should be restricted to 10-12 cm. Bavistin or Indofil M-45 @ 2 % solution is prepared for the treatment of cuttings. After quick dipping for 2-4 second in fungicide solution, hormone like Rootex No.1 or 2000 ppm solution of IBA (quick dip method) is applied at the base of the cuttings. Cuttings are planted in 25- 30 cm pot filled with sterilized coarse sand. For large flowered chrysanthemum especially for spider type cultivar sand filled pots are ideal as the roots developed from stem cuttings are fine and its development is best in sand. The rooting takes place within 15-20 days of planting.

iii) Micro-Propagation Method: Chrysanthemum can be multiplied faster by culturing shoots apex, somatic callus, from peduncle and other floral parts and from leaves in vitro. The terminal cuttings 2-3 cm long with at least one node are taken. 1.3.12 Growth Substance Growth substances and various other chemicals have been found to regulate growth and flowering in chrysanthemum.

a) Growth promotion : GA3 has been found to show marked effect on growth and development depending mainly on the time of application and stage of rd growth. Treatment with GA3 during 3 week of short days caused elongation of stem and of peduncle when applied in 4th week of SD., Spraying 20 chrysanthemums at pinching time with BA (Benzyeadenine) at 40 ppm Major Cut Flower increases branching. b) Growth retardation : For developing well-shaped pot plants, growth retardants have proved very effective. SADH and phospon are being used commercially. The application of SADH (2000-4000 ppm) after disbudding reduces stem length below the flower head. The liquid form is used as soil drench. CCC (Chlormequat) at 1.25 per cent concentration suppresses the plant height. 1.3.13 Harvesting and Storage of Flowers i) Harvesting : Single cultivar & are harvested when maximum flower & are open but before the pollen & are shed from the outer row of the florets where as decorative types should be harvested when topmost flower are almost fully open. ii) Storage : Flowers can be wrapped in the plastics and stored for 6 to 8 weeks at a temperature of 0.5°C. Pot mums can be easily stored upto 2 weeks at a temperature of 4°C at wet storage. 1.3.14 Plant Protection A) Insect and Pets : i) Leaf miner : It makes tunnels in leaves and can be controlled effectively by spraying Metasystox @ 0.1 %. ii) Red spider mite : The cyclic sprays of Vertimec @ 0.7 %, Dicofol @ 0.1 %, Metasystox @ 0.1 % and Polytrin @ 0.1 % is applied once in a week. iii) White Fly : They are very fond of the sugary material secreted from the aphids body and carry the spores of fungus and other diseases. They are generally controlled by regular sprays of Pyriproxyfen @ 0.2 %. iv) White thrips : They such the sap and leave the sucking marks on the under surfaces of leaf and on buds. The repeated sprays of the Confidor @ 0.1 % and Monocrotophos @ 0.1 % can help to prevent the severity of their infestation. v) Caterpillar of Helicoverpa: They can be a severe problem if their entry is not prevented through men doing the operations. The regular spray of Confidor 0.4 ml/ l and Metasystox @ 0.1% ml/l can help to control effectively. vi) Aphids : The sugary secretion creates black marks which favor fungal infection on the leaves. The application of Monocrotophos @ 0.1 % will help to control the Apids. vii) Caterpillar (Spodoptera Litura) and cut worms (Agrotis sp.) : Cut the leaves, buds and flowers. The spray of the 0.1 % Metasystox and 0.25 % Endosulfan should be applied weekly. B) Nematodes : They produce yellowish brown irregular spots in the leaves. To control Nematodes, the soil should be sterilized with strong Nematicides and Methyl bromide. 21 Cut Flowers C) Diseases:

Diseases Characteristic features Control measures

Fungal diseases Rhizoctonia solani Dry rot and crown Rhyzolex @ 0.4 ml/l Verticilium wilt Yellow leaves Root rot Soil sterilizationSoil Pythium after planting sterilization with propanocarb @2-3 g/m2 Sclerotina White spongy growth of Benomyl @ 0.4 /l ie 50 g / sclerotium the stem, black inside 200 l/ 1000 m2 area and dry leaves Septoria leaf spot Black spot on the leaves Mencozeb @ 250 g/ 200 l/ 1000 m2 area

Botrytis cineria Gray mould on flowers Polyoxin 110g / 300 l/ 1000 and leaves m2 area

Ascochyta Black rot at the flower Mencozeb @ 250 g/ 1000 base m2 area

Bacterial Diseases Pseudomonas Redish brown strips on Soil sterilization with cichorii stem which later Copper Hydroxide @ 0.3 % becomes black

Erwinia Elongated watery and -do- chrysanthimii brown spots

Agrobacterium Bacterial nodules on the -do- tumisfeciens roots

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Describe the classification of chrysanthemum...... 2) Discuss propagation technique of chrysanthemum...... 22 3) Describe the importation of Pinching and Disbudding in chrysanthemum. Major Cut Flower ...... 4) Differentiate between spray and standard type chrysanthemum......

1.4 GERBERA

Gerbera originated in South Africa, belongs to the family Asteraceae. It is an important commercial cut flower crop grown throughout the world under a wide range of climatic conditions. At Aalsmeer Flower Auction Centre (Holland) it occupies fourth place among the top ten cut flowers of the world floriculture trade in a sales volume. In India, its commercial cultivation under low cost polyhouse environment is on rise and has made its cut flowers availability round the year. 1.4.1 Growing Environment The major growing environmental factors are light, temperature and humidity to grow Gerbera flowers. i) Light : Gerbera can be grown under open field condition, but with the introduction of new exotic varieties, which require more care in their management, it has become difficult to get production of superior quality blooms under open field conditions or even agro shade nets. Therefore, gerbera has to be grown under protected environment. Different growing environments, viz., open field, 50 % shade net, insect proof net, naturally ventilated polyhouse (low cost) and fan and pad evaporative cooled polyhouse (medium cost) were compared for growing exotic varieties of the gerbera under Bangalore condition. The yield of superior quality flowers was reported higher under naturally ventilated polyhouse. ii) Temperature : The ideal temperature for gerbera flower initiation is 23°C and for unfolding are 25-27°C. Flowering is harmed considerably at temperature below 12°C and above 35°C. iii) Humidity : The optimum relative humidity inside the greenhouse should be 80-85 %.

23 Cut Flowers 1.4.2 Commercial Varieties Several exotic varieties of gerbera in Single, Semi-double and Double types are available with nurserymen. Gerbera varieties are also classified in two groups i.e., large flowered and mini gerbera with desirable characters like - large flower diameter, long and stout flower stalk, double type of flower with black center, increased vase life and ability to withstand long distance transportation, which have demand in the market. Some of the suitable varieties under Indian conditions are: Cabana, Daikiri, Ellymay, Essandre, Evening Bells, Feugo, Gold Spot, Golden Gate, Ibiza, Jankfrau, Lindessa, Lyonella, Optima, Ornella, Paganini Piton, Polar, Red Monarch, Rosabella, Ruby Red, Sangria, Sunway, Tiramisu, Twiggy etc. 1.4.3 Soil and Growing Medium Well drained loam sandy to sandy soil, rich in organic matter and has adequate moisture holding capacity, is ideal for successful Gerbera cultivation. A soil pH of 5.5-6.5 and E.C. 0.5-2.0 ds/cm2 are ideal. A lower pH may results in the lack of manganese or iron and a high pH affects the soil structure. The land should be ploughed / dug deep enough 3-4 times and brought to a fine tilth. Gerbera is grown on 1 meter wide and 30 cm high raised beds of convenient length, leaving 30-40 cm space between two beds, should be prepared by mixing farm yard manure ( 8-10 kg/m2) and sand ( 3-4 kg/m2) into the prepared beds or beds may be prepared by mixing farm yard manure, sand and coconut coir in 2:1:1 ratio.

60 cm

45 cm

1.4.4 Disinfection or Sterilization of Soil Before taking up transplanting, soil sterilization or disinfection of the prepared beds is absolutely necessary. It would minimize the infestation of the soil borne pathogens, which would otherwise destroy the crop partially or completely. The raised beds should be drenched by 4 % solution of formaldehyde (1-1.2 litre/m2) 24 and immediately covered with air tight polyethylene film for 4-5 days. Soon Major Cut Flower after, the treated beds should be watered thoroughly to drain off the chemical after disinfestations and subsequent washing out of the soil; it is advised to wait for two weeks before taking up transplanting. Soil disinfection may also be done with methyl bromide (@ 30 g/m2 area). Growing medium may also be sterilized by application of Basamid @ 40 g/m2 area. The treated beds have to be covered gas proof by polyethylene film for 6-7 days. A few days before transplanting neem cake @ 1 kg/m2 can be incorporated into the prepared beds. Alongwith this Furadan @ 10 g/m2 can be applied as a preventive measure against the Nematodes. 1.4.5 Transplanting Proper planting is important. If the plants are planted too deep the crown rot is encouraged and too shallow the exposed roots are easily disturbed and plants may wilt and die. The young plants should be planted so that the crown is slightly 2-3 cm above the surrounding soil level. The crown must be dried out between two watering; otherwise condition will be ideal for infection of Phytophthora cryptogea. Planting can be adopted at a spacing of 30 x 30 cm, in three rows per bed of one-meter width. Plantlets to be transplanted without disturbing the root ball. After planting, the relative humidity inside the greenhouse should be kept 70-80 % or shade nets should remain closed for 4-6 weeks to avoid the desiccation of the plants. 1.4.6 Watering or Irrigation of Gerbera Although gerbera crop requires a constant supply of water, the soil surface should dry out between watering. The deep roots draw water from the base of the beds. Excessive dampness around the leaves and crowns encourages the incidence of Botrytis, powdery mildew and crown rot diseases. Immediately after transplanting, watering should be done using overhead sprinklers, watering cane, watering hose fitted with a ‘rain’ nozzle up to one month. Thereafter, gradually shift to drip irrigation. Generally, one dripper per plant is required. The average water requirement may be 700 ml/plant/day (4.5 to 6.0 litre/day/m2), depending on the season, soil texture, light intensity and crop stage. It is necessary to avoid over watering, even though plants tend to dry out rapidly due to their large leaf area. Watering can be done in 2-3 shifts a day. A watering shift should not be too short to ensure vertical flushing of excessive salts. On soils with insufficient drainage, irrigation should be limited to only one large watering before 10 am in order to let the soil dry out during the day. 1.4.7 Nutritional Requirement Gerbera requires a plenty of macro and micronutrients for proper growth and development. The first dose of fertilizers should be applied 10-15 days prior to the transplanting. Application of 10:15:20 g NPK/m2, respectively during first three months of transplanting will be helpful in better establishment and growth of the plants. From fourth month onwards application of 15:10:30 g NPK/m2 at two months intervals is desirable. Fertilization with 80 % of the recommended 25 Cut Flowers dose (1:10:30 g/m2) two months through straight fertilizers and remaining 20 % through the water soluble fertilizers reported cost effective to obtain the higher returns and good quality of cu flowers. Improved flower yield, stalk length and flower diameter can obtain by application of 15 tonne / ha vermicompost plus 75 % recommended dose of NPK (15:10:30 g/m2/two months). Spraying of micronutrient like boron, calcium, iron, copper and magnesium @ 0.15 % each, at monthly intervals is also desirable. Concentrated complex of micro-nutrients mixtures may also be sprayed (0.2 %) at monthly intervals for obtaining increased flower production.

Application of fertilizers through drip fertigation system preferably in the morning hours around 8.00 am is advisable. Fertilizers should be given 10 days after the transplanting. Initially 19:19:19 NPK should be given at 0.5 to 1.0 g/l of water on daily bases upto flowering stage. After appearing of the flowering, the fertigation should be given as per the following ratio: viz., 1:1:3:1: 0.2 NPK, Ca and Mg. Application of micro-nutrients through drip irrigation is also beneficial. However, it is suggested to analyze the soil and water samples once in two months regularly to fine tune the fertigation programme according to the soil and water analysis report. 1.4.8 Propagation of Gerbera Gerbera is commercially propagated either through suckers or tissue culture plantlets. Its propagation through tissue culture plantlets has become the predominant method to provide uniform flowering, free branching and pathogen free plants. Faster the delivery of the young plants, it is necessary to transplant them as soon as possible. It is good thing to keep them in a room without direct sun, arrange the boxes one by one without placing above each other. In this way it is possible to guarantee a good aeration. 1.4.9 Harvesting of Flowers The first flowering occurs in 7-12 weeks after transplanting. Harvesting of flowers should be done when outer 3-4 rows of the disc florets have fully developed. However, some growers remove the first flower as soon as feasible. They believe this will result in more rapid and uniform elongation of the remaining flowers. In a young plantation, the plants may be pulled loose while picking. Therefore, the first flowers have to be picked very carefully. The cut flowers should be pulled rather than cut, because cutting will have a stem stub on the growing plant that encourages the development of diseases. The base of the flower stem should be pushed slightly down and to one side and then separated from the crown with gentle upward tug. There is absolutely no need to apply knife, scissors, etc. while harvesting of flowers. Water movement through the basal portion of the stem is slower than through the segment 5-6 cm higher. Therefore, the basal 5-6 cm portion should be cut using very sharp knife removed before placing in the harvesting bucket. 1.4.10 Yield of Cut Flower Yield: The flower yield of gerbera crop depends upon the various factors like growing environment, varieties planted, spacing adopted, etc. The average yield under low cost naturally ventilated polyhouse is 30-45 flowers/plant/year (200- 250 flowers/m2/year). If properly maintained, healthy plants give economical yield for a period of 2½-3 years, after that plantation will have to be replaced. 26 1.4.11 Plant Protection Major Cut Flower A) Insect-pests :

i) White fly (Bemisia tabaci) lays eggs on the lower surface of the leaf. Nymphs and adults suck cell sap from the leaves resulting in discolouration, reduced plant vigour and development of the shooty mould on leaves. Removal and burring of heavily infested leaves check white flies build up. Chemical control includes sprays of dicholorovos, trizophos or phosphomidin @ 1.5-2 ml/l of water at regular intervals.

ii) Leaf miner (Limomyza trifolii) causes considerable damage to the foliage. Adults lay eggs in the leaves by punching. Maggots feed inside the leaves by leaving characteristic mines which turn brown, brittle and dry in case of heavy infestation. Removal and destruction of the heavily infested leaves reduce further damage. Spray during morning hours of pyrazophos, metasystox, or dimethoate @ 1.5-2 ml/l of water are quite effective measures.

iii) Aphids (Myzus persicae) attack growing flowers. Both nymphs and adults colonize on lower sides of petals and spread to entire flower in case of heavy infestation. Aphids suck the sap from the petals leading to disclouration, wilting and distortion of the flowers. Spray of monocrotophos or dimethoate @ 1.5-2 ml/l of water at regular intervals is quite effective to control aphids.

iv) Bud caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) laid eggs in groups on lower surfaces of the leaves. Early instars are gregarious in nature and feed on the leaves by scraping them. Black colored mature larvae migrate to growing buds and flowers and damage them. Collection and destruction of egg masses and leaves infested with early instars reduce the pest build up. Spray of methyl parathion or endosulphan @ 1.5-2 ml/l of water controlled this pest effectively.

B) Diseases :

i) Crown rot is a major disease and severe infection can destroy the entire gerbera crop. The crown of the plant turns dark and decays. The leaves of the infected plants wilt gradually, become dry and turn to radish brown colour. The infected roots develop a water brown colour. The disease can be effectively controlled by drenching of the root zone of infected plants with 0.2% solution of mataxyl, captan or carbendazim or copper oxychloride at fortnightly intervals.

ii) Powdery mildew (Erysiphae cichoracearum) infection causes white powdery coating on the leaves. Spraying with thiophanale methyl @ 1.5 %, carbendazim @ 0.2 %, hexaconazole @ 1 ml/l, triadimefon @ 1

g/l or dipotassium hydrogen orthophosphate (K2 HPO4) @ 4.3 g/l, are effective against this disease.

iii) Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) infected plants show yellowing of lower leaves. The collar portion shows vascular discoloration. Rouging and soil application of benzamidazoles (0.2 %) help in reducing the disease spread. 27 Cut Flowers iv) Root Rot is caused by Pythium. Root skin is easily removed and finally wilting of the plants. Avoid excess watering. Drenching with Benlate @ 2 gm/l or with Bavistin @ 2 gm/l is helpful to control the root rot.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) What are the most common varieties of gerbera being grown commercially under greenhouse? ...... 2) What is the most common nutrient found deficient in gerbera? ...... 3) What do you understand by crown ? How these crown separated from the mother stock? ...... 4) What is the fertigation schedule and when the gerbera is grown under greenhouse? ...... 28 Major Cut Flower 1.5 STATICE

It is known as Limonium and is a genus of 120 flower species. Members are also known as Sea Lavender, Statice, or Marsh-rosemary. Limonium is in Plumbaginaceae, the plumbago or leadwort family. Despite their common names, species are not related to the lavenders or to rosemary.

The leaves are simple, entire to lobed, and from 1- 30 cm long and 0.5-10 cm broad; most of the leaves are produced in a dense basal rosette, with the flowering stems bearing only small brown scale- leaves (bracts). The flowers are produced on a branched panicle or corymb, the individual flowers small (4-10 mm long) with a five-lobed calyx and corolla, and five stamens; the flower colour is pink, violet to purple in most species, white or yellow in a few. Many of the species are apomictic. The fruit is a small capsule containing a single seed, partly enclosed by the persistent calyx. 1.5.1 Species Statics has between 120-150 species in the genus, many of them local endemic species with a very restricted range. Some are use as a cut flower having long stem, in pink, purple, white colour. Species not given a common name are generally referred to simply as “Sea-lavender”, “Statice” or “Marsh-rosemary”. 1.5.2 Soil and Climate It can be easily grown in sandy loam soil in tropical and sub-tropical climate with wide range of temperature. Statice is being grown commercially, under greenhouse conditions for year round production.

Even though these plants are native of salt marshes, they may flourish in any good garden soil. The border and rock garden kinds need well-drained soil and a sunny position. Heavy clay soil must be replaced with compost or lightened by adding quantities of sand or cinders. Firm planting should be done in the spring. They aren’t disturbed for many years because they flower the best when well established. If they are growing poorly, they should be top-dressed with well- decayed manure in the spring. 1.5.3 Seed Sowing and Planting Propagation is from seeds that have been cleaned. The seeds are small in size, 10,000 seeds / 28 g, and take 5-9 days for germination at 18-21°C. Seedlings should be fertilized with low concentration on N fertilizer. Any garden soil is suitable for growing statice but preferably fertile loamy soil. It is fairly drought resistant and, therefore, can be grown in borders and rockeries. The seedlings are transplanted when they attain a height of 4-5 cm and for this 3-4 weeks are required. Planting distance between rows and plants should be 25-30 cm for border or rock garden. For commercial flower production, transplanting of seedlings is recommended at a spacing of 15 cm between plants and 30-45 cm between rows. At such spacing, 4-5 rows are usually separated with 75-90 cm path between two groups. 29 Cut Flowers 1.5.4 Varieties Annuals - L. sinuatum; L. Bonduellii; (These two are used for drying.); L. Suworowii. Perennials - L. macrophyllum; L. latifolium; L. tataricum nanum (also known as L. incanum nanum); L. gmelinii; L. binervosum; L. caesium; L. minutum; L. spathulatum; L. eximium. Shrubby - L. macrophyllum (mentioned above); L. brassicaefolium; L. imbricatum; L. puberulum. The most common varieties are Midnight blue, Blue Perfection, Lavender Queen, Iceberg, Purple Monarch and Gold Coast. 1.5.5 Irrigation Take care when watering because these plants are prone to decay at soil level. The best way to water is by waiting until the soil is fairly dry before wetting. Good drainage is a must. 1.5.6 Propagation It is being propagated through seeds. Seeds may be sown in a pot or pan filled with light soil. Set them in a cold frame or slightly heated greenhouse and once the seeds have sprouted they are pricked out and placed in a large pan or seed flat. Before they are planted outdoors, at 6 inches apart, they should be hardened off. Seeds may also be sown outside when the soil is warm. Small side shoots having rosettes of leaves can be taken off and inserted in pots of sandy soil in the summer. Set them in a shady frame and they’ll form roots quickly. The old plants may also be lifted and divided in the spring. Plant the pieces where they are to grow. 1.5.7 Fertilizers Statice requires balanced fertilizer to meet its demand for nutrients. Field should be fertilized with wellrotten farmyard manure @ 50 tonnes/ha and incorporated 10-15 days before transplanting. Application of 100 kg each of N, P and K per- hectare will be adequate for the proper growth and flowering. Half of the N and full P and K should be incorporated in the soil 3-4 days before transplanting and remaining half of the N should be applied one month after first application. 1.5.8 Plant Protections i) Disease: Statice is attacked by several diseases. Damping off mainly caused by Botrytis cinerea is generally observed in nursery beds. Soaking the seed in hot water (52°C) for 30 minutes or in 0.5 % Sodium hypochloride for 2 minutes.

ii) Anthracnose: Anthracnose is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. This fungus also produces crown rot and lesions on leaves, stems and flower parts. Cultivars like Gold Coast are more susceptible. Spraying the crop with Bavistin (0.1 %) or Dithane Z-78 (0.2 %) at weekly interval can control the disease effectively. Healthy seeds should be used while raising the nursery. The diseased plant debris should be destroyed.

iii) Alternaria: Sp. Cercospora sp., Fusicladium staticis and Phyllosticta spp. Cause leaf spot on statice. Aster yellow is caused by the California strain of the virus. 30 1.5.9 Harvesting of Flowers Major Cut Flower Statice flowers are harvested when calyces of individual flowers have mostly opened and are showing colour. Flowers can be stored for 2-3 weeks at 2°C. The vase-life of flowers is 1-2 weeks in fresh arrangement and one year or more when used as dried flowers. They are dried by cutting and hanging downwards in an airy, dry, dust-proof shed.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Write down the botanical name and family of Statice...... 2) Write down the utility of Statice...... 3) Write down the most common variety of Statice...... 4) What should be the optimum planting time under more than plain and hills? ...... 31 Cut Flowers 1.6 ROSE

Rose flower is luxury product and also competes with other luxury items such as confectionary and sweets for discretionary spending money by the consumer. Therefore, consumer has demand for certain standard of quality and value for money. Some of the quality aspects are colour, freshness, stem length, free from the pests, fragrance and vase life. In last three decades floriculture industry has taken root in India. However, the Indian floriculture industry is completely dominated by traditional flower growing in open field mostly catering to the domestic demand. The first-ever machines which can grade flower like roses not just on the length but also on colour and size are now operational.

Rose is one of the natures beautiful creations and is universally acclaimed as the “Queen of Flowers”. It is top ranking cut flower in the flower trade on the basis of average production and consumption. Great diversity in plant growth, flower colour, flower shape, fragrance, slow opening of buds and good keeping quality made rose so popular that it is grown commercially to meet the demand of cut blooms. In India roses are grown for cut flowers, making essential oil, rose water and gulkand. Whereas it’s dried petals are used for making incense sticks.

The Indian share of world floriculture trade is hardly 0.4 per cent and the area devoted to the floricultural export is increasing day by day. Technical collaboration with the international companies in this field has resulted in setting up the state of art production facilities and sophisticated greenhouses that are intrinsic to the maintenance of light, temperature and humidity. Over 470 (inclusive 160 Export Oriented Units) units are now in operation in India. In spite of the late entry Indian Industry rapid stride and nearly 600 ha of land is brought under protected cultivation of floricultural crops till date. 1.6.1 Botanical Description Roses are perennial belonging to the family Rosaceae. There are about 120 species of roses and thousands of varieties. The modern rose originates from enormous cross breeding among species from far and near east crossed with species from South Europe. The hybrid teas have long stems, a large flower bud and pleasant fragrance. Most of polyanthus is climbers and dwarf perpetually flowering forms. The greenhouse rose (R. hybrida) is an evergreen bush with a terminal flower and internal induction for flowering. Floribundas are hybrids of dwarf polyanthus and tea hybrids. They have big or small flowers. They can produce large quantities of short stems. 1.6.2 Propagation People are not aware of different propagation techniques of rose, therefore they have to purchase rose planting materials from nurseries at very high cost. So the main propagation methods, through which you can produce plants at high level, are as below:

Roses can be propagated both by seeds and by various vegetative methods. But now-a-days tissue culture techniques are being used for the production of disease free plants in large number.

32 A) Sexual Propagation Major Cut Flower i) Seed propagation : This method of propagation is generally adopted by breeders for developing new cultivars with desirable characters. Seedlings of rose species are also used as stock for grafting or budding. The rose fruits (hips) are harvested when fully ripe and thoroughly dried before extraction of seeds. In rose seed germination is very poor because most of the seeds when mature are in resting conditions requiring an after ripening period before germination. So stratification of seeds at 1.6-4.4°C for 6 weeks improves germination. Germination can also be improved with scarification with different chemicals like sulphuric acid for 1-2 hours.

ii) Care of seedlings : For raising seedlings clean seeds are sown about 5 cm apart in pairs in large pots, and compost with adequate organic matter. The flower buds appeared on new seedlings should be pinched off until plants become reasonably large and sturdy. A continuous moisture and nutrient supply control of weeds, diseases and pests contribute to successful seedling growth.

B) Vegetative or Asexual Propagation Roses are propagated by various vegetative methods like cutting, layering, budding and grafting.

a) Cutting : Propagation by cutting is normally done to raise rootstocks for grafting or budding and also adopted for multiplying vigorous types of cultivar, climbers, rambler, polyantha and miniatures. Cuttings are always prepared from shoot. Root cuttings have also been found to form shoots and ultimately a new plant.

i) Stem cutting : It is one of the least expensive and easiest methods of rose multiplication. Cuttings may be single, double or triple eyed, the later being preferred as there is greater chance for more shoot and better root formation. Cutting should normally be taken during the monsoon or spring. The cuttings (15-20 cm long) are made from shoots of pencil thickness. Sand is the most ideal medium for rooting of cuttings. 2-3 buds should be embedded for rooting and 4-5 should be above ground to give shoot system.

The cuttings are usually kept 3 cm apart in a row and 8 cm between the rows. After planting the cuttings, the medium is watered and care is taken to avoid over watering and water logging. In about 4- 6 weeks, the rooted cuttings will be ready for transplanting. The ideal time for raising rooted cuttings is in the month of July. Growth regulator like IBA at 500 ppm or dry rooting power can be used for treating the cuttings before planting in the sand medium to improve rootings. To prevent the cuttings from dehydrating through 33 Cut Flowers the leaves and stems, the cutting are often propagated under mist systems in controlled greenhouses or tunnels. Adequate moisture in the soil and air humidity is to be maintained. Commercial growers usually use mist system to prevent wilting. A fine mist of water is sprayed over the cutting for a few seconds regularly. Acclimatization of newly rooted plants should be done gradually.

ii) Root cutting : Some rose species like Rosa blanda, R. nitida, R. virginiana can be propagated by root cuttings. The cuttings should be taken from young and healthy plants and it is important to maintain polarity when planting. The cuttings should be inserted vertically with the upper most ends at level of the rooting media.

b) Layering : This type of vegetative propagation is usually limited to climbing and rambling roses and usually practiced during the monsoon or early spring and leads to own rooted plants. Mainly 2 types, ground layering and air layering are used.

i) Ground layering : It is performed by the bending shoot to the ground and covers it with soil leaving the terminal end exposed. Root promoting substance can also be used for improving root formation in layers. Rooting usually takes place in a month or so and the layered shoot is detached 15-20 days after root formation.

ii) Air Layering : It consists of removing a ring of bark (about 2.5 cm long) from stem, around the shoot and wrap sphagnum moss around the ringed portion and covering with polythene film. For the improvement of root formation in air-layer some root promoting substances can be used.

c) Grafting : Inarching or cleft grafting is also a method of propagation. The rootstocks are raised in small pots or polythene bags. The scions are selected according the stocks. The scion shoot should be of medium texture, similar thickness of both stock and scion, free from pests and diseases and having 4-5 eyes in length. But it is costlier than budded plants and commercially not used.

d) Budding : Budding is the most popular and successful method for multiplying roses. It provides larger number of plants than cuttings, layering or grafting as a single shoot of the desired scion furnishing a number of buds for budding. Shield or T-bud is the method ordinarily used. On the selected rootstock, the buds are inserted into a T-shaped incision on the pencil thick rootshock and then tied with suitable wrapping material. Several other budding techniques like forkert, patch, chip, skin etc. have also been tried in rose with varying degree of success.

The time of budding varies from place to place and the right stage of budding is when plants have adequate sap flow and the cambium tissue is highly active. The best time to bud roses in eastern India is from January to March, while in northern India it is from November to February. In places with mild climate, like Bangalore, Pune budding can be done throughout the year.

34 e) Some Common Rootstocks in India are as follows : Major Cut Flower i) Rosa multiflora Tolerant to nematode and frost. It performs well in Bihar, Bengal and in the hills. ii) Rosa bourboniana (Edouard Rose) Susceptible to powdery mildew and die back diseases. Plants provide straight stems and mostly used in northern plains of India for budding standard roses. iii) Rosa indica var odorata Well adapted to both excessively dry and wet soil. Plant raised on this rootstock is vigorous and produce flower with longer stems. It is resistant to powdery mildew and insect pests and recommended for northern plains of India. f) Quality of ideal rootstock : Stock plant should have fibrous root system and it should be easily propagated by cuttings with vigorous growth habit, healthy and resistant to disease and frost, uniform growth with thick bark and reasonably should be free from suckers. It should support the budding plant for a long time and should withstand a wide range of soil and climatic conditions.

g) Micro-propagation : Propagating in vitro is a rapid and disease free method for multiplication of plants in roses. Different stages of micro- propagation are, culture establishment, shoot proliferation, rooting and acclimatization. Shoots are proliferated by using a modified M.S. (Murashige and Skoog’s) high salt supplemented medium with hormones. Further roots are produced by using different auxins and rooted plants are acclimatized and successfully transferred to soil after 2-3 month. In micro-propagation of rose, explants that can be used are auxiliary buds, petals and leaves. 1.6.3 Varieties At present there are more than hundred varieties of cut roses grown all over the world and hundreds of the new varieties are added every year. The important IARI Roses are: Jawahar, Pusa Garima, Priyadarshini, Dr. B.P. Pal, Mother Teresa, Lahar, Bhim, Arunima, Pusa Muskan, Pusa Mansij, Mechak, Himangine, Pusa Arun, Mridula, Pusa Bahadur, Pusa Priya, Pusa Guarav. Other verities are Angelique, Barolina, Balami, First Red, Picture, Pasadena, Priyadarshini, Super Star, Golden Gate, Mercedes, Noblesse etc. 1.6.4 Soil In open field conditions different factors that are responsible for quality bloom production are as follows. i) Soil and growing media : If the roses are to be grown in the soil with fertigation schedules the optimum soil conditions required should be ideal with the which are deep (80 cm) sandy loam having 6.5 pH with 1.2 to 1.5 EC. Rockwool, perlite, sponge, coco-fine fiber and thermo-foam are some of the inert soilless media used in agriculture. Various organic mediums like cocopeat, peat-moss, composted manure and other organic mixtures are 35 Cut Flowers active in absorbing and releasing fertilizers and are very strong buffers. Chemical changes in such media are slow and need less frequent monitoring of fertigation. In general the roses are planted under soilless culture having coco-peat and perlite and vermiculite mixture of 80:10:10 ratio in double layer tray and the amount of fertigation required is decided by achieving 30-50 % drainage rate. When water quality is good, a rinse with lesser percentage of drainage is sufficient. The excess water is drained all the way to sides and collected through drain to be used in the open fields. It can be grown in any soil having proper drainage; the ideal soil should be medium loam having sufficient organic matter with pH of 6.0 to 7.5. 1.6.5 Essential Environment Factor The most important point regarding environment is to remember that roses love sunshine and free ventilation. The plants should be free from shades of trees and protected from the strong winds. Humidity also plays an important role in the incidence of pests and disease affecting the growth and flowering. Climate requirements of greenhouse are as follows.

In the northern plains, roses flower best during winter, whereas in the temperate hilly regions during summer. Banglore, Pune and Nasik have mild climate, where roses flower almost throughout the year. Moderately cool climate with bright sunshine and free ventilation is very good for rose growing. a) Light : Plants growing under shade produce thinner leaves with low chlorophyll content, less flower yield and poor development of colour. i) Radiation : High and full without shading at the canopy level of plants. b) Temperatures : Most rose cultivars grow best at a temperature range of 15- 26°C producing good quality and quantity of flowers which may vary upto some extent according to the cultivars. To produce quality bloom day and 36 night temperature should be as follow. i) Day temperatures : 24-26°C Major Cut Flower ii) Night temperatures : 18ºC c) Humidity : High relative humidity causes more incidence of certain diseases and pests while lack of it may result in reduced size of leaves, flowers and stems. It should be as follow. i) Relative Humidity : 70-85 % d) CO2 :

i) CO2 : 1000 ppm

1.6.6 Production Factors i) Planting time : Planting time depends mainly on the climatic conditions of the region. In general roses can be planted any time except hot sunny days and during heavy rains when the soil is wet. But winter months are the best and safest. The suitable time for planting roses in the plains of India is during September - October and in the hills during February - March. ii) Planting depth and Distance : The position of the bud union should be looked into. In temperate region season the bud union should be slightly below the soil. In India better results are obtained if the planting is done with bud union 2-3 cm above the soil level. In open 60 x 60 cm (Row-Row x Plant-Plant) or 60 x 30 cm is common distance. But now a day closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm is also very common. Planting distance for Hybrid Tea (2 x 2 ft) Floribundas (2 x 2 ft), miniatures (1.5 x 1.5 ft), Polyanthas (1.5 x 1.5 ft), and for climbers (3 x 3 ft). iii) Planting : 2 rows per bed @ 0.40 m (from row to row) and 20 cm spacing. The bed should be ridged to the extent that the roots are aerated. Planting density is kept depending upon the varieties and types ranging from 7 to 14 plants per sqm that can be planted to cover the population of 70,000 to 1,40,000 plants per ha. 1.6.7 Pruning, Bending, Development of Bush, Disbudding and De-shooting Pruning facilitates floriferousness bender improving flower quality and plant vigour. Also, the diseased and unproductive growth are removed. It provides strong framework. Pruning is done when the plant is at dormant or near dormant stage. The time of pruning is dependent on prevailing climatic conditions of the region. Under temperate condition, it is done in spring or late autumn. Under North-Indian conditions, the best time of pruning is in the months of September - October. In same southern states, it is done twice, on in late November and then in late June. In pruning cut is made at about half a centimeter above the vigorous bud growing outwardly. The cut should be clean and sharp and immediately be 37 Cut Flowers painted with a fungicidal preparation made by mixing 4 parts of red lead, 4 parts of copper carbonate and 5 parts of linseed oil. Generally strong and healthy plants are pruned lightly moderate grows moderately and weak plants relatively hard. Pruning: Pruning is an important operation for maintenance of floriferousness and flower quality along with vigour of rose plants. The main objectives of pruning are to remove weak and unproductive shoots which allows air and light to reach centre plant. It keeps the plant in proper shape and size and also forces the plant buds to break and grow to produce quality flowers. It also helps in maintenance of proper balance between vegetative growth and flowering.

Pruning should be done when plants are less active or dormant. In northern plains of India it is mainly done during October-November. The basic rule of pruning is to cut half centimetre above the vigorous, outward directed bud by giving a slanting cut because it does not retain moisture and prevents fungal growth.

In H.T. roses all dead, weak, damaged, diseased and crossing shoots are removed from the base retaining only 4-5 healthy basal shoots. Moderately severe pruning appears to be ideal.

In floribunda main objective of pruning is to produce abundant flowers. It is done by removing older growth at every point and young growth is shortened by about 1/3 or 1/2. Whereas in polyantha / miniature removal of only dead, diseased or over crowded branches serve the purpose. a) De-shooting and bending : Sprouting of the buds just below the flower and leaf should be removed regularly because being between shoot and leaf lead to the small buds. Dead shoots are removed immediately. Otherwise they serve as a good surface for fungi. b) Bending : Leaf is the source of the food. Therefore, a balance between the source (assimilation) and sink (dissimilation) is to be maintained. In three month old plants bending induce the cytokinins which encourage the sprouting of shoots to increase the production surface and framework of the plant into a young bush. Then, after the unproductive and thin shoots are regularly bended. Picking flowers at the height of 40 to 80 cm. c) Disbudding is an important operation done by removing buds and retaining only central one resulting in large flower with better quality. d) Deshooting is removal of lateral shoots to allow only terminal shoots. It is necessary otherwise plants get heavily branched with large number of small flowers. 1.6.8 Manuring, Fertilization and Irrigation Rose is a nutrient loving plant and about 16 elements have been known to play important role for its growth and development. Rose should be fed with both 38 organic and inorganic sources. One hundred gram of mixture containing Major Cut Flower Groundnut cake-(5 kg), bonemeal (5 kg), ammorphos (11:48)-(2 kg), Ammonium sulphate are used after pruning per plant.

After pruning N (520 kg), P2O5 (868 kg) and K2O (694 kg)/ ha has been recommended. It is advisable to apply the fertilizers in three split doses and application should be made when there is sufficient moisture in the soil. The first application of the fertilizers should be given 15 days after pruning when the new growth will start, i.e. in October then December and third dose in February.

The fertilizer concentration required for fertigation of mature roses in greenhouse during winter and summer seasons are 300:200:300 ppm at weekly interval. i) Micronutrients : The micronutrients have been identified as essential elements for plant growth and they are required in a small quantity (g ha-1). These micronutrients are Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zink (Zn), Copper (Cu), Boron (B); Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine (Cl) and Nickl (Ni). These nutrient are also essential for quality production of cut flower like Rose and other cut flowers. It has been observed that omission of any one micronutrient (Fe,Mn,B,Cu,Zn,) appreciably reduced the number of leaves, leteral shoots and flower production. The Concentration of these micronutrient generally require very low @ 1000, 700, 1000, 8000, 5000 mg-1 respectively. However actual rates of micronutrients applied, should be adjusted based on the soil and tissue analysis results or depending on soil conditions. ii) Foliarfeeding: It is an excellent supplement to root feeding. This should start when there are enough new leaves on the plant after pruning and they show signs of the maturity. This should not be done when the plant is in full bloom, lest the blooms are damaged by the spray. This should be done very early in the morning preferably before 8 am on a clear day. The spray is made up of urea 2 parts, dihydrogen ammonium phosphate 1 part, potassium phosphate 1 part and potassium nitrate 1 part. Three grams of this mixture per litre of water is sprayed along with 1.5 gm of teepol of Zinc Sulphate 1 part of liquid soap at 10 days interval until last flush in March. A mixture managanese sulphate 1 part, magnesium sulphate 1 part, chelated iron 1 part and borax ¼ part is sprayed @ 1 g/litre of water once in two months for supplying trace or minor elements. iii) Irrigation: After pruning when you apply first dose of manure to rose filled, irrigated immediately. The frequency of irrigation in roses depends on many factors such as growth, soil texture, climate and glass house or filled condition etc. what providing adequate soil moistures at all stages of growth and flowering is essential. 1.6.9 Harvesting and Post Harvest Management of Flower i) Post-harvest management : A flower harvested at the tight bud stage has long vase life. Picking stage determines the keeping quality of the flower which differs among the varieties. Prematurely harvested bud will bend from the neck even if placed in water. After picking of flowers they should be placed in clean water treated with a mild bactericide and kept in a cool chamber at around 10°C until they are packed for cooled storage before transit. 39 Cut Flowers ii) Packing: After pre-cooling of the cut flowers, the packing makes the difference to retain the quality in stacks and the flower remain fresh for longer time. The cut roses are packed dry in the standard boxes of 122 cm x 51 cm x 30.5 cm (48" x 20" x 12") size and wet packing of the rose cut stems is done in the boxes of 33 cm x 33 cm x 56 cm (13" x13" x 22") size and stored at 0.5 to 2°C in preservative. However, the roses should be stored even while transit as dry pack at the temperature 0.5 to 0°C. 1.6.10 Plant Protection a) Insects - pests : The most common insects are Aphids, Jassids, Scales and Thrips and red Caterpillars. The symptoms of scale are seen in the picture. i) Aphids: Attack the rose plant in the month of December to March. Control : By dusting 2 % Pyrodust or Bsudin, 28.35 gm per litre of water or by spraying 0.1-0.2 % Melathion or Rogor. ii) Thrips : It attack the plant in the month of December - March. Control: Spray the rose plants with 0.1-0.2 % solution of Melathion or Rogor. iii) Chafer Beetel and Thrips : These attack the rose plants in the month of July and August. Control: Spray with 0.2 % solutions of Rogor. iv) Red Scale: It attack the rose crops in the month of August to October and April. Control: Spray the rose crops with 0.1% Parathion Solutions. b) Diseases i) Die-back : It is one of the major diseases of rose, particularly in India. The stem and roots of the dead plants show browning of internal tissues. Diplodia rosarum is the causal organism. It may occur through improper use of fertilizers, improper waterning, borer damage, poor drainage, lack of light. Proper cultural practice is the prevention for die back in roses. Some systemic fungicide like carbendazim (1g/l) may also be used as soil drench. ii) Powdery-Mildew : This major disease of rose cause much damage to roses all over the world. It is caused by the fungus Sphaerotheca pannosa. It can be controlled by applying sulphur but most of the roses are susceptible to sulphur injury. iii) Black-Spot : This is a fungal disease caused by Diplocarpon rosae. Dark brown, circular spots with fringe borders present on both sides of leaflets. Benlate can be used as control measure. iv) Stem blight : This disease caused by fungi associated with die back. Regular spray of captan (2000 ppm) and such other fungicides control the infection. 40 v) Rust : Rose rust is considered as a serious disease of rose and most Major Cut Flower common in warm and humid areas.

Check Your Progress Exercise 5 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Give a list of different product from roses...... 2) Discuss most common species of roses...... 3) What are the most problem of root not of roses being used for budding ? ...... 4) Write down most common variety of hybrid T rose......

1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied about the importance, economics, growing components of major cut flowers. They are all considered as commercial flowers and each have good return even higher than many of the cereal crops. They can be grown even round the year provided growing environments are made favourable with all possible inputs viz. soil, climate, fertilizers, plant protection 41 Cut Flowers measures, proper harvesting and handling as we have described under this unit. They fetch better price if the quality is maintained. Many of high value cut flowers have better scope for export in addition to domestic trade.

1.8 KEY WORDS

Axil : The angle between the leaf or leaf stalk and stem from which new leaf or side-shoot growth and flower buds arise. Buds found here are known as axillary buds. Side- shoot growth is prevented if they are pinched out.

Cultivar : A type of plant of flower that has been developed in cultivation and named by the plant breeder. Cultivar names are enclosed by quotation marks to distinguish them from the scientific names.

Cutting : A term usually applied to stem cutting. This is a section of stem, 7-10cm long (usually the growing tip), which is used in propagation to root and develop into a new plant.

Dieback : The death of a section stem. This is often caused by faulty pruning.

EC : Electro conductivity of soil or water. Generally plant required for good growth -1-EC of soil or water.

Genus : A group of allied species. Usually a group of plants (though sometimes only one) which are similar in structure and which most probably evolved from a common ancestor. The genus name always begins with an upper case letter.

Growing tip : Also commonly known as growing point, this is the tip of a shoot from which vigorous new growth emerges.

Hybrid : A plant derived from two genetically different parents. Cross fertilization is common between plants of different species within the same genus. Plants arising from such crossings are known as primary hybrids.

Node : A stem joint at which the leaves are borne. The node may be notched or swollen and is a pointed.

Pinching : Also known as topping. A form of pruning practiced by gently removing the tip of shoots with forefinger and thumb to reduce growth.

pH : This is measurement of acidity or alkalinity of a soil, compost and water. pH-7 is neutral, below pH-7 is acidic and above pH-& is alkaline.

Rest period : A period within the 12-month season in which the plant should be allowed to become inactive, producing little or no leaf or root growth. 42 Rootstock : A vigorous plant which provides the root system in Major Cut Flower grafting. Also known as stock or a plant root system.

Scion : A hoot or bud of one species which is united to a stock of another plant by grafting, for propagation.

Species (Sp.) : The members of a genus are called species. From its seed each persistently breeds true to type in its main characteristics. A plant’s name is made up of at least two parts: the name of the genus and the name of the species.

Variety : A word used to refer to variations of the plant that have occurred in the wild, but sometimes incorrectly used to describe a form developed in horticulture. Cultivar is a more accurate term for the latter product.

1. 9 FURTHER REFERENCES 1) Bose, T.K. and Yadav, L.P. (ad.) (1989). Commercial Floriculture, Naya Prokash, Calcutta. 2) Larson, R.A. (1980). Introduction to Floriculture, Academic Press, New York. 3) Chadha, K.L. and Choudhury, B. (1986). Ornamental Horticulture in India, ICAR, New Delhi. 4) Kher, M.A. (1975). Chrysanthemum, Dutta Publishers, New Delhi. 5) Swarup, Vishnu (1997). Ornamental Horticulture, Macmillan, New Delhi. 6) Sindhu, S.S. and Choudhary, M.L. (2001). Commercial Flower Production, Division of Floriculture & Landscaping, IARI, New Delhi-12. 7) Pal, B.P. (2005). The Rose in India, ICAR, New Delhi.

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Carnation is being propagated through seed and cutting. However the soft wood cutting is most common and commercial method of propagation in carnation.

2) Stacking is important to give a support in the green house to have a quality bloom of carnation.

3) Pinching is a technique of removal terminal shoot to promote the axillary shoots to enhance the number of flowers per plant whereas removal of the axillary suit to promote the terminal growth to have better size of flowers. Both the techniques are helpful to promote the yield and quality of the flower.

