Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia

Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia

Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) 2021

Edited by Scott Justice, Stephen J. Keeling, Govinda Basnet and Timothy J. Krupnik

Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia i The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) was established in 2009 to promote durable change at scale in South Asia’s cereal-based cropping systems. Operating in rural ‘innovation hubs’ in Bangladesh, India and Nepal, CSISA works to increase the adoption of various resourceconserving and climate-resilient technologies, and improve farmers’ access to market information and enterprise development. CSISA supports women farmers by improving their access and exposure to modern and improved technological innovations, knowledge and entrepreneurial skills. By continuing to work in synergy with regional and national efforts, collaborating with myriad public, civil society and private-sector partners, CSISA aims to benefit more than 8 million farmers by the end of 2020.

The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) is the global leader on publicly funded maize and wheat research and related farming systems. Headquartered near Mexico City, Mexico, CIMMYT works with hundreds of partners throughout the developing world to sustainably increase the productivity of maize and wheat cropping systems, thus improving global food security and reducing poverty. CIMMYT is a member of the CGIAR Consortium and leads the CGIAR Research Programs on MAIZE and WHEAT. The Center receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks and other public and private agencies.

Correct Citation: Justice, S., S.J. Keeling., G. Basnet., T.J. Krupnik (2021). Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia. The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA). Kathmandu, Nepal.

Printed in Bangladesh. Published in 2021

Design: Eliot Sánchez Pineda (CIMMYT).

Creative Commons CC BY-NC: This license allows reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format for noncommercial purposes only, and only so long as attribution is given to the creator.

This work was supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and USAID through the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA). The views and opinions in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the Gates Foundation or USAID and shall not be used for advertising purposes.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: ii Updates from South and South East Asia Foreword

With high rates of poverty, declining but persistent food insecurity, and an increase occurrence of damaging climate extremes, the smallholder-dominated agricultural systems of South Asia are under considerable stress while, at the same time, projections suggest that crop productivity will need to increase dramatically in coming years to ensure regional food security. Underlying these challenges is an aging rural workforce and a lack of interest among young people for making farming their profession. These dynamics contribute to an unprofitable present and an uncertain future. The promise of appropriate mechanization offers a pathway forward. At its best, new types of scale-appropriate machinery can greatly reduce drudgery and the costs of production while ensuring precision management and timely field operations. Moreover, when machinery services are provided by small and medium-scale entrepreneurs, new jobs are created that help anchor younger people in rural communities while labor-limited farms stay viable by purchasing essential services. Despite the promise of mechanized solutions, progress in the past decade has been uneven with success achieved in some geographies with certain technologies while others largely stagnate. There is much to learn from this experience. Facilitating mechanization transitions is a complex process. Adapted technologies must be available at the right price, in the right place, with the right enabling environment. In most cases this implies the need for strong synergies between the public and private sectors along with rigorous priority setting and strategic planning to assess the business case and to build a scaling plan for mechanized solutions that differs by technology and geography.

I am delighted that this compilated draws together the diverse perspectives of researchers, extension officers, entrepreneurs, and private sector representatives from across the region. The conversations that inspired these articles draw upon rich insights that can only be reliably developed by understanding technologies in context, i.e. from the field where they are actually used by farmers and service providers. This compilation provides essential insights for ‘what’s next’ as we collectively learn how to bring mechanized solutions to scale. It reflects the types of critical dialogues that are essential for supporting transitions to a more sustainable and productive future for smallholders in the region.

Andrew McDonald Associate Professor, School of Integrative Plant Science Soil and Crop Sciences Section Associate Professor, Department of Global Development, Cornell University and Former CSISA Project Leader

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia iii Contents

Foreword ...... iii Contents...... iv Tables ...... iv Figures...... v Boxes...... vi Authors and Editors ...... vii Abbreviations...... viii Chapter 1. Agricultural Harvesting Mechanization in South Asia in View and Review...... 1 Chapter 2. Agricultural Mechanization in Nepal...... 10 Chapter 3. Engendering Agricultural Mechanization in Nepal Lessons and Observations from Reaper and Harvester use in the Western and Far Western Terai...... 16 Chapter 4. Agricultural Mechanization Policy Issues in Bangladesh...... 22 Chapter 5. Mechanization of Crop Harvesting and Residue Management in India...... 27 Chapter 6. Spread of Small Harvesting Machinery on Small Farms and Residue Management in Sri Lanka...... 30 Chapter 7. Mechanization of Paddy Harvesting and Rice Straw Baling in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam...... 36 Chapter 8. Crop Harvesting Technology in Smallholder Agriculture in South China...... 46