4) Fusarium, Alternaria, Bacterial wilt, Rust, Rhizoctonia, and stem rot. 43 Cut Flowers Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) There are many types of chrysanthemum as discussed below i) Reflex : The disk florets are concealed and the ray florets reflex outwards to create a mop like appearance. ii) Regular Incurve : Similar to the irregular incurves, only usually smaller blooms, with nearly perfect globular form. Disk florets are completely concealed. They used to be called ‘Chinese’. iii) Decorative : Similar to reflex blooms without the mop like appearance. Disk florets are completely concealed, ray florets usually don’t radiate at more than a 90 degree angle to the stem. iv) Intermediate Incurve : These blooms are in-between the Irregular and Regular incurves in both size and form. They usually have broader florets and a more loosely composed bloom. Again, the disk florets are completely concealed. v) Pompon : The blooms are fully double, of small size, and almost completely globular in form. vi) Single/Semi-Double : These blooms have completely exposed disk florets, with between 1 and 7 rows of ray florets, usually radiating at not more than a 90 degree angle to the stem. vii) Anemone : The disk florets are prominently featured, quite often raised and overshadowing the ray florets. viii) Spoon : The disk florets are visible and the long tubular ray florets are speculating. ix) Quill : The disk florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube like. x) Spider : The disk florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube like with hooked or barbed ends, hanging loosely around the stem. xi) Brush & Thistle : The disk florets may be visible. The ray florets are often tube like, and project all around the flower head, or project parallel to the stem.

2) Chrysanthemum is propagated through suckers, soft wood cutting and seeds. The most common and commercial practices is softwood cutting to get quality bloom with higher production.

3) Pinching is a technique of removal terminal shoot to promote the axillary shoots to enhance the number of flowers per plant whereas removal of the axillary suit to promote the terminal growth to have better size of flowers. Both the techniques are helpful to promote the yield and quality of the flower.

4) The spray type of chrysanthemum have multiple type of flowers even in cluster and comparatively smaller size of flower where as the standard type bears bigger size of flowers with long stick which is normally grown in the pots. 44 Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Major Cut Flower

1) Cabana, Daikiri, Ellymay, Essandre, Evening Bells, Feugo, Gold Spot, Golden Gate, Ibiza, Jankfrau, Lindessa, Lyonella, Optima, Ornella, Paganini Piton, Polar, Red Monarch, Rosabella, Ruby Red, Sangria, Sunway, Tiramisu, Twiggy etc.

2) Molybedenm, magnesium & Ferric are the most common nutrient found deficient.

3) The crowns are the off shoots/ daughter plants coming out from the base of the mother plants, just after the flowering is over. They are being separated by uprooting the plants and replanting each individual separately.

4) NPK in the 19:19:19 normally liquid fertigation is given in the greenhouse crop at weekly interval. Since the Gerbera is proved to micronutrient deficiency therefore multiplex or a combination of micronutrient especially ferric molybdenum and magnesium should also be given at a regular in time to have a better growth of flowering.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4 1) Statice is botanically known as Limonium and belongs to family Plumbaginaceae. 2) Statice is being used as a fresh flower as well as potted flowers and due its very good self life it is used as a dry flower. 3) The most common varieties are Midnight blue, Blue Perfection, Lavender Queen, Iceberg, Purple Monarch and Gold Coast. 4) The best time of sowing under plain Oct where as under hills seeds can be shown during Feb-March for raising seedlings.

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1) A number of products are prepared from roses like perfume, gulkand, rose water in addition to uses as cut flowers.

2) Rosa indica, Rosa centifolia, Rosa damascena, Rosa bourbiana, Rosa moschata etc.

3) Rosa indica var. odorata of the most common root stock used under northern Indian conditions. Whereas Rosa multifora are used for central India and Rosa bourbiana is extensively used in southern part of the country.

4) Jawahar, Pusa Garima, Priyadarshini, Dr. B.P. Pal, Mother Teresa, Lahar, Bhim, Arunima, Pusa Muskan, Pusa Mansij, Mechak, Himangine, Pusa Arun, Mridula, Pusa Bahadur, Pusa Priya, Pusa Guarav.

45 Cut Flowers UNIT 2 IRIS (BULBOUS), LILIUM AND NARCISSUS

Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Iris (bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus 2.2.1 Iris (bulbous) 2.2.1.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 2.2.1.2 Propagation 2.2.1.3 Climate Requirements 2.2.1.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting, Mulching and Weed control 2.2.1.5 Irrigation and Nutrition 2.2.1.6 Growth, Development, Dormancy, Flowering and Flower Forcing 2.2.1.7 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology 2.2.1.8 Lifting of Bulbs and Storage 2.2.1.9 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders 2.2.2 Lilium 2.2.2.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 2.2.2.2 Propagation 2.2.2.3 Climate Requirements 2.2.2.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control 2.2.2.5 Irrigation and Nutrition 2.2.2.6 Growth, Development and Flowering 2.2.2.7 Flower Regulation 2.2.2.8 Flower Forcing 2.2.2.9 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology 2.2.2.10 Lifting, Dormancy and Storage of Bulbs 2.2.2.11 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders 2.2.3 Narcissus 2.2.3.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 2.2.3.2 Propagation 2.2.3.3 Climate Requirements 2.2.3.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control 2.2.3.5 Irrigation and Nutrition 2.2.3.6 Growth, Development, Flowering and Flower Forcing 2.2.3.7 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology 2.2.3.8 Lifting, Dormancy and Storage of Bulbs 2.2.3.9 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders 2.3 Let Us Sum Up 2.4 Key Words 2.5 Further References 2.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 46 Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and 2.0 OBJECTIVES Narcissus

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to: explain the bulbous and cormous ornamentals and their various uses, distinguish the true bulbous ornamentals from other bulbous plants, know various commercial plants falling under true bulbous ornamentals, know about the classification, important species and various varieties of Iris, Lilium and Narcissus, describe their propagational methods, soils, planting, nutritional requirements and other cultural practices, know their growth habits, influence of light and temperature for inducing flowering and bulb production, explain how and when to harvest the flowers and bulbs and their post harvest and storage techniques, and know various insect-pests, diseases and physiological disorders attacking the crops and their remedial measures. 2.1 INTRODUCTION

Bulbous ornamentals are also called ornamental bulbs, flower bulbs (flowering and non-flowering) and geophytes. These are plant species that survive under the adversities of weather conditions not only by seeds but also by specialized underground storage organs, whether it is cold winters or hot and dry summers. Annuals perennate only through seeds which may remain viable for varying periods - a few days to many years or even centuries but geophytes can rely, in addition, on special underground storage organs such as bulbs [Amaryllis, Fritillaria, Haemanthus, Hippeastrum, Hyacinthus, Leucojum, Lilium, Narcissus, Iris (bulbous), Ornithogalum, Polianthes, Sprekelia, Tigridia, Tulipa, Zephyranthes, etc.], corms [Crocus, Freesia, Gladiolus, Homoglossum, Sparaxis, Tritonia, Watsonia, etc.], rhizomes [Alstroemeria, Anemone, Anigozanthos, Caladium, Canna, Hedychium, Iris (bearded, beardless and crested), Oxalis, Zantedeschia, etc.] and tubers [Achimenes, Agapanthus, Arum, Begonia (tuberous), Cyclamen, Dahlia (root tuber/tuberous roots), Eremurus, Gloriosa, Ranunculus (root tuber), Sinningia, etc.]. Horticulturally, the bulb means every plant having underground storage organs whether it is true bulb, corm, tuber or rhizomes but botanically they are separate entities.

The bulb (true botanical bulb) is a sort of plant in embryo, consisting of a very short stem known as disc which constitutes of tough tissues, the basal plate with a shoot protected by modified white and fleshy leaf bases (scales), altered or adapted so for storage. The scales contain stored food reserves, viz., carbohydrates (starch, sugar) and certain proteins. From the basal plate thin adventitious roots sprout. They are of two types: tunicated where leaves are layered closely around each other and where outermost one is often dry and brown in colour and form a tunic around the bulb e.g. Hyacinthus, Narcissus and Tulipa whereas in other bulbs i.e. non-tunicated ones the leaves though not wrapped but overlap each other, are more succulent which do not form a tunic and such bulbs are known as scaly bulbs, e.g. Fritillaria and Lilium. Most bulbs (except Cardiocrinum) are 47 Cut Flowers perennial and renew annually the food stored in the scales. In the centre of the bulb is an embryo shoot, often with a complete embryo flower. Most bulbs form offsets or small bulbs (bulblets) around themselves, and sometimes the mother bulb itself splits into 2-5 smaller bulbs. In certain genera or species e.g. Lilium tigrinum, very small bulbs called as bulbils are formed on the flowering stems, in the axils of the leaves, which when detached and planted in suitable media and situation, grow into full sized bulbs.

Under this unit three crops, viz., Iris (bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus are being described. 2.2.1 Iris (bulbous) (Family - Iridaceae) (Common name Rainbow flower)

2.2.1.1 Classification, Species and Varieties

Irises (bulbous) make beautiful cut flowers, though vase life is short. Consist of 300 species but bulbous irises are only a few, and are grown only for cut flowers both in the greenhouse and outdoors, for pots and bowls. Their rootstock is true bulb. In iris, the perianth tube branches into an inner and outer series, each being of 3 segments, 3 outer petals being known as falls and the 3 inner ones as standards. Projecting between the falls and the standards are the 3 style arms which are strap-shaped petals. The irises grown for cut flowers are produced from tunicated bulbs which are renewed every year as in the process of formation of the new daughter bulbs, old (mother bulb which was planted) ones are fully used up, so every year it is a new bulb or annual bulb. Irises, as a whole, have 27 sections out of which three sections [section 25, subgenus XIPHIUM (the Spanish irises,), section 26, subgenus SCORPIRIS (the Juno irises), and section 27, subgenus HERMODACTYLOIDES (the Reticulata irises)] are dealt only with bulbous group, and the members (species, hybrids and varieties) falling under these three sections only have true bulbs as their underground storage organs, which are being described here under.

i) Xiphium group (the Spanish irises, the varieties of I. xiphium) : All the species under this section come from hot areas around the Mediterranean hence, they are tender. Bulb medium sized with no storage roots but fibrous and thin, tunics papery, leathery or tough and not tunicated, leaves channelled, stem simple, 1-3 flowered and 90 cm tall. This section provides good cut flowers. Iris boissieri (I. diversifolia), I. filifolia, I. juncea, I. serotina, I. tingitana (good for forcing), I. xiphioides (wrongly named as English iris and is still so-called, varieties are ‘King of the Blues, Mont Blanc, Queen of the Blues, etc., all good for borders), I. xiphium (I. hispanica), etc. are the example species under this group, bolder ones being the most popular. The hybrids of this section are hardier than the parent species and are referred to as Dutch, Spanish and English irises, and are collectively known as Iris x hollandica Tub. Dutch irises (I. tingitana x I. xiphium and its various forms x I. filifolia x I. boissieri x Spanish cv. Cajanus, originating in Holland, and widely used for the cut flower market throughout the year) are the first of the hybrids to flower, and colour range is white, yellow, blue and purple. The most popular var. Wedgwood (pale-blue) is the best example of Dutch iris. Other varieties are Angel Wings, Apollo, Blue Diamond/ Blue Magic, Bronze Perfection, Convent Garden, Golden 48 Harvest, H.C. van Vliet, Ideal, Lemon Queen, Marquette, National Velvet, Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and Princess Irene, Professor Blaauw, Purple Sensation, Symphony, Telstar, Narcissus White Excelsior, Yellow Queen, etc. Spanish irises are forms of I. xiphium, and flower about two weeks later than Dutch irises but flowers are smaller. It has range of colours including smoky shades. English irises have largest flowers in the group, with limited colour range i.e. white, pink, purple and blue but no yellows. ii) Juno group : Though they are little known but have very attractive flowers. Leaves are lanceolate and deeply channeled. Bulbs with papery tunics, not netted, have thick storage roots when dormant and which develop feeding roots during the growing season, therefore, bulbs are to be handled carefully because if once these are damaged the bulbs take time to recover. The growth pattern is akin to a sweet corn plant. The largest section having 55 species and some of them are I. albomarginata, I. aucheri, I. baldschuanica, I. bucharica, I. caucasica, I. cycloglossa, I. drepanophylla, I. fosteriana, I. galatica, I. graeberiana, I. hippolyti, I. hymenospatha, I. kopetdagensis, I. kuschakewiczii, I. kuschkensis, I. latifolia, I. linifolia, I. magnifica, I. microglossa, I. narbutii, I. nicolai, I. odontostyla, I. orchioides, I. palaestina, I. persica, I. planifolia, I. porphyrochrysa, I. Regis-uzziae, I. rosenbachiana, I. stenophylla, I. stocksii, I. tubergeniana, I. vicaria, I. warleyensis, I. wendelboi, I. willmottiana, etc., bolder ones being the most popular. iii) Reticulata group : In this group the tunic of the bulb is reticulated (netted) with fibres, leaves are tubular with four or eight ribs and terminating into a pale-green sharp point. Species and garden hybrids are all hardy, bear early flowers and are suitable for planting in rockeries, borders, and in pots for greenhouse culture. Species are I. bakeriana, I. danfordiae where after flowering bulbs break up into bulblets of varying sizes, I. histrio, I. histrioides, I. hyrcana, I. kolpakawskiana, I. pamphylica, I. reticulata (garden hybrids are derived from I. histrioides and I. reticulata e.g. Alba, Cantab, Clairette, Edward, Gordon, Harmony, Purple Gem, Royal Blue, Spring Time, Violet Beauty, etc.).

2.2.1.2 Propagation

In iris, the main flowering bulb is renewed annually. The daughter bulbs forming near the centre of the mother bulb grow rapidly after the mother bulb has flowered, and attains full growth by lifting time. Several smaller bulbs are also attached with the full grown daughter bulb. These bulbs are graded as rounds, large flat side, small flat side and smalls (pips, 1 cm or below in diameter). First two grades flower successfully to the marketable quality while other two grades require further one year growing. The flowering size bulb in large bulbing cultivars should have not less than 8 cm circumference while small bulbing cultivars not less than 5 cm. The size of top grade bulb is 10 cm and above.

A full size bulb may produce only two to four new bulbs per season, depending on the number of axillary buds present in the mother bulb. A number of smaller offsets are produced by the mother bulb which should be separated and grown to maturity in a nursery bed, which may take one or, at the most, two years to attain flowering size. Chipping is so far the most advantageous method for bulking up the iris stock. For cross-cutting or chipping, usually large old bulbs (>10 cm circumference) are chosen. Bulbs may be chipped into half, quarter, and 1/8 and 49 Cut Flowers incubated in plastic bags like to that of twin-scaling, and planted in a 50:50 grit + peat medium which provides good results. Moreover, chipping can not be done again and again through the same bulbs. To maintain a virus-free stock through asexual propagation is the most challenging task. Hence, tissue culture technique is being employed which apart from providing the virus-free plants, is helping in bulking up the desired number of planting material of the elite cultivars in a quickest possible time, and which together is also giving 30-50 % more yield. The sources of explants are axillary buds, scale pieces, basal plate sections, flower stem sections and the destructed apical meristem on a basal plate containing a new leaf primordium. Full or half strength MS medium supplemented with 2- 4 % sucrose, 0.03-2.0 mg/l NAA or equal amount of NAA and BA or kinetin @ 0.5-1.0 mg/l, at a pH of 5-6 in the medium, at 15-25°C temperature is optimum for its micropropagation.

Small bulbing type cultivars are fertile and produce seeds but growing through seeds is the job of a breeder and not of the amateur grower because seeds may not come true to type so when new varieties are to be evolved, seed propagation is done. Immediately after maturity of the capsules, the seeds are collected and sown thinly in a soil based medium worked with some sand to 2 cm top of the soil where these will remain for two years with utmost care, as these require frost protection. As soon as the growth stops, these are lifted, stored in sand, and again planted in the following season like the bulbs and when fully grown to flowering size bulbs, these are harvested.

2.2.1.3 Climate Requirements

Irises are sensitive to insufficient light intensity. Too little light can result in culls due to flower blast. Irises need at least half a day of sun (six hours of sunlight per day) and well-drained soil. Without enough sun, they won’t bloom. They prefer fertile, natural to slightly acidic soil of pH of 605 to 608. If the soil is very acidic, sweeten it with a bit of lime. Soil drainage is very important. Loosen the soil with a tiller or garden fork to a depth of 12 to 15 inches, then mix in a 2 to 4 inches layer of compost. September is the best time of planting.

After planting, keeping the soil at the right temperature is important. It should not be any lower than 5-8°C but not higher than 20°C. The optimum soil temperature is 15°C. Low soil temperature will increase production time. High soil temperatures will reduce the forcing time but will also produce shorter plants. In the field, the optimum air temperature is 15-17°C; in the greenhouse, 12- 17°C. The minimum temperature that irises can tolerate is 0°C and maximum average daily temperature is 20°C. The crop is most comfortable at a relative humidity of 70-75 %.

Iris will thrive without feeding, but will respond to its application. A nice garden soil will grow fine iris. An application of a balanced (12-12-12) fertilizer applied as a top dressing dusted around and in between the plants in early spring is desirable.

2.2.1.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting, Mulching and Weed Control

Any type of soil where cultivation is already being done is suitable for iris cultivation also, but the soil should be well drained with a pH of 6.0-7.0. Most 50 suitable soil is sandy loam. Bulbous irises, as in case of many other crops, require Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and sunny location away from the shadows of trees, etc. Low irradiance levels may Narcissus cause flower abortion which can be prevented by providing supplemental lighting. In a forcing greenhouse, the optimal light intensity requirement is more than 2500 fc. Ethylene, instead of, heat treated bulbs reduces bud abortion to a greater extent. During winter forcing, all irises require high irradiance. Shading may be required against high temperature during bright sunny days. However, the field where irises have once been grown, should be avoided for next four years as a safeguard against soil-borne pathogens.

Land preparation should start one fortnight before planting. The field is ploughed to a depth of 25 cm and at time of first ploughing, farmyard manure at the rate of 2-3 kg per square metre should be incorporated in the soil and thoroughly mixed. All sorts of perennial weeds should be hand-picked or taken out by fork. Second ploughing, followed by planking is done after 7-10 days after first ploughing so that all those annual weeds coming up are knocked down in the soil. Third ploughing is required to be done about two days before planting and at this time there should be sufficient moisture so that effectively planting is done and no watering is required until the bulbs start sprouting. Now the beds are prepared with sufficient channels for irrigation and paths for cultural operations and movement. If there is no danger of water-logging during the course of whole cropping, planting on flat beds will be alright.

Since lack of light to the plants during winter is the main cause of bud abortion hence winter crops i.e. in the plains require more spacing, especially in greenhouses. The spacing is also dependent on bulb sizes. Larger bulbs of more than 10 cm, 9-10 cm and 8-9 cm may require to be planted at the rate of 220, 240 and 270 per square metre, respectively, in the glasshouses. In open field, they are planted 5 cm from plant to plant in the row, rows spaced 10 cm, purring 50-60 cm space from bed to bed.

Ideal time for planting in India is October, especially in the plains. These may also be planted in September - October in the hills but will require frost protection, otherwise these may be planted on the hills (temperate regions) in March. The tips of each bulb should be covered by a depth of soil equal to its height.

After planting, field may be mulched either with organic mulches (manure, chaff, dry grasses, leaves, saw dust, etc.) or plastic to conserve the moisture and to suppress the weed growth. Pendimethalin (stomp) herbicide at the rate of 3 litre/ha as pre-emergence may be showered in the planted field after mixing this in water sufficient to wet the surface. This will not allow germinating the annual weeds up to 75 days provided afterwards soil is not disturbed. It may again be sprayed after 75 days by covering the iris plants with alkathene strips at the time of spraying.

2.2.1.5 Irrigation and Nutrition

Irises do not tolerate poor drainage. After planting the Dutch irises, the soil or medium is watered thoroughly but afterwards, throughout the growing period, the medium should be kept moist. In winter crops as in the plains, light irrigation is required every week, however, in summer crops as on the hills, it may require light watering every 5 days.

51 Cut Flowers In calcium deficient soils, ‘weak necks’ may be observed where the stem is too weak to support the flower. In such soils, lime is applied before planting. At the time of soil preparation, nitrogen at the rate of 50 kg through ammonium sulphate,

and 60 kg each of P2O5 in the form of single superphosphate and K2O in the form of potassium sulphate or muriate of potash (in potash deficient soil) are given as basal fertilizers. Before flowering, again urea at the rate of 25 g/m2 may be applied in the field followed with light irrigation.

2.2.1.6 Growth, Development, Dormancy, Flowering and Flower Forcing

In bulbous irises, the planted bulb after the flowering is completely absorbed in the process of the formation of the new bulb which is purely annual in nature hence it may be called an annual bulb. Surrounding the bulb, there is a fibrous tunic consisting of the bases of last season’s leaves. To protect the true leaves and as support to the emerging shoot, four sheath leaves emerge from the soil. One full size bulb may form up to 10 leaves whereas a small bulb 3-4. Before growth apex becomes receptive to the flower inducing conditions, the leaf primordia initiation would have gone beyond the stage of 7-8 leaves, hence, for flower bud initiation it is a must to promote the continuity of leaf primordia initiation. The daughter bulbs, situated near the centre of the main bulb in the axils of the true leaf scales, grow rapidly after the flowering and are fully formed by the time of lifting. Several smaller bulbs are also formed in the side. On planting in the plains, the bulbs root immediately and leaves emerge within a few days in the plains but on the hills even October planted bulbs sprout in March - April. The life span of the bulb scales is 21-22 months. New primordial scales are formed primarily after lifting. Bulb size and weight take place after planting, more prominently after flowering. The planted bulb produces at least five leaves and the flowering stem.

Bulbs of critical size will produce a flower after formation of three leaf primordia at relatively high temperatures and then flower induction at low temperatures. Leaf formation will continue if the exposure to low temperature is inadequate. As in the plains, growing at moderate to low temperatures during winters, bulbs require high temperature after lifting for maturation which is met naturally. A part of the high temperature can be substituted through bulb dipping in ethephon solution or exposed to ethylene gas which will help reducing the bud abortion after planting in the following season. Flower formation in stored bulbs (high or moderate temperature) is normally not observed before replanting. Ethylene treatment at prolonged low temperature in the storage will cause flower forming process. The cold treatment of 9°C for 6-13 weeks after the required heat treatment will induce shoot elongation rapidly. Such bulbs flower within 6-8 weeks in the greenhouse, though in the field it may take more than four months. Depending upon the varieties, the floral bud initiation and development requires a period of low temperatures, the optimum being 9-13°C and the flower initiation is normally complete within 3 weeks of cool temperatures. On the basis of natural temperature requirements, through forcing the flowering can be regulated.

Temperature greater than 20°C terminates the leaf initiation process but forces the floral induction process, for which optimum temperature is 30°C. Ethylene gas exposure partially to heat treatment also perfects the process of floral induction and also prevents bud abortion after planting. After high temperature treatment, 52 a cold treatment of 9-15°C is given to hasten leaf formation and flowering after Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and planting. After 6-13 weeks treatment at 13-16°C, the bulbs are ready to force Narcissus into flowering in the greenhouse. Bulbs can be retarded by providing long duration of high temperature i.e. 30°C.

2.2.1.7 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology

Iris flowers are harvested at the bud stage when the buds start showing true colour i.e. before the falls reflex and the standards expand. In mild weathers, the flowers are picked at pencil stage of development when flower tip has just started peeping out of the green clasping sheath but in winter when the tip has come up 1 cm above the sheath. Certain varieties like ‘Professor Blaauw’ require even more advance stage i.e. when the flower is above 4-5 cm in winter. The flowers can be stored dry at -1 to 0°C for up to 2 weeks, or at 5°C for 4-5 days, but longer stored longer will exhibit poor vase life. Normally the vase life of Dutch irises is 5-6 days. While cutting the flowers, the leaves should not be cut and retained as much as possible as still the bulb is passing through various developmental stages.

Immediately after cutting, the flowers must be kept in water and in cold store also it would be better to store wet. Pulsing fresh cut flowers with 2 % sugar + 2 mg/l citric acid at pH 3.5 is beneficial but storage at 20°C for 2-3 days will negate the effect. GA3 or GA4+7 at 6-10 g/l promotes bud opening and improves flower colour. Dry storage and long duration dry transportation should be avoided. During transportation also, the cut ends should be kept in deionized water. During storage or transportation, irises do not face upward tip bending problem as in case of gladioli.

2.2.1.8 Lifting of Bulbs and Storage

The bulbs of the bulbous irises are lifted when the foliage has completely dried off i.e. 6-8 weeks after flowering. Before lifting, all the weed plants and aerial part of the iris should be removed from the field and composted. The lifting should be adjusted at such a time when soil is moist so that lifting is properly facilitated. Through forks, shovel or spades the adjoining soil near the plants are loosened and the bulbs are taken out gently, cleaned of the adhering soil and are kept in trays. Even with a small prick, manually every plant may be taken out, cleaned and kept in the trays. These bulbs are now taken to the storage cum curing room for grading and curing i.e. drying at a well aerated place in shade. Healthy bulbs have a clear brown tunic as remnant of the current season’s outer dry scale leaves.

Iris bulbs do not have true dormancy. Storing them at 30°C forces them to go for rest which is termed as ‘imposed dormancy’, though even at this temperature new leaf formation continues and length of the internal bud increases. A phenomenon called pupation (not dormancy but may be related to dormancy) is observed when after replanting the bulbs exhibit slow growth even in root formation and leaf growth. However, responses to low temperature conditions are known as dormancy. If the bulbs are lifted prematurely and have been subjected to low temperature treatments for early flowering without an adequate high temperature treatment, they grow slow or take no growth and even ethylene treatment does not help here. It is because that during a certain period of bulb formation, immediate regrowth is not possible. Therefore, for initiating any new growth, a high temperature or ethylene treatment is necessary. In bulbous iris, 53 Cut Flowers the period of bulb enlargement coincides with the period of dormancy, which in fact is a condition of maturity and not true dormancy.

The bulbs after lifting are stored at a well aerated room where 30°C temperature should be provided for about two weeks (10-15 days) and then 9-13°C for 6-8 weeks or exposed for 24 hours at 500 ppm ethylene to promote flower formation but planting stock bulbs are transferred to 5,9,13-15 or 17-23°C, depending on cultivar and bulb size. Temperatures above 25°C will inhibit flower induction but below 15°C will encourage it. This way the flowering is advanced at least by six weeks.

2.2.1.9 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders

i) Tulip bulb aphid (Sappaphis tulipae) is grayish to puce-coloured and attacks the bulbs and transmits certain viral diseases. The fumigation will clean up the stock in store. Alternatively, nicotine or Malathion spray will also control this. Narcissus flies (Merodon and Eumerus), though not of much significance but sometimes are observed. Infested bulbs should be burnt. Iris sawfly (Rhadinoceraea micans) feeds on the leaves which can be controlled by nicotine spraying. Iris leaf miner (Dizygomyza iraeos) attacks the irises by tunnelling the leaves. If the attack is occasional, such leaves may be hand-picked and destroyed. Nuvacron at 0.1 % spraying will control this pest. Mealy bug (Phenacoccus spp.) attack can be checked by applying an insecticide that can be vaporized.

ii) Iris nematode (Ditylenchus destructor) attacks the scales of the bulbs. After removing the outer dried scales of an infested bulb, grey or brownish streaks are seen which afterwards enlarge. The invasion normally starts from the base forming soft brown area of the tissue which afterwards extends into the scales. Affected scales become loose and get separated from the basal plate and the growth above the ground is also hampered. HWT at 44°C for three hours with 0.3 % formaldehyde may give near complete control of this pest.

iii) Bulb rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. gladioli, Penicillium verrucosum, P. corymbiferum, Rhizoctonia solani, R. tuliparum, Pythium spp., and Sclerotium spp. fungi and Erwinia carotovora pv. Carotovora bacterium) is caused by many pathogens some in field and others in the storage. Hot water treatment (HWT) at 43°C for three hours will control all these pathogens. While handling, the bulbs should not be injured or bruised and if happens so these may be discarded. Only healthy bulbs should be brought in the curing room and others should be burnt. Curing room should have proper aeration. Proper temperature treatment should be given and that too at the right stage of bulb. Only properly dried bulbs should be stored. In storage also, there should not be relative humidity (R.H.) in excess. Field treatment at fortnightly sprayings of benomyl or bavistin alternate with captafol in the standing crop will not permit pathogens infecting this crop. While keeping in cold storage, 0.2 % captafol dipping for one hour and then thorough drying will prevent the attack of storage fungi.

iv) Leaf spot of iris is caused due to Heteroporium gracile (Didymellina macrospora, Mycosphaerella macrospora or Cladosporium iridis). Due to its infection, dark brown or almost black irregular blotches are formed on 54 the leaves, gradually spreading up and down the leaf blades, and its severity Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and causes spots even on flower stems. Before planting the bulbs should be Narcissus soaked for one hour in 0.1 % benomyl + 0.5 % captan, and afterwards fortnightly spraying in the standing crop will prevent this disease. v) Ink spot (Drechslera iridis) attacks I. reticulata more than Dutch iris. It causes black blotches on the bulb scales and on foliage. The above measures will control the incidence of this disease also. vi) Iris rust (Puccinia iridis) exhibits small and raised orange spots on leaves and stems. Spraying with plantvax (oxycarboxin) will control this problem to some extent. Immediately after planting, entire foliage of already growing irises should be removed and burnt and then new crop on emergence should be sprayed with oxycarboxin. The attack of this fungus has yet not been observed in the plains. Botrytis cinerea causes spotting on the leaves, Rhizoctonia solani causes bulb rot and yellowing of the foliage, and R. tuliparum causes ‘bad-soil disease’, neck and bulb rot which can be controlled while controlling other bulb rot and leaf spot diseases. vii) Iris mild mosaic virus (IMMV), narcissus latent virus (NLV), iris severe mosaic virus (ISMV), and bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV) infect the irises. IMMV, BYMV, and ISMV are potyviruses and NLV is carlavirus, all being transmitted through aphids so control of aphid will control these viruses also. viii) Physiological disorders : Many physiological disorders are found in bulbous irises, and for most of them no reason is known. Blindness (no floral bud formation) may occur due to too short and/or too low temperature, abortion (floral buds are formed but stop developing) due ti insufficient carbohydrate reserves in the bulbs, poor root development, medium too wet, severe water deficiency to the standing crop, forcing temperature too high, in winter low light stress, etc., abnormal flower development (too long bulb retardation, lack of oxygen during transit after cold treatment, severe cold at the time of flower formation), too short floral stem (inadequate cold treatment to the bulbs, delayed flowering, difficulty in emergence of the flowers from the sheath), and too long leaves and floral sheaths (leaf initiation process not checked due to too short or inadequate high temperature and/or ethylene treatment, forced at too cool temperature, and incorrect programming not specific to the cultivar).

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Describe bulbous iris propagation through chipping......

...... 55 Cut Flowers 2.2.2 Lilium (Family - Liliaceae) (Common name lily)

2.2.2.1 Classification, Species and Varieties

Lilium is a genus of 80 species of bulbous plants that are generally hardy, only a few species requiring greenhouse protection. Lilies are suitable for massing in mixed borders, grown as pot plants, placed among shrubs and on large rock gardens, suited to wild or woodland gardens, and over all as cut flowers. Flowers are of almost all the colours except true blue. They also vary in size and shape from 2.5 cm wide to long trumpets and bowl-shaped blooms up to 26 cm across, arranged on erect stem on the top. Flowers are fragrant, some providing bad smelling too. According to Royal Horticulture Society and North American Lily Society, these are classified into nine divisions, with several sub-divisions, such as:

Division I : Hybrids and garden forms derived from Asiatic species and hybrid group. Therefore this group is called Asiatic hybrids. These are derived from species such as Lilium cernum, L. davidii. L. lancifolium, L. leichinii, L. maculatum, L. hollandicum, L. concolor, L. bulbiferum. Sub-division IA : Upright flowering. Varieties are Alpenglow, Bravo, Butternut, Charisma, Cherub, Chinook, Connecticut King, Edith, Enchantment, Endeavour, Fireband, Firecracker, Golden Pixie, Halloween, Heritage, Pirate, Rosefire, and etc. Sub-division IB : Outward facing flowers. Varieties are Connecticut, Lemonglow, Ming Yellow, Orange Glow, etc. Sub-division IC : Pendant flowers. Varieties are Burgundy, Citronella, Connecticut Yankee, Debutante, etc.

Division II : Martagon hybrids which include hybrids of Lilium martagon or L. hansonii. Varieties are Marhan, Paisley hybrids.

Division III : Candidum hybrids, derived from L. candidum, L. chalcedonicum and other related European species except L. martagon. Varieties are Aries, Apollo, Artemes, Prelude, etc.

Division IV : American hybrids, Varieties are Bellingham hybrids, Bellmaid hybrids, Buttercup, Shuksan, etc.

Division V : Longiflorum hybrids, derived from L. longiflorum and L. formosanum. Varieties are Formobel, Formolongi, etc.

Division VI : Trumpet and Aurelian hybrids, derived from L. henryi, L. sergentiae and other Asiatic species but not L. auratum, L. japonicum or L. rubellum. Sub- division VIA : Trumpet type e.g. Aurelian group (L. sergentiae x L. henryi x L. leucanthum), Golden Clarion group, Black Dragon, Golden Splendour, Green Magic, Pink Perfection, etc. Sub-division VIB : Bowl-shaped flowers. Varieties are Heart’s Desire, First Love, New Year, etc. Sub-division VIC : Pendant flowers. Varieties are Golden Sunburst, Thunderbolt, Christmas Day, Golden Shower, Summer Song, etc.

Division VII : Oriental hybrids, derived from the 4 species excluded from Division VI, including L. henryi and others. This has four groups. Sub-division VIIA : Trumpet shaped blooms, but not in cultivation now. Sub-division VIIB : Bowl shaped flowers, and stem rooting. Varieties are Empress of China, Empress of 56 Japan, Empress of India, etc. Sub-division VIIC : Flowers flat and star shaped Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and with recurved petal tips and stem rooting. Varieties are Imperial Crimson, Imperial Narcissus Gold, etc. Sub-division VIID : Recurved bloom and stem rooting, e.g. Jamboree.

Division VIII : Contains hybrids and forms not listed above.

Division IX : All true species and their botanical forms and varieties, with 8 groups.

Broadly speaking, commercially in India only Asiatic, Oriental and Easter lilies are cultivated and that too on the hills because there is no bulb setting in the plains. Though when full-sized bulbs are planted in the plains, only flowering appears but there is no bulbing.

2.2.2.2 Propagation

This crop can be propagated only on the hills where summer temperature does not exceed 35°C. Lilies can be raised vegetatively through scales (for commercial use), bulblets formed underground, bulbils (in a few cases where these are formed in the axils of leaves on the inflorescence), leaf cuttings, bulb divisions and tissue culture (for quick multiplication).

The storage organ in lily is an imbricated bulb that consists of many fleshy scales, which are modified leaves attached to a basal plate. When the plant has completed flowering, lift it immediately, detach all the outer scales and replant the parent bulb to recover within two years. These scales are now planted 6-7 cm deep in open beds or frames, 2.5 cm apart in the rows spaced 15 cm apart. Bulbils are formed in the autumn which can be lifted and replanted in beds for getting flowering size bulbs. In case established plants can not be disturbed just at post flowering, scales can be removed in September and placed immediately in 30 cm deep boxes of sand in alternate layers of sand and scales, by keeping the boxes moist and warm until the spring, and thus the bulblets formed on the scales can be planted in the open in the spring. The bulblets formed through this method are smaller than previous method but by first summer many will grow into small saleable size. Another method is to insert the scales in single layer in September and then planting out in March the young growing plants still attached to the old scale.

In case where underground bulblets are formed around the daughter bulb at lifting, these should be taken out and planted in open ground, boxes or in frames as per convenience. Following season they are ready for planting for cut flower production if optimum conditions for their growing have been met.

Bulbils are just like bulblets, but they are formed in the leaf axils of the aerial stem, so they are grown also like bulblets. They are harvested when they are matured i.e. when bulbs are ready for lifting. It may take 2-3 years to develop flowering size bulbs.

Detached leaves (leaf cuttings) of L. longiflorum ‘Nellie White’ root well at 21°C under a 17 h photoperiod where 80 % rooting from the leaves of the upper part of the stem and 40 % from the lower part occurs. Leaf-node cuttings also form bulblets which produce programmed flowering without lifting the bulb or applying any cold treatment. 57 Cut Flowers Through divisions, bulbs are also grown to raise the stock. Some lilies increase quite naturally by producing two or more good bulbs every year, congested clumps are divided and replanted in October.

Micropropagation (tissue culture) is the best method to get true to type as well as disease-free plantlets. Segments of bulb scales, stem apices, apical meristem, floral organs, etc. are used as explants.

Seed propagation is a cheap and easy method of propagation and is used only for evolution of new varieties. Seeds with delayed hypogeal germination normally do not produce top growth in the first season e.g. L. auratum, L. canadense, L. martagon, L. monadelphum, L. speciosum and L. szovitsianum. For getting best results these should be sown in boxes in June. The soil mixture may consist of loam, peat and sand in the ratio of 7:3:2 and this should be sterilized but throughout the growing period the soil should be kept moist. In hypogeal germination, there is no cotyledon but the true seed leaves emerge above the ground. Before the emergence of true seed leaves, the food from the seed is transferred to a point which is underground and in between the root tip and true seed leaves. Due to transfer of food material, the point gets swollen and becomes a miniature bulb. If the growth cycle is continuous, it is called hypogeal immediate and if an incubation period is necessary after the initial germination, it is called hypogeal delayed. In epigeal germination, a cotyledon emerges above the ground and the endosperm nourishes the developing seedling. Just above the root tip a small node is apparent which then becomes the bulb. When it has sufficient strength, true leaves are produced. Epigeal immediate types may be sown as soon as ripe, but this is not always practical. Epigeal delayed requires a definite cold period before germination occurs. The seeds of Asiatic and trumpet lilies have epigeal germination. In March, the seed sown boxes are placed in cool greenhouse where leaf growth should appear.

2.2.2.3 Climate Requirement

It is typically temperate crop; however research efforts of scientists made is possible to grow lilium under northern plains. It cultivation require specific temperature and light for sprouting of bulbs and flower production.

Pre-cooling Requirements Asiatic and Oriental lilies require a cold treatment of a minimum of 6 and 8 weeks at 2-4°C before planting for rapid shoot emergence and flowering. Additional cooling is not harmful. Bulbs which will be used for late forcing (usually after February) are usually frozen in peat and maintained at -2°C. Keeping the bulbs at this temperature prevents sprouting, reduces loss of the bulb’s energy reserves and minimizes disease problems. When frozen bulbs are received from a supplier, defrost the bulbs slowly at 7-13°C for one to three days.

Temperature Asiatic lilies require a 10-13°C night and 18-21°C day temperature while Oriental lilies require a 15.5-18°C night and day temperature does not exceeds above 29°C. High temperature increase disease incidence, flower colour intensity and cause flower drop.

58 Light Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus Lilies need 2000-3000 foot candles of light for quality flower production. In low light conditions such as photoperiod less than 12-14 hours and 8 hours night interruption preventing the bud drop. Lilies require some shading of 30-50 % shade cloth.

2.2.2.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control

Lilium can be grown on a wide range of soils but the ideal soil should be free- draining loamy soil with sufficient humus. Most lilies prefer soil with pH 6.5- 7.5. Lilium philadelphicum prefers acidic soil, L. candidum alkaline while Easter lilies prefer non-acidic soil with high calcium content. In case of L. longiflorum, the soil pH requirement is from 6.5-7.0 and in case of soilless media it is 6.1-6.5 so that the incidence of leaf scorch from fluoride is minimized.

Lilies prefer mild climatic conditions. It would be better to grow them in partial shade as direct sun light may affect the growth adversely. The optimum temperature for their growth is about 18°C.

Nearly all the lilies like deep planting except L. candidum. Subsoil should be mixed up with coarse sand, grits and gravel if it is heavy and enriched with leaf mould, well-rotted compost or peat and the bulbs are planted in October in the plains where bulb size gets so reduced that it can not give flowers the next season, and in February-March on the hills, on mounded rows spaced 40 cm, 15-25 cm below the top of the mound. Stem-rooting lilies require deeper planting. Safe enough is planting the bulb two and a half times the height of the bulb but in case of L. candidum the nose of the bulb should be just below the surface of the soil. Young lily bulbs have contractile roots which pull them down to their correct depth. Plant to plant distance may be maintained at 20 cm. Shallow planting increases the incidence of summer sprouting due to warmer soil temperature, especially in early spring and late fall. Mulching is done in spring with well- rotted manure, compost or leaf mould.

In the plains it is grown during winter so winter weeds come up in plenty whereas on the hills it is grown during summer hence the grower on the hills encounters summer and rainy season weeds. Diuron at 454 g/acre or neburon at 635 g/acre controls all the pre- and post-emergence weeds in lily field. Chloroxuron (tenoran) is also very effective for glasshouse lilies, @ 50 g in10 litre of water/acre, once 6 weeks after planting and the other 2 weeks before start of the harvest. Chlorpropham together with paraquat when weeds are already present but crop is yet to emerge, lenacil at emergence and simazine 3-4 weeks after emergence are quite effective. However, in small manageable fields, weeds may be taken out manually.

Most lilies, especially with arching stems and heavy flower heads e.g. L. henryi as well as late-flowering ones require staking to protect them against storm and strong winds.

For pot culture, single bulb in a 15-20 cm pot or three bulbs in a 25 cm pot may be planted. The pot mixture should consist of 1 part well-rotted manure, 1 part loam and ½ part coarse sand b/v. Stem-rooting lilies should be set well below the pot to accommodate the roots properly. After potting, the lilies should be placed 59 Cut Flowers in a cool place to promote good root system. On appearance of the top growth, gradually bring the plants into full sun and then transfer them to a cold room up to flowering, and then at a shaded spot outdoors but soil should not dry as bulb will shrivel.

2.2.2.5 Irrigation and Nutrition

Fertilization (nutrition) is the necessary operation for optimum growth. Most

of the lilies are comfortable at 140 kg N, 280 kg P2O5 and 200 kg K2O per hectare.

Normally, Indian soils are not deficient in K2O so it should be applied where the soil is certainly deficient in potash. P and K are given only as basal dose but only little quantity of N at planting whereas remaining one in two split doses afterwards, one when plants are 20 cm tall and the rest before spike emergence. Excessive nutrient levels can reduce plant height. Lilium longiflorum requires high level of calcium, lime as pre-plant and calcium nitrate during growth, and high level of nitrate nitrogen for optimum leaf quality, as absorption of nitrogen increases during inflorescence development.

No dry spell should be permitted as this may cause bud abortion or abscission so watering should be carried out regularly but water stagnation should not be allowed to occur at any time. Easter lilies are more tolerant of dry media but excessive drying will cause the lower leaves to yellow and the flower buds to abort.

2.2.2.6 Growth, Development and Flowering

Light and temperature affect the growth and flowering in lilies. If inner daughter scales are treated with red or far-red light, shoot emergence is significantly increased. Long photoperiod promotes stem elongation which shows that long day promotes vegetative growth. Increase of day length beyond 8 hours and up to 18 hours, plant height is increased and flowering is accelerated but number of flowers is decreased.

To some extent, long days substitute the vernalization. During the last two weeks of vernalization, exposure of bulbs to long photoperiod accelerates flowering by suppressing leaf number. Cold moist treatment of bulbs from 2-7°C for 6 weeks (1000 h) controls the flower induction. During cold treatment, bulbs may be packed in cases or planted in pots. If bulbs are harvested, never cooled but exposed to 21°C or above during forcing, regardless of photoperiod they will never flower, though a lower temperature will not put any obstacle. Final plant quality is determined on the basis of cold duration treatment.

Growth regulators play an important role at every stage of lily growth and development. NAA and IBA at 300 and 100 ppm, respectively, promote bulblet formation.

2.2.2.7 Flower Regulation

Lilies with spike length of 50 cm and longer are appropriate for cut flowers, while potted plants having 20-50 cm height are good enough. In potted plants, the height depends on the pot size and the varieties used. It would be better if genetically dwarf varieties are used. Moreover, bulb size, length of storage, temperature, and photoperiod & light intensity all influence height. Both Asiatic 60 and Oriental hybrid lilies respond to high night temperature of 16°C and low day Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and temperature of 10°C with reduced stem lengths. In case of Easter lilies, temporary Narcissus leaf necrosis occurs when night temperature is more than day temperature, however, high night and low day temperature or uniform temperature during day and night reduces stem length. A-Rest (ancymidol) concentration of 0.125, 0.25 or 0.50 mg a.i. per plant as a drench at shoot emergence stage reduces plant height. Bonzi (paclobutrazol) at 100-200 ppm for 5 minute bulb dip and sumazic (uniconizole) at 2-5 ppm sprays also reduce plant height. Application of CCC at 500 ppm as soil drench produces dwarf plants with more flowers and increases bulb yield in L. tigrinum but in L. longiflorum soil drench of CCC at 1000 and 2500 ppm increases number of flowers, and 100 ppm IAA and 500 ppm TIBA accelerate bulb formation.

2.2.2.8 Flower Forcing

Asiatic lilies require 30-35 days to flower from visible bud stage, Oriental lilies 50-55 days and Easter lilies 30-40 days. Asiatic hybrids are cooled at 2-5°C, for 6-10 weeks, Oriental at 2-4°C for 8-10 weeks, depending upon the varieties used, before greenhouse forcing. When L. longiflorum (Easter lily) bulbs receive 3 weeks vernalization at 4.5-7.5°C, shoots emerge early and the reduction in the number of flowers is minimal as compared to 6 weeks treatment. Bulbs can be held in moist peat for many months at -4°C than usual -1 or -2°C temperature. For year round production, bulbs are first cooled for 9-12 weeks then frozen, duration of precooling depending on the cultivars used. Mid-Century Asiatic hybrid requires at least 6 weeks of cooling at 5°C for rapid flowering irrespective of the day length. Oriental hybrid var. Sans Souci either subjected to 4.5°C for 9 weeks or at same temperature for 6 weeks followed by 3 weeks of incandescent lighting, takes 118-120 days for flowering. Partial substitution of the cold treatment of the bulb by long photoperiods reduces flower numbers but increases plant height. Increase of the cold store duration of the bulb decreases days to flowering, flower number, plant height and general quality and increases flower bud abortion. Increase in the duration of cooling from 6 to 9 weeks in var. Sans Souci, increases bud numbers from 7 to 11. GA seems to be involved in flower development but not in floral differentiation which shows that the scales may be site of plant growth regulators. Exogenous application of GA3 enhances only shoot emergence. Days taken to flowering and flower bud abortion are found reduced with improved plant quality in var. Enchantment when subjected to 1000 2 ppm CO2 in conjunction with supplemental lighting at 20W/m . When CO2 is used, forcing temperature could be increased from 18-20°C. High temperature induces secondary dormancy as well as bulblet dormancy in L. longiflorum. However, flower bud development from visible bud stage to anthesis is accelerated at high temperature.

2.2.2.9 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology

Hybrid lily vars Amourette, Aristocrat, Enchantment, Sunray and Sans Souci when grown under supplemental high pressure sodium (HPS) light give longer vase life.

When the buds are well coloured but yet not open in case of Asiatic & Oriental hybrids and Easter lilies, it is proper stage of flower harvesting but for the local market when one flower is open. At puffy white stage in Easter lilies, the cut flowers can be stored at 0°C for up to 14 days but when 50 fc light is provided 61 Cut Flowers these can be stored up to 2-10°C temperature also. Plants can be stored and shipped at 0-5°C. Normally Oriental hybrids do not store well as lower foliage yellows and drops when taken out from cold room which can be overcome by illuminating fluorescent lamps in the cold room. Promalin (1:1 benzyladenine: gibberellic acid) at 100 ppm spraying at run off stage 4-6 h before placing in cool

chamber increases post storage quality. Promalin (1:1 BA:GA3) sprays to lower foliage at 25 ppm greatly reduces pot production leaf yellowing. Promalin is effective even when sprayed to the foliage already started yellowing.

Asiatic and Oriental hybrids can be stored up to 4 weeks at 1°C if stems are first treated for 24 h in 50 ppm silver nitrate. After cold storage, stems are recut and placed in 30 ppm sucrose and 200 ppm 8-hydroxyquinolin citrate (8-HQC). Long duration of storage will increase the chances of bud blasting and foliar chlorosis.

The lily is considered sensitive to ethylene. Silver thiosulphate (STS) treatment for 24 h at 2°C increases floral longevity and even bulb soaking in STS also increases post harvest life as STS protects flowers from exogenous ethylene. Ethylene evolution and action is increased under low light stress which causes flower bud abscission but injecting 0.2 mm STS into the flower buds abscission is prevented.

2.2.2.10 Lifting, Dormancy and Storage of Bulbs

When the aerial part of the plant dries down, the bulbs are lifted. In case of lilies, delayed lifting is preferred as they are more mature with little dormancy. Late lifted bulbs respond effectively to vernalization treatments. Instead of lifting the bulbs in August on the hills of India, these should be lifted in October. Bulbs should be lifted carefully so that these are free from any injury, should be cleaned, graded and treated with some contact fungicide e.g. Captan @ 0.2 % so that these may remain healthy in cold storage. Together, bulblets as well as bulbils should also be taken out. In U.S.A., the commercial grades are 15.0-17.5, 17.5- 20.0, 20.0-22.5, and 22.5-25.0 cm in circumference. The bulbs are cooled at 0- 2°C before storage but within 3 weeks of lifting. Most of the lilies are stored from -2 to 2°C temperature, -2°C for shorter but 2°C for longer duration. Storage duration may be even for more than an year looking into the requirement of forcing, but preferably for 2-4 months. L. longiflorum bulbs vernalized for 3 weeks accelerates flowering with minimum reduction of flowers as compared to 6 weeks of vernalization.

Dormancy is the period when most of the physiological processes are slowed down. Since lily is summer flowering plant on the hills, the period of dormancy falls during winter when temperature is quite low. The outer new scales (daughter scales) on the bulbs are site of the maturity factor and if these do not occur there will not be any dormancy but no bulb can be without such scales. The endogenous level of GA-like substance is lower in dormant bulbs compared to non-dormant ones, hence, dormancy can be broken through GA as well as through cold treatment. GA @ 3 mg/l is optimum for breaking dormancy in L. speciosum cv. Rubrum No. 10. In cold treatment, bulbs are packed in cases or planted in pots and media in pots and packing material in cases should be moist. While growing the forced bulbs in the greenhouse, the growing temperature range is 13-27°C. However, continuous temperature of 21°C or above and without any cold treatment will not flower at all. 62 2.2.2.11 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus Liothrips and Taeniothrips (thrips) suck the sap of scales making rust coloured sunken areas on the base of the scales, and such bulbs on planting produce stunted plants. Bulb dipping in hot water at 45°C and stored at 10°C temperature will control this pest. Rhizoglyphus echinopus mite infests on bulbs and stems causing yellowing of leaves and stems. It can be controlled through hot water treatment (HWT) i.e. 45°C for 1 hour and storing the bulbs at 1.6°C. Certain lepidopterous larvae feed on flowers, leaves and stems and sometimes even bore the stems, a grub of the beetle Agaspherops nigra feed on stem below the ground, and these can be controlled by keeping the field clean and by spraying of the plants with 0.2 % methyl parathion. Aphelenchoides fragariae and Pratylenchus nematodes infest on bulb, leaves and roots and cause yellow blotches on leaves and such infested bulbs fail to produce the flowers. HWT at 45°C with formalin soaking for 1 h is quite effective. Slugs and snails feed on the tender shoots and leaves and batter the plants which may be controlled by using formaldehyde baits.

The major fungal diseases infecting this crop are botrytis blight caused by Botrytis elliptica, grey mould caused by B. cinerea, bulb rot caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. lilii, root rot caused by Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium, foot rot caused by Phytophthora cactorum, black scale (anthracnose) caused by Colletotrichum lilii and scale tip rot caused by Fusarium sp. and Cylindrocarpon.

Botrytis blight is probably the most serious disease of field grown lilies. Initially reddish brown spots (red streaks in case of Asiatic lilies) on the leaves are formed but in Easter lily yellow streaks appear. Botrytis cinerea causes grey mould on flowers. Infection of botrytis occurs between 10-18°C temperature. Proper sanitation of the field as well as greenhouse is necessary. Infected plants should be burnt and copper fungicides are sprayed to control these diseases. Bulb rot is most serious disease of Asiatic lilies which infects the bulbs from base of the scales either during storage or transit and causes chocolate brown rot. Over watering should be avoided, healthy material should be planted and before planting soil should be sterilized as it is soil-borne disease. Benomyl treatment of bulbs for 30 minutes at 30°C at 0.2 % before planting and after lifting will prevent the outbreak of this disease. Root rot affects the stem at ground level and becomes very serious in over-watered soils, causing withering and ultimate death of the plants. Affected plants along with soil should be removed and burnt. Black scale causes blackening and rotting of outer scales and on lifting of the bulbs, brown sunken lesions on scales develop which enlarge in storage and turn black. In Lilium longiflorum this causes a serious disease of petal tissues. To get rid of this problem only healthy stock should be planted. Scale tip rot is characterized by darkening of scale tips and the surface of outer scales that shrivel and rot. Most of these fungal diseases can be kept in check by spraying the standing crops with 0.1 % Bavistin alternate with 0.2 % Captan, fortnightly.

Bacterial diseases are not the problems of much concern in lily plantings. However, sometimes Pectofacterium carotovorum causes bulb decay, and Bacillus lilii also attack lilies. Care should be taken not to use the injured bulbs for planting and field should be kept properly cleaned.

Lily symptomless virus (LSV), and little mottle virus (LiMV) produces yellow mottle and mosaic on the leaves and plant stunting, and cucumber mosaic virus 63 Cut Flowers (CMV) exhibits mosaic patterns on the foliage and also necrosis on the plants, vector for which is Myzus persicae, etc. attack the lilies. Affected plants become dwarf and deformed. LSV is transmitted through aphids and causes vein clearing. Regular control of visiting pests and destroying the affected plants will ensure healthy stock.

Bud blast or bud abortion is the common physiological disorder associated with lilies in greenhouse forcing. Bud abortion at an early stage of development or abscission at a later stage is a low light and ethylene mediated phenomenon therefore bulbs are either dipped in STS at planting or STS is applied in the standing crop to protect the lilies against ethylene damage. Higher temperature also causes bud abortion and abscission, probably due to depletion of the carbohydrate supply. Twice shaking of the plants daily also reduces abortion. During winters in nights, long day lighting as well as higher intensity supplemental lighting from various lamp types also prevent abortion. High salinity levels in the soil also cause abortion. Water stress may also abort the buds.

Easter lilies vis-a-vis certain Oriental hybrids encounter the problem of leaf yellowing as well as shedding due to root rot or injury, over watering, moisture stress, high soluble salt accumulation and ethylene evolution, inadequate or excessive fertilizer, and insufficient light at the base of the plant due to more plant density are some of the known causes. BA + GA (10:1, commercially known as Accel) at 50 ppm spray only to the lower leaves, first before 10-14 days of bud visibility and the second 10-14 days after, or BA + GA (1:1, commercially known as Promalin) at 100 ppm spraying to the lower foliage after 2 months of shoot emergence, will prevent leaf yellowing.

Leaf tip burn or leaf scorch occurs when more than optimum level of manganese and aluminum salts at low nitrate levels are present in the soil, due to high fluoride levels, high relative humidity and little or no stem root development. This can be controlled by routine spraying of 68-136 mm calcium chloride or calcium nitrate. In fact, leaf scorch on the margins of the leaves occurs only due to fluoride toxicity which is a natural contaminant of phosphate, perlite and irrigation water.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Describe scale propagation in Lilium...... 2) What are climate requirements for Lilium flower and bulb production ? ...... 64 ...... 2.2.3 Narcissus (Family - Amaryllidaceae) Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus [Common names Narcissus (pl. Narcissi), large cupped cultivars Daffodils, Hindi-Nargis].

2.2.3.1 Classification, Species and Varieties

It reigns in supreme majesty over all spring flowers by its unsurmountably strong but pleasing fragrance. Though all types of narcissi grow as cut flowers, the major one being large-cupped trumpets (corona or cup as long as or longer than the surrounding petals but almost non-fragrant) known as daffodils which in fact is poetical name given to this type. These can effectively be planted in beds, in edging and borders along the paths or sides, in pots or bowls, in the alpine house, in cool and hot houses, indoors, for naturalizing effects in woodland gardens, pastures and meadows and in the rock gardens (the dwarf ones). In France, Near East and China, essential oil is also extracted from Narcissus jonquilla, N. poeticus and N. pseudonarcissus. Narcissi have many shades of white, yellow, orange, pink and scarlet colours in their flowers. Wild species provide a wider range of shapes and sizes than the garden cultivars.

In narcissi, about 60 are recognized as true species, with about half the number of natural hybrids, and some over 100 wild varieties and their forms. The Royal Horticultural Society has grouped narcissi into 11 divisions. There may be more than 20,000 varieties under narcissi as listed in R.H.S. Classified List. Its classification is being given here.

Division I : Trumpet narcissi which we refer to as daffodils of garden origin. They have only one flower to a stem, trumpet or corona as long as or longer than the perianth segments. Sub-division IA : Height 35-45 cm, perianth as coloured as corona or paler e.g. Dutch Master, Golden Harvest, King Alfred, etc. Sub- division IB : Height 30-48 cm, perianth white and corona bicoloured e.g. Celebrity, Foresight, Oklahoma, Queen of Bicolors, etc. Sub-division IC : Height 30-45 cm, perianth and corona white, sometimes yellow in bud e.g. Angel’s Wings, Beersheba, Mount Hood, etc. Sub-division ID : Height 40-45 cm, any colour combination not falling under A, B or C. Examples are Pink Isle, Rose Caprice, Salmon Trout, Toscanini, etc.

Division II : Large cupped narcissi of garden origin, having one flower to a stem. The corona more than 1/3rd but less than equal to the length of the segments. Sub-division IIA : Height 35-55 cm. Perianth segments coloured in shades of yellow, red and orange, corona coloured and darker than the segments e.g. Carlton, Galway, Golden Torch, Armada, etc. Sub-division IIB : Height 33-50 cm. Perianth segments white and corona coloured in varying shades of yellow and orange e.g. Duke of Windsor, Green Island, Poliandra, Arbar, etc. Sub-division IIC : Height 35-45 cm. Perianth white, corona white but not paler than the perianth e.g. Ave, Castella, Homage, Truth, etc. Sub-division IID : Any other combination not falling under A, B or C e.g. Bethany, Charter, Daydream, etc.

Division III : Small cupped narcissi of garden origin with one flower to a stem and corona not more than1/3rd the length of the perianth. Sub-division IIIA : Height 43-45 cm. Perianth and corona coloured e.g. Ardour, Doubtful, Varna, etc. Sub-division IIIB: Height 35-45 cm. Perianth white, corona coloured e.g. Blarney, Bushmills, Merlin, etc. Sub-division IIIC : Height 35-40 cm, perianth 65 Cut Flowers white, corona short and white but not paler than the perianth e.g. Chinese White, Polar Ice, Verona, etc. Sub-division IIID : Any colour combination not falling into A, B or C. No cultivar in this group.

Division IV : Double narcissi of garden origin. Height 25-45 cm, e.g. Camellia, Cheerfulness, Golden Ducat, Indian Chief, Texas, Tahiti, etc.

Division V : Triandrus narcissi of garden origin. Several nodding flowers per stem with reflexed or recurved petals, a characteristic of Narcissus triandrus. Height 20-30 cm. Sub-division VA : Corona not less than 2/3 the length of the perianth segments e.g. Rippling Waters, Thalia, etc. Sub-division VB : Corona less than 2/3 the length of the perianth segments e.g. April Tears, Ticleton, etc.

Division VI : Cyclamineus narcissi of garden origin, distinguished by pendant flowers having long trumpet-shaped corona and recurved tepals. Height 20-38 cm. Sub-division VIA : Corona not less than 2/3 the length of the perianth segments e.g. Baby Doll, February, March Sunshine, etc. Sub-division VIB : Corona less than 2/3 the length of the perianth segments e.g. Kitten, Roger, etc.

2.2.3.2 Propagation

Narcissi are propagated both asexually by bulbs, bulb offsets, bulb division, twin- scaling and through micropropagation (tissue culture), and sexually by seeds.

Mother bulb and bulb offset constitute conventional type of propagation. The narcissi bulb does not renew itself completely every year. This consists of successive generations of bulb units, each comprising bulb scales, leaf bases and (in larger bulbs) flower. The vegetative buds develop in the axils of the fleshy leaves. The apical meristems in the leaf axils of mature bulbs in each season produce 2, 3 or 4 scale leaves, 2-3 leaves and then a flower bud. These new bulbs enlarge and cause gradual disintegration of the previously intact outer bulb scales. With the growing of the buds in the axils of the fleshy leaves, the slabs of small and flattened bulbs are formed so when such bulbs are planted after separation develop into round/double-nose/triple-nose and mother bulb stages, the latter stage requiring about 3 years to develop from a slab. The life span of a bulb unit extends over about 4 years. Mother bulbs, therefore, have a number of noses and offsets (bulbils), and are usually replanted after removing any loose offsets. These provide a high proportion of rounds and many large bulb offsets. Triple-nosed buds have three visible growing points which on replanting produce considerable number of bulbs, likewise double-nosed bulbs have two visible noses. Round bulbs are round in shape but the largest size is only good for production of best flowers and suitable for early forcing whereas the second and third sizes are used for later forcing. The flat-sided rounds and small rounds having few flowers are only replanted. In this cycle, mother bulb may produce many offsets, double- or triple-nosed bulbs and large rounds after one year, whereas large rounds and small rounds produce many double-nosed or rounds in two years and the offsets may produce only rounds in a year. Bulb production in a 2-year period is roughly 1 2 /2 times of the planted weight. Top size bulbs are known as ‘wares’. If the planting is left as such for many years, very rarely the ‘wares’ are found hence lifting should be done every year to harvest maximum number of ‘wares’. Harvesting should also be timely when the bulbs have attained their maximum size but have not initiated dividing. Removal of leaves after 4-6 weeks of flowering promotes bulb multiplication. 66 2.2.3.3 Climate Requirements Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus Narcissus grows almost anywhere, but prefer cool temperature, free from water logging and strong winds. It need sunny or light shaded environment for proper growth, development and flowering. Narcissus tolerate partial shade, preferably afternoon shade but need 4-6 hours of sun, not only for bloom but also to store assimilates for the following years bloom. Narcissus requires 1000-2500 ft. candle of light intensity.

Narcissus prefers a temperate climate with long cool springs. Most of narcissus require a temperature of 16-18°C for flowering. Higher temperatures affect the quality and keeping quality of the flowers and increase the risk of flower blast. Narcissus requires a high humidity. If it is too low, crop quality will be impaired. The crop is most comfortable at a relative humidity of 85-90 %.

Scooping and cutting or chipping is done by making conical incision on the basal plate to kill the shoot for breaking apical dominance so that numerous daughter bulbs along the cut edges of the scales are formed. In scooping, whole of the basal plate is removed. For cross-cutting or chipping, usually large old bulbs (10-18 cm circumference) are chosen. Bulbs may be chipped into half, quarter, 1/8 and 1/16 and incubated in plastic bags like to that of twin-scaling, and planted in a 50:50 grit + peat medium which provides good results.

Twin-scaling is the further exploitation of chipping where many vertical cuts (normally 8-10 in 12-14 cm grade bulb) through apical portion and basal plates are made. From each chip, the scales are so detached from the basal plate that two scales remain jointed at basal plate. These scales when kept in moist sand or vermiculite after disinfection with thiram or captafol, and incubated at 15-23°C for 8-16 weeks in darkness, regenerate daughter bulbs, better bulbil formation being in the outer scales than the inner ones, though bulbil size remains better in the innermost. Large size of twin-scales produces more bulbils but the bulbils obtained from smaller scales have high regenerating capacity.

Through micropropagation (tissue culture), one gets plenty of disease-free planting material in shorter duration. Scale bases, twin-scale bases, leaf bases devoid of chlorophyll, stem from the basal plate, flower stem and elongating shoots are the organs from where explants are taken. Through this method, up to 2000 bulbils can be produced in an 18 month duration.

Narcissi are also raised through seeds. Seeds are normally raised for evolution of new cultivars as these do not give true to the type cultivars. Through seeds, flowering size bulbs are obtained in 3-7 years. After 4-6 weeks of capsule formation, seeds ripen, harvested and within a few days are sown in pots, pans or flats, outside or in frames on the hills (temperate climate). A conditioning treatment of 23-27°C temperature to imbibed seeds and then shifting to 5-16°C temperature result in quick germination. In pans where seeds are to be sown should be 18 cm deep filled with sifted sterilized loam 2 parts, peat 1 part and coarse sand 1 part. Each cubic metre of the medium, 1 kg of superphosphate and ½ kg of powdered chalk should be mixed. Seeds should be sown leaving 3 cm each way. After sowing, the seeds are covered with a layer of soil mixture. The pans should be watered daily with fine mist. From each seed, a thin rush-like leaf appears which dies down late in the season but in the next season seedlings grow stronger with one or two flat leaves. In the third season, the young bulbs may be taken out and 67 Cut Flowers planted at 20 x 10 cm distance where regular cultural operations are carried out until flowering. Seeds can not be germinated in the plains until congenial environment akin to its requirement is provided. However, though most of the species form seeds but only a varieties may form but others not.

2.2.3.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control

After the flower bud initiation, narcissi require low temperature which may be satisfied by growing the bulbs outdoors in the temperate climates. They are usually cooled at 9°C for 6-8 weeks then planted outdoors again at 9°C for further 4-6 weeks for initial foliage, flower and root growth. The site where narcissi are to be grown should have sun shines for about half the day. Longer photoperiods only promote the length of the stem. They are not very demanding about their soil requirements but good results are found on well drained soil rich in humus which has a moderate water holding capacity. The pH of the soil should range from 6.0-7.0. Usually lime is not added to soils for narcissi growing.

Potato fields are most suitable for its planting as such soils are rich in nutrients. A weed-free, fertile and well cultivated soil is most suitable for narcissus plantings. First ploughing at 30 cm depth should be carried out to facilitate long root run of narcissi. While preparing the land, well rotten farmyard manure at the rate of 200 quintals per hectare should be incorporated in the soil at least one month before planting which apart from providing nutrients; increases soil texture, aeration, and water holding as well as draining capacity. Second and third ploughing should be carried out within 10 days of planting so that at planting there is sufficient moisture in the soil.

Planting of narcissus bulbs is usually rotated every 2-3 years to avoid disease and weed problems. To prevent transmission of bulb and stem nematodes, a period of at least 5 years should elapse between eliminating the last ground keepers and narcissus replanting. Bulbs left in the field up to 5 years may still give reasonable flower production though not of that quality or quantity as in third or fourth year. Spacing of the bulbs depends on the variety, bulb size, soil type, cultivation practices including control, and the number of years these are to be left in the field for perennial cropping. In field, these may be planted on flat beds 10-15 cm deep and 10-15 cm apart in single, double or triple rows separated by 60 cm wide paths. In general, the planting is done keeping two bulb widths between bulbs in the row, and rows spaced 30-40 cm. Ridged plantings may be adopted in marginally drained soils. Planting is done in the month of October in the plains of India, and in March - April or even in October in temperate regions. Some 10-15 tons (one ton may contain from 9,500 to 50,000 bulbs, bulb size ranging from 19 cm to 10 cm in circumference) of bulbs are required for planting one hectare of land but for ridged plantings quite less quantity is required. Large rounds are suitable for early and quality flowers, which become double-nosed the following season and the mother bulbs in the third year. Flat sided mother bulbs with their large offsets and small rounds, produce second grade blooms. The optimum weight of bulb for proper flowering should be around 50 g, though flowering may even be obtained by planting the bulbs weighing merely 14 grammes. The flowering bulb sizes normally used for planting are >16, 14-16, 12-14, 10-12, and 8-10.

Mulching conserves the moisture, checks the emergence of the weeds, protects the crop from cold damage, increases soil temperature and if the mulch is organic, 68 it decomposes and provides nutrients to the soil. Leaves of various plant species, Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and grasses, saw dust, bark, compost and poultry manure, chopped straw, chopped Narcissus bagasse, sphagnum peat, and plastic films are the mulches used in narcisssus plantings.

Weeds are fast growing and to sustain the life these have tendency to rob the nutrients in the adjoining area quickly and for photosynthesis work capture the light either by spreading its canopy horizontally or by its taller growth, hence stand of the main crop becomes very poor and flowering is badly affected vis-à- vis bulbs also do not take proper growth, hence control of the weeds becomes necessary. Many weeds germinate before the emergence of the narcissus leaves which should be killed through contact weed killers like pentachlorophenol (PCP), paraquat or a mixture of paraquat and diquat applying a few days before emergence of narcissi. Chlorpropham (CIPC) at 2.25 kg a.i. or mixed with 300 g of diuron, if applied to weed-free soil just before crop emergence, gives satisfactory control of annual weeds for many months. Kerb (propyzamide) or surflan (oryzalin) each at 2.25 kg a.i./ha gives satisfactory control of weeds when applied as pre- emergence. In our country, mostly weeding is carried out manually.

2.2.3.5 Irrigation and Nutrients

During rapid bulb expansion, narcissus requires uninterrupted watering to ensure even growth otherwise bulbs may result into split scales to uneven growth. Since bulbs at planting have already initiated flowers and leaves so just for the expansion of their tissues these require moist soil during all stages of growth and flowering. This also helps good root formation. In light sandy loam soils, flood irrigation is not harmful.

No fertilizer is applied while forcing the crop, and also at the time of rooting because narcissi are very sensitive to chemical fertilizers as sprouting is significantly delayed, therefore, at planting the application is avoided. However, at the time of land preparation or after sprouting, the fertilizers may be applied. High nitrogen level in the soil promotes bulb growth, produces longer flower stem but delayed flowering. Nitrogen in the form of ammonium sulphate at the rate of 120 kg/ha before planting and 60 kg after three months of planting gives encouraging results. P2O5 and K2O at the rate of 120 kg/ha each, in the form of single superphosphate and muriate/sulphate of potash should also be applied as basal dose at the time of land preparation. Deficiency of P2O5 and K2O reduces growth, delays flowering, shortens flower stalks and induces early senescence of foliage. Soil should also not be deficient in calcium and magnesium as these also cause reduced growth while manganese deficiency causes early senescence of the foliage.

2.2.3.6 Growth, Development, Flowering and Flower Forcing

In mature narcissi bulbs, flower buds are initiated before flowering i.e. by December in the plains and by March on the hills and are complete after three months i.e. by March in the plains and by June - July on the hills. The process of flower bud differentiation should continue throughout the growing season following initiation, which means that flower bud differentiation for the current season and initiation for the following season go together in the same bulb. The process of differentiation becomes more rapid at 15-17°C. This temperature regime is met naturally in the plains in the month of February and on the hills in 69 Cut Flowers April - May but in early lifted bulbs for forcing, they will have to be provided artificially. Narcissus pseudonarcissus and N. cyclamineus require an absolute cold treatment for further floral differentiation, development and rapid emergence while N. tazetta does not. All these species require warm temperature for floral initiation and differentiation which occurs prior to harvest and continues afterwards. Cold temperature treatments required for flowering vary from cultivar to cultivar. The cold treatment (9°C) of the bulb should be quite long i.e. from 10-14 weeks. Immediately after bulb lifting, first these should be warm stored at 17°C for 3-4 weeks to accelerate flower bud differentiation, and then hot water treated which avoids the risk of flower damage caused by HWT of the bulbs stored below this temperature and minimises the basal rot problem in store, which is most prevalent in storage at 21-30°C. Bulbs intended for forcing are usually 12-14 cm grade and for early forcing, after lifting, these are immediately subjected to 35°C for 5 days and at 18°C for about one month and then at 9°C till planting. Later-forced bulbs are stored at 17°C directly until planting. Eight weeks prior to moving of pots in the greenhouse, the bulbs are potted, watered and placed in the coolers at 5°C to allow bulbs to develop roots and shoots one by one. Cold and dry storage should not extend beyond 8 weeks and then after potting the bulbs in the moist medium are moved for another 8 weeks cold temperature of 5°C.

The cold treatment of the bulbs should be quite long so that when these bulbs are forced at warm temperature of 16-17°C in greenhouses, flowering occurs within 3 weeks. The duration of cold treatment for various varieties may vary, minimum being 13-15 weeks and the maximum17-24 weeks. N. tazetta does not require cold treatment but growth i.e. emergence and elongation of leaves and scapes may be inhibited at 5°C storage temperature but prolonged treatment hampers the quality and quantity of flower production. However, if N. tazetta is stored for 5 months at 25-30°C after HWT, on forcing this will flower rapidly. Similarly, in case of N. pseudonarcissus and N. cyclamineus, lifting and storing of the bulbs at 35°C for 5 days, results in early forcing and rapid floral development and flowering 2 weeks sooner than not treated ones. The usual way is to pre-cool (to dry and unplanted bulbs at a time when ambient temperature exceeds 9°C) the bulbs at 9°C for 6-8 weeks, then planting at 9°C for a further 4-6 weeks for initial growth of root, foliage and flower. Before forcing, root formation is a must. The temperature of 9°C, after planting, should be continued until flower buds are visible i.e. 4-6 weeks after planting. Now these pots or flats are shifted to the greenhouse at 13-16°C to force the flower buds to anthesis (it is 35 days at 16°C but 28 days at 18°C with reduced flower quality). However, before 10 days of anthesis, if temperature is again reduced to 9-10°C, the flower quality will be improved.

Bulbs treated with 100-1000 ppm GA solutions for 2-4 weeks for planting outside, shorter treatment gives about one fortnight earlier flowering without affecting the flower production.

Direct successful forcing of narcissus can be attained by subjecting the bulbs to 9°C for 10-12 weeks, and then forcing at 16°C in the polyhouse.

Pot plant forcing is similar to cut flower production. Narcissus as pot plants should be 20-30 cm tall with a large number flowers coming up clear of the foliage. Rooting room temperature should be 5°C where roots emerge from the 70 pots and when shoots are 2.5 cm high it should be brought down to 2°C. Afterwards, growing temperature should be 16-17°C but not above 18°C. At Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and pencil stage these are marketed or stored at 0-2°C. The life of one potted narcissi Narcissus plant in flower is from 10-18 days at 16°C temperature, varying from variety to variety. In a 10 cm pot some 3 bulbs and in a 20 cm pot some 6 bulbs of the dwarf varieties are planted. ‘Tete-a-Tete’, ‘Bridal Crown’, ‘February Gold’, ‘Jack Snipe’, ‘Hawera’, ‘Baby Moon’ and ‘Ice Follies’ are the cultivars which are grown as pot narcissi. Pots should contain black peat as potting substrate, and after potting the bulbs should be covered with sand. Potting mixture may also consist of 1 part leaf mould, 1 part organic manure, ½ part garden soil and ½ part coarse sand. For pot planting, bulbs should be dried for 1-2 weeks several degrees above ambient temperature, then drying at low humidity but at good air circulation and storage at 20 or 25°C, followed by cooling of potted bulbs at 9°C for 14 weeks and then finally at 5°C for early forcing or 5°C then 2°C for late forcing.

Flowering can be retarded by continued warm temperature storage at 25-28°C but keeping quality of the bulb is adversely affected. The bulbs are required to be retarded only when the bulbs are to be shipped from one continent to the other. A temperature regime of 30°C for 12 weeks from lifting, 0°C for 9 weeks and then 25°C for 8 weeks will retard anthesis by more than 6 months without affecting the bulbs.

2.2.3.7 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology

Trumpet and cupped narcissi should be cut at the fat goose-neck stage ( in mild weather at tight or green goose-neck stage) when the perianth segments are just showing colour whereas polyanthus types (Paper White, Soleil d’Or, etc) at the time when the first two flowers of the trusses are opening. Early picking of both the types will reduce the flower size, stem length and vase life. Green goose- neck stage is most convenient even for packing. For good effect, immediately after cutting the flowers are held in shallow water up to 4 hours or overnight though for local market even dry stored will work provided they are kept in water after reaching the market. After cutting, the flowers are graded and packed in the bundles of tens just by putting one rubber band below the flowers and another near the cut ends. These are either stored in water or dry in polythene wraps or in clean newspaper and kept in corrugated card board boxes either straight or flat. All narcissus flowers can be stored or marketed at 0-2ºC for up to 10-14 days either in water or dry in polythene bags but they are to loose less than a quarter of their potential vase life. Lower temperatures prevent opening of the flowers while higher storage temperature reduces the vase life. A temperature regime of 10-16°C is most suitable for flower opening.

Vase life varies with the cultivar and ranges from 5-11 days, with an average life of 7 days at 15.6-16°C and 65% RH. AgNO3 25 ppm and sucrose 6% pulsing increases vase life and the flowers after this treatment can be stored longer at 1.1°C. 8-HQC at 200 ppm and sucrose at 2% also increase vase life.

Potted trumpet narcissi are marketed when the flower is in the pencil stage of development i.e. when scapes stand quite erect. This takes about 3-4 days for opening. Paper White potted plants are marketed when the leaves and flowering scapes are 20- 25 cm long.

71 Cut Flowers 2.2.3.8 Lifting, Dormancy and Storage of Bulbs

1 Flower initiation in narcissi bulbs normally starts 2 /2 months before optimum lifting time. Lifting is effected when entire foliage have senesced and 95 % have died down or when required especially for early forcing or for export, there will be need to use a desiccant spray to kill non-senesced foliage and weeds, and for this purpose sulphuric acid is used only by an expert. Normally lifting is done in mid-June to late July. Poeticus and Poetaz have very short resting period and often roots begin to develop even before senescence of the foliage. Bulbs should be lifted carefully through forks without injuring them and immediately collected so that narcissus fly may not get time to lay its eggs. Bulbs should be shaken loose to get rid of the adhering soil and then roots should also be removed without damaging the basal plate. Now the bulbs are checked for infection of diseases and injury. If there is any loose scale, that should be taken out and then the bulbs should be divided, graded and kept in storage trays in shade for drying and curing. In the store, bulbs are given frequent fungicidal sprays. First phase of drying is to surface-dry the bulbs but later on the water loss depends on the rate of migration of water from the inner scales. The preferred temperature for storage between lifting and grading is about 18°C. This avoids the risk of flower damage caused by HWT if stored at a lower temperature vis-à-vis spread of basal rot which is greatest at 21-30°C. The storage treatments after grading are dependent on grades and their future use. Bulbs meant for sale are usually 14 cm grade and are kept in the store in trays at 18°C with adequate ventilation to prevent premature rooting, while for forcing 12-14 cm in circumference. For early forcing, immediately after lifting, these are subjected to 35°C for 5 days and then at 18°C and finally at 9°C but later-forced bulbs are continuously kept at 17°C until planting. Planting stock, the large bulb clusters and the 8-12 cm offsets are stored at 18°C to prevent the damage of HWT and immediately planted even without drying.

Hot water treatment (HWT) is an essential practice to control narcissus nematodes. While giving HWT to bulbs, apart from controlling nematodes, it also controls narcissus flies, bulb scale mite, leaf scorch, Fusarium wilt and certain other insect-pests and diseases which cause considerable loss to narcissus crop. The principle underlying HWT is given to kill the nematodes (eelworms) present in the bulbs without damaging the bulbs. Bulb producers can opt for more severe treatment but flower growers can not because first part to be affected in the bulb is flower bud, but both want to kill the nematodes without damaging the bulb at all. Moreover, the bulb should be treated at a stage when resistance of the flower bud to heat damage is at its maximum. Since narcissus bulbs pass through a stage of development throughout so when base of the bulb is swelling for root emergence, is also not the proper stage. Controlled (warm) storage of narcissi bulbs followed by HWT incorporated with 1 % Bevistan for 30 minutes at 44.4°C within 3 weeks of lifting provides quite satisfactory results. Delayed treatment will facilitate the nematode to make more protective wool hence HWT should not be delayed. On the storage of bulbs, it is already discussed under 2.2.3.8.

Narcissi have ‘tulip type’ dormancy. These have little dormancy and when leaves have senesced, bulbs seem to be dormant but, in fact, inside there is intense activity of primordial initiation and growth of daughter bulb units, shoots and roots.

72 2.2.3.9 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus Narcissi are attacked by a number of insect-pests and diseases, some of being highly devastating, and all these are being described here under.

The large narcissus fly [Merodon (Lampetia) equestris] resembles a small humble-bee and is about 1.2 cm long, with black, yellow or ginger hairs. It is active in summer and adult females lay their single eggs in the neck of narcissus bulbs which after hatching crawls down and enters the bulb through basal plate and pupates in the soil in the following spring. Infested bulbs become soft. Dieldrin 0.1 % with HWT for 3 hours has been found quite effective. Small narcissus fly (Eumerus tuberculatus and E. strigatus) resembles large narcissus fly or a house fly and about 6 mm long and the female adult lays eggs in bulbs already damaged by some other pests. The maggots (6 mm long) enter the bulbs normally through the neck and feed inside. Each season this fly breeds a number of generations. The symptoms of damage and control measures are the same as ‘large narcissus fly’. Bulb scale mite [Steneotarsonemus (Tarsonemus) laticeps] is more devastating in the warmer parts of the temperate regions in the greenhouses attacking forced narcissi. They are 0.2 mm long and enter in between the bulb scales and feed on them adjoining the neck portion and survive feeding on the emerging flowers and leaves, and afterwards these migrate to the foliage. Leaves after emergence develop yellow stripes, peduncles elongate with saw-toothed edges and flowers deform due to their infestation. HWT at 44°C for 3 hours to the dormant bulbs will control this pest. Bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus) is a saprofungus pest but in a few cases this attacks the crop as a primary pest. This enters the bulbs through ailing part but after entering these increase rapidly and extend the injured area. On the plants they are detected as a grey powder on a patch of brown. These mites travel far and wide by clinging the narcissus flies. It is controlled as ‘bulb scale mite’. Slugs and snails attack the crop during damp weather. Slugs enter the bulbs through base giving chance to other insects and pathogens to enter. These can be controlled by mixing 6 Meta (metaldehyde base) fuel pellets in the powdered form to 1 kg of bran and left as heaps in the field near the slug populated corners. Metaldehyde 1 part to 40 parts of bran by volume mixed together causes slugs in dry weather to produce more slime and eventual death. Controlling other insects will also control wireworms and other lepidopterous insects that occasionally feed on the crop.

Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) is one of most serious pests attacking bulbs through the soft tissues of the neck and can also enter the rapidly growing leaves and stems causing distortion and discolouration, and their presence is realized by the swellings and the light coloured speckles. In poorly drained soil, its spread is very fast. These also make dry eelworm wool at the base of the dried bulb. Infested bulbs become soft, especially at neck region and on cutting across, concentric browning is apparently seen. It can effectively be controlled by storing the bulbs first at 32.2°C for 1 week, followed by a 3-hour soak in water at 26.7°C and then HWT at 44.5°C for 3 hours. Bulb and leaf nematode (Aphelenchoides subtenuis) has been attacking only a few cultivars and through its attack, outer scales of the bulbs are scarified with blisters and crinkles and the transverse cutting of the bulb shows grey discolouration. Infested plants show premature yellowing of leaves. Methyl bromide treatment at 100 ml/m2 controls this pest completely. HWT as defined under 2.2.3.8 will hold good here too. Root lesion nematode [Pratylenchus (Ditylenchus) pratensis] attacks only the 73 Cut Flowers roots and incites a secondary root rot infection of Cylindrocarpon radicicola by which leaves yellow prematurely. The treatments suggested for ‘stem and bulb’ nematode will control this pest also.

Basal rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. narcissi), formerly known as F. bulbigenum, is most serious pathogen of narcissi causing decay of the root plate or scale bases, especially in storage when temperature is above 14°C and more seriously when it rises above 21°C. It also causes rot in the field. The tops of the infected bulbs turn yellow and die before maturing and at digging, the roots and affected scales are found purplish in colour. Infection occurs through the wounds on the bulbs or roots and even through uninjured bulb and roots. The affected bulbs when planted show yellowing of foliage when sprouted. Methyl bromide fumigation at the rate of 50 g/m2 before planting or aldicarb 10 % a.i. (4g/m2) application twice during growing season controls this pathogen. HWT with formalin 1 % while treating the bulbs in storage against nematodes will also control this pathogen. Smoulder [Sclerotinia (Botrytis) narcissicola] is most prevalent in cold wet seasons and is apparently noticed as spotting as well as rotting of the flowers and leaves. At lifting, affected bulbs bear masses of small, black and flattened sclerotia (resting bodies) under the outer papery scales and on rotting leaves. Infected bulbs produce distorted yellow shoots with withered dark brown or black leaf tips. Wind and rain splashes help this disease spreading to other plants. Storage infection may cause bulb rotting in the godown and when planted, disease spreads in the field. Proper sanitation of the field and stores, and avoiding high humidity in the field or in store will minimise this disease. Within 48 hours of lifting, the bulbs are dipped for 30 minutes in a suspension of 0.2 % benomyl or carbendazim or thiophanate methyl and then bulbs are rapidly dried before storage, but in the following season none of these 3 chemicals are to be applied again. Green mould (Trichoderma viride) affects the injured or bruised bulbs in storage by causing bright green growth on the wounds and ultimate rotting of the bulb. Bruised bulbs should be discarded and not stored and the others should be treated with thiride or captan. Penicillium bulb rot (Penicillium corymbiferum) apart from causing bulb rot also causes twin-scale bulb rot which can be controlled through 0.2 % captaf. White root rot (Rosellinia nectarix) infects the narcissi under moist conditions by causing root rot and black rotting of the outer scales of the bulbs with white fungal strands in the form of woolly mass near the basal plate. Such bulbs should be destroyed. Captan or thiride may also control this disease. White mould or Ramularia blight (Ramularia vallisumbrosae) spreads through winds or water in moist warm weather by producing grey or white powder and destroys the foliage and sometimes even stalk. This can be controlled by 3-4 sprayings of 4:4:50 Bordeaux mixture or tank-mix zineb starting when the leaves are 5-10 cm high. Leaf scorch (Stagonospora curtisii) survives in the dry papery scales of the bulb, and when leaves emerge, this attacks causing scorched and burnt appearance on the leaf tips but the buds and flowers are attacked in damp weather only. After the death of the foliage, the spores of this fungus remain around the neck of the bulbs. The disease becomes highly devastating in the cool-stored, late-planted narcissi which flower early. HWT with formalin controls this disease in the first year, and spraying with 0.2 % zineb at 10-14 days intervals after removing and burning diseased tips will control in the second year. The control advocated for ‘white mould’ will also control this disease. Narcissus fire [Botryotinia (Sclerotinia) polyblastis] causes pale-brown lesions quickly spreading on the leaves. At the picking time, perianth segments develop pale-brown spots. It causes leaf and 74 flower spotting and premature death of foliage. Moist weathers enhance the spread Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and of the disease where first flowers are killed and then leaves are infected where it Narcissus over winters. Proper sanitation of the field and removal of the infected flowers, as well as fortnightly spraying of the crop with Bordeaux mixture (4:4:50) and tank-mix zineb will control this disease.

The viruses which attack narcissi are ‘cucumber mosaic virus’ (CMV) causing lighter striping and mottled pale-yellow discolouration of the foliage and flower stalks but not of much significance, ‘narcissus yellow stripe’ (NYSV) spreading through aphids is the most serious viral disease of narcissi showing bright yellow stripes or streaks from emergence to flowering by which yield and quality of the bulbs and flowers are reduced, ‘narcissus white streak’ or ‘silver leaf’ (NWSV) is seen only during blooming time by developing silvery leaf or white stripe on leaves by which foliage senesces earlier and bulbs also deteriorates rapidly, ‘narcissus latent virus’ (NLV), ‘Grand Soleil d’Or and jonquil mild mosaic’ (JMMV) transmitted through aphids, ‘narcissus mosaic’ (NMV) transmitted mechanically, ‘Arabic mosaic’ (AMV), ‘raspberry ring spot’ (RSPV), ‘strawberry latent ring spot’ (SLRV), ‘tobacco rattle’ (TRV), ‘tobacco ring spot’ (TRSV) and ‘tomato black ring or chocolate spot virus’ (TBRV) shows large dark brown spots, all transmitted through nematodes except where specified. Regular insecticide spray will control the vectors. Moreover, the infected plants should be rogued out and buried to check further spread.

Trumpet narcissi if are forced at 18°C or higher, bull-nosing may occur where flowers neither expand properly nor open. Injuries caused by herbicides are leaf scorch due to paraquat, distorted flowers due to delapon or trichloroacetic acid (TCA), chlorosis due to paraquat when it enters the bulb, or triazoles, reduced growth after higher rates of chlorpropham, diuron, fenuron or simazine, and damage to the basal meristem resulting in flaccidity due to MCPA and 2,4-D. HWT causes aborted or small ‘starry’ flowers, dead buds, leaf mottling, roughening, thickening and distortion, grey rings in the scales and grey spots above the basal plate, etc. Formaldehyde treatment injury is caused in terms of brown corky areas around the periphery of the basal plate, reduced flower number and deformed flowers.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Name Narcissus spp. used for extraction of essential oils...... 2) How the flowering in Narcissus is retarded ? ......

...... 75 Cut Flowers 2.3 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied various true ornamental bulbs for their classification, important species and the varieties, their propagational methods, various cultural practices adopted, various factors affecting growth and flowering, flower forcing, stage for harvesting of flowers, their post harvest technologies to increase the vase life, major insect-pests and diseases infesting / infecting these plants vis-à- vis physiological disorders and their remedial measures, the stage for bulb lifting, their storage and the breaking of dormancy for induction of flowering.

2.4 KEY WORDS

Bulbils, bulblets, bulbs, diseases, dormancy, flower blasting, flower forcing, holding solution, hot-water treatment, insect-pests, Iris, Lilium, micropropagation, Narcisssus, notching, physiological disorders, pulsing, scoring, senescence, storage of bulbs, twin-scale propagation, etc.

2.5 FURTHER REFERENCES 1) Bailey, L.H. (1960). The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (Vol. I- III). The Macmillan Company, New York. 2) Beckett, K.A. (1985). The Concise Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. Orbis Publishing Ltd., Great Britain. 3) Bryan, J.E. (1989). Bulbs (Vol. I-II). Timber Press, Oregon, U.S.A. 4) Dole, J.M. and Wilkins, H.F. (1999). Floriculture: Principles and Species. Prentice Hall, Jersey, U.S.A. 5) Griffiths, M. (1995). Manual of Bulbs. Timber Press, Oregon, U.S.A. 6) Hay, R. (1971). Reader’s Digest Encyclopaedia of Garden Plants and Flowers. The Reader’s Digest Association Ltd., London, Great Britain. 7) Hellyer, A. (1983). The Collingridge Illustrated Encyclopedia of Gardening. Collingridge Books, England. 8) Hertogh, A. De and Le Nard, M. (1993). The Physiology of Flower Bulbs. Elsevier Science Publishers a.v., Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 9) Salinger, J.P. (1985). Commercial Flower Forcing. Butterworths Horticultural Books, Wellington, New Zealand.

2.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Iris bulbs more than 20 cm in circumference may be chipped (cross cut) 1 th into half, a quarter and /8 and incubated in plastic bags and planted in a 50:50 grit + peat medium for good results.

76 Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Iris (Bulbous), Lilium and Narcissus 1) The storage organ in lily is an imbricated bulb that consists of many fleshy scales, which are modified leaves attached to a basal plate. When the plant has completed flowering, the bulb is immediately lifted, outer scales are detached and the parent bulb is replanted to recover within two years. These scales are now planted 6-7 cm deep in open beds or frames, 2.5 cm apart in the rows spaced 15 cm apart. Bulbils are formed in the autumn which can be lifted and replanted in beds for getting flowering size bulbs. In case established plants can not be disturbed just at post flowering, scales can be removed in September and placed immediately in 30 cm deep boxes of sand in alternate layers of sand and scales, by keeping the boxes moist and warm until the spring, and thus the bulblets formed on the scales can be planted in the open in the spring. The bulblets formed through this method are smaller than previous method but by first summer many will grow into small saleable size. Another method is to insert the scales in single layer in September and then planting out in March the young growing plants still attached to the old scale.