Tables

Table 1. Current status and targets of agricultural mechanization ...... 11 Table 2. Timeline of agricultural mechanization in Nepal...... 12 Table 3. Government projects and NGOs, INGOs and other development organizations that support agricultural mechanization in Nepal...... 14 Table 4. The division of pre and post-harvest farm labor, Tikapur, Kailali, Nepal (2019)...... 18 Table 5. Different sizes of axial flow threshers...... 31 Table 6. The performance of rice harvesting machines in Sri Lanka ...... 34 Table 7. Average performance of four rice straw balers, Can-Tho City, Vietnam, 2016...... 43 Table 8. Specifications and prices of two popular balers in Vietnam...... 43 Table 9. Estimated cost of buying and collecting 1 tonne of straw at two sites in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta (2015)...... 44 Table 10. The four most common technical specifications for reapers in China...... 48 Table 11. Proposed parameters for mini combine harvesters...... 48 Table 12. Specifications of mini combine harvesters available in South China...... 49 Table 13. Specifications of small combine harvesters common in South China...... 50

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: iv Updates from South and South East Asia Figures

Figure 1: Traveling seminar participants observing harvesting by Chinese reaper binder in Padampur, Kailali, Nepal...... 1 Figure 2. A combine harvester working in Rupandehi, Nepal...... 2 Figure 3. Harvesting wheat with a reaper in Kailali, Nepal...... 3 Figure 4. Farmers bundling wheat harvested by a reaper in Kailali district...... 6 Figure 5. Physiographic regions of Nepal...... 10 Figure 6. Trend in number of households using agricultural machines and technology in Nepal, 1991–2012...... 13 Figure 7. Number of farm holdings in Nepal using agricultural machines and other technology by ecological belt, 2011/12...... 13 Figure 8. Percentage of farm holdings using agricultural machines and other technology in Nepal’s mountains, Midhills and Terai...... 13 Figure 9. Number of tractors and power tillers registered annually with the Department of Transport Management, 1991/92–2017/18...... 14 Figure 10. Members of Dhankhola Women’s Group’s (Dang, Nepal) trying out their mini‑tiller (Lokendra Khadka)...... 18 Figure 11. A woman farmer learning to start a diesel-powered mini tiller, Dhankhola, Dang, Nepal (CSISA)...... 20 Figure 12. Testing drum seed rollers for preparing rice fields...... 20 Figure 13. A transplanter planting rice in Gazipur, Bangladesh...... 22 Figure 14. A combine harvester harvesting rice in Manikganj, Bangladesh...... 23 Figure 15. Level of crop harvesting mechanization across India...... 27 Figure 16. Traditional combine harvester migration across India...... 28 Figure 17. CROP TIGER 40 Multicrop Harvester (CLAAS India)...... 29 Figure 18. Combine harvesting lodged rice in Kudawewa, Sri Lanka in 2018...... 30 Figure 19. A self-propelled Agrimec reaper...... 32 Figure 20. A 45 hp tractor-coupled thresher...... 32 Figure 21. A wheel driven combine harvester...... 32 Figure 22. A 15 hp ride-on combine harvester...... 32 Figure 23. A 2m tracked combine harvester...... 33 Figure 24. The number of rice harvesting and threshing machines imported into Sri Lanka, 2000–2015...... 33 Figure 25. The district-wise proportion of 2017 maha season rice harvested by combine harvester in Sri Lanka...... 35 Figure 26. The Mekong Delta (circled) and Vietnam’s seven other agricultural regions...... 36 Figure 27. The collapsible type axial-flow thresher...... 37 Figure 28. The self-propelled type axial-flow thresher...... 37 Figure 29. Rice reaper made by Long-An Mechanical Factory in 1985...... 38 Figure 30. The 600 kg mini combine...... 38 Figure 31. This type of combine is easily lifted for changing its wheels...... 38 Figure 32. The 2009 combine rice harvesting contest at An Giang, Vietnam...... 39 Figure 33. A 2 tonne combine crossing a canal on metal frames...... 39

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia v Figure 34. Number of combine harvesters and reapers in use in Vietnam, 2006–2018...... 40 Figure 35. The SHT-10 dryer at the KeSach Seed Station, Vietnam, 1982...... 40 Figure 36. An array of 30-ton flatbed dryers with mechanical handling...... 40 Figure 37. Combination of one fluidized- bed and four column dryers...... 41 Figure 38. Rice post-harvest losses in the 12 Mekong Delta provinces of Vietnam...... 41 Figure 39. The steel rollers in a baler produce round bales...... 42 Figure 40. Ejecting bales from the bale chamber...... 42 Figure 41. Galan-IHI STAR MRB0855 baler behind a 30-HP tractor...... 42 Figure 42. Phan Tấn PT CR57 baler...... 43 Figure 43. Bales being delivered from the CR57 platform at a field border...... 43 Figure 44. China’s agricultural regions...... 46 Figure 45. The three stages of crop harvesting technology in South Chinese agriculture...... 47 Figure 46. Common reapers used in South China...... 48 Figure 47. Some mini combine harvesters in use in South China...... 50 Figure 48. Features of mini combine harvesters: 1. rubber and steel racks for improved traction, 2. double cutting bars for improved residue handling, 3. powered engines with electric starters, 4. improved cyclone air cleaning mechanism, 5. seats, 6. integrated handle operation panel...... 50 Figure 49. Nine types of ‘small’ combine harvesters in use in South China...... 51 Figure 50. Increased wages drove the shift from manual to combine harvesting in SouthxChina...... 51 Figure 51. Attainable profit of mechanized harvesting (red) versus household annual income expectations (blue) from mini and small combine harvesting...... 52 Figure 53. Crop residue management under small combine harvesting – preparations for planting next crop...... 52 Figure 52. Stacking method of stubble under small combine harvesting with evenly distributed straw (left) and windrowed straw for recycling (right)...... 52