2) Lilium cultivation was earlier restricted to hilly area but now with the advancement of research efforts made at IARI, it is grown under northern plain for flower production successfully but quality bulb production prefer cooler climate.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Narcissus jonquilla, N. poeticus and N. pseudonarcissus.

2) Flowering can be retarded by continued warm temperature storage at 25- 28°C but keeping quality of the bulb is adversely affected. The bulbs are required to be retarded only when the bulbs are to be shipped from one continent to the other. A temperature regime of 30°C for 12 weeks from lifting, 0°C for 9 weeks and then 25°C for 8 weeks will retard anthesis by more than 6 months without affecting the bulbs.

77 Cut Flowers UNIT 3 ORCHIDS AND ANTHURIUM

Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Orchids and Anthurium 3.2.1 Orchids 3.2.1.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 3.2.1.2 Propagation 3.2.1.3 Cultural Practices and Growth Factors 3.2.1.4 Control of Growth and Flowering 3.2.1.5 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders 3.2.1.6 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology 3.2.2 Anthurium 3.2.2.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 3.2.2.2 Propagation 3.2.2.3 Climate, Media, Cultural Practices and Growth Control 3.2.2.4 Insect-pests and Diseases 3.2.2.5 Post Harvest Technology 3.3 Let Us Sum Up 3.4 Key Words 3.5 Further References 3.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 3.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to: explain the classification, various important species and commercial varieties of orchids and anthurium, know the soils and various other substrates suitable for growing these two crops, describe cultural details and propagational methods employed in these two crops, know manipulating flowering, explain various insect-pests, diseases and physiological disorders and their control, and describe stage of flower harvesting, post harvest management and packaging. 3.1 INTRODUCTION

Confucius (551-479 B.C.) mentioned orchids in his writings as Chinese used them to decorate their homes. But only in the 17th century the aesthetic interest in orchids started developing. However, for cut flower, in 1913, the Sun Kee Nursery was established in Singapore to produce spray-type orchids of Arachnis, Aranda and Aranthera. Singapore, 78 Hawaii and Thailand grow mainly Dendrobium hybrids. Malaysia also grow Orchids and Anthurium other cut orchid sprays, apart from Singapore and Thailand and they export these to Europe, the major one being West Germany. Cymbidium is being grown in the Southern Hemisphere.

Orchid flowers are highly priced in the international florist trade. Among all the flowering plants on the globe, orchids are most exquisite in nature for their range of delicate colours (white, light to golden yellow, pink, scarlet, salmon, crimson, red, brown, violet, blue, with some of them being sweetly fragrant), the size and bizarre flower forms, their habits and wide geographical distribution, and to some extent for their pharmaceutical uses and vanilla production, aromatic uses and food. In the various parts of NE region various orchids are used as food. The leaves and pseudobulbs of Cymbidium being of great nutritive value are used as food and in Arunachal Pradesh, Anoectochilus leaves are used as vegetables, Dendrobium dried leaves when cooked with rice give delicious food with exotic flavour, and the fragrant fruits of climbing Vanilla fragrans and V. planifolia are the source of essence i.e. vanillin. Tribal people of NE region use orchids as medicines in various ways; Vanda coerulea flower juice is used as eye drops against glaucoma, cataract and blindness, Dendrobium nobile flowers for various eye troubles, Phaius tankervilliae pseudobulbs along with wild ginger against dysentery and fracture, Paphiopedilum insigne whole plant against amoebic dysentery, dried pseudobulbs of some 30 orchids are said to have aphrodisiac properties and are known in the trade as ‘SALEP’, Dendrobium nobile contains alkaloids such as ‘dendrobine’ and ‘nobiline’, chewing of seeds of a few orchids mixed with Hibiscus leaves works as oral contraceptive in women, and some orchids are reported inducing sterility in the women. They make beautiful cut flowers for flower arrangement which may last sometimes even more than three months, and for corsages. They are also used as potted flowering plants, in window boxes, in hanging baskets and as bedding flowering plants. The orchids have over 800 genera with some 35000 species (India accounting some 1300, out of which around 50 % is found only in NE region, the richest in the word i.e. Sikkim, 450; Assam, 350; Meghalaya 350; Arunachal Pradesh 300; Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland 150 each; and Tripura 100; many overlapping; the other regions in India being north-western Himalayas and southern parts, especially Western Ghats), being the largest family (Orchidaceae) among the flowering plants. In India, though some genera vis a vis species are common for various zones but Eastern India has 107 genera, Western India 44, Southern and Central India 66 and Andaman & Nicobar Islands 18 genera. Most orchids are perennial herbs, a large number of them are epiphytes or terrestrial and a few saprophytes and leafless in nature. Majority of the orchids are native to tropical countries, found especially in the humid tropical forests of South and Central America, India, Sri Lanka, Burma, South China, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, New Guinea and Australia. Brazilean Cattleya, Mexican Laelia and Indian Dendrobium, Cymbidium and Vanda have maximum contribution in the development of global orchid industry.

Anthuriums are evergreen tropical ornamentals, valued for their most beautiful flowers having peculiar but delicate look and for their unusually attractive foliage. Its cut flowers are long lasting and give bold effect in the floral arrangement. South India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka) is the hub of anthurium growing in India. Though ideal growing areas in the country are NEH region (tropical and sub-tropical regions, especially Sikkim, Meghalaya and Arunanchal Pradesh), 79 Cut Flowers Assam, West Bengal (Kalimpong and Darjeeling areas), Orissa (Koraput region and certain other adjoining areas), Tripura, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, lower part (foot hills) of Jammu & Kashmir as well Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, Maharashtra and Gujarat, but presently it is being cultivated only in entire Kerala, Yercaud and Ootacamund i.e. Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu, Coorg in Karnataka and in a limited part of Maharashtra for commercial use. In fact, there are three major consumer markets in the world, viz., Europe with 47.8 % per capita consumption, USA with 21.8% and Japan with 16.8 %. The plant is native to Central America, Colombia, Peru, Brazil, Guatemala and Venezuela. Hawaii’s main cut flower for export is anthurium. USA (Hawaii, Florida and California), Mauritius and the Netherlands are the major countries for commercial cultivation of anthuriums. Apart from these, Denmark, Italy, Germany, Jamaica, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago also deal with anthuriums as there are many commercial nurseries dealing with anthuriums for export. The Netherlands occupies top position in anthurium production under glass. The most important market for Dutch anthuriums is Western Europe, Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore, Germany being the largest importer. Trinidad is the leading supplier of anthurium cut flowers to United States, Dominican Republic and Jamaica. Among Asian countries, Singaporean growers produce anthuriums in Malaysia for export to other Asian and Middle East countries. Mauritius anthuriums are being supplied mainly to French market. 3.2 ORCHIDS AND ANTHURIUM

3.2.1 Orchids (Family - Orchidaceae) 3.2.1.1 Classification, Species and Varieties The Swedish botanist Carl von Linne, better known as Linnaeus is the first to put system of classification of all the plants then known and he arranged them into several groups as per similarities in stamens and pistils. He described 8 genera and 69 orchid species under his group XX-Gyanandria (stamens adnate to the pistil) and Diandria (two stamens). Olof Swartz (1800) published an exclusive article on orchids, describing 25 genera under two divisions: i) orchids with one anther, and ii) orchids with two anthers, and thus he was honoured as the first Orchidologist. These two divisions are today recognized as Monandrae and Diandrae. John Lindley (1799-1865), an Englishman published ‘Genera and Species of Orchidaceous Plants’ during 1830-1840, based of all the orchids collected world over till then, and he put orchids in eight tribes as following: I) Monandrae (one anther) A) Pollen masses waxy: Tribe 1: Malaxideae: No caudicle or separate stigmatic gland Tribe 2: Epidendreae: A distinct caudicle but no separate stigmatic gland Tribe 3: Vandeae: A distinct caudicle attached to a deciduous stigmatic gland B) Pollen masses powdery, granular or sectile: Tribe 4: Ophrydeae: Anther terminal, erect or incumbent, adnate to 80 top of column Tribe 5: Aretheuseae: Anther terminal, operculate Orchids and Anthurium Tribe 6: Neottieae: Anther dorsal II) Diandrae or Triandrae (two or three anthers) Tribe 7: Cypripedieae: Ovary one or three-celled Tribe 8: Apostasieae: Ovary three-celled Heinarich Gustav Reichenbach or Reichenbach fil (popular name), a German, published an article in form of a synopsis in Walper’s Annales Botanices Systematicae, during 1861-1866. On the system of classification, there had been a lot of advocacies, the latest being by Holttum (1964), who outlined a system of classification based on orchids of Malaysia, and published ‘A Revised Flora of Malaya Vol. I – Orchids of Malaya’, classifies orchids as under (in all, having 28 tribes):

Family Orchidaceae having 2 subfamilies, i) Pleonandrae (Apostasia tribe, more than one anther e.g. slipper orchids, ii) Monandrae (one anther) which has two types viz. Basitonae (anther attached by its base, Habenaria tribe) and Acrotonae (anther attached by the top). Acrotonae is further divided into two: i) pollinia granular [saprophytes and their allies (4 tribes), Goodyera tribe, Corymborchis tribe], and ii) pollinia waxy which is further divided into i) Monopodial (Vanda-Arachnis tribe), and ii) Sympodial orchids which comprise, a: mainly terrestrial (pollinia without disc, viz. Phaius tribe, Nephelaphyllum tribe, Arundina tribe, Sobralia tribe, Liparis tribe), b: Epiphytes (pollinia with no disc, viz. Coelogyne tribe, Dendrobium tribe, Bulbophyllum tribe, etc.), and c: Epiphytic and terrestrial (pollinia with disc, sometimes with a stripe, viz. Agrostophyllum tribe, Appendicula tribe, Thelasis tribe, Eulophia tribe, Bromheadia tribe, Cymbidium tribe, etc.).

Though this system is very simple and easy to follow but still the Classification of Orchids has to evolve finally to make it more understandable.

The orchids have over 800 genera with some 35000 species, out of which India is native of some 1300 species. Orchidaceae is said to be the largest family among the flowering plants. Almost half the species are a) terrestrial (growing on the ground of the forest) and remaining ones b) epiphytes [growing non-parasitically on the host plants i.e. tree branches, getting their nourishment from air, from humus in bark crevices through specially adapted roots, and through rain water, and normally consists of an horizontal rhizome from which at intervals arise usually erect and swollen stems or pseudobulbs, and these are of two types: i) monopodials growing from a single vegetative apex as they sprout new growth by developing axillary shoots which eventually grow into new plants, the main stem growing continuously year after year and has a dominant apical meristem from where in the leaf axils inflorescence arises, and have neither rhizome nor pseudobulbs e.g. Arachnis, Chiloschista, Microcoelia, Phalaenopsis, Renanthera, Vanda, Vanilla, etc. where Chiloschita and Microcoelia are devoid of leaves and the roots have a photosynthetic action, and ii) sympodials growing from a number of vegetative apices present at intervals on the normally branched rhizomes with or without pseudobulbs, where main stem terminates its growth at the end of each season and produces a lead or shoot from the base in the growing season by forming its own bulbous stem (pseudobulb) which eventually flowers e.g. Cattleya, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Oncidium, etc.]. Epiphytic species are rather 81 Cut Flowers easy to grow. Most of the temperate zone orchids are terrestrial, and most of the tropical orchids are epiphytes. Majority of the orchids are tropical and others sub-temperate to temperate, starting from the sea level to 3,500 m altitude. Apart from a) terrestrial and b) epiphytic orchids, there are: c) lithophytes or epilithic orchids growing on the surface of the rocks, d) saprophytic growing on dead or decaying organic matter, e) subterranean growing beneath the surface of the growing medium, and f) semi-aquatic orchids growing in water.

The pseudobulb is a single swollen internode appearing as bulb in some genera such as Calanthe, Coelogyne and Maxillaria. These may be round, ovoid, fusiform, clavate, elongated or cylindrical, depending upon the genera. These pseudobulbs produce a tuft or fan of strap-shaped or elongated lanceolate leaves, while in other genera such as Cattleya, Dendrobium and Epidendrum, the pseudobulb is stem-like with a few to many joints, sometimes swollen and the leaves are strap-shaped or lanceolate to oblong, and one being formed at each joint usually. The Vanda group of epiphytes viz. Aerangis, Aerides, Angraecum, Phalaenopsis and Vanda do not form pseudobulbs but elongated stems, with pendulous aerial roots and usually with thick and strap-shaped leaves. The function of pseudobulb or thickened stem is like the bulb, which stores water and nourishments for the new growing shoot.

The roots, in orchids, arise from the axils of basal internodes. They are fleshy and the velamen (the outer spongy tissue around the true roots) that is well developed not only in epiphytes and lithophytes but also in terrestrial orchids absorbs water and nutrients quickly either from the growing media (terrestrial orchids) or from air (epiphytes). The function of the velamen is also the conservation of moisture and protection of the plants from strong light. In certain species that lack leaves photosynthesis is carried out in the entire root structure. Terrestrial orchids such as Cypripedium, and all native British orchids, have either a tuft of fleshy roots at the base of the plant or underground tubers. The leaves that are usually strap-shaped but more lax than epiphytic species appear only in the basal tufts.

Orchid flowers comprise of three sepals and three petals, the third petal (often larger) transforming into a lip (labellum) which varies from genus to genus but is often spurred and variously lobed, pouched or keeled. The second unusual characteristic feature is the column (fused style and stamens) which has combination of pollen being formed at the top and the ovary just below. The pollen is not powdery but is found in the form of two, four, six or eight spherical masses, or pollinia which are easily carried to the ovary by insects. They hybridize easily where multigenera crosses are possible, and up to five genera have yet been combined in a single hybrid plant.

The genera of orchids which could be commercially grown under the climatic conditions prevailing in this country are:

Aerides (Foxtail orchid): This is monopodial and epiphytic orchid (a few lithophytes), closely ailed to Vanda and may be grown in temperate as well as in tropical areas, depending on the species. There are some 60 species and the important species are A. crispum, A. fieldingi, A. maculosum, A. odoratum, A. racemeformis, A. vandarum, etc. Hybrids are Aeridachnis (Aerides x Arachnis), Aeridocentrum (Aerides x Ascocentrum), Aeridofinetia (Aerides x Neofinetia), Aeridopsis (Aerides x Phalaenopsis), Aeridostylis (Aerides x Rhynchostylis), 82 Aeridovanda (Aerides x Vanda), Renades (Aerides x Renanthera), Tanakara Orchids and Anthurium (Aerides x Phalaenopsis x Vanda), Vandopsides (Aerides x Vandopsis), etc. Pink Glory, Crestwood, Malibu Gold, Yip Sum Wah, Cherry Blossom, Frank Johnston, Hawaii, Tsuruko Iwasaki, etc. are the varieties developed using Aerides.

Anoectochilus (syn. Haemaria, Jewel orchid): It is temperate terrestrial orchid which has some 20 species. It is valued for its most colourful leaves and not for the flowers which are normally insignificant. Important species are A. geniculatus, A. regalis, R. roxburghii, A. setaceus, A. sikkimensis, etc. Anoectomaria Dominyi is a beautiful hybrid between Anoectochilus roxburghii and Haemaria discolor.

Arachnis (Scorpion or spider orchid): A genus of about 17 epiphytic, lithophytic or terrestrial species. This is a monopodial tropical orchid, flowering almost year round, and prefers bright sunlight and high humidity for its growth and flowering. Spikes are 75 to 100 cm or more in length and bear 8-15 flowers. Important species are A. annamensis, A. cathcartii, A. clarkei, A. flos-aeris, hybrids are Aeridachnis (Arachnis x Aerides), Arachnopsis (Archnis x Phalaenopsis), Aranda (Arachnis x Vanda), Aranthera (Arachnis x Renanthera), Armodachnis (Arachnis x Armodorum), Limara (Arachnis x Renanthera x Vandopsis), Ridleyara (Archnis x Trichloglottis x Vanda), Trevorara (Arachnis x Paraphalaenopsis x Vanda), Ascoarachnis (Arachnis cathcartii x Ascocentrum curvifolium, an intergeneric hybrid), etc. and the prominent varieties are Catherine, Ishbel, Maggie Oei Red Ribbon, Maggie Oei Yellow Ribbon, etc.

Brassia (spider orchid): This is an epiphytic orchid thriving in intermediate temperatures, and possesses large flattened pseudobulbs. This genus contains some 30 species, extending from Mexico to Brazil, and the West Indies. The long-tailed sepals and petals are the characteristic feature of brassias. The important species are B. brachiata, B. caudata, B. gireoudeana, B. lanceana, B. lawrenceana, B. longissima, B. maculata, B. verrucosa, etc. Some of the intergeneric hybrids are Brapasia (Brassia x Apasia), Brassidium (Brassia x Oncidium), Miltasia (Brassia x Miltonia), Odontobrassia (Brassia x Odontoglossum), Rodrassia (Brassia x Rodriguezia), etc.

Bulbophyllum: This temperate orchid is the largest genus comprising some 2000 species, having roundish pseudobulbs and basal inflorescence. Important species are B. affine, B. barbigerum, B. biflorum, B. bracteolatum, B. campanulatum, B. cauliflorum, B. chinense, B. comosum, B. crassipes, B. cylindricum, B. falcatum, B. fascinator, B. hirtum, B. leopardinum, B. lobbii, B. longissimum, B. macranthum, B. maximum, B. medusae, B. ornatissimum, B. parviflorum, B. reticulatum, B. robustum, B. sikkimens, B. umbellatum, etc. Interspecific hybrids are Fascination (B. fascinator x B. longissimum), Louis Sander (B. longissimum x B. ornatissimum) and David Sander (B. lobbii x B. virescens).

Cattleya: This epiphytic temperate orchid has sympodial growth and originates in South America. It is the most popular and widely grown in the entire Orchidaceae. It has some 65 species, several thousand hybrids and numerous varieties. Important species are C. aurantiaca, C. bicolor, C. bowringiana, C. citrina, C. dowiana, C. intermedia, C. labiata, C. lawrenceana, C. leopoldii, C. luteola, C. maxima, C. mossiae, C. multiflorum, C. schilleriana, C. skinneri, C. violacea, C. walkeriana, C. warscewiczii, etc. A few of the large number of hybrids are Hardyana (C. dowiana aurea x C. gigas), Guatemalensis (C. skinneri x C. aurantiaca), Intricata (C. intermedia x C. leopoldii), Victoria Reginae (C. 83 Cut Flowers labitata x C. leopoldii), Ballantineana (C. trianaei x C. warscewiczii), Clotho (C. enid x C. trianaei), Fabia (C. dowiana x C. labiata), Iris (C. bicolor x C. dowiana), Omar (C. enid x C. leda), Whitei (C. warneri x C. schilleriana), etc. Laeliocattleya is bigeneric hybrid with Laelia. With the genera like Brassavola (Adamara, a hybrid of Brassavola, Cattleya, Epidendrum and Laelia; Brassolaeliocattleya, a trigeneric hybrid of Brassavola, Laelia and Cattleya; and Potinara, a hybrid of four genera i.e. Brassavola, Cattleya, Laelia and Sophronitis); Broughtonia, Diacrium, Epidendrum, Laelia (Saphrolaeliocattleya, a trigeneric hybrid of Cattleya, Laelia and Sophronitis), and Sophronitis (Lowiara, a hybrid from Sophronitis grandiflora and Brassolaelia ‘Helen’) , this has produced intergeneric crosses. Some popular varieties are Bob Betts, Bow Bells, Bowrevel, Chickamauga, Diane Salo, Doty Sykora, Empress Bells, Estelle, Margaret Stewart, North Star, White Christmas, White Emblem, etc.

Coelogyne: This orchid is epiphytic or lithophytic and has uninodal pseudobulb. There are some 200 species under this genus, some suitable for the temperate areas while others for tropical conditions. The species can be identified by characteristic positioning of the inflorescence. The important species are C. barbata, C. corymbosa, C. cristata, C. dayana, C. elata, C. fimbriata, C. flaccida, C. fragrans, C. fuscens, C. nitida, C. ochracea, C. odoratissima, C. peciosa, C. tomentosa, C. uniflora, etc. Hybrids are Mem. William Micholitz (C. lawrenceana x C. mooreana) and Stanny (C. asperata x C. pandurata).

Cymbidium: By and large, this is an evergreen terrestrial orchid though some are epiphytes and still a few others as lithophytes, but in cultivation all are grown only terrestrially. This is a sympodial temperate orchid, with a few also suitable for tropical conditions. These plants are found from Sri Lanka to India and Japan and throughout Malaysia to Australia. It has some 70 species, and forms abundant fleshy roots, and short and stout pseudobulbs. Cymbidiums are generally easy to grow which require cool or intermediate temperatures. The plants under this genus bear loveliest and long lasting (sometimes even more than two months) inflorescences, and therefore is most popular and is being grown on a commercial scale in many parts of the world. Important species are C. aloifolium, C. bicolor, C. dayanum, C. devonianum,, C. eburneum, C. elegans, C. ensifolium, C. giganteum, C. grandiflorum, C. insigne, C. longifolium, C. lowianum, C. madidum, C. mastersii, C. pendulum, C. simonsianum, C. tigrinum, C. tracyanum, etc. Though there are several thousand hybrids but a few most popular ones are Angelica Advent, Alexanderi Westonbirt (C. eburneum x C. lowianum x C. insigne Westonbirt), Arabian Nights, Arunta Amber, Arunta Lovely Lips, Babylon Castle Hill, Balkies, Baltic, Bengal Bay, California Cascade, Cariga, Carisbrook, Comte de Hemptirne, Flirtation, Great Day, King Arthur, Dingwall Lewes, Mahogany, Marcia, Miretta, Mission Bay, Moriah Hindu, Oriental Legend, Pearl Magnificum, Peter Pan Greensleaves, Prince Charles, Princess Elizabeth, Promona, Pumander (Louis Sander x C. pumilum), Putana Showpiece, Queen of Picardy, Red Beauty, Rosanna Pinkie, Rose Beauty, Show Girl, Swallow, Vieux Rose, York, Yule Log, etc. This genus has intergeneric hybrids with Phaius and Cyperorchis. The top seedling varieties in the Dutch Auctions are Cascade, Golden Fleece, Mieke, Molly, Nederhorst and No. 60.

Cypripedium (Lady’s slipper): Commonly it is known as ‘lady’s slipper’ because of its pouch like leaves, appearing as true lady’s slipper. Generally they are deciduous and rhizomatous. Some 50 species are found in this genus which are 84 mainly terrestrial with only a few lithophytic or epiphytic. It is widespread in Orchids and Anthurium North Temperate Zone with a few species extending in warm areas such as Mexico and parts of tropical Himalayas. These like tree shade for their growing. Important species are C. bellatulum, C. calceolus, C. candidum, C .curtisii, C. insigne, C. parishii, C. parviflorum, C. pubescens, C. reginae, C. spicerianum, C. venustum, C. villosum, etc. Andrewsii Fuller (C. candidum x C. parviflorum) and Favillianum Curtis (C. candidum x C. pubescens) are the interspecific hybrids.

Dendrobium: In the entire Orchidaceae, this is the second largest genus with some 1340 species, widely distributed in tropical Asia from Sri Lanka to the Samoan and Tongan islands and across to Japan in the north and to New Zealand in the south. These are non-bulbous producing slender canes to tiny pseudobulbs, out of the underground rhizomes, with a great majority being deciduous epiphytes while a few the more tropical ones are evergreen. For their growing, these prefer partial shade and high humidity coupled with good air circulation. The important species are D. aggregatum, D. amplum, D. aphyllum, D. aureum, D. bigibbum, D. bellatulum, D. bensoniae, D. boxali, D. brymerianum, D. canaliculatum, D. chrysanthum, D. chrysotoxum, D. clavatum, D. crepidatum, D. densiflorum, D. devonianum, D. draconis, D. falconeri, D. farmeri, D. fimbriatum, D. formosum, D. gibsoni, D. gouldii, D. grantii, D. jamesonium, D. kingianum, D. loddigesii, longicornu, D. moschatum, D. nobile, D. ochreatum, D. parishii, D. phalaenopsis, D. pierardii, D. primulinum, D. speciosum, D. sulcatum, D. thyrsiflorum, D. undulatum, D. verartifolium, D. victoriae-reginae, D. wardianum, D. williamsoni, etc.

A few of the thousands of varieties are Album, American Beauty, Banyat Pink, Boonchoo Gold, Candy Stripe, Earsakul, Emma White, Gold Flush, Hawaian Beauty, Hieng Beauty, Jaquiline Thomas, Jurie Red, Kanjana Green, Kasem Gold, Kasem White, Lady Hamilton, Mme Vipor, Nette White, New Pink, New Wanee, Pink Tips, Pramott-II, Renappa, Sabine, Sabine Red, Sakura Pink, Sonia Bom Jo, Sonia 17, Sonia 28, Snow White, Theodore, Tongchai Blue, White Nern, etc.

Epidendrum: This is among the largest genera of the Orchidaceae, containing more than 1000 species, is epiphytic (rarely terrestrial) in nature, and most species behave as weeds in the orchid fields, hence, most of the species are of minor importance horticulturally. The genus contains highly varied forms. Some prefer hot while certain others prefer cool conditions for their growing. Generally, they originate in Central America i.e. New World tropics. Important species of horticultural importance are E. alatum, E. anceps, E. arachnoglossum, E. ciliare, E. cochleatum, E. difforme, E. endresii, E. fragrans, E. ibaguense, E. parkinsonianum, E. polybulbon, E. prismatocarpum, E. radicans, E. radiatum, E. vitellinum, E. wallisii, E. xanthinum, etc., the interspecific hybrids are Endresio- Wallisii, Burtoni, Charlesworthii, Dellense, etc., and the intergeneric hybrids are Epitonia with Broughtonia, Epidiacrium with Diacrium, Epigoa with Domingoa, Epilaelia with Laelia, Epilaeliopsis with Laeliopsis, Epicattleya with Cattleya, Epiphronitis with Sophronitis, Epiphronitella with Sophronitella, Schomboepidendrum with Schomburgkia, Kirchara with Cattleya x Laelia x Sophronitis, etc.

Eria: This genus contains some 550 species, and is native to Tropical Asia, extending from the Himalayas, China and Sri Lanka to the Fiji Islands and Samoa, with greater concentration in Indonesia and New Guinea. This is allied to Dendrobium but has eight pollinia. These are either epiphytic or lithophytic. The 85 Cut Flowers flowers are small of brown and white colours. Important species are E. bambusifolia, E. carinata, E. coronaria, E. dalzellii, E. fragrans, E. nana, E. mysorensis, E. pauciflora, E. polystachya, E. pseudoclavicaulis, E. reticosa, E. spicata, etc.

Odontoglossum: This very popular orchid is among the loveliest orchids, hence is being widely cultivated in many tropical parts of the world. The genus comprises some 300 species and is allied to Brassia and Oncidium. This has oval to round pseudobulbs compressed at the sides. The plants of this genus are mostly epiphytic but a few are lithophytic or terrestrial. Important species are O. bictoniense, O. cirvantesii, O. cirrhosum, O. citrosmum, O. cordatum, O. crispum, O. grande, O. harryanum, O. lindleyanum, O. luteo-purpureum, O. maculatum, O. nobile, O. rossii, O. stellatum, O. triumphans, etc., a few of the thousands of interspecific hybrids are Adrianae, Alispum, Anneliese Rothenberger, Aspermum, Brandtii, Crispania, Crispelus, Elegans, Elise, Elle’s Triumph Dahlenburg, Eudora, Himachal, Humeanum, Maronius, Nisus, Ophoon, Perryanum, Princess Elizabeth, Wilckeanum, etc., and intergeneric hybrids are Odontioda with Cochlioda, Odontocidium with Oncidium, Odontonia with Miltonia, Odontobrassia with Brassia, Adaglossum with Ada, Symphodontoglossum with Symphyglossum, Beallara with Brassia x Cochlioda x Miltonia, Burrageara with Cochlioda x Miltonia x Oncidium, Sanderara with Brassia x Cochlioda, Vuylstekeara, a trigeneric hybrid of Cochlioda, Miltonia and Odontoglossum, Wilsonara with Cochlioda x Oncidium, Colmanara with Miltonia x Oncidium, and Lagerara with Aspasia x Cochlioda. .

Oncidium (dancing lady): By and large these are evergreen epiphytic (a few terrestrial or lithophytes) orchids with some 750 species found in the American sub-tropics, having compressed pseudobulbs (certain are mule eared i.e. devoid of pseudobulbs) and are highly variable. The elegant flowers are borne in drooping and branched spikes. Common characteristics are the petal-like wings on the column, a bump below the stigma and a large and many-toothed crest at the base of the lip. Usually the flowers are yellow or brown with dark crimson central lobe, bright and showy but small. Important species are O. altissimum, O. ampliatum, O. auriferum, O. cavendishianum, O. cheirophorum, O. crispum, O. divaricatum, O. forbesii, O. lanceanum, O. macranthum, O. marshallianum, O. ornithorbynchum, O. papilio, O. sarcodes, O. varicosum, O. variegatum, etc., important interspecific hybrids are Burzeffianum, Haematochilum, Kaiulani, Mantinii, Punctatum, Vizer, Wheatleyanum, etc. and intergeneric hybrids are Brassidium with Brassia, Charleswortheara with Cochlioda x Miltonia, Miltonidium with Miltonia, Oncidioda with Cochlioda, Rodricidium with Rodriguezia, Trichicidium with Trichocentrum, etc. Some other popular varieties are Album, Esther, Folksy Misty, Golden Shower, Golden Sunset Robsan II, Gower Ramsay, Irina Murray Orchidglade, Josephine, Potpourri Scarlet, St. Anne, Tiny Tim, Wikki Sunset, Willow Pond, etc.

Paphiopedilum (lady’s Slipper): A genus of 50 species of evergreen tropical Asiatic orchids having no pseudobulbs, and the flowers are quite similar to Cypripedium. They are mostly terrestrial, a few lithophytic or rarely epiphytic. The spectacular and the long-lasting flowers are produced singly or in few- flowered racemes. Important species are P. appletonianum, P. barbatum, P. bellatulum, P. callosum, P. concolor, P. fairieanum, P. hirsutissimum, P. insigne, P. lawrenceanum, P. niveum, P. parishii, P. rothschildianum, P. spicerianum, P. 86 venustum, P. villosum, etc. A few of thousands of the interspecific hybrids are Orchids and Anthurium Aylingii, Arthurianum, Bion, Charles Richman, Demura, Gloriosum, Goultenianum, Harrisonianum, Holdenii, Kowloon, Le Douxiae Leeanum, Lethamianum, New Era, Maudiae, Tesselatum, Vinter’s Treasure, Winnipeg Shillington, Wottonii, etc. Two bigeneric hybrids are Phragmipaphiopedilum and Selenocypripedium which were evolved by crossing with Phramigpedium.

Peristeria (dove orchid): A group of stately South American pseudobulbous warm house orchids. Some five species are reported under this genus where only three are cultivated, viz. P. cerina, P. elata and P. pendula, which bear 6 to 20 flowers per raceme.

Phaius: This tropical genus consists of 30 deciduous species of terrestrial (a few species also epiphytes) orchids, having elongated pseudobulbs and typically erect inflorescence with beautiful long-lasting flowers. Important species are P. amboinensis, P. callosus, P. flavus, P. humblotii, P. longipes, P. maculatus, P. mishmensis, P. pauciflorus, P. sanderianus, P. schnoebrunnensis, P. simulans, P. tankervilliae (syn. Bletia tankervilliae, P. grandifolius Lour.), P. tuberculosus, P. wallichii (syn. P. bicolor, P. blumei, P. grandifolius Lindl. or P. grandiflorus) etc. Some of the interspecific hybrids are Cooksonii, Marthae, Norman, Phoebe, etc. while intergeneric hybrids are Gastophaius with Gastorchis, Phaiocalanthe with Calanthe, Phaiocymbidium with Cymbidium, and Spathophaius with Spathoglottis.

Phalaenopsis (moth orchid): Some 50 epiphytic (tree trunks and on the sides of the rocks) species are reported in this genus which are generally evergreen and native of tropical India and Indonesia to the Philippines, New Guinea and northern Australia. The plants of this genus are monopodial in habit, have short rhizomes instead of pseudobulbs and tightly clinging long aerial roots. The inflorescences are lateral, short or long, erect or pendulous and sometimes branched. The flowers of some species are excellent for cutting as they are very attractive and long- lasting. Important species are P. amabilis, P. fuscata, P. lueddemanniana, P. mannii, P. parishii, P. rosea syn. P. equestris, P. schilleriana, P. speciosa, P. stuartiana, P. violacea, etc. Interspecific hybrids are Alice Gloria, Ann Marie, Artienne, Bride’s Maid, Canary, Carreer Girl, Encantadora, Eye Dee, Golden Liz, Golden Pride, Irene Dobkin, Malaysian Beauty, Natasha, Peppermint, Ruby Lip Tip, Samba, Spotted Moon, Spring Shower, Star of Rio, Tammy, Texas Star, Reve Rose, Riea, Tiger Butter, Tiger Butter Larkin Valley, White Goddess, Zada, etc. and intergeneric hybrids are Aeridopsis with Aerides, Arachnopsis with Arachnis, Doritaenopsis with Doritis , Phaladopsis with Vandopsis, Renanthopsis with Renanthera, Rhynchonopsis with Rhynchostylis, Rhynodoropsis with Doritis Rhynchostylis, Tanakara with Aerides x Vanda and Vandaenopsis with Vanda. Certain intergeneric varieties are George Molar Golden Shower, Jerry Sue King, etc.

Renanthera (sun loving orchid): This tropical monopodial orchid possesses some 15 epiphytic, tall (0.6-3.6 m) and climbing species which has good commercial value. Stems are branched and it climbs by means of fleshy roots. Inflorescence is quite large and drooping. Important species are R. coccinea, R. elongata, R. imschootiana, R. pulchella and R. storiei. Some of the bigeneric hybrids are Aranthera with Arachnis, Leathers with Renantherella, Pararenanthera with Paraphalaenopsis, Renades with Aerides, Renanopsis with Vandopsis, Renantanda with Vanda, Renanthoglossum with Ascoglossum, Renanthopsis with 87 Cut Flowers Phalaenopsis, Renantylis with Rhynchostylis, Renencentrum with Ascocentrum and Sarcothera with Sarcochilus. The trigeneric hybrids of Renanthera are Hawaiiara with Vanda x Vandopsis, Holttumara with Arachnis x Vanda, Limara with Arachnis x Vandopsis, Moirara by crossing Renanthera with Paraphalaenopsis x Vanda, etc. The interspecific varieties are Brookie Chandler, Higgins, Kilauea, Mauricette, Mok York-Seng, Poipu, Tom Thumb, etc.

Rhynchostylis (fox-tail orchid): This monopodial epiphytic orchid is quite robust and has some four species, distributed over tropical Asia from the Indo-Myanmar region to Thailand. Flowers appear from the axils of the leaves, in dense racemes and gracefully drooping. There are four species where R. retusa is native to India i.e. Western Ghats. Its various varieties are in trade, viz. alba, dayi, gigantea, holdfordiana, majus, superba, etc. R. coelistis, and R. violacea (flowers have disagreeable flavour) are the other two commercial species, latter having a var. harrisonianum. Its intergeneric hybrids are Aeridostylis through Aerides, Renanstylis through Renanthera, Rhynchocentrum through Ascocentrum, Vandacostylis through Vanda, etc. Gigantea Red, Gigantea White, etc. are a few most important varieties.

Vanda: This sun-loving evergreen, epiphytic and monopodial orchid has highly attractive large flowers in all the species, has some 70 species spread in East India and the Malay Islands with outlying species in China and New Guinea. The species may be short-stemmed and erect (compact) or tall and branched (sometimes climbing to some height) and without pseudobulbs. The inflorescence is erect or pendulous and arises from the leaf axils. There are two types: i) with strap-shaped leaves, and ii) with cylindrical leaves. Important species are R. alpina, V. amesiana, V. bensonii, V. coerulia, V. coerulescens, V. cristata, V. denisoniana, V. hookeriana, V. parishii, V. parviflora, V. roxburghii, V. stangeana, V. teres, V. tricolor, V. tessellata, etc. V. coerulea is used for breeding blue Vanda hybrids, vars ‘Bhimayothin’ for pink colour, ‘Madame Rattana’ for pink and blue vandas, ‘Pranerm Ornete’ for brownish yellow, ‘Piyaporn’ and ‘Prakpetch’ for purplish red and blue black, ‘Gordon Dillon’ and ‘Siam Ruby’ for pink, and purplish red ‘Rassi’ for yellow vandas. Two different plants of Vanda coerulea when crossed together resulted into a clone ‘Buranasin’. ‘Miss Joaquim’, ‘Deva’, ‘Nam Phung’, ‘Rasri’, ‘Kultana’, ‘Prakpetch’, ‘Sumon Sophonsiri’, ‘Kasem’s Delight’, ‘Pissamai’, ‘Wirat’, etc. are the interspecific hybrids. Aranda hybrid was evolved by Vanda with Arachnis, Aeridovand through Aerides, Ascocenda through Ascocentrum, Christieara through Ascocentrum x Aerides, Luisanda through Luisia, Nakamotoara through Ascocentrum x Neofinetia, Opsisanda through Vandopsis, Renantanda through Renanthera, Trichovanda through Trichoglottis, Vandanthe through Euanthe, Vandofinetia through Neofinetis, etc. are some of the intergeneric hybrids. Some other popular varieties are Ellen Noa, Emily Notley, Evening Glow, Bill Sutton, Hilo Blue, Honolulu, Honomu, John Club, Onomea, Wirat Uchida, etc.

Acacallis, Aerangis, Ancistrochilus, Angraecum, Arachnanthe, Arundina, Ascocentrum, Barkeria, Bletilla, Brassavola, Broughtonia, Calanthe, Cirrhopetalum, Cochleanthes, Cochlioda, Cryptochilus, Diacrium, Doritis, Encyclia, Esmeralda, Euanthe, Habenaria, Helcia, Laelia, Lemboglossum, Lycaste, Macradenia, Masdevallia, Maxillaria, Miltonia (Miltonioda, a bigeneric hybrid between Miltonia and Cochlioda), Monomeria, Mycrostylis, Neofinetia, Neogyne, Paraphalaenopsis, Pleione, Rhisalidopsis, Rodriguezia, Saccolabium, 88 Satyrium, Sophronitis, Spathoglottis, Stanhopea, Thunia, Trichosma, Vandopsis, Orchids and Anthurium Vanilla, Zygopetalum, etc. are other equally important genera.

3.2.1.2 Propagation

Orchids can be propagated through division, offset (offshoots or keikis), cuttings or seeds but the division is the most simple and popular method.

Monopodial orchids are though difficult to propagate vegetatively but such as Aerides, Arachnis, Aranda, Phalaenopsis, Renanopsis, Renanthera and Vanda are propagated by stem cuttings (mostly with 40-50 cm long top cuttings with at least two well developed aerial roots are ideal but smaller cuttings with 2-3 nodes will also serve the purpose though flowering will be considerably delayed), flower stalk cuttings (flowered spikes of certain genera like Calanthe, Phaius, Phalaenopsis and Thunia sometimes produce vegetative shoots) from the flower stalks can be taken and planted horizontally in moist media (sphagnum moss or coconut husk bits) and layering (Vanda and certain other monopodials) by striking a slanting cut some 20-30 cm below the apex of the stem and wrapping the wound with some moist medium akin to other layers and these should be separated and planted when these strike roots. Anoectochilus is though sympodial orchid but also responds more to cuttings than any other method of vegetative propagation.

Most sympodial orchids such as Cattleya, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Laelia, Oncidium, Paphiopedilum, Zygopetalum, etc. are propagated through division (division of large clumps into smaller units) where without injuring the roots the rhizomes of well established plants are halved, each half having 4-5 shoots (growing points) or in many pieces, each having 2-3 pseudobulbs but for a large number of plants even single pseudobulb sections on the rhizomes may be made from where the older ones may produce new growth, however, bigger the size of the division earlier is the establishment vis a vis flowering; offshoots (offsets, or keikis meaning babies) as in case of Dendrobium and Pleione which produce small bulbils or offsets, which when detached and potted separately flower within 2-3 years but when these are removed from the mother plant after these have once flowered there these respond well; and backbulbs as in case of Cattleya (the physiologically lesser active older shoots or canes of tall and climbing orchids which are sometimes devoid of foliage and green in colour) which do not have visible eyes and may have only a few roots, are separated (lengths being 10-15 cm) and planted horizontally in moist medium and when these sprout from the nodal region and send out roots, they are separated and planted in individual pots. Offshoots are also produced in Phaius and Phalaenopsis if their inflorescences are cut off and laid horizontally in moist sand and sphagnum medium. Cymbidium and Paphiopedilum also produce offshoots.

In every case, the wounds are treated with effective fungicides if not separated and planted under aseptic conditions.

Commercially, orchids are propagated either through asexual mericlonal technique or through sexual methods (seeds are devoid of endosperm which stores the growth promoting factors, therefore can not grow like seeds of other plants). Some 69 genera and their hybrid varieties are being multiplied through tissue culture method globally. Some Asian countries like Thailand, Singapore, Japan, 89 Cut Flowers Korea, Taiwan and Malaysia multiply some 32.0, 2.0, 2.5, 2.5, 1.5 and 1.7 million tissue cultured plants annually, respectively. The shoot tips of Aranda, Arachnis, Cymbidium, Lycaste, Miltonia, Odontoglossum and Oncidium; the shoot tips, leaf tips and axillary buds of Cattleya; through root tips and shoot tips in Vanda; and shoot and stem tips, root tips, leaf tips and inflorescence tips in case of Phalaenopsis are used as explants. On commercial level, Knudson C, Arditti or Murasige and Skoog media are used for orchid tissue culturing. Looking into the requirements of the individual species, the nutrients are adjusted in the medium. Whether it is asexual or sexual propagation method, aseptic conditions are required under both the circumstances. Their growth may be promoted by use of certain hormones such as DCPTA [2-(3, 4-dichlorophenoxy) triethylamine], 2, 4-D, IBA, NAA, IAA and 2, 4, 5-T; and cytokinins such as BA, kinetin and 2iP. The concentration differs from species to species, however, the pH of the medium should be slightly acidic i.e. 5.8.

Orchid seeds are very tiny and numerous per capsule (1,300-4,000,000) but are devoid of endosperm, hence, are unable to grow on their own. For their germination and survival, these require the presence of a symbiotic fungus which brings about certain chemical changes in the tissue of the seeds and supplies some nutrients including simple sugars for the germination after the protocorm stage. High germination rates are obtained by sowing the seeds in flasks of agar and mineral nutrients under sterile conditions. Seeds are also sown by sprinkling them around the base of a mature orchid plant of the same species or the allied ones where this root fungus (mycorrhiza, especially Rhizoctonia repens, R. mucoroides, R. languinosa, Mycelium radicis, etc.) naturally occurs. When these germinate and reach the stage of 3-4 leaves, these are gently shifted singly in 5- cm pot filled with well-chopped compost. Though seeds are quite minute but while seeing microscopically, the fertile ones are browner than infertile ones.

3.2.1.3 Cultural Practices and Growth Factors

Orchids are perennial plants of varying growth habits, viz. terrestrial, epiphytic (monopodial or sympodial, and even climbing types), lithophytic (epilithic), saprophytic, subterranean and semi-aquatic; sun-loving or shade-loving; pseudo- bulbous [(0.75 mm, too small) to 5.0 metres in diameter] or non-pseudo-bulbous; leafy or leafless; and temperate or sub-tropical and tropical, hence there are varying requirements of their growth factors, viz. growing medium, nutrition, watering, ventilation, temperature, light and humidity as defined here under.

A number of growing media are used for orchid growing as per the specification of the individual genus or species; consistent with their place of origin but the pH of the medium should range in between 5.0-6.0 and the E.C. not over 2.0. The medium should provide support to the plants, should be highly porous for proper aeration, should have good drainage facilities, should have adequate water holding capacity and should be rich in nutrients so that roots may not starve. Exchange of gases in the root zone is vital for growth and survival of orchids so the media are designed to hold both i.e. water and air, and in case when persisting scarcity of the one occurs the other occupies its place which becomes dangerous. If medium becomes once dry, it is difficult to rewet it and at this stage if it is watered the water just runs through the medium without getting absorbed into it, and scarce results into increased salt concentration which is toxic to the roots and plants. For growing epiphytes, the medium should have adequate capacity 90 for holding moisture but should not remain soggy and wet. Sphagnum moss or Orchids and Anthurium leaf mould in the plains decomposes soon and invites fungal diseases vis a vis becomes slimy, hence is not preferred but under cooler climates sphagnum moss is preferred being acidic in nature, also as it contains certain amount of iodine which keeps the compost fresh for long period. Osmunda or polypodium fern fibres alone or in combination with sphagnum moss (2:1 by volume) for improving water holding capacity is the best medium for most epiphytes as this lasts longer and decomposes slowly releasing 2-3 per cent nitrogen but due to its scarcity, now root and trunk fibres of various tree fern species are being used. Apart from these, peat + dried fern + sphagnum moss, the beaten redwood/fir bark or fir bark + peat + perlite, coconut husk + pieces of bricks and charcoal, moss peat, saw dust, rice husks, peanut shells and cork are also used for both i.e. epiphytes and terrestrials. The old coconut husks are used in the high rainfall tropics for growing Phalaenopsis and Vandaceous plants having no pseudobulbs, and Phalaenopsis plants when fixed to mango and other trees grow very well. Perlite: Metromix 700: charcoal (1:1:1) or fir bark: peat moss: perlite grade 3: perlite grade 2: vermiculite: rock wool (4:2:1:1:1:1) provide good yield in Phalaenopsis. 1 th Cypripedium and Cymbidium grow well when /4 teaspoon of hoof and horn meal, coarse bone meal and leather meal are sprinkled over the drainage layer among the crocks. Bulbophyllum does best on soft tree fern stem with a little sphagnum moss around the roots. Terrestrial orchids require loamier compost i.e. equal parts (all by volume) coarse peat or rough leaf mould, fibrous loam, sand and moss. Terrestrial orchids such as Calanthe, Phaius, etc. have luxurious growth when grown in a mixture of leaf mould, chopped tree fern, white sand, sandy loam and well rotten cow dung manure or charred cow dung. Coelogyne can be grown successfully in a mixture containing equal parts of sphagnum moss, leaf mould, white sand and loamy soil. A porous medium rich in organic matter is excellent for Habenaria, osmunda fibre, fibrous loam and sphagnum moss in equal proportion for majority of Eria species, a mixture of chopped tree fern fibre, charcoal pieces and sphagnum moss for Ione and Oberonia species, osmunda fibre, sphagnum moss, charcoal and very small pieces of cork in shallow pans for Liparis, a mixture of equal parts of shredded tree fern fibre, leaf mould, sandy loam soil and white sand for Microstylis, and small brick chips, white sand, chopped tree fern fibre, leaf mould and a little quantity of charcoal and bone meal in a pot filled to its third with cork is good for Goodyera. Orchids require balanced nutrition for about 10 months in a year except in the period when they are in new growth. Like other plants, they also require NPK and minor or trace elements (Mn, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, Cu and boron) for their healthy growth. Under natural conditions, orchids draw these inorganic nutrients from the bark of the tree where they are growing vis a vis from atmosphere and decaying organic matters (plant parts and bird droppings) but under controlled conditions these are to be supplied separately. During the period of new growth these require nitrogen rich fertilizers but not in excess to avoid salt deposition in the pots as orchids are highly sensitive to excess salt which may result in blackening of roots, burning of leaf tips and white encrustation on the media in the pots. Intake of nutrients in orchids is very little through leaves as compared to roots. Hybrid plants of Cymbidium and Phalaenopsis respond well to 100 ppm N, 50-100 ppm K and 25 ppm Mg though young Phalaenopsis plants require heavy feeding i.e. 200 ppm N through 20-20-20 fertilizer with each irrigation whereas Cattleya with 50 ppm of N, K and Mg and the levels of P, Ca, Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu and Mo are 20, 200, 3, 1, 0.25, 0.20, 0.025 and 0.0001 ppm, respectively. Application of 91 Cut Flowers chicken manure @ 50-100 g per plant on the ground to Arachnis, Aranda, Aranthera, Dendrobium and Oncidium provide increased inflorescence yield. In case of Dendrobium, neither medium nor fertilizer frequency brings the flower initiation of young pseudobulbs but flowering is hastened with increased number when grown in fir bark (small or large grades) amended with 30% peat moss by volume and regular fertilizer application with 200 ppm N from an NPK fertilizer. Liquid manure prepared through cow dung or oil cake @ 1% strength improves growth and flowering in Aerides multiflorum and Dendrobium moschatum. Application of 5 mmol K/l results in quality and quantity blooms in Cymbidium sinense. In fact, orchids prefer frequent weak solutions of fertilizers than the strong ones less often, very little nitrogen during flowering, no high N fertilization to seedlings and no fertilizer to sick plants. Nitrogen deficient plants remain stunted, mature earlier where older leaves turn yellow and fall off whereas excess of nitrogen accelerates excessive vegetative growth, delays flowering and causes rotting of roots and bulbils. Phosphorus deficient plants become stunted but with dark green leaves, sometimes foliage starts decaying. Potassium deficiency also causes stunting but here leaves are frequently scorched and dead on the edges. Calcium is necessary for regulation of cell activities and cell wall formation and its deficiency causes distortion of the plants, discolouration of leaves from margin to midrib due to loss of chlorophyll, purple tinting of the veinlets, mature leaves turning black and dropping off and developing pseudobulbs may also turn black though most orchids require calcium-less water spraying. Deficiency of sulphur may affect root growth. Magnesium promotes uptake of phosphorus and certain other elements whereas its deficiency causes chlorosis in between the veins of the older leaves which may cause ultimate death of the plant. Iron maintains the normal growth of the plant as it is essential for chlorophyll formation but its deficiency causes yellowing of the younger leaves. The role of boron, copper, manganese, molybdenum and zinc is not properly understood in case of orchid cultivation. Most terrestrial orchids can be grown in ordinary flower pots (porous earthen or plastic, earthen being the best) having holes on their sides and bottom but these should be clean, well-drained and crocked. In fact, earthen pots do a lot of breathing while plastic pots do not at all, so earthen pots are more suitable as roots have a much better access to the air for providing good health, though watering to the plants in the plastic pots is less frequent. Baskets for the purpose should be made of hard woods. Epiphytes feel comfortable in specially perforated pots, on pieces of tree trunk, bark, on osmunda fibre rafts, on tree-fern stem bits or in the wooden basket by fixing the plants through wire and such slabs are suspended at a suitable place. The upper portion of the pot should be filled with fresh broken bricks (5 parts small pieces) and fern fibre (1 part). The roots of the Vandaceous plants should not be buried in the compost and instead should be exposed to the air. Potting and repotting are done when the plant has overgrown its container, preferably just after the flowering or when new growth is appearing. While potting a young plant of an epiphyte, the rhizome is stationed on the drainage material and then all around it the compost is pressed using a strong but blunt stick, putting crown of the plant at the level of the pot. For repotting an established epiphyte, the plant is taken out of container, the soft and rotted compost is teased off, the dead roots are removed, the plant with intact rhizome is then held upside down and the compost is pressed in between and around to make it a ball larger than the size of the pot, and then it is squeezed and pressed firmly in the pot, and then finally some further compost is pressed in the pot to fill in the 92 gaps. While dividing the plant, each division is treated the same way as for the Orchids and Anthurium whole plant. It should be done every three years. Watering of orchids depends upon the type of species, the plant size and stage (old, adult or young), the type of container [pot (wooden basket, plastic, cemented or earthen), raft or direct in the soil] and/or medium used, existing temperature, the season and the prevailing weather conditions, and the conditions from where these have been originally collected. The watering should be adequate to leach the soil mix periodically to avoid soluble salt build up and to keep the plants uniformly moist. The plants grown on a raft require the spraying of the constituent material several times a day in the growing season and watered every second day. Osmunda fibre (Osmunda regalis fern roots), tree-fern fibre (various species of Dicksonia), and sphagnum retain moisture much longer than coniferous bark, charcoal and perlite. Young plants of even same species with more delicate growth but less developed root system require watering more often than adults. Plastic pots retain moisture better and longer than the cemented, clay or wooden baskets though there is very poor root aeration in plastic pots. Though there should be copious atmospheric humidity and moisture in the media but these should be watered only 7-10 days after potting. Then these are watered sparingly for a fortnight until the young new roots are well established. However, from April to September i.e. during growing season all the plants should be kept moist if there is no rain. For a few minutes the pots of epiphytes are submerged in water every week in spring and autumn while twice a week in hot months and the terrestrials can be watered by can in situ. Most orchids like water less in calcium, magnesium and sodium. A high chlorine level in the water hampers the functioning of the root system. However, good irrigation water is that which has 5.5 to 6.5 pH reaction (though Cattleya may be grown from 4 to 9 pH range) and contains soluble salts of less than 125 ppm while that containing 125 to 500 ppm is tolerable, and 500 to 800 ppm should be used with caution but above 800 ppm it is at all not suitable. Collection of water in the cities after the first rain is also ideal for orchids, however, where there is no industrial pollution it can always be collected from the rains. Drinking water is also suitable if stored in the tank for a day or so. Watering in the morning is preferred so that standing water may disappear by the evening. Water deficiency causes decreased CO2 uptake. Dendrobium and Calanthe are watered every seven days, Cattleya, Oncidium and Odontoglossum every five days, Cymbidium every three days, and Cypripedium, Paphiopedilum & Phalaenopsis every two days as these require moist medium throughout. Proper ventilation should be ensured in the greenhouse. A rise of 11°C temperature over the minimum given is safe for orchids. However, temperatures higher than this should be controlled through ventilating the polyhouse, even by installing an electric fan. Since epiphytes draw their nutrients from air as this consists of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour, CO2 being most important as food for the plants, therefore also fresh air movement in the polyhouse should be ensured. Direct contact with too dry and warm winds even to the tropical orchids may kill them or too cold wind entering the warm house will injure the plants. Hot air contains negligible moisture so it absorbs moisture from the tender parts of the plant, and that is why during summer in northern plains of India, orchids either die or highly scorched. However, during cold weather also, the air movement is necessary to avoid Botrytis cinerea infection. The constant movement of the air in the orchidarium or greenhouse (cool, intermediate or hot) ensures good health. 93 Cut Flowers The true orchid species as well as their natural hybrids require a temperature regime similar to their natural habitats. Some have come from the temperate habitats, some other from sub-tropical regions and the remaining ones from the tropical regions so such conditions are to be created. Therefore, orchid growers throughout the world have created such conditions by constructing orchid houses/ orchidaria. Orchidarium can be made from the materials like split bamboo, glass, fibre glass, etc. Lath house with inclined or flat-roof is constructed with wooden posts embedded in a concrete base. The floor is made of paved brick, porous gravel, pumice, cinder or similar absorbent material to maintain high humidity inside the house. The roof is made with split bamboos or thin wooden slates but in high rainfall areas, the slate is covered with polythene. Long wooden benches should be provided in the house for displaying potted orchids but in the centre there should be water reservoir or lily pool or small tanks for water spraying and for maintaining humidity inside. Fibre glass houses are just like the lath house except the fibre glass roofing which provides uniform and diffused sunlight. The short walls are there with fixed glass windows all around. In such houses all sorts of tropical and sub-tropical orchids can be grown. Controlled glasshouses are the best as there temperature, humidity, aeration, light and nutrition can be provided as per the specific requirements of the orchid species. Precisely, controlled glasshouses can be categorized in i) cool, ii) intermediate, and iii) summer houses. The cool houses where all the thin leaved orchids such as Calanthe, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, some Miltonia, Odontoglossum, Paphiopedilum with ordinary leaves, Pleione and many others collected from higher altitudes are grown, should have winter night temperature of 7-14°C (preferably not below than 12°C) and day time temperature of 20-22°C (preferably not to exceed 24-25°C); intermediate houses where night temperature should not fall below 15°C and the day temperature should not go beyond 30°C where Cattleya, Coelogyne, Dendrobium species, Eria, Laelia, Oberonia, Oncidium, mottled-leaf Paphiopedilum, and several others are grown; and the warm or hot houses where night temperature should not fall below 18°C and day temperature should approximate 25-32°C or even more and here thick-leaved Arachnis, Aerides, Aranda, Cymbidium (a few tropical types), Dendrobium hybrids, Mokara, Phalaenopsis, Rhynchostylis, Vanda, etc. can be grown. Minimum winter night temperature should range from 7-14°C, and the minimum summer night temperature from 14-22°C. They can tolerate a good deal of additional heat as up to a rise of 11°C temperature over the minimum given is safe for orchid growing but the temperature rising beyond this limit should be controlled through ventilation. On cold winter days (especially the temperate regions) when sunshine is to a minimum, in all the three types of greenhouses the heating system is set to create a contrast of at least 5°C between day and night temperatures. Only if the orchids are given proper temperature range they may flower because temperature is not that crucial for growth and survival as that of flowering.

Cymbidium plants at tight (puffy) bud or at first open flower stage can be cold stored for up to 30 days at 4°C and then brought back to growing temperatures with no any ill effect, and after opening of the first flower it may again be stored for up to 35 days. Just by selecting early, medium and late cultivars and through aforesaid storage technique, production may be generated throughout the year. Cymbidium usually flowers from winter to early summer. Dendrobium flowers from late autumn to early spring but through proper scheduling and selection of cultivars, it can also be flowered year round. D. nobile can be grown at or above 18°C temperature and then subjecting at 13°C temperature and long days, it can 94 be flowered four months after LD. Tissue cultured plants of Phalaenopsis flower Orchids and Anthurium in 18 months. This flowers in 104 days after 25/20°C (day/night) temperature treatment for four months, followed by 28/18°C (day/night) temperature until flowering. Paphiopedilum and Phragmipedium flower naturally during autumn. In this, flower initiation occurs within six months if grown around 13°C temperature. When inflorescence heads, the development can be hastened by forcing at 18°C. Around 17°C temperature and 8 h days photoperiod hasten flowering in Cattleya. LD delays and high light induces flowering.

Shading (50-70 %) of the greenhouse prevents too much direct sunlight, and controls temperature generated through direct sun rays, especially during summer. Seedlings require less light than adult plants. The standard commercial orchids are normally day neutral with exception of Cattleya (2.6-3.9 klx) and Phalaenopsis (1.6-1.9 klx) where LD delays flowering and high light encourages flower induction while Cymbidium requires high light in the winter and reduced light in the summer. However, this is not true with many of the tropical orchids which respond well to small fluctuations in day length and temperature. The maximum

CO2 uptake (day and night) is found with 650 fc, with no difference between juvenile and older leaves, but in greenhouses, to control temperatures, light is reduced to 1200-2000 fc. The growth in Cattleya and Phalaenopsis is 2-4 times more in controlled growth chambers than in greenhouses. Recommended light levels in case of Cattleya is 1500-3000 fc, in case of Cymbidium it is 2400-3600 fc, in case of Dendrobium it is 2400-3600 fc, in case of Phalaenopsis it is 1200- 2000 fc and in case of Paphiopedilum and Phragmipedium it is 700 fc. Cypripedium and Phalaenopsis require only 200-300 foot-candles light while genera such as Aranda and Vanda feel more comfortable under 800 foot-candles. Both, the quantity and quality of light determine potential of blooming in most of the orchids and if a healthy plant is not initiating blooms it means the light received by the plant is improper. Every orchid species, hybrids or varieties should get optimum light conditions as to that of its natural habitat.

Looking into the requirement of light intensities, particularly from summer to autumn by various orchid species, they can be put under three groups: i) light shade (20-30 % of outdoor light), ii) medium shade (15-20 % light), and heavy shade (10-15 % light). Cattleya and Cymbidium can be grown successfully under fluorescent lamps than natural or high density discharge light but Phalaenopsis under almost all types of fluorescent lamps. Fluorescent or incandescent (70:30 % of wattage) lamps are necessarily used in aseptic culture conditions for propagation.

A rise of temperature up to 32°C or even more in the warm house during the summer growing season is safe if humidity in the polyhouse is around 100 per cent. Moreover, higher temperature undoubtedly encourages the growth provided commensurate humidity is present. Humidity in the orchidarium can be maintained by constructing a pool or water tank in the centre to ensure at least 30 % humidity in the night and 80 % during day time. Misting units or foggers (in the small units) and humidifiers (in the large units) will ensure adequate humidity, and the frequency of the humidifier may be timed depending upon the prevailing weather conditions. The orchids that originally come from tropical zones should in no case have less than 50 % humidity (preferably 50-70 %) in the surrounding with good air circulation to prevent fungal pathogen build up. Monopodials require higher humidity than the sympodials. In the hot climate, the plants may be watered 95 Cut Flowers twice a day as a rise in temperature will lower the humidity. Alternatively, the greenhouse should have provision of cooling system, cladding material made of porous articles with a closed circle supply of water fitted to one end of the greenhouse and an exhaust fan of the size commensurate to the size of the greenhouse and the area of cladding material fitted to another end. This will circulate cool and moist air throughout the greenhouse. In small greenhouses, the cooling effect may be generated through frequent water spraying (twice or thrice a day during summer while once in winter, depending on the type of houses because warm houses require more frequently than the cool houses) on the path and floor which may preferably be of clay, sand or gravel or through open vents on the shady sides.

3.2.1.4 Control of Growth and Flowering

For successful cultivation of orchids, conditions identical to those of their natural environment are provided. The factors which influence their growth and flowering are the genotype (the major factor) and environmental conditions (the key factors) including growing media vis-a-vis nutrients as have already been elaborated . Several tropical species are free-flowering apart from having a peak flowering season which is due to their genetic make up. Dendrobium phalaenopsis and its hybrids can be flowered throughout the year in the tropical areas regardless of day lengths, main flowering period being from late autumn to early spring. Many species have definite growth and flowering seasons, especially the temperate ones. Cymbidium requires cool nights (10-21°C day and night temperatures) and partial shade to full sun for flower initiation in the spring. High light intensities i.e. 50 % shade and 15°C day temperature are conducive to good initiation in Cymbidium, though slight reduction in light intensity during flower bud development results in better flower colouration and reduces bud blasting in Cymbidium. Long days, high light and cool temperatures provide best flowering in Cymbidium, though short days result in weak growth and long days stimulate vegetative growth. To extend the flowering span beyond winter and spring in Cymbidium, summer temperature is controlled. Cymbidium hybrids flower in winter and early spring if flower initiation has occurred in the previous autumn. Mature pseudobulbs usually produce only vegetative shoots which may also produce flowers if climatic conditions are quite favourable but the young developing pseudobulbs of the current growth produce spikes. Arachnis and its hybrids require 18°C cultural temperature and 2400-3600 fc light for their optimum blooming. Oncidium and Paphiopedilum for their optimum flowering require 2400-3600 fc light, and 15-21°C and 18-21°C growing temperatures, respectively. Paphiopedilum hybrids generated through extensive hybridization with other genera flower throughout the year though the flowering season of this species is winter and spring. By proper selection of the cultivars, flowering may be obtained for six months i.e. from November to May or even longer. Short days and low temperatures in temperate areas induce flowering in some species of Cattleya, Dendrobium and Phalaenopsis. In summer, Dendrobium crumenatum and D. flavellum come in spectacular bloom after two weeks following low temperature and heavy rains. Cattleya hybrids also produce abundance of blooms under short normal day lengths. Vanda and its hybrids bloom profusely under full sun (at least 10 h of full sunlight). It is possible to have flowers all the year round just by selection of species, hybrids and the cultivars. This may easily be achieved in case of Cattleya, Phalaenopsis amabilis & its white hybrids and Vanda. Phalaenopsis amabilis and its hybrids can give 3-4 crops per plant in a 96 year, primary spike being produced in the fall which may last for over two months Orchids and Anthurium and after the harvesting of the flower the top of the spike is removed from below the first flower bud and so within eight weeks secondary spike will appear, and likewise when this spike is also removed from below the first flower, tertiary spike will also appear.

The variation in the juvenile phase of orchids is enormous among the species as well as cultivars e.g. some of the Phalaenopsis hybrid seedlings of the same cross flower within 15 months while certain others require two years or more. Normally it takes 4-7 years for flowering from seeds for many orchids. After passing of the juvenile period, two primary environmental factors viz. low temperature and light (photoperiod and light intensity) control the flowering as is elaborated under 3.2.1.3 (temperature and light).

Vanda Miss Jonquim show inverse correlation of the auxin level in the shoot apex at the time of flowering, more the flowering less is the auxin level, however, at the vegetative phase the auxin level is found increased. Phalaenopsis schilleriana is poor in flowering when sprayed with auxin solutions due to excess of it. Induced flowering is obtained in Aranda Deborah when treated with anti- auxins and growth retardants or to decapitation but the effect is negated through continuous supply of 10-4M IAA solution. Benzyl adenine causes multiple inflorescences in Aranda. Cymbidium responds well to GA3 treatment from 1000- 10000 ppm at an interval of 2, 4 or 6 weeks where flower size and spike length are found increased. In Dendrobium hybrids, 4000 ppm BA treatment increases the flower number, and also improves the decreased flower number caused by forcing through temperature and lighting. Spraying thrice with tricantanol at 0.01 g / 900 cm2 on Dendrobium seedlings induces earlier flowering i.e. 18 months after spraying, and 0.01 mg or 0.05 mg / 900 cm2 spraying four times induces flowering after 21 months. Ethrel spraying at 1000-4000 ppm once to thrice in Oncidium Golden Shower promotes flower induction.

3.2.1.5 Insect-Pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders

If proper sanitation and care have been taken, there is little scope for the pests to build up in the orchidarium. Environmental conditions suitable for orchid growing though are themselves congenial for harbouring various insects and diseases. Therefore it is essential to regularly monitor orchid planting for any sign of insect- pest infestation and disease infection.

Insect-pests attacking orchids are aphids (Cerataphis lataniae, Macrosiphum luteum, Aphis gossypii, Neomyzus circumflexus, Myzus persicae), thrips (Chaetanaphothrips orchidii, Dichromothrips corbetti, D. fenestratus, D. spadix, Frankliniella occidentalis, F. schultzei, Haplothrips sp., Microcephalothrips abdominalis, Thrips palmi, T. simplex, T. sumatrensis, T. tabaci, etc.), mites (Phalaenopsis mite i.e. Teniupalpus pacificus, two-spotted mite i.e. Tetranychus urticae and others viz. Tyrophagus longior, T. neiswanderi, T. curvipenis, Amblyseius longispinosus and Breialpus phoenicts), scales (Asterolecanium russellae, common armored scale i.e. Diaspis boisduvalii, orchid scale i.e. Furcaspis biformis or Conchaspis angraecum, Vanda orchid scale i.e. Genaparlatoria pseudaspidiotus, and brown soft scales i.e. Coccus hesperidum), bugs (Tenthecoris bicolor, T. figueiredoi, T. orchidearum, T. vestitus, etc.), mealy bugs (long-tailed mealy bug i.e. Pseudococcus adonidum, Baker mealy bug i.e. P. maritimus, Ferrisia virgata, Nipaecoccus nippae and Planococcus citri), 97 Cut Flowers cattleya fly (a tiny wasp, Eurytoma orchidearum), cattleya midge (Parallelodiplosis cattleyae), root miner (Agromyza orchidearum), black twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus), orchid weevils (Orchidophilus aterrimus), orchid beetle (Stethopachys formosa and Lema pectoralis), grasshoppers, ants, cockroaches (Periplanata spp.), nematodes (Aphelenchoides aligarhiensis, A. besseyi, A. composticola, Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus), slugs (Slytommatophora sp., Deroceras laeve), snails (Achatina fullica and Zonitoides nitidus), and rats.

Ants transport and transfer aphids and scale insects which can be controlled through use of chloropyrifos in the burrows. Grasshoppers feed on foliage and flowers which can be controlled through sanitation and through spraying with carbamate or organophosphate. Rats cause damage to ground (terrestrial) orchids by eating on foliage, rhizomes and pseudobulbs, and by burrowing the plantings. It can be controlled through poison baits. Attack of slugs and snails is cumbersome for outdoor plantings during night and these create holes in stems, leaves and spikes and also eat on root tips, and through their movement these leave silvery trails. Its menace can be controlled by spreading methylated pellets around the orchid racks or through chemicals like Slugit, methiocarb and aluminium sulphate. These can also be trapped and killed during night. Aphids (nymphs and adults) suck the sap of the tender parts, transmit viruses and secrete honeydew which attracts ants and fungus. These should be destroyed before a colony develops, by spraying with any insecticide, viz., dimethoate or malathion. Thrips (adults and nymphs) feed on buds, flower parts and other tender parts which cause flower withering. This can be controlled by spraying with abamectin 0.15 EC, carbaryl, carbofuran, dimethoate, metasystox, etc. Scales are small and brown and suck the sap from the leaves, stems and roots and induce intoxicants which hamper the plant vigour. These can be controlled through scrubbing with soft brush or by wiping with cotton swabs soaked in methylated spirit, and through organophosphate spraying. Bugs suck sap and cause pale spots on the leaves. Mealy bugs have soft and filamentous body coated with white powdery wax and they look pink to yellow without coating. Mealy bugs are sucking pests, secrete honeydew, attract ants and sooty mould may develop on the leaves in their heavy infestation. These can be controlled by spraying with 0.02 % parathion. Mites also suck sap from leaves; produce fine webs and silvery marks (which afterwards turn brown or black) on underside of the leaves and cause flower damage due to purple brown spots, size reduction and sometimes twisting of petals. Azocyclotin, bromopropylate, cyhexatin, dicofol, ethion, fluvalinate and propargite acaricides can control this pest. Phytoseiulus persimilis may also be used to predate upon them. Black twig borer feed on plant twigs which can be controlled with chloropyrifos at preliminary stage. Orchid weevil punctures flower buds, forms white streaks there and lays eggs on depressions caused by adult feeding, and the larvae mine the pseudobulb and pupate there. This can be controlled through chloropyrifos or methyl parathion at 60 g/100 litres of water or acephate or bendiocarb at 1.2 g/l water. Adults of orchid beetle feed on leaves, pedicels, cut the flowers from peduncle or feed on flowers making hole-like structure. Control measures are the same as in orchid weevil. Nematodes produce leaf blotch symptoms which can be kept under check through oxamyl and fenamiphos drenching in the pot-mix. Cockroaches are very harmful and feed on root tips, buds and newly opened flowers in night. These are controlled with boric acid + sugar pellets. Root miner causes wilting of leaves and pseudobulbs which can be controlled through fumigation with methyl bromide 30 g/m3 for four hours in a 98 chamber. The larvae of Cattleya midge, galls on the Cattleya roots which can be Orchids and Anthurium controlled with benzene hexachloride. The larvae of Cattleya fly, a tiny wasp burrow within the small flower buds or pseudobulbs which can be controlled by spraying with 0.1 % malathion.

Orchids are prone to numerous fungal, bacterial or viral diseases, certain being highly devastating. Leaf spot is caused by Cercospora, Colletotrichum, Gloeosporium, Glomerella, Haplosporella and Phyllostictina which is not a serious problem in most cases but within a few days of infection sunken spots on leaves appear which afterwards turn brown. Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) or yellow oxide of copper controls this problem. Petal blight is caused mainly by Botrytis cinerea but also with Cladosporium oxysporum and Curvularia geniculata on Cattleya, Dendrobium, Oncidium, Phalaenopsis and Vanda, which initially causes spots on flowers but afterwards blights the whole of the flower. Proper air circulation among the plants and keeping water off the flowers during cool weather vis-a-vis safe destroying of affected flowers will keep this problem under check. Dithane M-45 is also very effective against this disease. Black rots/damping off are caused by Phytophthora cactorum and P. palmivora in cool weather and are slow in attack while Pythium ultimum during warm humid weather on seedling plants which is highly dangerous as infection spreads throughout the plant at a very rapid rate. The symptoms of attack by both the pathogens are almost similar with infected parts (leaves) turning black, sometimes with a yellow margin, and the stems and pseudobulbs also rot. The humid conditions in the greenhouse should be avoided to keep the foliage dry when these fungi are present. Infected plant parts should be removed and destroyed and should be repotted in a sterilized medium. Affected plants should be sprayed with ridomil (metalaxyl) at 0.05% a.i. or ridomil MZ (metalaxyl + mancozeb) at 0.15 % a.i. or zineb (captan) at 0.2 %. Orchid wilt/basal rot (Sclerotium rolfsii and Marasmiellus inoderma) is symptomized by yellowing of plants, rotting of plants, pseudobulbs and roots and ultimate death of the plant; and collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) is symptomized by yellowing or browning of leaf and stem bases, and eventual rotting and death. In the former case the infection spreads through leaf mould or potting mixture so potting media should be heat sterilized to kill the sclerotia, the infected plants should be destroyed, and the benches along with contaminated pots and potting mix should be sterilized with 2 % formalin. In case of collar rot, the plants are dipped in carboxin and repotted in the sterilized media. Root rot (Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium sp. and Pellicularia filamentosa) initially causes brown root rot which afterwards spreads to rhizomes and eventually plants wither. After removing infected roots, the plants are dipped in thiram and repotted in fresh medium. Slimy rot (Fusarium oxysporum, F. moniliforme and F. subglutinans) is symptomized as slimy rot of entire shoot, but later on lesions at leaf bases and brown lesions on pseudobulbs which can be controlled through proper sanitation coupled with fortnightly sprayings with bavistin 0.1 % alternate with captan 0.2 %. Rust (Coleosporium bletiae, Hemileia americana, Sphenospora mera, Uredo sp.) is characterized by small raised blister-like pustules of yellow/rust colour on the underside of young leaves, initially appearing as small dots but at a later stage acquires larger dimension of dark brown colour. Affected leaves should be removed and copper fungicide should be sprayed.

Bacterial brown spot (Xanthomonas cattleyae) infects young as well as adult plants. An initially water-soaked spot appears on leaves, enlarges afterwards and soon leaves become soft and die. The disease may progress further infecting the 99 Cut Flowers growing point which may kill the plant. Overhead misting should be avoided and proper sanitation should be maintained. Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora) is a very serious disease of Cattleya which appears from the leaf tip as a small water-soaked darker spot. The pseudobulbs of such plants also turn soft, pulpy (pulp of yellow colour) and foul smelling. Agrimycin spraying is beneficial. Bacterial brown rot (Erwinia cypripedii) infects the plants through wounds and cracks by which leaves turn yellow and brown and its infection to the crown kills the plant. Its infection may be minimized by submerging the plants in 1:2000 solution of 8-quinolinol benzoate or natriphene for 1-2.5 hours.

Viruses are the worst enemies of orchids. The symptoms produced by one virus on different varieties, species under the same genus and various genera of orchids differ in appearance which gives impression as if all these symptoms have appeared from different viruses. Most prominent ones are Cymbidium mosaic virus (CyMV), Odontoglossum ring spot virus (ORSV) and tobacco mosaic virus- o (TMV-o). These appear in uneven and unpredictable colour patterns, malformation of leaves and flowers, crinkling and twisting, and reduced quantity and quality of flowers. CyMV produces mosaic patterns on young leaves of Cymbidium, Cattleya, Phalaenopsis, Spathoglottis and many others which afterwards turn necrotic and black. ORSV infects Odontoglossum and many other cultivated orchids and the characteristic symptoms of its infection are single or concentric necrotic rings of green to black tissue appearing on leaves, on Cymbidium leaves it produces diamond mottle while in Cattleya a mild colour break. TMV-o produces chlorotic streaks on the leaves of Cymbidium while colour break in flowers of Cattleya. Viruses are controlled through proper sanitation, careful cutting of the spikes in a way that sap of one cut spike should not touch the other plants through cutter or knife. Therefore, the cutting tools should be dipped in a solution of trisodium phosphate or a saturated lime solution (pH 12) to disinfect them after cutting of every flower. There should be regular spray of some insecticides to control virus vectors. However, virus infected plants should immediately be lifted and buried in the soil to check further spread through such plants.

There can be certain abnormalities other than diseases and insect-pests which in fact are physiological disorders. Water stress and high temperature, in general for all the orchids, cause flower bud abortion. In excessive cold temperature, internodes may not elongate, flowers become malformed and may also abort at bud stage. Phalaenopsis after inflorescence formation becomes vegetative if temperature is below or above 25-30°C. Rapid change in growing temperature and high temperature coupled with dry air cause floral wilting if ventilation is poor. Phalaenopsis exhibits mesophyll cell collapse most frequently during winter months below 7°C temperature and one or a few leaves (other leaves may look normal) on the plant become pitted. The pitted portion may turn yellow to tan and finally black. This malady can be prevented by raising the growing temperature at or above 15°C at night.

Excessive light causes sun burn so proper shading as per requirement of the species should be provided. Ethylene gas generated from industries, automobiles, even heaters kept inside the house, etc. is very dangerous to orchids as they are highly sensitive to ethylene. Other air pollutants also affect the flower buds adversely.

100 Orchids do not feel comfortable in too large a pot as their roots will not be able Orchids and Anthurium to cling on the inside surface of the pot, the pot will have more potting material, and the water in large pots dries off quite slowly.

Use of disproportionate mix of plant protection chemicals injures the plants. Nutrient deficiency or excessiveness also causes various abnormalities. During active growth of certain orchids during warm weather, Ca deficiency causes blackening of young leaves and new leads starting from the tip towards the stem in Cattleya. In severe deficiency, the young pseudobulbs also turn black. Ca application at this stage prevents this malady.

3.2.1.6 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology

Mostly orchid flowers do not open properly even in floral preservatives. Cattleya, Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum and Phalaenopsis mature only after opening of 3-4 flowers, therefore these should not be harvested until 3-4 days of their opening but Dendrobium should be harvested 1-2 days before full opening. In spray-type 1 orchids, each flower on the inflorescence opens 1 /2-2 days apart so when three or more are open these may be cut and taken dry to the market. However, the spikes with all the flowers open may also be harvested preferably in the evening, only when the flowers are required, so that these may give full instant display, suitable for marriages and other parties or occasions and moreover as also the flowers are long-lived on the plants themselves so one should not get panicky in getting them harvested when these are not required. Immediately after cutting the cut ends of the peduncles should be inserted into a tube (plastic or rubber) of water or should be wrapped around with a little moist cotton and then taped to the bottom of the box. Shredded wax paper should be placed around the flowers to protect sepals and petals from physical injury during transit, carried preferably in a chamber having above 10°C temperature though Cymbidium and Paphiopedilum can tolerate a storage temperature of -0.5°C. Cymbidium flowers in small tubes are packed 6, 8, or 12 in glassine-fronted boxes, for instant corsages. Some 100 spikes of Cymbidium are packaged in a box and Cattleya spikes are also packaged in standard florist boxes. Four dozen sprays are packaged in a standard box (size 75 x 25 x 17.5 cm) in case of Dendrobium. The containers should be perforated so that ethylene build up due to removal of pollinium in certain orchids, especially from Vanda Miss Joaquim may be avoided as ethylene bleaches the flowers of Miss Joaquim from lavender to dirty white. Storage temperature of -1°C is highly detrimental as within three days flowers start turning brown. However, most orchids can be stored safely at 5-7°C for 3-4 weeks. The longevity differs from genus to genus, species to species and variety to variety. Cattleya inflorescence may last in the field from 9-60 days (normally 3-4 weeks) and the flowers and plants can be stored from 10-16°C, Cymbidium from 15-90 days at 10°C though flowers are tolerant to -1 to 4°C temperature but are highly sensitive to ethylene whose action is negated through STS or GA3, Dendrobium from 19-55 days at 10-13°C with no ethephon problem but microbial blockage of xylem is the major cause of poor vase life though just after cutting the dipping of the cut ends in hot water with a floral preservative and anti-microbial chemical is effective, and Paphiopedilum and Phalaenopsis from 30-120 days though flowers are highly sensitive to ethylene. In case of Paphiopedilum, the flowers on potted plants can last for 90 days and the flowers can be stored up to three weeks in water at -1 to 4°C. Phalaenopsis can be stored for 14 days, the vegetative plants at 25°C and the flowers at 7-10°C. Being highly sensitive to ethylene, just 101 Cut Flowers after cutting, the cut ends should be dipped for 10 minutes in STS at 1000 ppm to negate the effect of ethylene. At consumer level, immediately after receiving the consignments, the tubes of individual flowers are removed, 0.75 cm of the peduncle is cut off and the stem is put in palatable water with preservative. Spray orchids cut ends are removed at 2.5 cm upon arrival and placed at 38°C warm water with a floral preservative and then hardened off at 5°C. For display, sprays should be kept in water with a preservative for enhancing their shelf life.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Define monopodial and sympodial orchids......

2) On rocks, brick pieces, charcoal and on wooden blocks, most orchid roots hang in air and are not in the medium so whether they are of some use to the plants or not...... 3.2.2 Anthurium (family - Araceae and Sub-family - Pothoideae) 3.2.2.1 Classification, Species and Varieties

Anthuriums are evergreen tropical aroids, all perennial herbs having creeping, climbing or arborescent stems. They can be found growing as an epiphyte on trees not as a parasite but use them as an anchoring foundation, as lithophyte growing on rocks or as terrestrial on the ground. They are native to Central America, Colombia, Brazil, Guatemala, Peru and Venezuela and were introduced into Great Britain during early nineteenth century. Leaves have a thick midrib with some well defined lateral veins radiating from the place where midrib originates and all such veins are also connected with veinlets. Flower is composed of spadix enclosed in a spathe, and fruit is a berry.

There are more than 600 species but only some 50 species are in cultivation out of which only 10-15 species are in trade. They are grown either for their very showy flowers i.e. ‘spathes and spadices’ or for their showy velvety leaves. Hence, they fall under two natural groups, viz. i) flowering, and ii) foliage. Though all 102 the anthuriums flower but those having showy and large flowers (spathes and spadices) are the flowering anthuriums such as A. andraeanum (painter’s palette, Orchids and Anthurium oil cloth flower or tail flower, an epiphyte grown as terrestrial) with heart-shaped, waxy red, reddish orange, scarlet or white spathes and yellow and white straight spadix [vars album (white), amoenum (rose-red), gameri (spathe shining red), Lawrenciae (pure white, spathe large), rhodochlorum (rose and green), roseum (spathes shining rose-pink), salmoneum (spathes salmon), sanguineum (spathes dark crimson), etc.], A brownie (an epiphyte) with spathe greenish, rose tinted, 15-20 cm long and spadix 25-40 cm long, A. regnellianum (an epiphyte or terrestrial) with spathe narrow green, some 4 cm long and 0.6 to 1.0 cm wide, spadix dark green and 4-5 cm long, A. spathiphyllum (an epiphyte) having spathe up to 5 cm long and 2.5-4.0 cm wide, narrow, pale green or whitish and spadix 2.5 cm long and pale yellow, and A. scherzerianum (flamingo flower, a popular house plant of the genus is either epiphytic or terrestrial) with long, waxy and palette-shaped spathes of brilliant scarlet colour and spiral (coiled) spadix of orange-red to golden-yellow colour [vars album (white), album magnificum (white), andegavense (scarlet on the back and white & scarlet spotted above), bennettii (sharp pointed leaves and spathes), giganteum (very large spathe), lacteum (white), maximum (very large spathe), maximum album (white), mutabile (white bordered), nebulosum (double white spotted rose), parisiense (rose salmon spathe and orange spadix), pygmaeum (quite dwarf), roseum (rose coloured spathes), rothschildianum (creamy white), sanguineum (deep blood- red spathes), wardianum (scarlet with extra large bracts), wardii (very large spathe), warocqueanum not the species (white spotted red), williamsii (white), woodbridgei (very large spathe), verbaeneum (white), etc.].

Anthuriums where flowers are insignificant and the foliage is large, handsome and velvety are foliage anthuriums such as Anthurium crystallinum (an epiphyte) with large heart-shaped deep green leaves (violet when young) having midribs and the veins ivory above and pale pink beneath, A. magnificum (terrestrial) with some 60 cm long, deep cordate and oval leaves where upper surface is olive-green with white nerves, A. regale (epiphyte) with cordate-oblong, long- cuspidate, up to 90 cm long leaf blades which are dull green (young ones tinged rose) with white veins, A. splendidum (terrestrial) with coriaceous, sea-green, glaucous leaves having depressions and nerves brownish, A. veitchii (terrestrial) having pendent leaf blades, 90-120 cm long and metallic green but marked by deep-sunk nerves, A. warocqueanum, an epiphyte having a climbing stem is very vigorous with 60-120 cm long, oblong-lanceolate, hanging, tapering and deep velvety green leaves with midrib and other veins of contrast lighter colour, etc.

These all the 11 anthuriums are the most important ones but under flowering anthuriums A. andreanum and A. scherzerianum, and under foliage anthuriums A. crystallinum and A. warocqueanum are more admired. Apart from these, A. aemulum, A. digitatum, A. ferrierense (A. andraeanum x A. nymphaeiplium), A. pentaphyllum, A. radicans (a terrestrial creeper), A. scandens (an epiphytic climber), A. subsignatum, A. undatum, etc. are creeping or climbing anthuriums. A. acutangulum is an epiphyte (rarely terrestrial), A. acutifolium is terrestrial (often epilithic), A. amnicola is an epiphyte, A. andicola is either epiphytic or epilithic, A. bakeri is an epiphyte, A. bogotense is epiphytic and terrestrial, A. clarinervium and A. corrugatum are terrestrial, A. hacumense is an epiphyte, A. hoffmannii is an epiphyte or terrestrial, A. hookeri is an epiphyte or lithophyte, A. kyburzii and A. pedatoradiatum are terrestrial, A. pendulifolium is an epiphyte 103 Cut Flowers (rarely terrestrial), A. pentaphyllum, A. pottery and A. spectabile are epiphytes, A. watermaliense is a terrestrial species, etc. The species cross easily among themselves.

The present day anthurium cultivars are mostly hybrids of various species involving mainly A. andraeanum and A. scherzerianum. The cultivars are dwarf types suitable as pot plant, large types with large flowers suitable for arrangement and foliage types as pot plant for indoor decoration.

The pot plant var. ‘Red Hot’ developed through cv. Southern Blush (an F1 hybrid of A. andraeanum x A. amnicola) x Lady Jane (a pink miniature) has medium red (at anthesis) to lighter red (prior to senescence) spathes which are 6-7 cm long and 4-5 cm wide, and spadix red to orange red from base to apex. It attains full marketable quality growth in a 1.6 litre pot in 11 months. ‘Showbiz’ is another interspecific pot plant hybrid released from Florida that has compact branched growth and produces numerous showy light red spathes. Other pot plant varieties popular in USA are Allura (white), Champion (white obake), Dutch Treat (A. scherzerianum, red), Kohara Double (red), Leilani (light lavender), Lollipop (reddish pink and cream), Maize (red and white), Mary Jean (white and pink), Pink Aristocrat (pink), Pink Frost (pink and white)Pixie Pink (pink), Red Hot (red and pink), Shazzam (A. scherzerianum, red and pink). University of Hawaii has released some outstanding pot cultivars, viz., A. x atroquiense (A. anthrophyoides x A. antioquiense, mini, spathe white, minty scent), A. amnioquiense (A. antioquiense x A. amnicola, mini, spathe light lavender, minty scent), Kalapana (red obake, blight tolerant, cut flower use), Tropic Fire (red, blight tolerant), Tropic Ice (white obake, blight tolerant), etc. A. andraeanum x A. amnicola hybrids, A. antioquiens hybrids and A. amnicola hybrids are compact, highly floriferous and make very good pot blooming anthuriums with attractive foliage.

Other cultivars for cut flower use are i) red such as Arizona, Avo-Claudia, Avo- Ingrid, Avo-Netta, Avo-Rosette, Avo-Serge, Cancan, Carre, Cherry Red, Chilli Red, Claudia, Dragon’s Tongue, Eureka Red, Fla King, Fla Red, Fla Success, Hawaiian Red, Hayashi, Honduras, Honeymoon Red, Jacqueline, Jertrood, Kalimpong Red, Kaumana, Kozohara, Kansako No.1, Liver Red, Madame Butterfly, Magic Red, Mauritius Red, Mickey Mouce, Mirjam, Nova-Aurora, Ozaki, Pohoa, Pompon Red, Pronto, Red Dragon, Red Elf, Scarlet, Scarlet Red, Sikkim Red, Splish Splash, Sweet Heart, Tanake, Temptation, Tina Red, Tropical Red, Violetta, etc., ii) rose such as Marian Seefurth (rose pink), Rico, Sarina (white and rose), Tropical, etc., iii) pink such as Abe, Abe Pink, Agnihotri, Aneunue (green and coral pink), Avo-Anneke, Blush Marian Seefurth, Calypso (dark pink inside and lighter outside), Candy Queen, Candy Stripe, Cheers, Hoenette, Launette, Magic Pink, Paradise Pink, Passion, Sonata, Spirit, Surprise, etc., iv) orange such as Avo-Gino, Casino, Diamond Jubilee, Favoriet, Fla Orange, Horning Orange, Horning Rubin, Kalimpong Orange, Mauritius Orange, Nitta, Nitta Orange, Orangeeth (spathe orange red and spadix yellowish orange), Orange Glory, Ordinary Orange, Sun Burst, Sunset Orange, etc., v) white such as Acropolis, Avo-Jose, Avo-Margarette, Bianco, Chameleon, Cuba, Fla Exotic, Gaisha, Haga White, Hidden Treasure, Jamaica, Lima White, Manoa Mist, Mauna Kea (margin green), Mauritius White, Meringue White, Morocco, Myron Moori, Pierrot, Suchiro, Uniwai, Uranus, Trinidad (off white), etc., and vi) miscellaneous such as Amigo (red obake), Blush (spathe red-veined), Candy Queen (peach 104 spathe and yellow spadix), Carnival (pink margined white spathe), Caroline Orchids and Anthurium Simmon ((purple), Choco (chocolate brown), Double (various colours), Fantasia (spathe cream veined pink), Farao (orange obake), Fla Rose (peach), Lambada (white obake), Madonna (cream obake), Midori (obake), Midori-Green (green), Pistache (green), President (pink obake), Red Dragon (red obake), Sultan (pink obake), etc.

3.2.2.2 Propagation

Vegetative propagation of anthurium is through rootstock division, stem cuttings, suckers, and through leaf axillary bud. After top cutting, the rootstock is removed from the containers in February - March and cleaned off the compost. The fibrous roots are divided in a way that each piece contains a growing point (node). These pieces are dipped in 0.2 % captan or thiride, planted in fresh compost or 1:3 organic matter and sand medium, and are kept in humid conditions until fully established. The most common method of propagation is through stem cuttings. Terminal cuttings preferably from older plants with 1, 2 or 3 nodes or leaves and treated with seradix 1 or IBA 500 ppm, provide good rooting if kept under intermittent mist which accelerates rooting and increases survival. Performance of the cuttings taken with 2 or 3 nodes is better than 1-node cutting. However, if such cuttings have intact aerial roots, the success is quite assured under intermittent mist. After taking terminal cuttings, remaining part of the stem develops side shoots (suckers or offshoots) coming up from the base which with aerial roots should also be removed gently and planted in the medium and such plants flower earlier than any other method adopted for its multiplication. However, such offshoots (suckers) when attain 4-5 leaf stage (not the larger size) and 2-3 roots, only then are separated gently and planted in the medium (1 part sand: 3 parts compost, by volume). One normal plant may produce 10-20 offshoots in one year, more being in A. scherzerianum and less in case of A. andraeanum. The dormant axillary buds arising from the leaves are gently removed from the plant along with the leaf and root and planted as for suckers. These buds develop into a new plant. Tissue culture, the non-conventional technique is prevalent in anthurium multiplication through which higher production than those from seedlings is obtained. Leaf, spadix and root segments, stem sections, vegetative buds, etc. are used as explants for callus formation on MS or Nitsch medium. Except apical or the axillary bud meristem explants, others will develop into plants through callus where genetic variability may be observed, though apical or axillary bud meristem explants produce true to type plants. The explant from unfolding leaves takes 11 months from leaf explants to complete plantlet formation i.e. sprout induction and leaf development and further two months for root initiation. Rooted tissue cultured plants may be planted in egg trays filled with washed fine and coarse sand 1 part and leaf mould 1 part or in soilrite. Weekly spraying with 0.2 % NPK (3:1:1) mixed with 0.1 % mancozeb fungicide keeps the plants healthy. In a 10-13 cm pot also some 10-20 plants can be planted in the soil mixture mixed with VAM and Glomus sp. for better growth of the plantlets ex vitro. Synseed (synthetic seed) micropropagation can help multiplying the desired genotype in large scale in short duration at a reduced cost of production.