Boxes

Box 1. The evolution of agricultural mechanization in Nepal...... 4 Box 2. Recommendations to improve the subsidy system for purchasing farm machinery in Bangladesh...... 24 Box 3. Recommendations to foster research and development for farm mechanization in Bangladesh...... 24 Box 4. Recommendations to expand the domestic production of agricultural machines in Bangladesh...... 25

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: vi Updates from South and South East Asia Authors and Editors

Scott Justice is an Agricultural Mechanization Specialist and holds a MSc in Anthropology and graduate certificate in Environmental Systems from The University of Kentucky. He has been working for over 20 years on scale appropriate and agricultural and rural mechanization and its importance for equitable rural development in South Asia, East Asia and more recently Africa. After working for a number of years with CIMMYT and CSISA in Nepal, he is resident and consultant in Myanmar.

Stephen J. Keeling is an editor on a wide range of publications on international development, health, education and agriculture.

Govinda Basnet is an environmental anthropologist with over 15 years of experience on environmental conservation, livelihood improvement, water resources management, general agriculture, climate change, and community development mostly in policy analysis, program development, implementation, and evaluation. Contact email: [email protected]

Madhusudan Singh Basnyat is an agricultural engineer and former Deputy Director General at the Department of Agriculture and had worked at the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development since 1987. He has a bachelor’s degree in agricultural engineering and a master’s degree in renewable energy engineering. He has extensive experience and knowledge on agricultural mechanization, renewable energy, water resource management, agricultural infrastructure, production to market linkage and Nepal’s policy. Contact email: basnyatms@ gmail.com

Megh Ranjani Rai is a gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) specialist with experience in South Asia, East Africa, China, Timor Leste, and Haiti. She has worked with women farmers in mountain farming systems and on the inclusion of indigenous peoples in project design and implementation. She is a participatory research and gender analysis (PRGA) trainer for CGIAR systems. Contact email: [email protected]

Timothy J. Krupnik has worked in agricultural research for development in Asia, sub- Saharan Africa, and the Caribbean. At CIMMYT, he leads a multi-disciplinary research team implementing a portfolio of projects focused on the principles of sustainable and ecological intensification in smallholder farming systems in South and South East Asia. This team spans disciplines and brings together technical skills ranging from systems agronomy, remote sensing, socioeconomics, climatology, agricultural engineering, and environmental modeling and data science. The team’s research agenda is aimed at generating real-world impact by addressing key knowledge gaps and developing practical tools and supportive systems to raise farmers’ productivity and resilience in the context the region’s biophysical, economic, and sociocultural diversity. Krupnik is also the CSISA Project Leader for Nepal and bangladesh.

MA Sattar Mandal is a leading agricultural economist and emeritus professor and former vice- chancellor of Bangladesh Agricultural University. He served as a member of the Bangladesh Planning Commission from 2000 to 2001 and 2011 to 2013. He is currently a member of the expert pool of the Bangladesh Ministry of Agriculture, convener of the committee for agricultural mechanization policy and a board member of the Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (Agricultural Research Foundation). Contact email: [email protected]

Anil Menon is Head of Market Development at CLAAS Agricultural Machinery Pvt. Ltd. India. The parent company CLAAS is one of the world leaders in combine harvesters. Mr. Menon is based in Faridabad, Haryana, India where he is responsible for product management, marketing and network development for CLAAS in India and neighboring countries. He has more than 20 years of experience on farm mechanization spanning tractors, harvesters and dairy farm equipment. He previously worked with Eicher and GEA farm equipment companies. Author’s contact email: [email protected]

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia vii Melvin Samarasinghe is a Sri Lankan mechanical engineer with 38 years’ experience with the manufacturing, research, development and marketing of agriculture machinery. He is currently the chairperson of the Consultative Committees for Sri Lanka’s Ministry of Industries, the Export Development Board and the Skills Development Council representing the metal and Light Engineering sectors. He also represents Agfour Engineering Services, Sri Lanka. Contact email: [email protected]

Dr. Phan Hieu Hien is an energy engineering expert with 33 years of teaching and research at NongLam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. His research areas include agricultural mechanization, post-harvest technology and the development of crop dryers and biomass furnaces for drying crops. He received the Presidential People’s Teachers Award in Vietnam in 2008 and IRRI Outstanding Alumni (2010) and an Outstanding Alumni Award (2016) from the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) on the fiftieth anniversaries of these two institutions. Contact email: [email protected]