For developing new varieties and even otherwise, the anthuriums are raised through seeds. The seeds raised through crossing or otherwise (open pollinated ones) are sown in peaty compost preferably in a propagating chamber at 21- 24°C where these germinate within 10 days. These are transplanted within 4-6 105 Cut Flowers 1 months in the proper medium where these will flower within 1 /2-2 years. In A. scherzerianum, if berries are picked at orange-red stage (not the overripe i.e. reddish brown) and fermented only for 4-5 days in water at 22°C to separate out the seeds from the pulp results in good germination within 4-5 days if sown at 20-25°C temperature range though A. andraeanum seeds require 28°C temperature, high peat substrate or FYM + peat + sphagnum moss having 4-5 pH range and continuous lighting for seed germination, and other species require 21.1-23.9°C temperature. Berries of the same inflorescence ripe at different times so accordingly these may be collected and stored in water but storage beyond 5 days results in poor germination. Seeds extracted through crushed mature fruits by soaking in 13 % crystalline sodium carbonate for 2.5 h at 20°C or in 6 % pectinase solution for 5h at 26-30°C results in perfect cleaning of the seeds for sowing singly. Thiram dusting of the shade-dried seeds before storage at 10°C and stored for not more than 12 weeks results in 95-100 % germination.

3.2.2.3 Climate, Media, Cultural Practices and Growth Control

Anthuriums are tropical aroids which come up well under high humid conditions, and at constant temperature these continue flowering throughout the year if planted in proper rooting medium. Anthuriums produce aerial roots around the moss- covered tree trunks and branches and draw nutrients and absorb moisture from the air and dead barks. In fact, it produces a flower from the axil of each leaf and together below a thick and succulent root which toughens with age and if this root is not buried at this stage in the compost it will become hard and redundant. Too high a plant produces a few flowers of poor quality until the medium is built up around the stem to facilitate the roots, or the plant is cut over, rooted afresh in sand and planted anew in a pot filled with coarsely chopped sphagnum moss 1 part, coarsely chopped fern roots 1 part, and sand + well decomposed manure 1 part, all by volume, and these plants may require repotting every two or three years but should be top dressed every year before start of the new growth. The life of one anthurium plant is considered only 6-7 years. Their proper growth depends upon optimum conditions, viz., soil and media, nutrients, temperature, relative humidity, light and shade regulation, rainfall and water management,

wind management, and CO2 concentration if planted in greenhouse environment. Anthurium cultivation requires sufficiently porous media for adequate aeration as it is necessity because of the roots which are in natural contact with the outside air (the aerial roots). The media for its growing may be any thing from coco husk to oasis (soil polyphenol foam) via coco peat, rice husk, tree bark, fern root, sphagnum moss, bagasse, wood shaving, rock wool, lava, charcoal, sand and gravels, brick pieces, etc. with certain amendments. Medium should conform to certain qualities, viz., should offer sufficient support to the plants, should be highly porous for adequate root aeration, should be able to hold required water, fertilizers and other necessary nutrients and drain out easily, should have a pH range of 5.7 to 6.2 with EC 0.7-1.3 dS/m, and should be capable to degenerate quite slowly. Rapid degenerating medium will become messy soon which will cause water logging by which its porosity is marred and the scope of aeration is gone which will not permit the roots to function properly for its growth and for drawing nutrients and instead will invite various harmful fungi and algae to develop. The soil will also become sour due to non-leaching of salts. Consequently, the plants will also turn yellow and die. A. andraeanum does quite well in gravel than in peat or in a mixture of sphagnum moss and coniferous forest soil. However, 106 1:1 mixture of soil and wood shavings or 5:1 mixture of wood shavings and cow Orchids and Anthurium manure + tree fern fibre, sugarcane bagasse, coffee leaf mould, spent ground coffee, cured coffee pulp/coffee parchment, tree bark, powdered bark, black cinder, chicken manure, top soil + filter press cake, pumice, peat moss or bark- based compost, are equally good for production of anthurium cut flowers. Any substrate described here when is mixed with high peat, the flower yield is found increased with better quality. Peat + pine-bark + perlite (2:2:1), peat + superphosphate + perlite (1:1:1), high peat + perlite + sphagnum moss (2:1:1), powdered bark + perlite + high peat (1:1:2), coir + compost (1:1) or a well- drained spongy compost made of peat and sphagnum moss (1:2) is ideal for most of anthuriums. Coarse leaf mould and sphagnum moss 2-3 parts, turfy loam 1 part and coarse sand 1 part, along with little amount of charcoal also makes an ideal medium for anthurium. However, the presence of salts in the medium hampers the plant growth, soil chloride being more detrimental. A mixture of coarse sand and dried cow-dung (1:1) or coarse sand, coconut husk, cow dung 1 and charcoal/brick pieces (2:2:1: /2) is being used in Kerala Agricultural University while the combination of leaf mould and coco peat in Tamil Nadu Agricultural University as the cheapest and best media for better sucker production and cut flower yield. A 25-30 cm pot (preferably earthen which permits adequate breathing by the roots) with a minimum of two holes is first filled with a 2-3 cm layer of coarse sand over the crock pieces, followed by some 3-5 cm thick layer of charcoal or brick pieces upon which root ball is placed by pressing with pieces of coconut husk in the sides of the root ball in the pots. Dried cow dung + coarse sand mixture is evenly spread over the root ball, in a way that sand, brick / charcoal 1 rd 1 pieces and mixture cover only some /3 - /2 depth of the pot, watered and kept under high humid conditions, preferably under intermittent mist. Trichoderma viride for better health may be mixed in dried powder of cow dung in 1:100, immediately moistened and is kept under shade by moistening and stirring it daily for 10 days and then it is filled in the pot while planting. Once in every three months, the potting mix is built up around the stem to cover the aerial roots before being redundant, which apart from encouraging the growth will also provide good anchorage to the growing plant. In the large scale, the anthuriums are grown directly on the raised or even on flat beds in the open or in the polyhouse equipped with drip system of irrigation and foggers / humidifiers to manage water and humidity requirements. Polyhouse protects plants against adverse weather conditions, especially temperature and to some extent rainfall. The sophisticated polyhouse is equipped with a climate control computer to regulate temperature, humidity, ventilation and CO2. It would be even better if the polyhouse is also equipped with fertigation system. To protect the plants from a very high temperature and low humidity, the closed polyhouses are constructed even with ‘pad and fan’ cooling system, pad (cladding material or mattress) with water flowing over it at one end and an exhaust fan (ventilator) to another end i.e. opposite direction so that air can be blown outside by sucking the air through pads, which will ultimately keep the greenhouse cool. If there be further need, shade installation may also be added but in extreme conditions. Making such greenhouses in sub-temperate areas or in the forest will save the energy to a greater extent. The medium used in this case is direct soil or gravel mixed with FYM or leaf mould some 15 cm in depth as is being practiced by commercial growers in the forest near Yercaud (Tamil Nadu). People suggest more depth, even 25-30 cm but that is of no use as root spread of anthurium is not so deep in the medium. The size of the beds is ordinarily 1.5 m in width 107 Cut Flowers while it may be of any length from 1.5-5.0 m, as per the convenience of the grower and the size of the polyhouse. However, the sides of the beds are slightly raised i.e. from 20 to 30 cm. The width is more important as while standing on the paths on both sides of the bed one can attend to all sorts of field operations including flower cutting. The width of the path is normally 80 cm. The planting distance in the beds is kept 30-60 cm apart, generally 30 x 45 cm for most of the varieties, depending upon the growth and the height of the individual varieties. Thick planting hinders the air circulation among the plants and even spraying of insecticide / fungicide in the beds; though to some extent this problem may be overcome through timely thinning of old or even otherwise normal leaves, as more than five leaves are not good for the health of a plant. Thinning is also done to maintain plant equilibrium. Healthy and good looking thinned leaves may also be marketed as cut foliage. Suckering in flowering plants will cost flower production, both in terms of quantity and quality, therefore, when a sucker in a plant appears it should immediately be removed gently by hand pulling. For proper growth and flowering, anthuriums also need adequate amount of nutrients, especially nitrogen, potassium and calcium. Inadequate levels of N and K reduce flower yield and quality. It is suggested that 126 mg N and 225 mg K application in a 12.5 litre container per week improves flower yield and quality 2 in A. andraeanum. Annual dressing with 29 g N and 30 g K2O/m is said to be optimum in A. andraeanum, where mature leaves show 2 % N and 3 % K though A. scherzerianum provides best results with 21.6 mg N / pot / week. Foliar application of even 0.05 % urea is detrimental to anthuriums, however, earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae) wash 50 % application has been found quite encouraging with cv. Crinkle Red where plants remain healthy with better quality flowers and more sucker production. Cv. Temptation responds well to 0.2 % 30-10-10 NPK

+ 100 ppm GA3 which reduces pre-blooming period and provides highest number of suckers. Under 80 % shade, 20-20-40 NPK at 0.25 % at weekly intervals when applied to A. andraeanum results in longest vase life. Ca deficiency results in colour break down, collapse of the proximal part of spathe and instability of the middle lamella and the situation aggravates when pH of substrate is in between 3-4. The optimum Ca concentration in the leaf tissues and lobe should be 0.54-

0.16 %, respectively. In A. scherzerianum, 4 g CaCO3 and 2 mg boron gives largest number and best quality flowers. Plant growth regulators have been used in anthurium for increasing growth, sucker production, quality and yield of flowers and to reduce juvenile phase. BA at 750 mg/l monthly application, to tissue cultured plants, starting from second month of planting, results into precocious and healthy suckering, each sucker having independent shoot and root system. BA at 100 mg/l induces 3.6 buds per

plant as compared to nil in untreated ones. GA3 at 1000 mg/l application during vegetative stage induces branching while at flowering when applied every month increases yield of the flowers. Anthurium being a tropical crop does well at constant temperature in between 18-28°C. The minimum winter temperature for A. andraeanum and A. scherzerianum is 13°C, and for A. crystallinum 16°C though only for a short duration these may bear 3°C lower temperatures. A temperature from 21.1-23.9°C is favourable for initiation of flower buds in A. scherzerianum but in case of hybrid anthurium cultivars a temperature of 30°C is ideal for getting higher flower count of good quality. It can tolerate as high as 35°C temperature provided atmospheric humidity is very high i.e. 80-85 %. 108 Anthurium loves filtered sunlight as it is a plant of semi-shady conditions. Too Orchids and Anthurium much light will burn and scorch the flowers as well as leaves. It thrives well at 1500 to 2500 fc light but A. scherzerianum requires 1000 to 1500 fc light for good growth and flowering. Direct sunlight can cause severe burn of the leaves as it increases the temperature in anthurium leaves up to 10°C above the air temperature. During summer, it should be given 80 % shade, or even more when it is A. crystallinum. Photoperiod and light intensity requirement of the plant though is cultivar dependent but by and large all can do well between 1500-2500 fc light.

Whenever temperature rises above 16°C, the plants are freely watered. However, during the growing season these are moderately watered. Watering is dependent on season, the greenhouse climatic conditions, size of the plant and pot and the medium used, plant growth stage, and type of container. During spring and summer the water demand by the plants is much more when plants should be watered twice daily but in winters it reduces and should be watered only when surface of the medium seems to be dry. Optimum value of water EC is 0.6 m mhos / cm and in no case it should rise above 1.5 m mhos / cm. Sodium chloride present in water is highly detrimental to the crop. Likewise, Na2SO4 or MgCl2 in the irrigation water also lowers flower production. In commercial cultivation, the irrigation water is economical through sprinkler system but in the polyhouse it should be through drip system. It would be more economical to give them fertigation rather than only irrigation. In fertigation, only a very light concentration of the nutrients should be given. Rains damage the flowers and increase the chance of fungal infection. Therefore, anthurium should be grown under protection. The relative humidity requirement by the anthurium is also very high i.e. above 70 % but during bright sunlight it may be as high as 85 %. High humidity may be maintained by damping down the greenhouse twice a day and by syringing the leaves daily during hot weathers. Paths and benches should also be kept moist. For maintaining high humidity levels inside the greenhouse, foggers or humidifiers may be used.

Wind and storms also damage this crop, hence right type of greenhouse should be erected to limit the risk of damage. CO2 is already present in the air, normally at 300 ppm concentration but the requirement is up to 800 ppm which can be maintained easily in the greenhouse. The concentration above 800 ppm is detrimental. 3.2.2.4 Insect-pests and Diseases

Anthuriums are attacked by aphids, mealy bugs, thrips, spider mites, cyclamen mites, caterpillars, nematodes and slugs & snails but the crop being highly sensitive to certain pesticides, it is not an easy task to control all these pests effectively.

Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae, and M. circumflexus on A. scherzerianum), Aphis gossypii, Aphis nicotiana, Aulacorthum solani and Macrosiphum euphorbiae infest on anthurium by sucking plant saps from various parts of the plant, inject substances that are toxic to plants, produce honey dew which attracts ants and certain fungal infection and transmit viruses. Being viviparous, these build up their population quickly. Aphids may be light green, yellow, pink or red in colour. Their control on anthurium will not serve the purpose so long other vegetation is nearby where these find an alternate host. Therefore there should 109 Cut Flowers be proper sanitation and then these should be controlled through 0.2 % spraying of some systemic insecticides such as dimethoate or Malathion. Mealy bugs suck sap of the leaves from the lower surface producing honey dew which attracts sooty mould. Drenching the media with systemic insecticide like dimethoate will control this pest also. Thrips (youngs and adults) are light yellow-brown in colour and for sucking the sap bores through the cells by feeding on leaves and flowers which causes brown stripes on the affected part and mottle them. Control of aphids will control these insects also. Mites (cyclamen mite, and red spider mite Tetranychus urticae) are tiny, spider-like, 8-legged, white green (sometimes brown-red) and transparent insects which suck up the contents by boring through the plant cells especially on the underside of the leaves or flowers which make the infested part (flowers i.e. spathe and spadix and leaves) discoloured to silver- white (red spider mites cause yellow discolouration by feeding on older leaves), being more serious during summer months and later on make the webs. Spraying of the underside of the leaves and other affected parts with 0.2 % kelthane or vertimec at 0.4 % will control this pest. Kelthane 0.08 % spraying will also control the mites. Scale insects suck the sap from stems and leaves which can be controlled by wiping the affected parts with methylated spirit soaked cotton- wool swab or spraying with 0.2 % malathion. Caterpillars of the tomato looper, the beet army worms and certain other lepidopterous insects chew various parts of flowers and leaves which may be controlled through catching and killing or through lannate 0.1 % or decis at 0.5 % sprayings. Slugs and snails chew over the root tips, leaves, buds as well as flowers, especially during night and batter the leaves which should effectively be controlled through metaldehyde baits. Nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita, Aphelenchoides fragariae, Pratylenchus infestans, Radopholus citrophilus and R. similis, etc.) infest on anthurium. Meloidogyne galls on the roots showing brown lesions. Aphelenchoides feed in leaves causing necrotic areas between leaf veins. Pratylenchus attacks only the roots by which leaves turn yellow and plant may die. Radopholus also infests on roots and show dark necrotic lesions which causes stunting and poor growth of the plant with fewer and smaller flowers and premature leaf yellowing. These pests can be put under check by planting comparatively more tolerant species or varieties such as A. pittieri and A. ravenii instead of A. andraeanum cv. Midori, by planting healthy stock in disinfected media through steam or methyl bromide, by treating the cuttings for 10 minutes at 50°C temperature, by separating planting media from the natural soil of the bed, through proper sanitation, and through precautionary measures.

Fungal diseases that attack anthuriums are anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gleosporioides (Glomerella cingulata), root rot caused by Pythium splendens, P. spinosum, P. vexans, Calonectria crotolariae, Phytophthora sp., Fusarium sp. and Rhizoctonia sp., leaf spots caused by Septoria anthurii and powdery mildew caused by Erysiphe communis, etc. Anthracnose is also known as spadix rot or black nose which occurs in high rainfall areas first as tiny dark spots on the individual flowers of the spadix and afterwards spreading in angular or triangular shapes even on leaves and flower stalks. Maneb or indofil M-45 at 0.2 % spraying will control this disease. Benomyl or bavistin at 0.15 % alternate with captan 0.2 % spraying will also control this problem. The symptoms of root rot are observed as plant stunting, size reduction of leaves and flowers, yellowing and hanging of leaves at the edges and browning of roots and stems. This disease is controlled either by drenching the plants with 0.1 % furalaxyl, mancozeb 0.25 % or thiram 0.25 % or spraying twice at 10 days interval with aliette 0.15 %. 110 Septoria leaf spot can be controlled as to that of anthracnose, and powdery mildew Orchids and Anthurium through 0.1 % benomyl spraying.

Bacterial blight is caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. diffenbachiae, initially causing small and angular water-soaked spots on the leaf margins where afterwards after killing the tissues bright yellow halo around the spot will be formed and spadix also starts rotting from tip downwards. The disease is favoured by warm and wet weather. To control this disease, contamination should be checked through tools, water and flower cutting, and by restricting nitrogenous fertilizers, especially the ammonical forms should completely be avoided. Bacterial wilt is caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum which initially yellows the leaf margins but afterwards covers entire leaf which ultimately results into wilting of the plant. Its occurrence is normally noticed where unfermented bark has been used as mulch. Strict sanitation of the growing area, removal of the affected part or the plants and spraying with streptomycin sulphate or oxytetracycline will keep the bacterial diseases under check. Viral (mosaic and malformation of leaves and spathes, mostly in white cultivars) diseases are transmitted through Bemisia tabaci and through mechanical tools so controlling the vector will control these problems, and such plants should be uprooted and destroyed.

Physiological disorders, viz., ‘flower abortion’, ‘flower deformation’ and ‘rosette formation’ due to excessive root activity or pressure not in line with the activity of the aboveground plant part which is quite slow and the problem is mainly genetic but to some extent can be overcome by use of restricted amount of media, balance of climatic factors and use of gibberellins; ‘folder ears’ where basal lobes of flowers do not open properly which may also be genetic; ‘sticking’ also probably a genetic cause is that where while opening the spathe is stuck which can either be loosened by hand or the lower RH may overcome this; ‘jamming’ also a genetic problem being encountered under arid conditions in long sheathed cultivars where flowers are jammed too tightly inside the unfolding sheaths and get damaged; and ‘cracks’ on either or on both sides of the spathe may occur due to active growth of flower when RH is higher for a short duration which may be overcome to some extent by lowering the RH during the night.

3.2.2.5 Post Harvest Technology

Anthuriums are harvested with long stalks leaving only 3 cm of stem on the plant to prevent rotting of the stem. Under proper management conditions, an anthurium plant produces some eight flowers per year. When unfolding of the 1 rd spathe is complete and the spadix is almost fully developed with about /3 true flowers on the spadix fully open, the flowers are harvested with a sharp knife. The cut ends of the harvested flowers are kept at 38°C lukewarm water overnight immediately after cutting. The flowers of anthurium can be stored successfully at 13-17°C for up to two weeks which may last for 2-4 more weeks in an arrangement. The storage temperature below 13°C may cause blueing of flowers, especially the red ones though some varieties tolerate even 5°C storage temperature. These can also be stored at 2-10 % O2 and at ambient temperature of 24-25°C where cool chamber is not available. These are graded into ‘Peewee’ having less than 6.25 cm flower size, ‘Mini’ with 6.25-7.5 cm, ‘Small’ 7.5-10.0 cm, ‘Medium’ 10.0-12.5 cm, ‘Large’ 12.5-13.75 cm, ‘Extra large’ 13.75-15.0 cm and ‘Premium’ above 15 cm, and they are packed 50 stems/box, 40 stems/box, 111 Cut Flowers 30 stems/box, 25 stems/box, 18 stems/box, 15 stems/box and 8 stems/box, respectively. The most commonly used box sizes for packing anthurium flowers are 21.6 x 50.8 x 91.4 cm or 27.9 x 43.2 x 101.6 cm which can accommodate some 120 flowers. Cartons are lined with polythene sheets and insulated with moist paper to maintain proper humidity during transit. The flowers having blemishes, black spots, short stalks, deformity and discolouration are discarded while grading. Cotton swab soaked in water is taped around the cut portion to prevent desiccation and then the flowers are placed into a polythene cover of proper size after putting some soft protective material in between the spathe and spadix to prevent bruising. The open end of the polythene is stapled so that the flower inside the polythene remains in a position.

Vascular blockage in the cut flower stem causes flower senescence. While senescing, there is weight loss of the flower, glowlessness and blueing of spathe, spadix necrosis, stem collapse and abscission of spathe and spadix from the stem. Pulsing in 2.25 % 7-Up (a carbonated beverage), 500 ppm benzoic acid, 7.3 ppm of sodium hypochlorite, BA at 50 ppm for 12 h, triadimefon at 25 ppm for 8 h or silver nitrate at 4 mM for 10-60 minutes dip (within 12 h of harvesting) before storage or shipping improves the life of cut flowers significantly but to these treatments varieties differ in their response. The response of anthurium var. Hawaiian Red to BA at 25 ppm and 8-HQ at 30 ppm holding solution results in delayed spadix necrosis, spathe blueing and increases vase life up to 27 days as per the findings of Kerala Agricultural University.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Name two most important species under each group: the flowering anthurium and the foliage anthurium......

2) What is the causal organism and the symptoms of bacterial blight on anthurium, and how this may be kept under check ? ......

112 Orchids and Anthurium 3.3 LET US SUM UP In this unit, we have studied about the classification, species and varieties, various propagational methods employed including micropropagation and cultivation of orchids and anthuriums. Though anthurium is a crop of tropical and sub-temperate regions, orchids can be grown in the tropical, sub-temperate and temperate regions due to various genera and species. Various climatic and otherwise factors that influence growth and flowering of both the crops are also dealt with in detail, along with their protected cultivation. Their nutritional and water requirements are also given along with time and methods of their potting and repotting. Various insect-pests, diseases (fungal, bacterial and viral) and physiological problems associated with both the crops are also furnished in brief with their control measures. When to harvest the flowers, their grading, storage temperature before shipping, pulsing, packing and other post harvest measures are given in a very lucid and comprehensive manner. 3.4 KEY WORDS Orchids, anthurium, keiki, offsets, micropropagation, potting, repotting, media, protected cultivation, aerial roots, velamen, post harvest technology, insect-pests, diseases and physiological disorders. 3.5 FURTHER REFERENCES 1) Bhatt, N.R. and Desai, B.B. 1989, Anthurium, In : Commercial Flowers (Eds Bose, T.K. Yadav, L.P.), pp.623-641, Naya Prokash, Calcutta. 2) Das, S.P. and Bhattacharjee, S.K. 2006, Orchids, In: Advances in Ornamental Horticulture, Vol. 2 (ed. Bhattacharjee, S.K.), pp. 1-65, Pointer Publishers, Jaipur. 3) Dole, John M. and Wilkins, Harold F. 1999, Orchidaceae, Floriculture- Principles and Species, pp.438-445, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 4) Hay, Roy 1971. Anthurium, pp. 41-42, and Orchids, pp. 484-487, Reader’s Encyclopaedia of Garden Plants and Flowers, Reader’s Digest Asscn, London. 5) Prakash, D., Sujatha, K. and Sangama, 2006, Anthurium, In : Advances in Ornamental Horticulture, Vol. 2 (ed. Bhattacharjee, S.K.), pp.109-129, Pointer Publishers, Jaipur. 6) Rajeevan, P.K., Sobhana, A., Bhaskar, J., Swapna, S. and Bhattacharjee, S.K. 2002, Orchids, 62 p. AICRPF, IARI, New Delhi. 7) Rajeevan, P.K., Valsalakumari, P.K., Geetha, C.K., Leena Ravidas, Vinod Kumar and Bhattacharjee, S.K. 2002, Anthurium, 42 p. AICRPF, IARI, New Delhi. 8) Sarkar, I., Mandal, T., Kumar, P.N., Kumar, R., Misra, S., Misra, R.L. and Singh, K.P. 2009, Temperate Orchids, 77p. AICRPF, IARI, New Delhi. 9) Sheehan, Thomas J. 1980, Orchids, In: Introduction to Floriculture (ed. Larson, Roy A.), pp. 133-164, Academic Press, USA. 10) Yadav, L.P. and Bose, T.K. 1989, Orchids, In: Commercial Flowers (Eds Bose, T.K. and Yadav, L.P.), pp. 151-265, Naya Prokash, Calcutta. 113 Cut Flowers 3.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Monopodial orchids have neither rhizomes nor pseudobulbs and grow from a single vegetative apex as they sprout new growth by developing axillary shoots which grow into new plants. The main stem of monopodials grows continuously year after year and has a dominant apical meristem such as Arachnis, Phalaenopsis and Vanda. Sympodials have normally branched rhizome with or without pseudobulbs and grow from a number of vegetative apices present at intervals on the rhizome.

2) Aerial roots in orchids are fleshy and composed of outer spongy tissues around the true roots which is known as velamen. Velamen is well developed, and it absorbs water and nutrients quickly from the growing media as in terrestrials or from the humus in bark crevices and air as in epiphytes and through rain water. Velamen also conserves moisture and protects the plants from strong light.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Two most important species under flowering anthuriums are A. andraeanum and scherzerianum, and under foliage anthuriums are A. cristallinum and A. warocqueanum.

2) The causal organism for bacterial blight in anthurium is Xanthomonas campestris pv. diffenbachiae. Initially it causes small and angular water- soaked spots but after the death of tissues, bright yellow halo around the spot is formed and together spadix also starts rotting from the tip.

114 UNIT 4 ALSTROEMERIA AND GLADIOLUS Orchids and Anthurium

Structure 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Alstroemeria and Gladiolus 4.2.1 Alstroemeria 4.2.1.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 4.2.1.2 Propagation 4.2.1.3 Climate 4.2.1.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control 4.2.1.5 Irrigation, Manures and Fertilizers 4.2.1.6 Growth, Development, Flowering and Flower Forcing 4.2.1.7 Flower Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology 4.2.1.8 Lifting of Rhizomes and Storage 4.2.1.9 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders 4.2.2 Gladiolus 4.2.2.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 4.2.2.2 Propagation 4.2.2.3 Climate 4.2.2.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control 4.2.2.5 Irrigation, Manures and Fertilizers 4.2.2.6 Growth, Development, Flowering and Flower Forcing 4.2.2.7 Lifting of Corms, Storage and Dormancy 4.2.2.8 Post Harvest Technology 4.2.2.9 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders 4.3 Let Us Sum Up 4.4 Key Words 4.5 Further References 4.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 4.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be in a position to: define rhizomatous and cormous geophytes and distinguish them from other bulbs, classify it and will be able to know the important species & commercial varieties, know dormancy in rhizomes and corms, its storage and various methods of propagation, explain the soil and nutritional requirements and other cultural practices, know various factors responsible for its growth, development and flowering, describe harvesting of rhizomes, corms and flower and their various post harvest techniques, and know various insect-pests and diseases attacking both the crops and shall be able to overcome them. 115 Cut Flowers 4.1 INTRODUCTION

Rhizome is usually a thickened horizontally wandering (creeping) underground or soil-surface organ (stem), often spreading widely. It typically has nodes and internodes, with shoots and roots arising from the apex and from adventitious buds, apices (ends) being swollen. On planting the upper part produces the shoots and flowers and the underside the roots, but both arising from the apices. The rhizomes enlarge through their apices and the oldest parts eventually become exhausted as is evident through the clothing with the remnants of enveloping leaf bases. Plants like bearded irises have swollen rhizomes growing on ground surface, some have similar roots growing below ground such as Hedychium and Zantedeschia while others such as Anemone nemorosa are more slender and live below the surface. Asparagus and paeonies produce ‘crown’ rhizomes which increase in size annually but produce very little extension growth.

A corm is a modified condensed stem being formed from the thickened underground base of a stem, orienting in vertical fashion and having shredded tunic around as remnant of the previous year’s leaf bases. The normal shape is rounded, flattened on top and a bit concave at the bottom where basal disc is located which produces the annual filiform roots and on the top young buds are found, often forming flowering shoots with lateral buds arising between the segments or nodes forming two opposite rows down the corm. In the process of the formation of the new corm at the base of the new plant being formed on the top of the mother corm, the old corm is fully used up. On the basal plate, stolons are formed on which cormlets (cormels) arise which are also as senile as the corms. Cormlets are also often produced freely from the base or top of the corm or even in the leaf axils. In certain cormous species, in the axils of the inflorescence, small corms are formed which are in fact cormules as in case of certain gladiolus cultivars. These are normally bigger than cormels and have often shredded tunic. The examples are Crocus, Freesia, Gladiolus, Homoglossum, Watsonia, etc.

Hereunder Alstremeria under rhizomatous and Gladiolus under cormous ornamentals are being described in detail.

4.2 ALSTROEMERIA AND GLADIOLUS

4.2.1 Alstroemeria (family Alstroemeriaceae) (Common names Inca lily and Peruvian lily)

4.2.1.1 Classification, Species and Varieties

Alstroemeria is of recent introduction into India, so it is yet to make a mark in Indian market. It produces beautifully marked flowers, the hardier species being suited to the herbaceous border and the more tender species for pot cultivation in the cool greenhouse or conservatory. The colour of the flower is white to dark yellow, pink, violet, purple and red. Yellow throat and black dots at the base of the throat and petals make them very attractive. Under protected condition they are grown for cut flowers. It is a crop of the temperate and sub-temperate regions, particularly the higher reaches of the Western Ghats, the Nilgiri hills (Ootacamund and Kodaikanal), higher altitudes of North-East Hill regions, Darjeeling hills of 116 West Bengal, the higher reaches in Orissa i.e. Koraput regions, Mt. Abu in Alstroemeria and Gladiolus Rajasthan, upper part of Uttarakhand, and from 1,000-2,000 metres height of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.

There are about 50 known species of Alstroemeria which can be classified into two groups: i) orchid types, are developed by using two Chilean species, one of them being Alstroemeria aurea, are characterized by tall growing habits (2.5-3.0 metres), produce a large number of flowers in a short duration (3-5 months in spring) after passing through a 10-15°C winter growing temperature but no flowering in summer (when these remain vegetative and are divided for next spring flowering) and other months and have little or no photoperiodic responsiveness, and ii) butterfly types, are hybrids of Chilean and Brazilian species, which are characterized by shorter growing habits (good for pot plant production and also for cut flowers) with larger and more open flowers and a different foliage arrangement, where flowering is induced and maintained at 13- 16°C temperature and long photoperiods for 9-12 months each year depending upon the cultivar and environmental conditions. These can be planted in any month, but summer planting is best, and when the plants are given long photoperiods, high light intensities and cool temperatures, these flower within 3-4 months.

The most common species are: Alstroemeria aurea (syn. A. aurantiaca) with yellow, orange or deep orange-red flowers, growing to a height of 90 cm and has cultivars like ‘Angustifolia’, ‘Dover Orange’, ‘Flava’, ‘Lutea’, ‘Major’; ‘Moerheim’s Orange’, ‘Rubra’ and ‘Splendors’; A. brasiliensis with reddish- yellow flowers having brown spots, and height 90 cm; A. caryophyllaea with sepals and lower petals rose while upper petal white in the centre, fragrant and grows to a height of 45 cm; A. chilensis with pink to blood-red flowers, and height 60-90 cm; A. haemantha (syn. A. simsii) having red flowers with yellow streaks, and 75-90 cm in height, and the ‘Roseae’ is a listed cultivar; A. hookeri with pink flowers, 15 cm in height, and summer and early autumn flowering; A. ligtu itself a good cut flower species, flower colour pastel in shades of light yellow, pink, red, ivory, and peach and grows to a 40 cm height; A. pelegrina bears largest flowers with rose to lilac to yellow and outer petals have large green point while upper inner petals have yellow centre and maroon flecks throughout, and height 30-35 cm; A. psittacina (syn. A. pulchella) has dark red flowers, tipped green and spotted brown, and height 90 cm; A. pulchra (syn. A. tricolor) has white to light grayish pink or soft lilac flowers with yellow, red or purple blotches, and height 45 cm; A. versicolor which resembles A. psittacinus but smaller, flowers yellow or orange, flecked purple and height 20-60 cm; and A. violacea with large lavender flowers, two upper petals with yellow centre, flecked dark purple throughout and the height is up to 70 cm. The other varieties are:

White : Alaska, Amanda, Apollo, Bianca, Ice Cream, Friendship, Labelle, Casablanca, Maria, Mona Lisa, Nevada, Snow Flake, Snow Queen, Paloma, White Dream, White Swan, etc.

Yellow : Barcelona, Bolivia, Butterscotch, Canaria, Eleanor, La Paz, Minas, Moonshine, Rio, Yellow Crown, Yellow King, Yellow Libelle, etc.

Orange/salmon : Bogota, Comet, Delight, Diana, Flaming Star, Helios, Orange, Monarch, Valiant, Victoria, etc. 117 Cut Flowers Pink : Cinderella, Carola, Elisabeth, Fanfare, Fiona, Leticia, Lorena, Marie, Pink Jewel, Olivia, Pink Triumph, Rose Marie, Rosita, Samora, Serena, Veronica, etc.

Red : Carmen, King Cardinal, Liliana, Marina, Parade, Sangria, Tiara, Vanitas, Wilhelmina, etc.

Lavender : Alicia, etc.

Purple/lilac : Azula, Barbara, Bingo, Bonito, Brocado, Ice Cream, Jubilee, Jupiter, etc.

4.2.1.2 Propagation

Alstroemeria plants consist of a sympodial, fleshy, multistemmed rhizome from which shoots and roots (fibrous) arise, and with the development of the plant this becomes thickened storage roots and is called as ‘radices medullosae’. These are white, fleshy, very brittle and densely haired below. As per the environmental conditions, the shoot can be reproductive or vegetative. These rhizomes are divided continuously at every 10-12 weeks which cause them to remain vegetative to make the division efficient or these should be divided during dormancy i.e. when they have stopped flowering. The dormant rootstocks should be removed gently and with care as this is a complex mass of storage roots, fibrous roots and rhizomes. The division is made with as much storage and supporting material as possible, kept moist and replanted immediately. For the first nine months the growth is slow but afterwards these may be left in place for several years. While making the division care should be taken that each division contains at least three vegetative shoots. Until the emergence of the new shoot, the growth is subterranean and aerial shoots emerge from a sympodially branching rhizome as well as also from axillary buds located at the base of these shoots, and these buds can develop into rhizomes. Through division, the rate of rhizome multiplication is not rapid; hence micropropagation is adopted for commercial cultivation through which 4-7 fold increase in plants can occur every four weeks which will also have an additional advantage of getting material free from viruses and other diseases. For this modified MS medium with 30 g sucrose, 1-5 mg benzylaminopurine, 0.01 mg NAA and 1.2 g Gel Groper litre of medium are added. High levels of cytokinin which hastens vegetative production can also cause in vitro mutation.

Propagation through seeds causes genetic variability hence growers should not opt for this system. However, one year old seeds will germinate within 8-10 weeks if are subjected to four week’s moist and warm (18-25°C) environment, followed by four weeks of moist and cool (7°C) conditions. Fresh seeds will germinate in vitro at 18°C within 10-14 days.

4.2.1.3 Climate

It prefer cooler climate and therefore crop is successfully grown at hills.

4.2.1.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control

Alstroemeria can be grown in a variety of soils which is loose, well-drained, pH 5.5 to 7.0, and rich in organic matter i.e. to a tune of 3 %. A sandy loam soil with adequate humus is ideal for its growing. It likes cool sub-tropical climatic 118 conditions (15-22°C, 22-35°C being only in summer i.e. sometimes in May - June) but where summers are not to the extremes, as a very hot persisting condition Alstroemeria and Gladiolus coupled with dry spell kills it. For their growing, alstroemerias require full light while plants are shaded only to maintain a temperature range of 13-17°C, which is optimum for their growing. Since it perennates for several years after planting once, it would be better to have a deep and rich soil for its growing so that it may sustain producing quality blooms season after season, at least for 3-4 years. For preparation of land, the soil should be worked into 40 cm depth 2-3 times with cultivators followed by leveling each time, the rootstocks of perennial weeds including the rhizomes of the nut-grass should thoroughly be taken out with fork or through hands, and then finally leveled and beds are prepared. It would be better if the bed size is sufficiently lengthy but the width may be restricted to two metres to facilitate proper field operations through the clearance left in between the beds. The soil should have sufficient moisture at the time of planting, and the planting is done 10-15 cm deep in sandy-loam soil but shallower in heavy soils with a precaution that growing points should not be, in any case, more than 10 cm deep or appropriately to 5-7 cm only, and 45-60 cm apart, depending on the cultivars and the cropping years. The rhizomes are divided and planted at the time when these have finished the flowering, and this may either be after spring or in November looking into the type of cultivars being grown, or at any time as per convenience of the grower but avoiding the peak flowering period. At this time support lines of galvanized or plastic wire are also set up with 20 x 15 or 20 x 20 openings, first two layers at every 20-30 cm above the soil line and subsequent at 50 cm in height. For small plantings, bamboo or Salix sticks or string support may be opted. Pinching and disbudding are normally not required but since a majority of stems that emerge are vegetative so these are removed regularly to maintain production and to stimulate axillary shoot elongation. Older shoots and weak and short stemmed shoots which are not dark green are also thinned out. Depending on the cultivar, the cycles of tall shoots (up to 1.5 m) and thin and short shoots (too short for commercial sale) develop. The tall ones should be cut to the marketing length and remaining stems are left intact for carbohydrate synthesis to help prevent the cycle of short stems. During the next routine thinning (pulling of the stems gently from the rhizomes which have a natural abscission layer at the point of shoot attachment and not by cutting) or when leaf senescence has commenced the flower heads of the short stems are sacrificed, again leaving the shoot for carbohydrate synthesis. Thinning stimulates rhizome branching. In ‘orchid-types’, flowering is over by the end of summer, so the plants are headed back in July-September, and in winter the thinning may continue by removing 15-25 % of the vegetative shoots until commencement of flowering. ‘Butterfly types’ are thinned out each month to a tune of 15-25 % during autumn and winter months, till commencement of flowering. In spring or summer plantings, some 10 stems per plant are pinched to build up the crop, and later in the winter these pinched stems are pulled out. Planting in spring and summer produces flowers within 10-12 weeks.

For potted plants, rhizomes are planted shallower with growing points 2.5-3.0 cm from the surface which will permit more branching as compared to deep planting. For 6-8 weeks of planting, the newly planted rhizomes should not receive long days of 13-16 hours so that sufficient root system is developed before flower induction, and when planting liners directly in pots, the vegetative shoots arising from the liners should not be cut back as this will delay flowering by 2-3 weeks. To get quick flower production, liners of rhizomes are planted directly in their final pots. When Alstroemeria is forced as potted plant, the height control becomes 119 Cut Flowers a major concern. Though many of the retardants fail to express any good effect but damidazide at 200-2,500 ppm exerts favourable effects. For pots, in fact, only genetically dwarf cultivars should be planted where there may not be any need of applying retardants. The standard pot size is 15-18 cm so that developing roots may not face any problem. These plants flower within 90-120 days.

In small holdings, weeding is carried out manually but in large holdings, it is done through an effective weedicide. Decamba as a pre-emergence is quite effective weed-killer with no any adverse effects.

4.2.1.5 Irrigation, Manures and Fertilizers

Alstroemeria do not like wet feet. Too much water encourages root rot, especially when the plants are initially planted. In poorly drained soils this crop does not come up well though it requires moist and cool situation. It would be better if this crop is being provided with peripheral system of irrigation with spray nozzles pointed into the centre of the beds or with trickle tubes down the centre of the bed. Frequent but semi-heavy irrigation is required for Alstroemeria crop. It is sensitive to salts. Water EC should not be more than 1.3 ds/m and soluble salt (especially Na and Cl) contents not more than 1.2-1.5 mmho/cm.

Farmyard manure or compost at the rate of 50-60 tonnes/ha should be incorporated in the soil thoroughly at the time of land preparation. Since it is grown necessarily as perennial cropping, hence fertigation will be more effective system of fertilization, but before applying any fertilizer to the crop, the optimum quantity of each and every nutrient should be calculated on the basis of soil and leaf analysis. In usual cases, 200-400 ppm N through calcium and potassium nitrate should be applied. Nitrogen has been found to increase flower production and hastens flowering.

4.2.1.6 Growth, Development, Flowering and Flower Forcing

The flowering in Alstroemeria is controlled by the temperature of the rhizome getting from the medium or soil and if the temperature of the medium is maintained at 16°C the flowering duration is extended, irrespective of the temperature in the atmosphere. For forcing, they are kept for six weeks at 5°C and then continuously at 13°C. Also forcing from 9-13°C and then continuously up to 17°C produce flowering shoots while at 21°C the rhizomes are devernalized and only vegetative shoots are produced. Greenhouse temperature is maintained at 16-18°C during the day and 10-13°C during night. During the summer mulches in the greenhouse are used with intermittent misting so that through evaporation the medium may remain cool. Incandescent lighting for natural day + day continuation (or night interruption) for 14-16 hours induces earlier flowering but this treatment from April to September results in reduced flower production. Short days delay the flowering with reduced flower production.

4.2.1.7 Flower Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology

Leaf chlorosis, loss of leaf turgidity, flower desiccation and petal shedding are the problems associated with the Alstroemeria cut flowers. Alstroemeria flowers are harvested when the first florets on the cyme are opening or are fully opened but while transporting to long distances open flowers are not preferred because of the obvious reasons. The flowers are harvested by gentle pulling of the stems 120 from the rhizome which has natural abscission layer at the point of shoot Alstroemeria and Gladiolus attachment, and not by cutting but while putting the cut ends in water or vase solution the white portion of the cut ends are removed otherwise the stems will not absorb the solution and collapse. Water absorption is optimum when stems are cut at tepal reflexing stage and are placed in high quality water after removing the white portion at the cut end. Leaves are also stripped from the lower portion of the stem. Thick and taller stems are preferred over weak and smaller ones. Class A stems are 80 cm long, turgid and thick while class B stems have 60-70 cm length, each having three are more trusses of flowers. If the stems are removed from the plant prematurely, there is a problem in opening of the flowers in the cyme as well as pigment development on the petals is also hampered, even after putting such flowers in the vase solution.

Sucrose, 8-HQC and GA3 in vase solution at pH 3.5 increase the cut flower life. Stems pretreated (pulsed) in silver thiosulphate (STS) 4mM and sucrose 200 g/l solution from 12- 24 hours prolongs the vase life for about four days and decreases flower abscission, and this can also be stored up to two weeks in water at 2-4°C as this reduces ethylene production. STS treated stems should be kept in high quality water before being transported. Leaf chlorosis can also be reduced by -4 using cytokinin and GA3 (1 x 10 M. Since the exudes from the injured portion of Alstroemeria cause dermatitis hence while harvesting the flowers, gloves should be used. While transporting, 10 stems are bunched together with bottom leaves up to 10-15 cm removed, then packed in plastic sleeves. Before packing, these are stored at 5-7°C.

4.2.1.8 Lifting of Rhizomes and Storage

Since growing of the Alstroemeria is a continuous process and for propagation or for further cropping these are lifted from the soil, divided and planted when flowering in the crop is over. Even these can be lifted and planted throughout the year. However, if by any means field is to be vacated or for marketing or for self growing the bare rooted rhizomes may also be stored though bare rooted storage is not as ideal as in peat moss. The rhizomes can be stored for several months at moderately moist condition at 1-3°C. Thick grade vermiculite and peat moss are ideal to maintain optimum moisture level. Any other light and well-drained compound is also suitable for its storage. The rhizomes can also be wrapped in plastic but this also requires regular checking as rhizomes will spoil under too wet condition for long periods. The moisture level of the stored rhizomes is regularly monitored to ensure that the rhizomes do not dry out or become too wet as both these conditions will spoil them. Under wet condition prevailing for long, root rot may occur. Root development continues during storage.

4.2.1.9 Insect-Pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders

Leaf aphid deforms the leaves and shoot, and with increase of temperature this becomes very active and builds up the population rapidly. First this attacks the young leaves, and then the flowers when emerge. Thrips also feed on the tender part of the plant, especially the young leaves and flowers and the shoot tops are crumpled, and flowers malformed and streaked. Leaf miners also damage the crop, adults leave a trail of white dots on the young foliage and the larvae tunnel the foliage irregularly. Caterpillars are normally active during summers and autumn and feed on whole plant, first eating the leaves and flowers and then after stems also. Aphids can be controlled through spraying with nicotine sulphate, 121 Cut Flowers thrips with 0.1 % spraying of methyl parathion and caterpillars through 0.2 % spraying of methyl parathion or rogor. Leaf miners are controlled with 0.1 % spraying of vertimec at 5 days intervals. Red spider mites attack the plants that are under shaded location and are left uncared. They feed on the underside of the leaves by positioning themselves in the plant cells and suck them until the cells are empty. Their presence may be noticed through the small webs these have made. In their serious attack, foliage turns yellow and ultimately plant dies. Vertimec (abamectine) at 0.1 % sprays at 10 days interval will control the mites. When the crop is being grown close to some marshy places or when humid weather is persisting or if field is not clean, slugs and snails attack the crop from the underside of leaves during the dark or in nights and batter whole of the plant. Adult females lay its eggs in the soil which hatch and start feeding on the crops. These can be controlled through metaldehyde pellets. Nematodes (Pratylenchus penetrans and P. bolivianus) attack roots and cause root red spots or lesions on roots, stunting and premature yellowing of foliage. Use of soil fumigation, HWT with formaldehyde or soil application of furadan will control the nematodes.