Dr. Qishuo Ding is a/the professor of agricultural engineering at the Department of Agricultural Mechanization, Nanjing Agricultural University, China. Professor Ding has 30 years’ experience in agricultural mechanization in South China especially in rice-related farming system. Contact email: [email protected]

Abbreviations

2WT two-wheeled tractors 4WT four-wheeled tractors BADC Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation BARI Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute BAU Bangladesh Agricultural University BRRI Bangladesh Rice Research Institute CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center CSISA Cereal Systems Initiative in South Asia DoA Department of Agriculture, Nepal GESI gender equity and social inclusion hm hectometer hp horsepower INR Indian rupees IRRI International Rice Research Institute kW kilowatt LKR Sri Lankan rupee Mhp/mhp million horse power Mt metric tonnes Na not available NAMEA Nepal Agricultural Machinery Entrepreneurs’ Association, Nepal NCFE National Centre for Agricultural Extension, Vietnam PMAMP Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project, Nepal VND Vietnam Dong

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: viii Updates from South and South East Asia gricultural Harvesting Mechanization A in South Asia in View and Review Govinda Basnet, Scott Justice and Timothy Krupnik

SUMMARY: This introductory paper explains how the eight other papers in this compendium arose from a traveling seminar on ‘Scale-Appropriate Machinery for Cereal Crop Harvesting in South Asia’ held from 25 to 29 March 2019 in Nepal. It explains how these papers cover the situation of agricultural mechanization in Nepal, Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka and lessons learned from the more advanced situation in South China and the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. It also presents a case study of the evolution of mechanization in Nepal and concludes with the main overall challenges faced and recommendations for advancing agricultural mechanization in South Asia. CHAPTER 1

1.1. Introduction 1.2. The Travelling Seminar Over 40 participants took part in the seminar, including researchers, The mechanization of agriculture This collection of nine papers are extension agents, government is transforming rural and based on presentations made officials, service providers and national economies by reducing at a traveling seminar on ‘Scale- private sector representatives human drudgery and increasing Appropriate Machinery for Cereal from Bangladesh, China, India, Sri production. Until recently, and Crop Harvesting in South Asia’. Lanka, the Philippines and Vietnam. despite its importance, agricultural The seminar was organized by Participants visited several CSISA mechanization was largely omitted the Cereal Systems Initiative for project sites and project partners from academic and development South Asia (CSISA) and was held in Rupandehi, Dang and Kailali debates and by public sector from 25–29 March 2019 in the districts in central and western research and development funding western part of Nepal’s southern Nepal. Following the field visits, (Biggs and Justice 2016). While Terai plains. CSISA is a regional the experts from several countries mechanization can have negative initiative to sustainably increase presented their research findings. impacts on the environment, the productivity of cereal-based such as soil compaction and cropping systems in Bangladesh, Ten papers were presented at the chemical pollution, it can also have India and Nepal. It is led by the seminar (Table 1). This compendium positive environmental impacts International Maize and Wheat presents versions of six/seven of when appropriately applied. Improvement Center (CIMMYT) these papers plus this introduction, The importance of agricultural and is jointly implemented by a study on women and agricultural mechanization in sustainable the International Food Policy mechanization by Ms. Rai that was agricultural intensification and Research Institute (IFPRI) and commissioned by the seminar, and production is accentuated by the the International Rice Research an additional paper by Professor rising global costs of food and the Institute (IRRI) with funding from MA Sattar Mandal of Bangladesh increasing movement of youth the U.S. Agency for International Agricultural University. from rural areas to find non-farm Development (USAID) and the Bill work, thus depriving the agriculture and Melinda Gates Foundation. sector of manpower (and it is mostly man power). The papers presented here seek to fill the gap and add to the debate on the situation of agricultural mechanization in developing countries.

Figure 1. Traveling seminar participants observing harvesting by Chinese reaper binder in Padampur, Kailali, Nepal. Photo: Govinda Basnet.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 1 The papers presented here focus 1960s, the Indian government The many machines brought into on the history and situation of the and private factories began to Nepal from China are generally mechanization of the harvesting of produce tractors aided by import- smaller, lighter, and more versatile cereal crops in South Asia (Nepal, substitution policies that spurred than their Indian counterparts. India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) domestic industry. Manufacturing Indian tractors are predominantly and two areas of southeast Asia grew so that by the 1980s India was four-wheeled (4WTs), while the (South China and Vietnam) where exporting tractors. Production grew Chinese-made tractors used mechanization is more advanced and even faster after the government in South Asia are mostly two- there are lessons for South Asia. introduced economic liberalization wheeled (2WTs). Biggs and in the 1990s. Since 2010, the Justice (2015) have argued that This introductory chapter presents international manufacturers John the smaller Chinese machinery is an overview of the evolution Deere, New Holland, Same, CLAAS better matched to the needs of of agricultural mechanization and others have established plants in small farmers, especially in hilly in these areas and the drivers, India. Today, India is the number one and fragmented holdings (such benefits, challenges and lessons producer of four-wheeled tractors in as in Nepal’s Midhills) and for from these experiences, focusing the world (Singh 2013). accommodating multiple uses. They on experiences from South Asia pointed out that Bangladesh and and in particular Nepal including Agricultural mechanization in Sri Lanka have achieved around a case study of the evolution of Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka 80 percent mechanized tillage, mechanization in Nepal. occurred more recently and has whereas in India the figure is only depended on imported machinery, around 40–50 percent (Pandey 1.3. Overview of mainly from India and China. For Agricultural Mechanization 2009, S Singh 2014). However, example, in Bangladesh imports G Singh (2013) suggested that in South Asia of Chinese-made single-cylinder Indian farmers prefer 4WTs over diesel engines and 2-wheeled 2WTs because of their higher There are diverse patterns of tractors greatly increased after the agricultural mechanization in South horsepower, and because 2WTs are government removed restrictions not permitted on highways or busy Asia. Agricultural mechanization on their importation in the early was introduced in India in the early roads in India. He also cited another 1990s. Previously, the government statistic, claiming that 90 percent of twentieth century when the British had banned their sale because a colonial government brought in India’s croplands were mechanically government vetting agency had tilled (Singh 2013). tractors for clearing brush and deemed them as too low quality. shrubs. The government began However, the popularity of Chinese The most popular types of to import mechanical tillers soon machines in the free market has agricultural machinery in South after, although their use spread proved that the technology is good Asia have multiple uses including slowly because of their high cost enough for most farmers’ uses non-farm uses. For example, in (Bhattarai et al. 2018). By the early (Biggs et al. 2011). addition to tilling and harvesting,

Figure 2. A combine harvester working in Rupandehi, Nepal. Photo: Govinda Basnet.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 2 Updates from South and South East Asia 2 and 4-wheeled tractors with documents such as the Agricultural 1.4. Overview of trailer attachment are frequently Perspective Plan (1995), which the Papers hired out for transporting goods was developed in the 1990s (Biggs and Justice 2015). Machinery (Biggs et al. 2011). A diversity of perspectives on owners, including non-farmers, harvesting mechanization also rent out their equipment It is noteworthy that the (Singh 2013). In these ways, the mechanization in India, Nepal and The other eight papers in this mechanization of agriculture has Bangladesh has taken place without collection provide diverse viewpoints significant knock-on effects. the large-scale consolidation of on harvesting mechanization and landholdings that was once thought agricultural mechanization in Asia. While in India there has been necessary to achieve economies The authors’ different backgrounds strong support by central and state of scale (Mandal 2017, Biggs and enable them to see different governments providing subsidies Justice 2017). This is due mostly patterns, benefits, and challenges in and loans to buy machines and to the service providers, who have the way mechanization processes equipment, until recently in Nepal found scale appropriate machinery are unfolding. and Bangladesh, agricultural that fit their farm size (Baudron mechanization has been largely et al. 2015) and after using their The papers relate to a diversity of driven by the private sector. Policy machines on their own land, rent settings. Three of the papers focus makers there have largely ignored them out to neighboring farmers. on areas where most rice harvesting mechanization in favor of other There is also evidence of the shared is performed by combines – in aspects of agricultural development. use of equipment and machines South China (Chen et al.), the The Green Revolution of the by smallholders through the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam 1960s–1980s, for example, focused communal ownership of machines. (Hien) and Sri Lanka (Samarsinghe). mostly on agricultural inputs like In addition, some farm machinery is Other papers describe the situation fertilizers, improved seed varieties becoming more affordable like 2WT where mechanized harvesting is and irrigation (Singh 2013). The reapers and mini-tillers and thus less widespread – in India (Menon), dominance of neoliberal economic more accessible to smaller farmers Bangladesh (Mandal) and Nepal policies since the 1990s has also (Bhattarai et al. 2018). (Rai and Basnyat). made governments averse to heavy interventions in the market Box 1 gives an overview case study The different cases provide to promote mechanization. Nepal of agricultural mechanization in snapshots of a linear journey has taken a particularly laissez- the country where the travelling of agricultural mechanization faire approach to mechanization, seminar took place, which and development. Singh (2013) excluding the subject entirely complements the paper by Basnyat suggested that countries embark from important policy planning in this volume (see next page). upon mechanization with

Figure 3. Harvesting wheat with a reaper in Kailali, Nepal. (Photo: Govinda Basnet.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 3 Box 1. The evolution of agricultural mechanization in Nepal