Alstroemerias have relatively only a few disease problems. However, these do have Pythium and Rhizoctonia root rot problems but if newly planted rhizome divisions are drenched with captan or thiride along with good sanitation of the field, no such problems shall be encountered. These fungi develop under warm humid conditions and stems show rotting just at the soil level. Botrytis infects during cool weathers under high humidity conditions and due to overcrowding of the crop which hinders aeration in between the plants. The stubble of the crop also encourages its infection and the disease can attack even the flowers. A great many viruses attack Alstroemeria, out of which ‘tomato spotted wilt virus’ (TSWV) is most devastating and kills the plants. Virus infected plants should be rogued out and burnt.

Abortion or blasting of flowers occurs during periods of low irradiance or when roots are damaged due to excessive watering or water-logging or due to excessive salts in the soil. In this case fully developed buds senesce before opening.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Define rhizome......

2) What are the regions in the country where alstroemerias can be grown? ...... 122 4.2.2 Gladiolus (family - Iridaceae) Alstroemeria and Gladiolus (Common names Sword lily and Gladiolus, pl. Gladioli)

4.2.2.1 Classification, Species and Varieties

Gladiolus is a most popular commercial geophyte in India. Its magnificent inflorescence with variety of colours has made it most attractive for use in herbaceous borders, beddings, rockeries, pots and for cut flowers. Its spike lasts for 10-15 days in vase in winters and 7-10 days during summers.

It lacks universal synchrony for its florist’s classification. Europeans and Asians classify them on the basis of flower size viz. i) ‘grandiflorus’ (large or exhibition type) which grows to a height of 90-150 cm with strong and erect stalks, bearing 14-20 cm closely arranged, triangular and symmetrical flowers, but coming up late in the season, ii) ‘primulinus’, which are free-flowering and daintier than the grandiflorus, growing to a height of one metre, bearing flowers 5-10 cm across with mostly hooded florets of soft colours, and blooming normally in the mid-season, iii) ‘butterflys’, which are up to 1.25 metre, bearing medium sized flowers spaced closely and marked with attractive blotches and throat markings, and iv) ‘miniature’ (‘pixiola’), growing to a height of 75-90 cm with flowers measuring 5-7.5 cm across, similar in arrangements to the ‘prims’ but frequently ruffled, but flowering early. Australians classify these into formals, informals, intermediates and miniatures, whereas New Zealanders follow both the systems. American system is universal in application as it is more scientific and comprehensive, and it is a 3-digit system, first digit (from 1 to 5) representing floret size, second (0 to 9) the basic hue or colour, and the third (0 to 9) represents the depth of colour. Under the first digit, 1 (100) stands for smallest size of the flower i.e. below 6.4 cm (miniature), 200 for 6.4-8.9 cm (small), 300 for 8.9- 11.4 cm (decorative), 400 for 11.4-14.0 cm (large) and the 500 for largest size i.e. >14 cm floret diameter (giant). Regarding the second and third digits, as white does not fit anywhere hence is placed first as 00 (pure white) or 01 (white with markings). There is no pure green and blues, hence no number has been assigned to them, however, the depth of greenness is defined on the basic colour of 0, i.e. 02 light green), 04 (medium green), etc. Other numbers are 1 for yellow, 2 for orange, 3 for salmon, 4 for pink, 5 for red, 6 for rose, 7 for lavender, 8 for violet (no blue) and 9 for tan, and 9-9 odd numbers standing for conspicuous markings. For example, ‘498 Brown Orchid’ Baxter, 64 means the cv. Brown Orchid is of large size (11.4 to 14.0 cm floret size) having inconspicuous deep smoky colouring of the flowers, mostly towards the brown type, and was developed by Baxter in 1964. Europeans use prefatory letters P (Primulinus), B (Butterfly), or FU (Face-ups), and suffix letters E (early), M (mid-season), L (late) and V (very for extremes).

There are more than 30,000 cultivars in gladiolus, and about 200 new ones are added in the list and the same number is being dropped every year due to infection of various diseases. U.S.A., Canada, England, the Netherlands, Australia, Russia, Slovakia, Poland, France, India, New Zealand and Japan are the countries where gladiolus breeding work is going on. Some of the promising varieties are mentioned below:

White : Bush Ballad, Cotton Blossom, Dream Girl, Gambier Pearl, Marjorie Ann, Moon Frost, Morning Bride, Simplicity, Snowdrop, Snow Dust, Snow 123 Cut Flowers Princess, Super Star, White Enchantress, White Friendship, White Oak, White Wonder, etc. Green : Armstrong, Green Bay, Green Bird, Green Giant, Green Woodpecker, Green Willow, Lemon Lime, etc. Cream : Ariette, Bonnie, Classmate, Cream Topper, Dairy Queen, Dew Drop, Landmark, Pale Moon, Party Ruffles, etc. Yellow : Aurora, Brightsides, Chinese Lantern, Fatima, Golden Harvest, Golden Peach, Junior Prom, Lemon Ruffles, Limelight, Morning Sun, Nugget, Royal Gold, etc. Buff : Adventure, Apricot Delight, Apricot Lustre, Fashion, Happy Birthday, Honeycomb, Micado, Perky, Royal Buff, Royal Glimpse, Sundown, etc. Orange : Autumn Glow, Coral Seas, Fiesta, Foxfire, Gypsy Dancer, Little Mo, Orange Beauty, Orange Chiffon, Setting Sun, Tangerine, etc. Salmon : Atom, Big Daddy, Frilled Champion, Goliath, Heritage, Parade, Memento, Salmon Queen, Sister Fortuna, Sugar Babe, Summe4r Garden, Thunderbird, etc. Pink : America, Dawn Pink, Dresden Doll, Enchantress, Flos Florium, Friendship, Howard, Legend, Marjayne, Miss America, Pink Formal, Pink Cheer, Pink Prospector, Pink Triumph, Powder Puff, Spic & Span, Vicki Lin, etc. Red : Black Prince, Dixieland, Fatima, Music Man, Oscar, Red Bantam, Redeem, Sans Souci, Sassy Willie, Shirley Cole, The Barton, etc. Rose : American Beauty, Ecstasy, Mexicali Rose, Patricia Jean, Royal Brocade, Upper Crust, etc. Lavender and purple : All Aglow, Anniversary, Dawn Mist, Elegance, Lavender Masterpiece, Memorandum, Purple Giant, Purple Moth, Royal Ruffles, Shalimar, etc. Violet : Angel Eyes, Blue Bird, Blue Isle, Blue Hawaii, Blue Mist, Blue Ruffles, China Blue, Her Majesty, Tropic Seas, etc. Tan : Hastings, Little Fawn, Papoose, Table Talk, Tapestry, etc. Smoky : Autumn Charm, Autumn Sensation, Aztec Chief, Blue Smoke, Misty Eyes, etc. Brown : Brown Beauty, Chocolate Chip, Chocolate Dip, Chocolette, Mystic Glow, etc. 4.2.2.2 Propagation

Usually, gladioli are propagated through corms for corms, cormlets and spike production, through cormlets (cormels) for raising the flowering size rounded corms, and through seeds for evolution of new varieties. Corms have 2-3 prominent buds on the top and many ring-like nodes full of buds all around the body from the top to basal plate, each ring having one prominent bud but situated alternatively to each ring, covered with shredded tunics all around and a disc like root zone at the base. Corm develops at the base of flowering stem and on the top of the planted mother corm, and in the process of its formation; mother corm transmits its food reserves to these developing daughter corms and finally shrivels. The mother corm is thus replaced annually. Though mother corm 124 produces only feeding roots but new corm when start developing, starts sending Alstroemeria and Gladiolus out contractile roots which pull it deeper into the soil and for anchoring the plant. Generally daughter corms start forming in the fourth week of planting when formation of contractiles also coincides but stolon formation starts at a later date. These stolons are usually branched, and each branch at its tip bears the cormlets. If corms are harvested after six weeks of flowering when still the leaves are green, all the cormlets are securely attached with the daughter corms through the stolons which can be taken out along with the daughter corms, cleaned, cured, graded and stored, and in the planting time are planted in the prepared field, corms for flowers plus corms and cormlets, and cormlets only for raising the stocks. Cormlets have a very hard tunic (shell or covering) which limits the water absorption, therefore, on planting there is no 100 % sprouting of cormlets and sprouting is also considerably delayed. If these are planted with broken tunic, the sprouting is immediate.

One planted corm produces 1-8 corms and 10-1,000 cormlets, depending upon the variety, soil types, weather conditions and cultural practices adopted. If the soil is sandy loam, rich in organic matter, with a pH of 5.6 to 6.5, and is situated at a sunny location, the smallest cormlets will also produce flowers (though not of marketable quality) the first season itself provided field is kept regularly watered and weed-free, and at lifting such plants will have at least one full developed corm and some 10-50 cormlets. Otherwise, it may take 1-2 years for cormlets to develop into flowering size corms. The cormlet and seedling crops are infected with Curvularia and if not controlled whole of the leaves die, hence these crops should be sprayed fortnightly with 0.2 % Dithane M-45. The increase in the size of the corms and cormlets can be encouraged by breaking the spike as soon as these are slipping so that energy required for formation of the spike and further development may be diverted towards corm and cormlet development.

Normally, the cormels less than 1 cm in diameter are discarded, No. 4 (>1.9 to <2.5 cm), No. 5 (>1.3 to <1.9 cm) and No. 6 (> 1.0 to <1.3 cm) are planting stocks as all are quite small, No. 2 (>3.2 to <3.8 cm) and No. 3 (>2.5 to <3.2 cm), the medium-sized ones are flowering stock, and Jumbo (>5.1 cm) and No. 1 (>3.8 to <5.1 cm in diameter) are large sized corms, used for cut flower growing. My personal experience has shown that even the smallest cormlets are worth planting, and smaller the cormlets larger is propagation coefficient. Corms are planted at 10 cm distance within the rows and the rows spaced at 20 cm while cormlets at 8 x 10 cm apart.

Certain varieties in certain conditions (the exact cause is unknown) produce cormules at first and/or second and third visible node(s) of the spike which arrest the spike development after a little growth. These look like corms in shape though size may be smaller and have shredded tunic like to those of corms. These also after planting come up like corms (where flower appears if size is large) and cormlets (when the size is smaller), so may be used for propagation, although such formations are not regular.

Through corm fractionation (4-16 per corm) about 10 days before planting, their disinfection and suberization and then planting in rich but sterilized soil, each fraction (bit) of the corm will sprout and behave like the fully developed corm in producing the spikes (one each), and corms (one each of high quality, high crowned) and many cormlets, irrespective of the provenance of the pieces. One hour dip of the pieces in 40 ppm indoleacetic acid encourages the process. 125 Cut Flowers Explants from inflorescence stalks of gladiolus when cultured in vitro (micropropagation), regenerate new plantlets within 6-7 days on MS medium supplemented with kinetin or kinetin + NAA. Explants from apical meristem or whole terminal bud plus the upper portion of the corm, in vitro cultured cormlets, cormlet tips and axillary buds are taken for micropropagation. Apart from quick multiplication, virus-free, as well as Fusarium-free foundation stocks can be raised through this process.

Gladioli set copious seeds. The capsule is 3 chambered, each containing normally from 20-50 seeds. Capsules mature within six weeks, and at ripening these turn straw or almond coloured and split from three sides. When these are to dehisce, these should be collected to avoid the attack of a borer vis-à-vis shattering. Seeds have wings so it would be better to dehusk these at the time of sowing. These husks as well as the seeds contain some oils. While dehusking with hands, it leaves a scar of oils left on the palms, which comes out bit by bit in the form a crust within a week. Seed sowing should be done on raised beds containing sufficient organic manure i.e. 5-6 kg/m2 so that excess water may drain down easily but soil may not dry out and remain moist throughout. When sowing, dehusked seeds are not misplaced due to winds, and maintain proper distance. These are sown thinly, at 4 cm distance in the rows, and rows spaced at 8 cm, and ½ cm deep, by early October in the sub-tropical regions and in March end in temperate regions. After sowing, the seeds should preferably be covered with sand and then beds are covered with straw. By evening the each day, the beds are watered very lightly with a fine rose can. Before germination, the straw mulch is removed for erect and proper growth. Seeds normally germinate within 10 days. Throughout the growing period, the beds should be kept weed-free and properly watered. In case of Curvularia infection on the leaves, the crop should be sprayed fortnightly with Dithane M-45 at 0.2 %. These are lifted by April end in the sub- tropical conditions and by October end under temperate. The cormlets produced from seeds have shredded tunic like to those of the corms, and are quite elongated, though cormlets formed in the sides have a very hard tunic. These may take 2-3 seasons to attain flowering size under ordinary conditions, but under proper cultural conditions i.e. weed-free field, proper and timely irrigation, proper soil conditions and timely sowing, and a temperature range of 15-30°C during growth period, will produce the flowering size corms the same season and which would have produced flowers also.

4.2.2.3 Climate

Although crop produce quality bulbs and flower under hilly area, however gladiolus has acclimatize to grow under plain especially during winter season.

4.2.2.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control

Gladioli prefer sunny situation, and require at least 80 % of total sunlight, preferably full forenoon sunlight, for their proper growth and flowering. During winters, the flowers may abort due to lack of sunlight. Constant humid atmosphere is not desirable as it attracts various pathogens, especially Botrytis and Fusarium. Gladioli grow comfortably at the temperature range of 18-30°C, and this temperature range is available in the temperate regions during summer seasons. In the plains, it is grown during winter when from mid-December to mid-February it is very cold, the temperature ranging from 10-25°C, normally not going above 126 18°C, and sometimes even going below 5°C which is very dangerous to the crop, as due to frost tissues become soft facilitating infection of Botrytis Alstroemeria and Gladiolus gladiolorum and complete devastation of the crop. The very low temperature when persists for three days or more only then it is highly devastating. Urea spray during this period will aggravate the situation.

Gladiolus likes copious watering but not there wet feet. It can be grown in a variety of soils ranging from sandy loam to clay loam, but the soil should have good water holding capacity, well drained and porous and should have more than 3 % organic matter. A sandy loam soil with pH range of 5.5 to 6.5 is most preferable though it can be grown up to 8.0 pH with slight amendments.

Soil preparation for gladiolus planting should commence at least two months before planting. Deep ploughing should be carried out two months before planting and green manuring crop should be taken up by sowing the seeds of sunnhemp or dhaincha which should be knocked down in the soil when it is 50-60 cm in height. While knocking down, the field should be flooded with water so that it decomposes properly. Now land preparation will start. At this time while preparing the land, farmyard manure or compost at the rate of 50 tonnes/ha should be incorporated in the soil, and the soil should be cultivated to a depth of 30 cm, and the rootstocks of the perennial weeds should be taken out with fork. To make the soil perfectly pulverized, it should again be ploughed, followed by rolling and then beds of convenient size are prepared, considering the soil level so that while watering it is even throughout. For planting, it would be preferable if width of the bed is kept 1.5 to 2.0 metres while length of any dimensions, looking into the level of the land. At the time of planting i.e. in October in the sub- tropical regions and March - April in temperate regions, soil should have sufficient moisture so that till sprouting no watering is required. Planting is done in double- row system to accommodate more number of plants, one double-row spaced at 40 cm from the other double-row, but in between the double-row it should be spaced 20 cm. Corm to corm distance in the row is kept 10 cm, and the corms are planted 10 cm deep. While planting, the 5-6 cm depth of soil should be removed from the wider space to cover the planted corms with 10-12 cm of soil. This way both the lines in one double row will form one bund and the space from where the soil was taken for earthing will work as water channel from where the bunds will absorb the required water when irrigating the field. Perennial (rattoon) cropping in gladiolus is at all not desirable.

Cormlets for raising the stock should be planted closely, i.e. 5 cm in the rows, and rows spaced 15-20 cm, at a depth of 5 cm. It would be advisable to plant the cormlets after removing the tunic for ensuring cent per cent and timely sprouting.

Jute strings tied with the strong pegs fixed on the four corners of the beds is the most effective way for protecting the plants (spikes) from breaking away due to lodging, winds and storms. The strings should be stretched crosswise in a 3-tier system, first at 30 cm height, second at 55 cm and third at 75 cm length of gladiolus plant. Nylon mesh can also be used for the purpose.

Mulches of composted pine bark, moss peat, straw peat, compost, farmyard manure, leaf mould, dried leaves, river sand, saw dust, rice husk, etc. as organic mulch alone or in combination and 3-5 cm thick are quite favorable for increasing the corm and cormlet production as well as spike quality. The mulch of black plastic sheets also does not allow emergence of weeds which ultimately increases the yield of flowers, and corms and cormlets by 20-40 per cent. 127 Cut Flowers Weeds are innumerable in gladiolus plantings. Gladiolus growing season passes through summer and winter both in the sub-tropical areas so one encounters both types of weeds here though on the hills it is only summer season. Though in India weeding is normally carried out manually, and as one growing season requires some 5-6 weedings so it becomes noneconomical. Use of pendimethalin (stomp) pre-emergence weedicide at the rate of three litres per hectare is quite effective up to 75 days after planting are after application. It should be dissolved in water sufficient to wet the surface of the planted area. It has excellent control of annual weeds. After 75 days, this may again be applied just by protecting the gladiolus plants with polythene sheets. This way the field will remain weed-free. Metaxuron at 3 kg/ha as pre-emergence is very effective in keeping weeds under control up to four months. Simazine or atrazine at 4 kg/ha in 1,000 litres of water, followed by gentle watering with 40,000 litres per hectare is extremely useful in controlling mono and dicotyledonous weeds throughout the cropping period.

4.2.2.5 Irrigation, Manures and Fertilizers

The soil should have sufficient moisture at the time of planting so that it could be watered only when the crop has sprouted. Gladioli require plenty of water during dry months but not a wet foot. Looking into the soil type and weather conditions, the field may require light watering at every 7-10 days. In case pre-emergence weedicide has been used, immediately after light watering is a must. The plants are highly sensitive to water stress at two stages, i) the very early growth stage when flower initiation takes place, and ii) from the fourth leaf stage through flower elongation. Due to soil water stress, yield of flower is more affected than the yield of the corms. Delayed watering may cause blindness. After cutting of the flowers, frequency of watering is reduced. However, at the time of lifting of the corms, there should be sufficient moisture in the soil so that lifting is facilitated.

The soil for gladiolus planting should contain more than 3 % of organic matter. At the time of the first ploughing, the soil should be worked with 40-50 tonnes of well rotten farmyard manure or compost.

Gladioli are heavy feeder, but use of any nutrient should be advocated only after soil and leaf analysis. Excess nitrogen is not desirable as it causes succulence in the plant which attracts infection of Botrytis gladiolorum during chilly and humid weathers. Nitrate form of nitrogen is less conducive to Fusarium infection than ammonium form of nitrogen. Nitrogen deficiency causes blindness, and reduces number of florets per spike. N, P, K and Ca deficiencies lower the average floret count and N, K, Mg and Ca deficiencies result in smaller spikes. K and Mg deficiencies delay the flowering. N, P, Ca and Mg deficiencies adversely affect the weight of spike while N, P and K deficiencies adversely affect the leaf production. Deficiency of N, K and Ca adversely affect the leaf nutrient contents. The utilization of food reserves in the mother corms is also hampered due to nitrogen deficiency. In deficiency of one nutrient, the effect of other nutrients is not proper. Low N results in low dry matter production and poor utilization of P and K. On dry weight basis, gladiolus leaves should contain 2.5-3.0 % nitrogen,

3-4 % K2O, 0.2-0.3 % Ca and 0.2-0.4 % Mg. Indian soils are generally not deficient in potassium. At the time of final bed preparation, a basal dose of nitrogen in the form of nitrate than ammonium @ 140 kg/ha and P O 160 kg/ha in the form of single superphosphate should be 128 2 5 applied in the soil. It would be better in nitrogen is given in two split doses, half Alstroemeria and Gladiolus at the time of bed preparation and the remaining half as side dressing before slipping of the spike. A basal dose of K2O 125 kg/ha should also be applied as basal dose in the form of muriate of potash if soil is deficient in potash. A mild Ca deficiency causes ‘topple’ disorder after cutting the spikes, however, severe deficiency results into physiological ‘bud rot’, ‘improper floret opening’, ‘inward petal curving’, ‘petal tissue breakdown’ as water soaked lesions, leaf emerging light-coloured but later turning brown, and sometimes horizontal leaf cracking. High Mg level aggravates Ca deficiency symptoms. These abnormalities may be corrected by spraying 2 % calcium nitrate. Ordinary lime or dolomite at 4.5 tonnes/ha in the soil improves the production of corms and cormlets. Side dressing of calcium nitrate (this contains soluble Ca) 2-3 times between spike emergence and flowering is quite favourable. Mg deficiency causes yellowing between the veins, first appearing on the older leaves, as well as delay in flowering. Its excessive supply interferes with Ca nutrition. Fe deficiency causes interveinal leaf yellowing, and in severe cases whole leaf yellows. High soil pH and higher levels of Cu, Mn and Zn are common causes of its deficiency. Its deficiency can be corrected through application of 55 kg of chelated iron in moist soil near the root zone. Spraying Fe-EDTA at 0.25 ppm corrects its symptoms within four days. Boron deficiency causes horizontal cracking up to midrib, and sometimes translucent areas develop between the veins while its excess (150 ppm) causes scorching on the margin of older leaves and then on younger leaves. Its deficiency is corrected through foliar spraying of borax (11.25 kg/ha), boric oxide (4.5 kg/ ha) and boric acid. Availability of Zn is decreased under neutral or slightly alkaline soil condition. Its deficiency is corrected by applying zinc either in soil or as foliar spray. Mn deficiency causes paling of new leaves with green veins. It may be corrected by using those fungicides which contains Mn. Cu deficiency causes weak and soft spikes and flaccid leaves. Application of 22.5 kg/ha of copper sulphate will correct this problem.

4.2.2.6 Growth, Development, Flowering and Flower Forcing

In the temperate region of the country, gladioli are planted in March - April, flowers are harvested from June end to mid - October, seeds in August - September i.e. 4-6 weeks of flowering and the corms and cormlets are lifted from September - November while in the sub-tropical region of the country they are planted in October, spikes are harvested from December end to March (only a very few varieties in January as the month is very chilly), the seeds in March - April and corm lifting from April to early May. In the tropical part of the country there is no set time for planting and harvesting but since the same corm cannot be grown twice in the year therefore normally they follow the timings of the sub-tropical region of the country. Seeds germinate within 10-20 days when sown in early April in the temperate areas where temperature range is 15-24°C (night/day) and grow very well up to October when these are lifted and the temperature from May - October ranges from 18-33°C (night/day) while in the sub-tropical region of the country seeds are sown by September end when temperature ranges from 25-33°C (night/day) and the cormels through seeds are lifted in March - April (mid - December to mid - February being very cold). The cormels raised from seeds in the sub-tropical region are very small and most shrivel and finish in storage while in the temperate areas they mostly produce flowering size full developed corms and some cormlets with each plant. Seed germination and further development are greatly influenced by temperature if given full sunlight during 129 Cut Flowers whole growing period.

Corms at planting time possess one or more shoot buds and many root primordia. The apical bud contains some 7-8 sheath leaves and 6-9 true foliage leaves. The inflorescence may also contain 3-4 leaves, called as ‘flag leaves’ and the nodes where flowers are emerging on the spike these leaves are converted into floral sheaths for keeping securely intact the florets between the two on the node, the last node on the spike also having the two sheaths but no floral bud. The flower differentiation begins within 3-8 weeks after planting, and normally at the end of fourth week they emerge out of the corm, their emergence is greatly influenced by genetic makeup of the varieties, the degree of development of the apex at planting time, the size of the corm and the soil temperature. The differentiation continues until 6-9 true foliage leaves are visible (heading of spike from true foliage leaves at 13th to 15th week of planting) and contractile roots are formed [7-9 weeks after planting in different varieties, contraction starting in the 12th week to 15th week, and collapsing (yellowing) at 13 or 14 weeks, depending on the varieties] at the base of the new developing corms which are produced by the swelling of the base of the shoot. Initiation of stolons (emerging from the buds situated on the new corm) is found at 11th week of planting and completion of the growth is from 14th to 17th week of planting, which may still take some time for maturity.

Temperature affects greatly the growth and development process from planting to flowering. At almost constant light conditions, it is temperature which influences number of days to flowering. All growth and development processes (flowering and maturity) are accelerated by increasing temperatures but quality of spike is hampered. Most active growth in gladiolus is observed from 18-33°C, though temperature below 10°C or above 33°C retards the growth. Under sub- tropical conditions of Delhi, if the corms are room stored from May to September when outside atmospheric temperature ranges from 30-46°C, on planting early, non-vigorous and synchronous flowering is observed with a very poor spike length, however, in temperate regions of the country like Shimla, Katrain (Kullu), Srinagar and upper Uttarakhand, the corms do not require cold storing as there temperature during winter is quite low. Plants become more tender when spike is emerging and become more vulnerable to frost damage. If soil moisture and air humidity are high, gladiolus can tolerate as high as 50°C temperature and may produce normal flowers but high temperatures during flowering sometimes produce crooked stems but corm formation is badly affected and on lifting the diameter of the exposure area on the corm (the point from where the plants from the corms have been twisted off) is almost equal to diameter of the corm which on storage shrivels and dies down due to excessive water loss. Persisting temperature below 6°C, more critical being at or below 4°C damages the plants at any stage but if before the occurrence the corm is already formed, that is not damaged and remains safe. In India, the corms produced during winter as in the sub-tropical regions, the corms have very little dormancy or no dormancy but those producing during summer as in the temperate Himalayas, they have a very deep dormancy, which is technically known as “summer dormancy”.

Time of floral initiation proceeds even in dark and the light has nothing to do with it but flower bud development is affected by day-length. Short days though hasten anthesis but decrease the number of flowering plants, number of flowers per spike and spike length, short days coupled with low light intensity from 2- 130 leaf to 6-leaf stage reduce percentage of flowering plants, and if this regime is Alstroemeria and Gladiolus given after 6-leaf stage the number of flowers reaching anthesis stage is adversely affected, and under very poor light conditions flower abortions can affect the entire inflorescence which becomes shortened with badly affected youngest floral bud, the effect progressing afterwards to the lower florets and this process is encouraged when plants are subjected to poor light conditions at 3-6 visible leaf stage, higher temperature necessitates the greater light requirement to avoid abortion though is cultivar dependent, and low light intensity but prolonged day- length (even as night break) antagonize the abortion process. As a cumulative effect of reduced day-lengths and low light intensities during winter under Delhi conditions, sometimes when weather is cloudy for weeks during flowering period, no normal flower development occurs but sometimes when there are long days though flowering is delayed but normal flowering occurs. The unbalanced relationships between light and temperature lead to etiolated plants possessing short and high placed spikes and weak floral shoots. Short days (8.5 h) when applied to plants after sprouting, new corm growth and cormlet formation are promoted due to branching of axillary buds but final corm enlargement is poor though corm development is at all not affected when short/long days treatments are applied just before or after flower anthesis. During active growth period, the assimilates are partitioned to two competing sinks, the inflorescence and the new developing corms but priority is for primary sink i.e. inflorescence till anthesis but when flowers are cut, damaged or fade the site of sink changes to corm development and so after flowering the growth of new corm is very fast. Shearing of spike, therefore, has a very positive effect on corm development. Photoperiod affects the distribution of assimilates between inflorescence and the new corm, long days favour flowering and corresponding sink, but short days the corm development.

4.2.2.7 Lifting of Corms, Storage and Dormancy

Corms planted under favourable conditions if do not sprout within 10-20 days are dormant, mostly because of the internal factors as till then they have not attained physiological maturity. This dormancy is broken more rapidly at low (<10°C) temperature than at high (>20°C). The duration of low temperature depends on the cultivars and physiological state of corms at lifting. Warm moist conditions prolong dormancy, and control of dormancy determines growth after planting. Sprouting is an indication that the corms have acquired capacity i) to grow (dormancy release), and ii) to differentiate, and growth of shoot and roots. The latter processes are temperature dependent as shoot growth is very active at 18-25°C though arrested at 1-2°C or >30 temperature. A high temperature applied after dormancy, not only promotes organogenesis but also affects subsequent plant growth. Shoot emergence, formation and growth of leaf and contractile roots, anthesis, new corm enlargement and cormlet formation are accelerated by warm treatment of corms in storage. Long high temperature treatments cause reduction in foliage and flower number as at the time of differentiation this organ reduction had occurred by the apex, which ultimately results in reduced plant height and its growth duration. High temperature corm storage for a certain duration cause direct corm formation (‘pupation’) in the form of pupa at the place of central bud and sometimes one or two in the axillary buds without any root or leaf. Long storage at 3-7°C and 70-80 % relative humidity as is the practice in the country, produces slow growth but with maintained vigour and is good for retarded flowering. For delayed flowering, the cured and graded corms are stored 131 Cut Flowers <5°C for a few weeks and then transferred to a 15-20°C for 1-2 weeks before planting. To advance or to retard the flowering for getting cut flowers at a particular period or date, it is the storage temperature of the corms which is manipulated. To advance flowering, the emergence and growth after planting should be very fast. For this the corms are given <10°C treatment for 4-8 weeks (depending on the cultivars, growth conditions of the mother plants, and lifting date) for breaking dormancy after drying and curing, and then 20-30°C for 4-6 weeks during storage to promote shoot and root development and the subsequent growth of the daughter plant, and then these corms are planted at wider spacing in heated greenhouses which has adequate natural illumination or under poly-tunnels or simply covered with white plastic sheets until the plants attain 30 cm height. When light intensity is poor, temperature is also lowered in the greenhouses. To avoid the risk, supplementary lighting in the greenhouses (4-5 hours at 35-150 lux) should be provided.

Lifting of corms and cormlets are carried out in between 40-50 days of flowering as at this time corms and cormlets are fully mature and about 25 % cormlets have turned brown though leaves are still green. Delayed lifting will encourage Fusarium infection. While lifting, the still attached cormlets should be removed one by one and in the end the shrivelled mother corm should be removed with the help of thumb and fingers and then finally the daughter corms are removed from the plant by gentle twisting. These corms and cormlets are now dried in shade for at least one fortnight at an aerated place and then dipped for one hour in 0.2 % captan and then again dried the same way and at least for same duration. The temperature of such rooms in the sub-tropical region of the country is around 30°C though in the temperate regions as it is winter so temperature would be below 8°C. More the room drying at ambient temperature in the sub-tropical region more vigorous the crop growth occurs with minimum disease incidence, however, at least two months cold storage at 3-7°C and at 70-80 % relative humidity should be given before planting. The cold storage should not be done along with apple, onion, and others which emit more ethylene. Before keeping in storage, they are kept in crates or in gunny bags of convenient size. At about 15 days before planting these should be taken out from the cold storage and spread on the floor for acclimatization and before 5-7 days of planting the corms and cormlets are again dipped for one hour in 0.2 % captan and then again dried before planting.

4.2.2.8 Post Harvest Technology

For distant markets and for export, the spikes are cut when still in tight bud stage but lower florets are showing colour, while for local markets they are cut at a more advanced stage i.e. either bottom floret opening or when swelling is sufficient to open the third day, as per the requirement, but at least four leaves should be intact on the plants as still the corm and cormlet growth and development are going on. Immediately after cutting, as well as before and after grading, spikes are placed in fluoride-free water at 4-6°C. Grading is done on the basis of thickness and length of spike, number of florets per spike and overall quality. The ‘Fancy’ grade should have > 107 cm spike length and a minimum of 16 florets per spike, ‘Special’ >96 to 107 cm with 15 florets, ‘Standard’ >81 to 96 cm with 12-14 florets and ‘Utility’ grade <81 cm with 10-11 florets.

The spikes cut well in advance and wrapped in polythene sheets are cold stored 132 at 2.3-2.8°C for a week and at 4.5°C for 1-2 days. Through low pressure storage Alstroemeria and Gladiolus technique, the spikes can be stored up to 30 days but economically it is not feasible.

For local markets, they are packed putting 12 spikes in one bundle where one rubber band may be put below the bottom-most floret, other about 7-10 cm above the cut ends and the third one 7-10 cm below the tip and then these bundles are wrapped in newspaper, and then finally in Hessian cloth, by putting some 40-50 such bundles in one pack, for local market but for distant market they are dry packed in perforated cardboard boxes having 1.2 m length, 60 cm width and 30 cm height, arranged head to tail alternately and tied with cotton wool to remain them in position. Diagonal cut of 2.5 cm at the cut end should be made in dry stored spikes and just placed in water, after reaching destination. While shipping or transporting, the spikes should be positioned straight or the boxes should be kept up with the upper side of the spike if the packing is not head to tail so that spikes may not bend. Pulsing of the spikes with 600 ppm 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (or 0.1 % aluminium sulphate) + 4 % sucrose for 12 hours increases the vase life. AgNO3 1000-1200 ppm + 20 % sugar pulsing for 20 h at 20°C temperature improves the opening and the durability of spikes. Sucrose at 3-6 % with 600 ppm 8-HQC at pH 3.0-3.5 holding solution extend the vase life up to 40 per cent.

4.2.2.9 Insect-Pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders

Aphids (Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae, Macrosiphum solanifolii, M. gossypii, etc. damage the plants by sucking the sap from foliage and stems and by transmitting viral diseases. Seed corn maggot [Hylemya cilicura (syn. Phorbia platura)] enters the capsules in the field and feeds on seeds. It also infests the seeds in storage. Thrips (Taeniothrips simplex) feeds on flowers and floral sheaths. The yellow nymphs and the dark brown adults rasp the foliage and flowers and cause silvery and whitish streaks. Flower thrips (Frankliniella spp.) also feed on florets. Thrips also thrive on corms in storage. Corn ear worms (Helicoverpa armigera) larvae feed on the flowers, capsules and spikes, and loopers (Trichoplusia ni and Pseudoplusia includens infest the leaves, spikes and florets which can easily be killed through commercial preparation of Bacillus thuringensis. Army worms (Laphygma frugiperda, Prodenia ornithogalli, Spodoptera eridania, S. exigua and certain other species feed on leaves and spikes. Cut worms (Agrotis segetum) are nocturnal in habit and feed on corms and stems. These all the pests can be controlled through fortnightly sprayings of 0.2 % methyl parathion.

Mites (Rhizoglyphus echinopus, Tetranychus urticae, T. telarius, T. bimaculatus, etc.) feed on gladiolus leaves under warm and shady conditions, causing white specks which change to bronzing or silvering of the affected plants. Any effective acaricide will control this pest.

Slugs and snails attack the plants during excessive humid conditions, and batter the leaves leaving only the veins. These may be light trapped or may be killed through metaldehyde poison baits.

Nematodes (Meloidogyne and Trichodorus) feed on gladioli corms and roots. They are controlled by hot water treatment (HWT) at 53°C for 30 minutes but only after corms are perfectly cured after lifting. 133 Cut Flowers Fusarium rot and yellows (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. gladioli) is a soil-borne disease which attacks the vascular system of the gladioli and in its attack plant may yellow and/or bend due to rotting of corms. This disease may be carried over to storage also. Fusarium solani attacks the corms in storage and may be carried over to the field. Dry or neck rot (Stromatinia gladioli or Sclerotinia gladioli) is symptomised as small, dark, more or less superficial lesions on the corms which also produce collar rot killing the plants in the field and rotting the corms in the storage. Rhizoctonia solani causes neck rot, poor growth and ‘damping off’ in the plants grown from small corms and cormlets, and root rot, brown corm spots and a shredded neck in large plants. The fungus is more active during warm weather. These all the three diseases can be controlled through proper sanitation, burning of the debris and through fortnightly spraying of benlate (bavistin) 0.2 % alternate with captan 0.2 % throughout the cropping season, and one hour dipping in 0.2 % captan at 15 days of drying after lifting and also before planting.

Core or spongy rot (Botrytis gladiolorum) causes soft corm rot, gray mould, neck rot, floral rot or Botrytis blight. It is also soil-borne fungus which is highly devastating during windy, chilly and humid weathers when entire field can be affected in one night. During dry weathers the brown spots do not coalesce but in humid weathers these coalesce and cause rotting of entire aerial part of the plant causing blight. Curvularia blight is very serious in cormlet and seed grown crops. This causes serious yellowing and browning of leaf tips initially which afterwards extending on the margin of the leaves lengthwise and if not controlled in time entire crop is destroyed. Both these diseases can be controlled through weekly spraying of dithane M-45 (0.2 %) at the time when the weather is humid, chilly and windy. Excessive moisture in the field is also avoided, and the field is kept quite clean.

Storage rot or corky corm rot (Penicillium gladioli) is caused in storage with large reddish-brown sunken lesions and numerous cream and pinkish resting bodies are seen on the corms, particularly in the centre of the lesions. At low temperature the lesions are full of greenish mouldy growths and this poses a problem when corms are piled up in heaps after lifting and without any treatment. Usually this pathogen enters the corms through bruises and wounds. Penicillium funiculosum causes core rot in the field but is of little importance in the storage. Rhizopus arrhizus develops soft rot and covers with black ‘bread moulds’. Its attack is observed when corms are injured by artificial heat or sun scald after lifting and during curing by which it causes watery rot of the corms. The attack of all these fungi may be controlled by proper sanitation and by applying all the measures adopted in case of Fusarium infection.

Leaf spots are caused by Alternaria fasciculata and A. tenui, Septoria gladioli, Stemphylium botryosum, Drechslera bicolor, Colletotrichum sp., Phyllosticta gladioloides, Mycosphaerella minimaepuncta and Macrosporium candidum, latter six being of very minor importance. Alernaria causes dirty dark brown to black irregular spots in long patches mostly on apical and marginal parts of the leaves, Septoria is confined only to the temperate parts of the country and is a very weak parasite which affects the leaves of the plants grown from small corms and cormlets and seeds. Its lesions are circular, brown to purple-brown, medium in size with black spore bodies in the centre of older spots. These all the leaf spot diseases may be controlled through spraying with 0.2 % Dithane M-45. 134 Bacterial scab blight (Pseudomonas marginata) causes ‘neck rot’, being serious Alstroemeria and Gladiolus in over-crowded crops, and those grew through seeds and cormels. It appears as red-brown specks on leaves which become dark-brown in the later stages. On corn husks, scab appears as elongated lesions with black rough margins. On corms these lesions are brown, nearly circular and sunken with black raised margins. Erwinia carotovora causes soft and flaccid rot of corms. These pathogens can be controlled by dipping the corms in mercuric chloride after lifting and before planting the corms.

Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) produces white discontinuous streaks on foliage and colour break in flowers, ‘aster yellows’ causes precocious sprouting and grassy top vis-à-vis spiral bending of spikes and straw yellowing of leaves and spikes, and bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV) also attack gladioli causing petal greening. Other viruses which infect gladioli are tobacco rattle virus (TRV), tobacco ring spot virus (TRSV) and tomato ring spot virus (Tom R). Through control of leaf hoppers and aphids and through rouging of such plants will keep the viruses under control.

Leaf scorch is caused due to fluoride injury as fluorine from atmosphere is accumulated on the tips of the leaves. Use of superphosphate in the soil also causes fluoride injury to gladiolus plants. Use of calcium, manganese and magnesium salts as foliar spray or calcium sulphate in the soil negates fluoride effect. Leaves are very sensitive to fluoride as when dipped in water containing fluorine, absorb immediately and accumulate in the 4 cm tip portion. The spikes when are placed in fluoride treated water, their floral sheaths also show tip burning. As little as 0.25 ppm fluoride is detrimental to gladiolus crops. Flower abortion are most prevalent in winter crops as under sub-tropical conditions were due to poor light conditions either whole of the spike is affected or only the upper florets. Due to poor light intensity, initiated flower buds do not develop further. This disorder has been elaborated in detail under 4.2.2.6 Growth, Development, Flowering and Flower Forcing. Due to high temperature at the time of flower bud differentiation, certain varieties do not produce spikes at all (a case of blindness) or only a few spikes in whole of the plantings is observed and when the plant is dissected in such cases, a dried straw-coloured rudimentary spike is found located in the plant close to soil surface so such varieties should be planted a bit late when temperature is comparatively low.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Describe various grades in gladiolus based on spike length and number of florets per spike......

135 Cut Flowers ......

4.3 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied about Alstroemeria and Gladiolus, the former is a rhizomatous while the latter is a cormous ornamental. Their classification, important species, commercial varieties, various methods of sexual and asexual propagation, soil, water and nutritional requirements, and other cultural practices are described. The regulation of flowering is also elaborated as influenced by various factors viz. temperature, photoperiod and hormones. Stage and time of flower harvesting and also their post harvest technology are also described. The stage of rhizome and corm lifting, their curing, dormancy and its overcoming, their storage and forcing for regulation of flowering are also described. Various insect-pests, diseases and other abnormalities which are associated with alstroemerias and gladioli are also detailed with their remedial measures.

4.4 KEY WORDS

Alstroemeria, corms, cormlets, development, diseases, dormancy, fertilizers, flowering, Gladiolus, growth, holding solution, insect-pests, nutrients, planting, post harvest technology, propagation, pulsing, rhizomes, senescence, soils, storage, vase life, etc.

4.5 FURTHER REFERENCES

1) Bryan, J.E. (1989), Bulbs (vol. I-II), Timber Press, Oregon, U.S.A.

2) Dole, J.M. and Wilkins, H.F. (1999), Floriculture: Principles and Species, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, U.S.A.

3) Griffiths, M. (ed.) (1995), Manual of Bulbs, Timber Press, Oregon, U.S.A.

4) Hertogh, A. De and Nard, M. Le (Eds) (1993), The Physiology of Flower Bulbs, Elsevier, The Netherlands.

5) Salinger, J.P. (1985), Commercial Flower Growing, Butterworths Horticultural Books, N.Z.

6) Sindhu, S.S. (2014), Ornamental Horticulture, NIPA, Pitampura, New Delhi.

4.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Rhizome is usually a thickened horizontally wandering (creeping)

136 underground or soil-surface organ (stem), often spreading widely. It typically Alstroemeria and Gladiolus has nodes and internodes, with shoots and roots arising from the apex and from adventitious buds, apices (ends) being swollen. On planting the upper part produces the shoots and flowers and the underside the roots, but both arising from the apices. The rhizomes enlarge through their apices and the oldest parts eventually become exhausted as is evident through the clothing with the remnants of enveloping leaf bases.

2) It is a crop of the temperate and sub-temperate regions, particularly the higher reaches of the Western Ghats, the Nilgiri hills (Ootacamund and Kodaikanal), higher altitudes of North-East Hill regions, Darjeeling hills of West Bengal, the higher reaches in Orissa i.e. Koraput regions, Mt. Abu in Rajasthan, upper part of Uttarakhand, and from 1,000-2,000 metres height of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Grading is done on the basis of thickness and length of spike, number of florets per spike and overall quality. The ‘Fancy’ grade should have >107 cm spike length and a minimum of 16 florets per spike, ‘Special’ >96 to 107 cm with 15 florets, ‘Standard’ >81 to 96 cm with 12-14 florets and ‘Utility’ grade <81 cm with 10-11 florets.

137 Cut Flowers UNIT 5 TUBEROSE (POLIANTHES) AND TULIP (TULIPA SETELATA)

Structure 5.0 Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Tuberrose and Tulip 5.2.1 Tuberrose 5.2.1.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 5.2.1.2 Propagation 5.2.1.3 Climate 5.2.1.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control 5.2.1.5 Irrigation, Manures and Fertilizers 5.2.1.6 Growth, Development and Flowering 5.2.1.7 Harvesting of flowers and Post Harvest Technology 5.2.1.8 Lifting and Storage of Bulbs 5.2.1.9 Insect-pests and Diseases 5.2.2 Tulip 5.2.2.1 Classification, Species and Varieties 5.2.2.2 Propagation 5.2.2.3 Climate 5.2.2.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control 5.2.2.5 Irrigation, Manures and Fertilizers 5.2.2.6 Growth, Development and Flowering 5.2.2.7 Flower Forcing 5.2.2.8 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology 5.2.2.9 Lifting of Bulbs and Storage 5.2.2.10 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders 5.3 Let Us Sum Up 5.4 Key Words 5.5 Further References 5.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 5.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to: define true bulbous geophytes and distinguish them from other ornamental bulbs, know the important species and commercial varieties, know dormant period if any in its bulbs and its causes, its storage methods and propagation, explain the soil and nutritional requirements and other cultural practices, know various factors responsible for its growth, development and flowering, 138 describe flower and bulb harvesting and its various post harvest techniques, Tuberrose and Tulip and know various insect-pests and diseases attacking tuberoses and shall be able to overcome them.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The bulb (true botanical bulb) is a sort of plant in embryo, consisting of a very short stem known as disc which constitutes of tough tissues, the basal plate with a shoot protected by modified white and fleshy leaf bases (scales), altered or adapted so for storage. The scales contain stored food reserves viz. carbohydrates (starch, sugar) and certain proteins. From the basal plate thin adventitious roots sprout. They are of two types: tunicated where leaves are layered closely around each other and where outermost one is often dry and brown in colour and form a tunic around the bulb e.g. Hyacinthus, Narcissus and Tulipa whereas in other bulbs i.e. non-tunicated ones the leaves though not wrapped but overlap each other, are more succulent which do not form a tunic and such bulbs are known as scaly bulbs, e.g. Fritillaria and Lilium. Most bulbs (except Cardiocrinum) are perennial and renew annually the food stored in the scales. In the centre of the bulb is an embryo shoot, often with a complete embryo flower. Most bulbs form offsets or small bulbs (bulblets) around themselves, and sometimes the mother bulb itself splits into 2-5 smaller bulbs. In certain genera or species e.g. Lilium tigrinum, very small bulbs called as bulbils are formed on the flowering stems, in the axils of the leaves, which when detached and planted in suitable media and situation, grow into full sized bulbs.