Trend of technology adoption Agricultural mechanization in Nepal varies by agro-climatic zone. Many technologies were first adopted in the Terai, Prior to the 1970s, there was little agricultural heavily influenced by trends in bordering areas of India. mechanization in Nepal and manual labor and draft animals For example, areas of the Terai bordering Uttar Pradesh were the dominant sources of farm power (Biggs et al. experienced more mechanization than areas bordering the 2011). By 1981 only 8 percent of farm power came from less-mechanized state of Bihar (Justice and Biggs 2013). The mechanical power (Takeshima 2017). The percentage of Eastern Terai has higher levels of industrialization and higher households using tractors was much lower in the hills than levels of thresher use for harvesting. in the Terai plains in the south. Drivers of farm mechanization in Nepal Two-wheeled tractors were promoted in the mid-1970s and early 1980s in South Asia with support from Japanese The growth of agricultural mechanization in Nepal has aid programs leading in Nepal to subsidized private-sector been linked to i) the widespread migration of rural youth to imports of over 2,000 2WTs (Takeshima 2017). foreign countries for employment after 1990, and ii) many youth leaving the countryside during the Maoist insurgency Threshing technology was introduced in Nepal’s Terai in (1996–2006), with this trend continuing since then. The the late 1970s, and continued to spread through the 1990s absentee population from households in the 2011 census (Justice and Biggs 2013). By 2010, all wheat threshing in was over 1.9 million, a 151% increase from 2001, with the Terai was mechanized, with 4WT power takeoff-driven 23 districts in the eastern and central hills and mountains threshers for rice spreading across most of the Terai. The recording negative population growth in the inter-census use of reapers for harvesting began in Nepal in 2014 period. The majority of migrants are male (87% in 2011), (Paudel et al. 2018). Since then, there has been a steady causing a decline in the number of males to every 100 increase in their use, with about 2,800 in operation in 2018 females from 98.8 in 2001 to 94.4 in 2011 (CBS 2011a). (Paudel et al. 2018). Almost all of them (about 95%) are This has reduced the availability of farm labor and has led to 2WT-attachable riding reapers, while the rest are self- the feminization of agriculture. This has been a prime driver propelled walk-behind types. The first combine harvester of the adoption of labor and cost-saving machinery such as was introduced in 1999 in the Western Terai (Paudel et al. tractors, pumps, and harvesters. 2015). Their use is rapidly increasing due to the scarcity of labor and rising wages. By 2018, 650 combines were in use The adoption of harvesting machinery in Nepal has also in Nepal, a half owned by Indians who come to Nepal in the depended on other factors. Smaller land holding size and harvest seasons (Paudel et al. 2018). fragmented plots preclude the use of larger harvesting machines. The majority of small-holding farmers cannot Nepal’s hills began to see increased tractor use in the afford to purchase harvesting machinery and thus rely on 2000s. The use of Chinese-made mini-tillers – which are hiring centers or other owners to rent-in equipment. The lighter weight and can be more easily transported up composition of farming systems also influences the types and down slopes, has also expanded in the hills. There of harvesting machinery chosen. For example, households has been a high level of adoption of 2WTs in the Midhills that own livestock often prefer reapers over combine around the Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys with a growing harvesters as the straw produced is more palatable as numbers of small-scale mini-tillers and powered threshers animal fodder. Farming families’ levels of cash holdings in surrounding areas. also influences their access to harvesting machinery with off-farm employment and remittance incomes enabling the The establishment of several custom hiring centers has hiring of farm machinery. Thus, out-migration contributes facilitated farmers’ access to new types of machines, but to mechanization by reducing the manpower available for there are still only a few of these centers. The percentage the agricultural sector, and by providing cash to access of farming households renting tractors from informal agricultural machines. service providers has increased from 11 percent in the Central Terai and 15 percent in the Western Terai in The adoption of farm machines also follows ethnic and 1995 to 39 percent and 56 percent respectively in 2003 class patterns. Wealthier farmers, who usually come from (Takeshima et al. 2015). Since the 2000s, there have the traditionally dominant caste and ethnic groups, are been increasing sales of 2WTs in the Terai and hill regions best positioned to invest in buying machines. For example, (Justice and Biggs 2013). in the Kathmandu valley, Newar farmers are often early adopters of machinery. In the Pokhara area, mechanization In spite of these developments, Nepal’s 2011 agricultural is greatest among Gurungs and Magars who have returned census found that the country’s agriculture remained from service in the British and Indian armies (Justice and heavily dependent on human and animal power, Biggs 2013). constituting 35 percent and 44 percent of total farm power respectively, with mechanical sources contributing only 21 Related to the above point, another unexplored social percent (CBS 2013). The census also reported that only 22 dimension of agricultural mechanization is the social percent of farmland was tilled by tractors or power tillers, prestige that owning a machine accords owners. Machine and that 22 percent of farmers used mechanical threshers. ownership also changes the dynamics of social relations of The pace of agricultural mechanization has increased production and enhances the sphere of influence of owners considerably since 2011. when they rent out their machines. It also works in reverse that the ownership of smaller machinery like 2WTs has less prestige for the traditionally higher status groups, such as Thakuri farmers, but brings prestige for traditionally lower status Tharu farmers.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 4 Updates from South and South East Asia operations that require high countries and Southeast Asia (MoLE harvesting grain and better power but low control (such as 2018). Many more Nepalis migrate handle crop residues, and smaller tillage, milling and threshing), then to India and in-country urban areas size machinery for smaller farms. move to operations that require like Kathmandu for daily-wage In South China, mini-combines medium levels of power and control jobs in construction, services and have become popular as they are (such as seeding, spraying, and other activities. Most migrants light weight and can be easily inter-row operations), and then are young males. In most cases, carried to and from fields even to operations that require low modern migration is ‘circular’ with in hilly and mountainous areas power and high control (such as migrants eventually returning home without paved roads. Light weight harvesting and transplanting). This (Hecht et al. 2015). machinery is also better for soils suggests that the experiences of as they cause less compaction countries with more mechanically Rigg (2006) argued that worldwide, thereby maintaining soil porosity. advanced agriculture can provide urbanization and migration The introduction of rubber tracks lessons for countries where it is are creating new types of rural on large and smaller combine less mechanized. households that increasingly depend harvesters spreads out their on non-farm incomes for their weight evenly and facilitates However, not all lessons learned livelihoods, especially in Southeast maneuvering in muddy areas. in one country are applicable to Asia. However, agriculture is still Hien points to rubber tracks other countries as most countries’ crucially important for livelihoods as a key innovation for the geographical, environmental, social and economies across South Asia. combine harvesting of rice in the and economic situations require In Nepal, for example, although humid tropics. different technologies and pathways agriculture contributes less for spreading their use. There is no than a third of gross domestic • The policy environment – The fixed ladder of mechanization (Biggs product, about three-quarters of third important factor for the et al. 2011). Countries that are all households depend on it for spread of mechanized harvesting less mechanically advanced, such at least part of their livelihoods is the role of governments and as Nepal, may still offer insights (CBS 2011b). donors. Many of the countries for more advanced countries, featured in this volume have such as about how to encourage Rather than shift the focus away instituted preferential tariff technology adoption among poorer from rural households, policy schemes, loan programs and farmers and lessons on extending makers need to help agriculture subsidies for buying harvesting improved practices. Furthermore, adapt to the ongoing rapid social machinery. For example, in Sri climate change is a major factor for and economic changes. Agricultural Lanka, Samarsinghe says how which no country is fully prepared. mechanization plays a central role in the duty-free importation of Each country has to adapt to its this regard: agricultural machines has helped effects by finding technologies spread the new technologies. In that can help farmers deal with • Labor saving – Rural households, other areas, the papers argue that increased flooding, droughts and whose members migrate or a laissez-faire approach aided extreme weather events. Again, less do off-farm work, increasingly the spread of these technologies. mechanically advanced countries seek labor-saving machines For example, in Karnataka in may have important experiences such as mechanical harvesters. South India, Menon says that for more advanced countries, The papers from Sri Lanka, combine harvesters have become and viceversa. Bangladesh, and Nepal all popular in part because there is mention migration as a key driver no requirement for them to be What influences technology of the spread of mechanized owned or managed by farmers adoption? harvesting. Basnyat points out or cooperative groups – they are how the acute labor shortage mostly run on a commercial basis Most of the papers in this has created an increasing with market-driven hiring rates. volume discuss the adoption of demand for mechanization in new harvesting technologies in Nepal. The papers from Vietnam • More prestigious – Finally, the context of increasing labor and China cite shortages of in many parts of Asia, young migration and urbanization. agricultural labor and its rising people see farming as low According to the International cost as reasons for the spread of status work, and part of the Organization for Migration, there mechanical harvesting. attraction of off-farm work is are nearly a quarter of a billion that it carries more prestige. international migrants and close to • Advances in technology – The However, the introduction of new a billion internal migrants across papers also highlight advances machinery could help change the world (IOM 2018). In many in harvesting technologies as a this. Basnyat says that Nepali parts of South Asia, migration for primary driver of their spread. youth are attracted to operating work has become routine. For In other words, demand has machines like combines while example, since 2008, Nepal, with its increased as the technology for Bangladesh Mandal says that population of less than 30 million, has better met farmers’ needs. mechanization can encourage has issued more than 3.5 million Chen et al. highlight several rural youth to take up modern official labor permits for workers to improvements in technology over farming as a “prestigious and travel abroad, the majority to Gulf the past few decades including profitable profession.” technologies that more efficiently