Among the true bulbous geophytes, the cultivation of tuberose is quite old in India and it is grown throughout the country. If watering is not a limitation, it flowers throughout the year though in severe winter and during harsh summer flowering is quite low and that too of poor quality. When there is dearth of flowers (cut flowers or loose flowers) in the market it is tuberose which fills the demand. Its cultivation is very easy that is why it has become most homely flower of India. Its flowers are very fragrant, especially the single ones and its sweet fragrance is admired much in the country. Double ones are also fragrant, more intense being in the semi-temperate or in the temperate areas. The flowers start emitting fragrance by the evening which creates a very pleasing environment in the night. During day time also its aroma is noticed but not so intense. For this crop there is no dearth of planting material as from one large bulb it multiplies more than 25 bulbs in a year.

5.2 TUBERROSE AND TULIP

5.2.1 Tuberose (Polianthes) (family - Agavaceae, previously - Amaryllidaceae) (Common names : Tuberose, Hindi - Rajanigandha, Malayalam - Nishigandha)

5.2.1.1 Classification, Species and Varieties

Tuberose is the most homely flower of India. It is being grown in every part of the country irrespective of the climatic conditions prevailing there. Though its flowers are white but they have intense pleasing fragrance and are available in 139 Cut Flowers two forms - single and double. The intensity of fragrance is more in singles than the doubles. On the temperate region of the country as well as on the lower hills, the doubles are also quite fragrant. There are some 12-15 species under the genus Polianthes, nine having only white flowers, but except Polianthes tuberosa, others seem to be obsolete. It is being used as cut flowers as well as loose flowers. Essential oil is also extracted from its flowers.

Except Polianthes tuberosa, other 11 species are not of any commercial importance. All the varieties available in the country or elsewhere fall under only one species, P. tuberosa. Though there is no any special classification of tuberose but on the basis of the flower form, it is classified as ‘Single’ or ‘Double’. Initially only two varieties were introduced in the country viz. ‘The Pearl’ (double) and ‘Mexican Single’. Afterwards, two varieties, ‘Swarna Rekha’ (double) and ‘Rajat Rekha’ (single) were developed through 60Co gamma treatment from N.B.R.I., Lucknow. These varieties do not have any commercial value as both flower seldom. However, there are golden stripes on the leaves of ‘Swarna Rekha’ and silver stripes on the leaves of ‘Rajat Rekha’. Like to that of ‘Swarna Rekha’, one more variety was developed in Sikkim which also has golden stripes on the leaves but slightly different, and this is known as ‘Sikkim Selection’. I. I. H. R., Bangalore developed four varieties viz. ‘Prajwal’ (quite sturdy, tall and vigorous and the best among all the singles existing in the country), ‘Shringar’ (single), ‘Suvasini’ (double) and ‘Vaibhav’ (double). One variety has been developed by A.N.G.R.A.U., Hyderabad, probably a selection and has been named as ‘Hyderabad Single’ which is very similar to ‘Shringar’. One variety as ‘Phule Rajani’ has been developed by M.P.K.V. Pune centre. This single is also quite compact and beautiful. This variety at bud stage is green. Many states in the country grow single and double forms except those described above, which they claim their own but, in fact, these are one, the single one is ‘Mexican Single’ and the double one ‘The Pearl’. All the varieties at the bud stage are pinkish except ‘Phule Rajani’, ‘Mexican Single’ (Calcutta Single) and ‘Suvasini’ which are green at bud stage. Thus in real sense only 11 varieties of tuberose exist in the country. The singles being ‘Hyderabad Single’, ‘Mexican Single’(Calcutta Single), ‘Phule Rajani’, ‘Prajwal’, ‘Rajat Rekha’, ‘Shringar’ and ‘Sikkim Selection’ while doubles are ‘Suvasini’, ‘Swarna Rekha’, ‘The Pearl’ (Calcutta Double), and ‘Vaibhav’.

5.2.1.2 Propagation

Vegetatively tuberose is propagated through bulbs, lateral bulblets forming on the side of the main bulb (also known as offsets), through division of bulbs (bulb segments) and through micropropagation.

The most common method for tuberose multiplication is through bulbs and bulblets. Spindle-shaped bulbs having diameter of 2 cm are flowering size bulbs but other smaller ones (bulblets) are only planting stocks. The basal plate of tuberose is so formed that one confuses it with a rhizome. Though one year planted bulb is not so confusing but the bulbs taken out from perennial croppings give this impression. The formation of lateral buds is so fast that basal plate extension is necessitated to accommodate these bulblets and on lifting when bulbs and bulblets are taken out one by one, a big chunk of the disc (basal plate) is left in the end. In a two-year cropping, a plant of certain varieties produces about 5-10 large (flowering size) bulbs and about or more than 50 bulblets. On planting, in one year, 2-3 large bulbs and 15-30 small bulbs (bulblets) are formed. 140 If cared well, bulblets also grow full flowering size bulbs in one year, if planted Tuberrose and Tulip singly after separating these from the clump. Since tuberoses are grown as perennial croppings i.e. 2-4 years so because of their dependency on the mother bulb as these are sharing the same disc for years, the bulblets get only a small share of nutrients hence their development is very slow. Four-year perennial cropping is not profitable as quality of the spike becomes very poor and so is the bulb and bulblet formation. After planting the large-sized bulbs, first year one gets only 1-3 spikes, but second year 4-6 with slightly poor quality of spikes, while the third year though there is increase in the number of spikes, but quality is obviously poor. Therefore, only two-year cropping should be adopted. It would be better if large bulbs are separated every year for flowering and bulblets for raising the stock. If cared well, many of the large bulblets will also provide quality spikes the first year.

1 Full-sized bulbs and large bulblets may also be fractionated into ½- /8, each piece having a part of the disc as well as fleshy scales, treated with some effective contact fungicide and planted in sandy loam soil rich in humus. Each segment will provide a new plant.

Micropropagation may also be adopted for quick multiplication. Bulb segments on MS medium, with addition of growth regulators and vitamins and incubating at 22-25°C using continuous fluorescent light of 3500 lux, may provide some 500-800 plants in one year.

Growers should not be concerned with seed propagation as it is a tedious job where there is only little success and that too with time constraints. Moreover, at flowering seed-raised plants may not come true to the type. ‘Hyderabad Single’, ‘Shringar’, ‘Mexican Single’ (Calcutta Single) and ‘Phule Rajani’, all singles produce seeds which are small, shining black, light and flat. Immediately, when capsules mature, these should be taken out and sown on raised beds having well workable sandy-loam soil rich in organic matter. These beds should lightly be watered daily. Within a month or two, these will germinate.

5.2.1.3 Climate

It is successfully grown under high humid to arid climate for cut flower as well as for bulb production.

5.2.1.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control

Reasonably fertile sandy-loam soil which is light and well drained but with good water-holding capacity, having pH range of 6.5-7.5, is most suitable for tuberose growing, though tuberoses can successfully be grown up to 8.5 pH provided the field is rich in organic matter. This prefers a sunny situation. Even partial shade hampers the growth. It grows very well from 18-35°C temperature.

Its proper planting time in the subtropical regions is February and in temperate regions when danger of frost is over i.e. March-end to early-April. In tropical regions it can be planted any time, preferably from October – January. They are planted shallowly just to cover the tips of the bulb with the soil. For its planting the soil preparation should be done as for potato planting. Soil should be well dug up to 30 cm deep thrice, every time followed with plankings. The soil should have sufficient moisture at the time of third ploughing and planking so that after 141 Cut Flowers planting the field may not require immediate watering. Now the beds of convenient sizes are made after leaving the space for bunds and channels. Planting is done at 30 cm apart in the rows if it is to be made a two-year crop. However, for a three-year cropping, it requires more distances and that is 40-45 cm apart. After planting, pendimethalin (stomp) pre-emergence weedicide at the rate of 3 litre/ ha should be applied evenly in the planted area after mixing the chemical in 5000 litres of water. This will prevent germination of annual weeds up to 75 days. Then after, only stray weeds are to be removed manually because the main crop covers the in-between area with its own growth of leaves which normally does not permit other weeds to grow. In case, weedicide has not been used, organic or polythene mulching as defined under Narcissus 2.2.3 may be used.

In case weedicide is not used, hoeing and earthing up should also be carried out as and when required. Hoeing will keep down the weeds and will permit aeration while earthing will give good support to the inflorescences to stand erect against winds and rains.

5.2.1.5 Irrigation, Manures and Fertilizers

First light irrigation is followed immediately after, if pendimethalin weedicide has been applied in the field. Whether it is temperate or subtropical region but its growing season passes through spring to autumn hence it requires copious watering but shallowly every time, starting from its sprouting to leaf senescence. In completely tropical region also, the watering frequency is the same. In light soils, it should be watered every 6 days while in heavy soils 8 days. Watering very much depends on the prevailing weather conditions. During rains, it does not require watering. If it is watered well regularly, one can get the flowers throughout the year in the tropical regions and from May - June to October - November in the sub-tropical and temperate regions. Erection of polyhouses over the plantings during winter season i.e. from November - March in both these regions will make the available flowers regularly for all the 12 months. Even otherwise, the variety ‘Mexican Single’ which is good only as a loose flower blooms throughout the year under Delhi condition if the crop is not damaged due to frost in winter. If it does not occur, to some extent leaves even of other varieties remain green even during winter otherwise senesce, and new growth starts only by April. Under Delhi condition, there is profuse flowering from September - November.

At the time of preparation of soil, well rotten compost or farmyard manure at the rate of 300 quintals/ha should be incorporated in the soil by mixing thoroughly. Being a perennial crop it requires heavy feeding. Potassic fertilizers should only be incorporated in the soil if soil is deficient in potash. Therefore, it would be better if soil analysis has already been done so that only recommended dose of

NPK or any other nutrients may be given. Nitrogen 200 kg and P2O5 60 kg/ha

will give better yield of flower and bulbs. In potash deficient soils, 50 kg/ha K2O will benefit the crop. Whole of the potassium and phosphorus and half of nitrogen may be applied in the soil while preparing the land for tuberose cultivation. Half nitrogen may be applied when inflorescence starts emerging. In the standing crop, always after fertilizer application, irrigation should be carried out. Another year also the same quantity of fertilizer may be used if it is a two year crop, and subsequently in the third year also the same quantity if it is three-year crop. Application of Azospirillum, Azotobacter, and phosphobacteria alone or in 142 combination, and also when combined with inorganic fertilizers give excellent Tuberrose and Tulip results in terms of number of spikes per plant, number of flowers per spike, number of bulbs and bulblets and their sizes per plant. Tuberose responds well to certain micronutrients. Application of zinc @ 15 kg/ha or spraying the crop with

0.25 % ZnSO4 results in better production of flowers, bulbs and bulblets. 5.2.1.6 Growth, Development and Flowering

The bulbs have vegetative apex protected by a layer of 3-4 sheath leaves, and after a certain growth these change to generative phase and from then it takes hardly 25 days to form a complete flower inside. When such bulbs are planted in field, they initiate flowers after 90 days. The growth and differentiation of the apex depends on the supply of soluble carbohydrates from the scales. Storage temperature influences the number of bulbs lifted and the quality of flower spike. Storage at higher temperature (30°C) for longer duration, though advances flowering but reduces the quality of the flower and bulb yield. However, storage at 10°C for one month is optimum which improves the yield of flowers, but prolonged storage decreases bulb yield. Planting of the fresh bulb will lead only to profuse vegetative growth and little flowering, hence, for sometime the bulbs should be rested to encourage better growth and flower production.

For maximum root growth, soil temperature should be above 20°C. For maximum bulb production, atmospheric temperature should be in between 20-30°C. If bulb growth does not terminate soon after flowering, new lateral buds will initiate flowers. After senescence of aerial parts due to frost, flower and bulb growth stops. In tuberose, the lateral bulb production is prolific, and it takes 2-3 seasons to attain the flowering size. In perennial cropping after senescence of the foliage (not chopping of the foliage), certain lateral buds mature by attaining proper growth and start flowering later in the season. Application of GA3 and chlormequat stimulate the enlargement of laterals as well as the central bud by reducing the number of laterals.

Though tuberose is photo-insensitive, long-day exposure promotes vegetative growth and accelerates flowering with increased spike length while low light intensity and duration promote leaf length.

5.2.1.7 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology

Spikes are harvested preferably in the morning when 2-3 florets have opened. After harvesting, immediately their cut ends are placed in a bucket containing water. Spikes should be harvested from the ground level with a sharp knife or should be taken out by giving a gentle push from the sides at ground level from where it breaks from the plant. Picking for loose flowers may also be done in the morning only for 2 hours and only opened and opening buds are picked. One person can harvest some 15 kg of loose flowers in 2 hours duration. The yield of loose flowers may vary from 12,000 kg/ha to 30,000 kg/ha/year, depending upon the varieties chosen and the cropping year. Care should be taken that picking does not injure the spikes because other opening flowers from the same spike are to be harvested further. These loose flowers are used for various floral decorations, hair adornments and for making garlands. The var. ‘Mexican Single’ (Calcutta Single) is meant only for loose flower production. Loose flowers are packed in hessian cloth lined bamboo baskets of various sizes, holding 5-20 kg of flowers and are transported the same day to the designated market where it is sold by 143 Cut Flowers weight. If these flowers are marketed the next day, there will be weight loss up to 40 %.

After cutting, the flower spikes are also graded (on the basis of flower quality, spike thickness, spike length and rachis length), dressed and bundled in fifties or hundreds, and then wrapped in newspapers, and then finally packed in hessian cloth which may accommodate some 600-1000 spikes, depending on the varieties. The refined way of packing them is to wrap the spikes in tissue paper or corrugated brown paper and then with alkathene papers, and then packed in corrugated boxes, specially prepared for the purpose or in rectangular bamboo baskets lined with hessian cloth These can easily withstand 48 hours of dry storage during transit.

Cut spike post harvest life depends on the variety, the year of cropping, the cultural practices adopted, carbohydrate reserves and endogenous growth regulators present, soil moisture status during whole cropping season, the growing season (status of temperature), photoperiod and light intensity, relative humidity, bulb size and spacing. High nitrogen levels administered to the crop produces tall and succulent spikes which may easily break even without winds. Low light intensity but high temperature and excessive moisture reduce the cut flower life. Attack of pests and diseases also affect flower life adversely. Cut flower life improves when bulbs at planting are treated with daminozide or chlormequat 1,000-5,000

ppm, MH 1,000-2,500 ppm or GA3 10-1,000 ppm. Benzimidazole or GA3 (0.01- 0.03 %) in combination with daminozide, ascorbic acid, glucose and hydroxyquinoline (0.001-0.003 %) improve the opening of young green unopened buds or matured half-bloomed flowers and increase the vase life. Calcium nitrate 0.01 % + citric acid 250 ppm + sucrose 3 % provide maximum vase life (14 days) to tuberose cut flowers. Normal vase life of tuberose cut flower is 7-8 days. Pulsing with 10 % sucrose + 250 ppm aluminium sulphate for 12 hours and the cut spikes stored for 5 days, prolonged life of the cut spikes and opening of all the florets are obtained.

Tuberose have only white flowers. Hence, for obtaining flowers of various colours viz. yellow, rose, red, scarlet and blue, one will have to dissolve chemicals like bromocresol green and bromocresol blue for various shades of blue, phenol red for yellow, erythrocin red for rose, ammonium purpurate for rhodomine red and cosin for scarlet colour when pulsed at 0.1 % each for five hours as water solution. This process is known as tinting.

5.2.1.8 Lifting and Storage of Bulbs

After flowering is over, the growth of the plant also ceases and in the sub-tropical region of Delhi as well as whole of North India, the winter also sets in. December becomes very cold (temperature going below 10°C, and sometimes even 5°C, while in January it may go even below 5°C) which forces the leaves to die down though October - November is the peak flowering time. It is therefore advisable to lift the bulbs (clumps) by December to save the crop from rotting. These, if not lifted, will start sprouting by April provided the field has been watered from March onwards. Even after collapse of the foliage, the field should be cleaned of the weeds. In the temperate climate of India, the clumps should certainly be lifted by November as winter sets in there and continues till mid-March. In tropical regions of the country though all the weathers exist but winter is very mild so lifting may be carried out when peak flowering is over. 144 After harvesting (lifting), the clumps should be dried in single layer under a shed Tuberrose and Tulip which is well aerated. These clumps are now separated into bulbs and lateral bulblets, are graded and then again dried. Those bulbs which are spindle-shaped and at least 2 cm (>6/8 cm circumference) or above in diameter are flowering size and those less than 2 cm (<6/8 cm in circumference) are planting stock. The grading may be done on the basis of diameter, circumference or weight. The bulbs having circumference of 8/10, 10/12 and 12-14 cm are the commercial grades. Through good cultural practices, below 2 cm diameter bulbs may also produce flowers of commercial grade. However, <1.5 cm bulbs may not produce commercial spikes. Large bulbs produce more laterals than the laterals themselves.

The yield of bulbs per year is roughly 20 tonnes per hectare, if raised through bulbs having diameter of 2.5-3.0 cm. However, the collective yield in a 3-year cropping period will come to about 50 tonnes.

Flowering may be advanced by storing the bulbs at higher temperature i.e. 30°C for longer duration, but the quality of the flower will be poor and bulb yield will be reduced. Lower temperature (10°C) for longer duration also hampers the bulb production, but if stored at this temperature only for one month, more flowers with better quality are obtained. Storage temperature of at least 18°C for 4-6 weeks or 30°C for six weeks has been advocated for production of more commercial size bulbs. Initiation and development of the flowers occur after planting of the bulbs. Initiation is affected by physiological stage of the plant (bulb size, number of leaves, soil and air temperature). Earlier planting provides longer harvest duration of spikes, with more number of spikes and better quality blooms. In Delhi, the optimum planting season for tuberose is February when there exists low soil and air temperatures that is why flower harvesting period is prolonged though flowering starts a bit late.

5.2.1.9 Insect-Pests and Diseases

Tuberose is a very sturdy and easy growing crop which is normally not affected by any serious insect-pest or diseases. However, a few observed sometimes are described here under.

Grasshoppers (Hieroglyphus spp.) feed on the young leaves and flower buds, especially during rainy season which may be controlled by spraying 0.2 % methyl parathion. The adult weevils feed in darkness on the leaves making notches on the edges which may be trapped and killed as they are only a few. Their larvae feed on the roots and tunnel into the bulbs whose attack may be prevented by applying furadan granules @ 3-4 kg/ha at the time of bed making. Aphids (Aphis spp.) are very small in size and multiply rapidly. They feed on the growing points and floral buds which may be controlled by spraying nicotine solution. Thrips (Taeniothrips spp.) are minute insects which suck the sap of the leaves, buds and flowers, and act as a carrier agent in causing ‘bunchy top’ disease where the inflorescence is malformed. While controlling the grasshopper, this will also be controlled. Red spider mites suck the sap on foliage causing yellow stripes and streaks, and in severe cases leaves turn yellow, silvery or bronze and finally deformed. Kelthane spraying will prevent its infestation.

Two nematodes [Aphelenchoides besseyi causes greasy streak, and Meloidogyne spp. (M. incognita, M. javanica, M. arenaria & M. acritata) cause root galling, poor growth of plants with leaf tip burn and yellowing, and suppress spike 145 Cut Flowers emergence in their severe infestation] infest this crop. The treatment advocated for controlling larvae of the weevil will keep these pests also under check.

Stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) is caused at the soil level. Leaves loose their greenness and whole leaf rots and gets detached from the plant. Due to its infection, round and brown sclerotia are formed on and around the infected leaves. Ultimately the plants become too weak to produce flowers. Mercuric chloride 0.1 % and commercial formalin 0.2 % have excellent control of the disease. Dusting 20 % brassicol has been found quite effective. Botrytis spots and blight (Botrytis elliptica) is a problem under cool cum moist growing conditions. Initially when noticed should be controlled by spraying with 0.2 % maneb weekly and the field humidity should be kept under check. Before planting, the bulbs should also be treated by dipping them for one hour in 0.2 % bavistin or benomyl. Flower bud rot (Erwinia carotovora) sometimes infects the floral buds which may be controlled through mercuric chloride or streptocyclin. Sometimes, leaf mottling is caused due to a virus. Such plants should be destroyed to check further spread.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Name all tuberose varieties existing in our country...... 5.2.2 Tulip (family - Liliaceae) (Common name Tulip)

5.2.2.1 Classification, Species and Varieties Tulip is the most prestigious flower in the world among all the bulbous ornamentals but can be grown only in the temperate regions. At the end of the twentieth century, Lucknow (U.P.) growers grew tulips for about two years but stopped growing suddenly afterwards. Actually they were importing the precooled bulbs from Holland which were giving the blooms the first season but there was no bulbing. The cost of bulb was comparatively much higher than cost of the flowers they grew. The climatic conditions of tropical and sub-tropical regions are at all not congenial for tulip growing, and importing the precooled bulbs every year will not be cost effective. Hence this can be grown only on the hills (temperate regions). There is great diversity in the colour, size and form of the flowers. They are grown in town parks and gardens, for they brighten beds and borders during April and May. In Holland they are grown only for cut flowers. It is a hardy genus of some 100 species, all with bulbs as their rootstock. Royal General Dutch Bulb Growers’ Society in collaboration with Royal Horticultural Society has put all the tulips under 15 divisions. 146 5.2.2.2 Propagation Tuberrose and Tulip

Tulip bulb is renewed annually. It is propagated through natural division of mother bulb. Tulip bulb is an ovoid-conical bud with a rounded base, flattened or slightly grooved on one side, and wholly covered by a tough brownish membranous scale, except where a tiny scar is present at the base from where it was attached to the mother bulb. Withered stub (remnant) of the flower stalk attached to the base indicates that the mother bulb had produced a flower. On removal of the membranous scale, whitish fleshy scales appear with one or more small bulbs adhering to the base near the scar which was/were nurtured by the membranous scale when it was also fleshy but for the formation of these small bulbs, this passed on its food reserves rapidly to the buds in its axil. The bulb consists of a series of concentric fleshy scales which are modified leaves containing food reserves, each scale having a bud in its axil, outer scales having more. The innermost scale serves as a hood to the central bud which has been clearly formed by September with a short thick stem bearing leaves in the form of rolled umbrella around the flower bud. All these fleshy scales, axillary buds and central bud are situated on the basal plate, the true stem. After planting, the roots emerge from the base of the basal plate, and the central bud as a shoot. The buds present in the axil of the fleshy leaves swell drawing food from the fleshy scales and the aerial shoot, the development being more prominent after flowering. When leaves are senescing, the mother bulb is fully depleted of its food reserves developing into 5-7 daughter bulbs on an average, depending on cultivar.

At senescence of leaves or at bulb harvesting, the new leaves or flowers are yet not fully formed, though this occurs within about a month at 18-21°C when the bulbs are in store. After floral bud initiation, the bulbs require a long period of chilling for proper development, especially stem elongation. On planting, a large basal leaf emerges first, and then subsequently the flower stem attached with other leaves. After the flowering, the senescence process of leaves and flowers is quite rapid, especially in warm weather.

A large bulb produces several daughter bulbs in the axils of the bulb scales, the innermost (central) daughter bulb being the largest, while other axillary bulbs (daughter bulb offsets) smaller. The offsets are found either clustered at the base of the flower stems or on stolons or droppers growing outwards from the mature bulbs. Under favourable temperature conditions, the flower bud in the flowering size daughter bulb is completely differentiated by September which on planting in the following season will produce flowers. If other things remain the same, the central bulb is certainly the flowering size, while other axillary bulbs may or may not be, depending on the cultivar. A flowering size bulb contains at least five scales including or excluding the tunic. It is the bulb size which determines the capability of a bulb whether it will flower or not. Generally, the size is determined on the basis of bulb diameter, circumference or its weight. Bulb weighing 6-8 grammes or measuring 6-8 cm circumference may initiate flower though differences between cultivars exist as in var. Aureola this size should be 13-14 cm. smaller ones are the planting stocks which may form only the leaves on planting but not the flowers. The non-flowering ones may attain the flowering size rounded bulbs in one season or the two depending on cultivar and growing conditions. Through micro-propagation also tulips may be regenerated but the work on this line is still in its infancy. Through scale explants, adventitious buds and 147 Cut Flowers bulbs can be produced in vitro. Stem segments excised during bulb storage is also an effective way of regenerating tulips in vitro as through this way also adventitious buds and bulbs can be produced. Tulips can be multiplied through seeds for evolving new varieties as through seeds these do not come true to the type. Most modern hybrids are sterile but most species and a few varieties set seeds so through artificial pollination seeds may be produced and when capsules are matured i.e. when these start splitting, seeds are collected in paper bags and stored until autumn when these are sown in pots filled with leaf mould, good garden loam, compost and coarse sand, all in equal quantity by volume. Seeds are sown thinly, covered with sand and are kept in frame where these pots are very lightly watered regularly. They germinate well at 5-8°C temperature. After the winter is over, the pots may be shifted to a well ventilated cold house. During the fourth year the small bulbs should be large enough to plant out as the planting stock. These will produce flowers in 5- 7 years. 5.2.2.3 Climate It is typically temperate flower, needs chilling requirement to bloom.

5.2.2.4 Soils, Preparation of Land, Planting and Weed Control Tulips can be grown at a sunny situation and in a wide range of soils provided it is well drained. During the active growth the soil should have the capacity to retain moisture. A pH of 6-7 is most desirable. Soil compaction is also not favourable, and pebbles and stones vis-à-vis rootstock of the perennial weeds should also be taken out from the field while preparing the land for its growing. Soil should be dug out at a depth of 30 cm, planked, then again ploughing and planking and then followed by third ploughing and planking. Farmyard manure or compost at the rate of 30-50 tonnes per hectare should be incorporated in the soil at the time of third ploughing, and then beds should be prepared of convenient size by keeping provision of bunds (50 cm) and channels (one metre). Planting in beds is generally carried out only in sandy soils while ridge planting is done in heavier soils. If overhead irrigation is to be provided, the length of the beds may run across the whole field while width 1.5-2.0 metres but a path of 60-100 cm between the two beds for cultural operations and movement should be maintained. At the planting time there should be sufficient moisture in the soil so that first irrigation is required only after sprouting. Planting is carried out in the month of October, when temperature falls below 20°C. Planting density affects bulb yield, and a very close density etiolates the flower stalk. The size of the bulb is the main criterion in determining the plant density. In beds, it would be preferable to plant in furrows drawn at a distance of 20 cm depending on the size of the bulb. While drawing the next furrow, automatically the planted bulbs in the furrows will be covered. The depth of the furrow should be 8-10 cm. The bulb to bulb distance in the row should be three times the diameter of the bulbs to be planted i.e. roughly 10-15 cm, thus accommodating some 50 to 75 flowering size bulbs/m2 (size being from 7-8 to 12-13 cm circumference). The bulbs above 13 cm circumference produce more progeny bulbs per bulb so they should be retained to maintain stocks. When planting is done in long furrows, every seventh row is kept unplanted which works as paths for cultural operations and movement. Mulching is usually used to keep down the weeds, to prevent cold injury and to 148 improve the soil conditions. Organic mulches as defined under Narcissus 1.4.4 Tuberrose and Tulip are best as these decompose in the field and provide additional nutrients as well as improve the soil texture and structure. Alternatively plastic mulch may also be used. Weeds rob the nutrients of the soil and hinder the availability of light to the main crop which should be removed immediately when these are seen. Pendimethalin (stomp) at the rate of 3 kg/ha mixed in water should be sprayed as pre-emergence sufficient to wet the upper surface of the soil. This will not allow any annual weed to germinate up to 75 days. If the herbicide is not used then regular hoeing for aeration is also required.

Regular rouging of diseased plants should be carried out to prevent further proliferation of the disease in the following crop.

5.2.2.5 Irrigation, Manures and Fertilizers

High moisture level in tulip planting (not water-logging) encourages faster flowering with increased flower size and stem length, hence adequate water supply is necessary during the entire growing season. Water deficiency causes poor growth with reduced leaf area and other vegetative growth, reduced flowering with short scape and reduced flower size, and reduced bulb yield. Delayed irrigations reduce the number of bulbs showing the flower bud differentiation. High salt levels in irrigation water also reduce yield and cause symptoms akin to drought, as well as early senescence. Tulips tolerate up to 130 ppm of chloride ions during the whole growing season.

In a balanced soil, there should not be less than 3 % of organic matter. Organic matter in the form of farmyard manure, poultry manure or compost should be incorporated in the soil at the time of soil preparation at the rate of 30-50 tonnes/ ha which apart from providing essential nutrients, will also improve texture and structure vis-à-vis water holding capacity of the soil. Only through soil analysis, recommendations for inorganic fertilizers for tulip crop may be advocated. However, up to 180 kg/ha nitrogen is safe to increase the number of quality flowers and without affecting bulb yield and number. Half of the nitrogen can be applied at the time of third ploughing and the remaining half when inflorescences are to appear. Nitrogen increase in the aerial parts is observed up to peak of flowering but afterwards it translocates in the bulbs, which if analysed after lifting, show 1-2 % of the dry weight, which is indicative of good plant and flower quality in the following season. Phosphorus deficiency causes little leaf and reduces weight of the daughter bulbs. Phosphorus (P2O5) as well as potassium (only in deficient soils) at the rate of 120 kg/ha each should also be incorporated in the soil at the time of land preparation. Smaller bulbs respond well to P and K application even in excess, than the large bulbs. Potassium fertilizers may also induce magnesium deficiency. Leaf paling may be caused due to Mg deficiency. Mg should be used only when soil pH is more than 5.8 and soil concentration is less than 30 ppm. The mobility of Ca in tulip plants is very low, neither it translocates from the leaves to bulbs nor from roots to bulbs. However, Ca (NO3)2 decreases flower abortion and topple, and increases flower size and fresh weight. It can be applied in the soil at the rate of 100 kg/ha at the time of preparation of land. Boron deficiency causes reduced root growth and bulb weight, short scapes, stem cracking, flower splitting, rough stem base and fading of flower colour. Pre-planting dipping of bulbs in B + Mo + Zn + Cu induces earlier emergence with more vigour. 149 Cut Flowers 5.2.2.6 Growth, Development and Flowering

The bulb of tulip has an annual replacement cycle, broadly divided under three phases, viz. i) rapid root growth after planting in October though a very slow aerial growth due to a very cold temperature, ii) active plant growth at the rise of temperature in March when scape and floral-buds elongate rapidly and lead to flowering as well as elongation of vegetative buds in the scale axils to form daughter bulbs (outer scale axillary bud is visible in February but the enlargement process is slow than central vegetative bud initiating in July along with the flower bud initiation), more prominently after the flowering, and shrivelling and disappearance of the mother bulb scales, and iii) in summer when aerial plant parts senesce and daughter bulb enlargement ceases, an apparent state of dormancy though inside the daughter bulb an active vegetative and floral bud differentiation is going on, and on the basal plate root initials are also formed. In a flowering size bulb, daughter bulb enlargement coincides with flower bud initiation in May and is over by August in storage. Though outermost axillary buds are older than the central (innermost) but the development in the central bud is very rapid which differentiates a higher number of scale primordia i.e. 5-6 by the end of October while smaller bulbs produce only fewer scales.

Small non-flowering bulbs produce only one leaf while flowering bulbs two or more. Outermost bud inside the tunic is larger than other axillary buds except central, and it can produce a leaf and even a flower bud.

Under warm temperature, the flower initiation in dormant bulbs occurs faster but after differentiation of the flower buds they are cold treated, that is why either for natural season flowering or for forcing, the bulbs are usually held in dry storage for 3-4 weeks at 20°C in well aerated 5-8 cm deep trays, which promotes the initiation of leaf primordia followed by flower bud initiation, and then the temperature is reduced to 8-10°C (pre-cooling) for 6-8 weeks to satisfy part of the bulbs cool temperature requirement and to promote rapid flower bud development after planting.

5.2.2.7 Flower Forcing

Many varieties of tulips are programmed for early flowering (forcing), some as potted tulips and others as cut flower tulips. For convenience, it should be understood that forcing has three phases: i) the production phase, ii) the programming phase i.e. control of floral and root organogenesis [(differentiation of flower buds and the roots at warm-cool temperatures, and scape elongation) and floral maturation (induction of growth processes at low temperatures)], and iii) the greenhouse phase i.e. when a very active plant growth takes place. The objective of the forcing is obtained by shortening the duration of the natural growth and development cycle. Pre-cooling of bulbs at 8-10°C for 6-8 weeks, the bulbs may immediately be planted in flats which are placed in cold frames or cool position for a further 4-6 weeks or until the leaf growth is seen, and this period encourages root growth, a prerequisite for successful forcing. If temperature during rooting period is too high or rooting period is too short, stunted growth and delayed flowering occur and sometimes the bulbs may fail to produce flowers. When leaves are 3-5 cm tall, the flats should be shifted in a glasshouse where forcing temperatures can be controlled. The forcing temperature for the first two weeks should be kept at 10-12°C to avoid too rapid and soft growth, then followed 150 with the normal forcing temperature of 16-20°C, depending upon the cultivar, until the bud colour showing stage and then reduced to 13-16°C till full flowering. Tuberrose and Tulip Lower temperature of 13°C results in delayed but better quality flowers while warm temperature of 18°C hastens flowering but with soft stems. Every 2.5°C increase in temperature after rooting period, one week advanced flowering is observed. Slightly early lifting of bulbs, then storing at 34°C for one week, followed by normal 20°C, and then 8-10°C results in 7-10 days earlier flowering than bulbs stored at 20°C and 8-10°C only. Higher temperature than optimum may kill the initiating flower bud. Direct planting in the field or in the glasshouse beds or flats after 9-12 weeks of pre-cooling at 5°C, quality cut flowers are produced. Cold treatment is given to dry stored bulbs and also to planted bulbs. Standard forcing is when the bulbs, with or without pre-cooling, are planted and given a further cold treatment while direct forcing is when the dry stored bulbs receive the total cold treatment at 5°C or special pre-cooling. In standard forcing, rooting takes place and scape growth begins during low temperatures of the programming phase while greenhouse phase is very short i.e. 3-4 weeks only, whereas direct (special) pre-cooling has a long greenhouse phase (at least 50 days) but requires less space for bulb programming. Forced bulbs should not be forced in succession for many years, as for vegetative growth and development growing conditions are not congenial under the forcing environments i.e. temperature, so bulbs once forced should either be replanted in the field to recover or discarded.

Bulbs after lifting, can be retarded by storing at 23°C until mid-September, followed by 20°C until mid-October, and then at 17°C until pre-cooled, and then at 5 or 9°C for about four weeks, and then finally at -2°C starting in December, after removing the tunic. This low temperature is given either to bulbs planted and rooted at 9°C or to bulbs packed in moist peat but in both the cases, the boxes are wrapped in polythene paper to avoid desiccation. In comparison to freezing non-planted bulbs, freezing rooted bulbs generally leads to a better quality of the flowers.

5.2.2.8 Harvesting of Flowers and Post Harvest Technology

Flowers are harvested when the petal’s colour intensity and development are half complete i.e. before one or two days of opening, depending on the market destination and requirements. While cutting, wrapper leaf should not be disturbed and left intact on the bulb. The vase life of tulip cut flower is 4-11 days at 16°C and from three to more than six days at 23.5°C, depending on the cultivar and prevailing weather conditions. Cut flowers can be stored for short periods of time i.e. 5 days either in water or wrapped dry in airtight containers or in polyethylene sleeves at 0-1°C. However, for longer storage i.e. up to 14 days, they are kept upright with the bulb attached to the scape, though longer storage is, at all, not encouraged. Distilled water, by all means, is better in vase. However,

8-HQC 200 ppm + sucrose 4 % with GA3 and ethephon in the vase solution is quite good for better display life in vases. AgNO3 25 ppm + sucrose 1.5% also improve the vase life.

Potted tulips are marketed when the buds have just started showing colour, and at this stage it has 14-17 days display life. If it is removed from the greenhouse at the green bud stage, it can be stored for up to four weeks at 0-1°C but plants require to be treated with maneb or zineb at 0.2 % + bavistin (benomyl) as a protection against Botrytis infection in the store room. 151 Cut Flowers 5.2.2.9 Lifting of Bulbs and Storage

Forced bulbs are normally not used again and destroyed, but if necessary, these can be used only as planting stock. Field grown planting stock bulbs are harvested after the foliage has senesced. The bulbs which were planted for cut flower use or garden display, while cutting the flowers the wrapper leaf should have been left on the plant for further development of the bulbs. After leaf senescence, these bulbs are also harvested. Each plant may have a cluster of 4-5 bulbs (at the most up to 7) which are collected, separated, cleaned, graded into flowering and non-flowering size and then stored under dry and airy condition at 18-20°C. They should also be treated with some aphicide or placed with fumigant such as dichlorvos strips to have effective aphid control in the store.

After lifting of the bulbs and during dry storage, the process of differentiation of flowers, vegetative buds and roots occur. Storage temperatures influence all these processes and their subsequent development. The apex of a flowering size bulb is usually vegetative at lifting. Non-flowering size bulbs (just smaller than flowering size) which normally do not flower under ordinary conditions, if immediately after lifting are stored at 30°C for several weeks, often they become capable to initiate flower. Flower bud differentiation is quickest at 17-20°C as compared to its higher (even up to 35°C) or as lower as 1.5°C. A short duration temperature of 30-35°C, followed by 15-20°C induces earlier flower bud differentiation and rooting, and if once organogenesis has occurred, it is obligatory to store the bulbs at low temperature in order to promote rapid plant growth after planting. However, the extension of higher temperature beyond a limit than specified to a particular variety will delay the flower bud formation significantly. High storage temperatures (25-30°C) promote more number of axillary buds in the bulbs by reducing the dominance of the central bud and by aborting a few axillary buds, than storing at lower temperature i.e. 13-17°C.

In storage, the bulbs with intact tunic will protect them from dehydration, but to avoid excess weight loss at least 70 % humidity should be maintained. More humidity will encourage the attack of certain storage fungi like Botrytis, Fusarium and Penicillium; however, for one week of storage at 30-35°C immediately after lifting, there should be a very high percentage of relative humidity i.e. 95 %.

5.2.2.10 Insect-Pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders

Aphids [Sappaphis (Dysaphis) tulipae] of greyish to puce-coloured are found on the bulb itself which can either be controlled through nicotine or through fumigation. This aphid also infests the standing crop along with the potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) which can also be controlled through spraying nicotine or Malathion. Tulip gall mites (Acaria tulipae) creating problems in stores are controlled through monthly fogging the store with primophos-methyl. Zinc phosphide can be used to control rats and mice burrowing the field of standing crop.

Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) is of different race than the one attacks narcissi. This attacks the bulbs from the base and causes brown or yellow patches on the outermost scale near the base. Symptoms and control measures (except HWT) are the same as described under Narcissus 2.2.3.

Tulip fire (Botrytis tulipae) is the most common disease of tulips causing serious 152 loss of foliage which ultimately affects bulb yield, and at times pathogen also Tuberrose and Tulip enters the bulbs. Shiny black sclerotia are formed in large numbers at the base of the scape and on the outer fleshy scales. The disease is favoured by humid conditions of the soil and air. During such weathers or when there is possibility of infection of this disease, zineb and maneb sprayings weekly in inclement weathers will keep this disease under check. Grey bulb rot (Sclerotium tuliparum) is a soil-borne disease of tulips causing bulb rot. Infected plants should be burnt or buried and field should be kept clean of debris. Regular sprayings with 0.2 % bavistin (benomyl) alternate with 0.2 % captan fortnightly to the standing crop from sprouting until leaf senescence will prove very effective in keeping almost all the fungal diseases under check. Storage rot (Penicillium hirsutum) causing basal plate rot or other part of the bulb where injury has been caused, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. tulipae which apart from causing storage rot under bad ventilation, infects even bulbs in the field through the wounds inflicted on them, and Rhizoctonia solani infects bulbs stored at 5ºC and under field conditions where leaves yellow and often have a dead streak along the whole length of the blade, and bulbs on lifting are misshapen and show brown concentric rings in cross section) can be minimised by improving storage conditions, following proper spraying schedule in the standing crop, and the bulb treatment with captan before storage. Grey brown rot (Rhizoctonia tuliparum) is a serious soil-borne disease which can be controlled by following proper crop rotation, burning of diseased bulbs and by following proper schedule of spraying in the standing crop as advocated for controlling ‘grey bulb rot’. Root rot (Pythium irregulare, P. spinosum and P. ultimum var. ultimum) causes root decaying more prominently in forced tulips, P. ultimum being the most devastating. Pseudomonas spp. controls the disease.

Viruses {soil-borne viruses are tobacco necrosis virus (TNV) and tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV)}, and aphid-borne viruses are tulip breaking virus (TBV), cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and lily symptomless virus (LSV)} sometimes become serious in tulip plantings therefore regular rouging should be carried out and infected plants should be burnt. Moreover, through spraying with nicotine also will control the viruses by controlling the vector, i.e. aphid.

Flower abortion or blasting and stem topple are the two major physiological disorders observed in tulip plantings. Abortion is caused due to: i) insufficient state of physiological maturity of the bulbs when they are placed at low temperatures, ii) placed at low temperatures when their flower buds and/or roots are not properly differentiated, iii) when low temperature is given for longer duration, iv) when there are root related problems at planting viz. bruised or broken roots, insufficient due to high soil temperature at planting, delayed planting, infected roots, insufficient soil moisture at planting, high soil salinity, excessive watering and soil compaction, etc., v) when daughter bulbs are developed on the cost of flower scape elongation, before rooting, vi) when during plant growth, the water supply is inadequate and/or temperature is not commensurate to the requirement for a normal stem elongation, vii) when in September, their storage temperature is too high i.e. 25-30°C, viii) when they are exposed to ethylene concentration as low as 0.1 ppm either during storage or in the soil, ix) when the bulbs did not receive optimal ventilation conditions for extended periods, and when nitrogen and calcium content of the bulbs is improper at the time of bulb enlargement. Bud abortion to a great level can be prevented by meeting all the above cited requirements. Apart from these, ethylene build up 153 Cut Flowers in storage and during transit should be controlled by providing proper ventilation and by destroying all the Fusarium infected bulbs during storage and before planting as they also produce ethylene. Moreover, for forcing only large size (>12 cm circumference) bulbs should be planted. Stem topple disorder (also called as ‘sugar stem’, ‘leatherneck’ and ‘wet stem’) affects the flower scape and those leaves whose epidermal cell layers have burst. It may occur within 10 days i.e. 5-7 days before or 2-3 days after flowering. This happens due to localized Ca deficiency in the area of the toppling. A very rapid scape elongation due to higher forcing temperatures, or very low forcing temperatures and a very high relative humidity preventing transpiration, thereby creates problem in Ca migration. Varietal difference is observed as ‘Halcro’, ‘Kings blood’, ‘Mrs. J.T. Scheepers’, ‘Paul Richter’, and ‘Renown’ are highly susceptible to stem topple.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Describe symptoms and control of ‘tulip fire’ disease......

5.3 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied Polianthes and Tulipa, both true ornamental bulbs for their classification, important species and the varieties, their propagational methods, various cultural practices adopted, various factors affecting growth and flowering, flower forcing, stage for harvesting of flowers, their post harvest technologies to increase the vase life, major insect-pests and diseases infesting/ infecting these plants vis-à-vis physiological disorders and their remedial measures, the stage for bulb lifting, their storage and the breaking of dormancy for induction of flowering.

5.4 KEY WORDS

Bulbils, bulblets, bulbs, diseases, dormancy, flower forcing, holding solution, insect-pests, pulsing, physiological disorders, programming, senescence, storage of bulbs.

5.5 FURTHER REFERENCES 1) Bailey, L.H. (1960). The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (Vol. I- III). The Macmillan Company, New York. 2) Beckett, K.A. (1985). The Concise Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. Orbis Publishing Ltd., Great Britain. 154 3) Bryan, J.E. (1989). Bulbs (Vol. I-II). Timber Press, Oregon, U.S.A. Tuberrose and Tulip 4) Dole, J.M. and Wilkins, H.F. (1999). Floriculture: Principles and Species. Prentice Hall, Jersey, U.S.A. 5) Griffiths, M. (1995). Manual of Bulbs. Timber Press, Oregon, U.S.A. 6) Hay, R. (1971). Reader’s Digest Encyclopaedia of Garden Plants and Flowers. The Reader’s Digest Association Ltd., London, Great Britain. 7) Hellyer, A. (1983). The Collingridge Illustrated Encyclopedia of Gardening. Collingridge Books, England. 8) Hertogh, A. De and Le Nard, M. (1993). The Physiology of Flower Bulbs. Elsevier Science Publishers a.v., Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 9) Salinger, J.P. (1985). Commercial Flower Forcing. Butterworths Horticultural Books, Wellington, New Zealand. 5.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) The common varieties of tuberose are: The singles being ‘Hyderabad Single’, ‘Mexican Single’(Calcutta Single), ‘Phule Rajani’, ‘Prajwal’, ‘Rajat Rekha’, ‘Shringar’ and ‘Sikkim Selection’ while doubles are ‘Suvasini’, ‘Swarna Rekha’, ‘The Pearl’ (Calcutta Double), and ‘Vaibhav’.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Tulip fire (Botrytis tulipae) is the most common disease of tulips causing serious loss of foliage which ultimately affects bulb yield, and at times pathogen also enters the bulbs. Shiny black sclerotia are formed in large numbers at the base of the scape and on the outer fleshy scales. The disease is favoured by humid conditions of the soil and air. During such weathers or when there is possibility of infection of this disease, Mencozeb or Bevistan sprayings weekly in inclement weathers will keep it under check.

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