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 5 Problems associated with mechanical harvesting

These papers identify a number of problems associated with the spread of mechanical harvesting. Governments, extension agents, donors, and the private sector should be aware of and address the following problems:

Lost incomes – The spread of mechanized harvesting changes rural economies hurting some actors in the process. While the new technology enables households that lack the personnel to increase farm productivity, it has displaced other workers who would otherwise earn daily wages manually harvesting Figure 4. Farmers bundling wheat harvested by a reaper in Kailali district. crops. Samarsinghe notes that in Sri Photo: Govinda Basnet. Lanka this has knock-on effects as local restaurants that used to feed The benefits of mechanical were responsible for ploughing harvest workers have lost much of harvesting and seeding, while most crops this business. were harvested manually by Many agricultural economists women. When labor was hired- Skewed benefits – Another problem have traditionally advocated for in at harvest time, women were has to do with access to the the consolidation of landholdings tasked with cooking for and feeding technology. As mechanical harvesters to create economies of scale and laborers. Women’s responsibility are expensive, they are often rented- thereby boost the productivity for harvesting has become more in; but even this can be out of the and profitability of farming (Biggs pronounced with the spread of reach of poor farmers. Government et al. 2011). For many small farmers, migration as many women are left subsidies to purchase equipment can however, increasing holding sizes is to take care of their homesteads help spread the technology, but as not an option. Mandal suggests that while husbands do off-farm work. Mandal notes, processes for subsidy ‘operational consolidation’ is more Thus, mechanical harvesting with distribution are often inefficient appropriate to encourage integrated reapers and combines has had and leave out deserving individuals. crop cultivation by synchronizing special benefits for women in Furthermore, when subsidies are the use of varieties and planting and the areas where it is practiced by given to machine owners who rent harvesting times. decreasing the time they need out their equipment, it is unclear how to spend tending their fields and much of the benefits are passed on However, the shared use of freeing up their time to spend on to their clients. Subsidies can also machines (either through co- remunerative non-farm activities. reduce market efficiency. Menon ownership or rental services) as well Rai’s findings are supported by notes that in India, there have as the ever-smaller size of machines studies, such as Theis et al. (2018), been cases where equipment was and more affordable prices are who found that women who hire procured just because a subsidy was helping small farmers to achieve mechanical harvesters in Bangladesh available, without paying regard to gains once thought to be possible have spare time to pursue other whether the equipment could be only through larger landholdings. income‑earning activities. profitably deployed. Other studies The papers in this volume highlight have raised concerns that long-term the fact that mechanized harvesters Samarsinghe points to some other subsidy programs can raise prices can increase the profitability of social benefits of new harvesting for farmers who are not included agriculture by increasing efficiency technology in Sri Lanka, such as in subsidy schemes (Biggs and and reducing losses, even on small public health benefits including Justice 2015). farms. Hien says for Vietnam less fear of snakebites and rat that: “Mechanization is the way” fever during manual harvesting. Women can benefit less – Although and that increased production However, an assessment of the it benefits some women, in Nepal Rai cannot be achieved and post- overall public health implications notes that men are much more likely harvest losses cannot be reduced of mechanical harvesting must also than women to operate mechanical without machinery. consider the risk of injury while harvesters, limiting the benefits that using mechanical equipment and women derive. This is despite the In Nepal, Rai notes that crop residue management practices, fact that women were traditionally mechanization can have gendered such as stubble burning, which are responsible for manual harvesting, social benefits. Traditionally, men discussed below. and also despite the fact that funding options are available for women’s cooperatives to purchase mechanical

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 6 Updates from South and South East Asia harvesters. In one cooperative, she programs for mid-level technicians. of combines. This suggests notes, equipment purchased in the The recent establishment of the that problems created by new women’s names was operated by Agricultural Machinery Testing and technologies can be solved through their husbands. Rai suggests that the Research Centre in Sarlahi, Nepal careful refinement and the adoption main problem is that the machinery should contribute to promoting the of other technologies. However, is engineered for use by men as use of quality equipment and the it should also be kept in mind operating them requires more better use of subsidies for buying that this can escalate monetary strength than most women possess. such equipment. costs and thus restrict access to She also notes a kind of stigma wealthier users. against women operating machinery. Reliance on fossil fuels – It is noteworthy that none of the authors More female-friendly machines – Crop residue management – Most point to agricultural mechanization’s In Nepal, where most agricultural of the papers note problems reliance on the availability of fossil machinery is operated by men, associated with managing crop fuels as a potential challenge. All Rai suggests that more efforts residues. In traditional South of the countries featured in these are needed to spread the use of Asian farming systems, straw from papers have, at the most, limited harvesters that can be used by wheat, rice, and other crops has indigenous supplies of oil and thus women. She acknowledges that multiple uses, ranging from animal rely on purchasing petrol and diesel smaller, female-friendly machines fodder to thatching material, from abroad. One of the featured are available on the market, mushroom substrate, mulching countries, Nepal, suffered serious including self-propelled walk behind material and soil amendment. While fuel shortages between September reapers, mini-tillers, small threshes mechanical harvesting technology 2015 and February 2016 as it and shellers, although most women is improving, some machines was unable to import petroleum farmers lack awareness about them. do not efficiently manage crop products due to an economic She suggests that extension agents residue, with important implications blockade. And in the medium to address this problem by providing for sustainability. long term fossil fuels are likely to more information about female- be in short supply and become friendly technologies. She also Chen et al. point out that smaller much more expensive. This and the suggests that extension agents work combine harvesters are worse contribution of the use of fossil fuels to make women’s use of machinery at managing residue than larger to climate change should be kept in more socially acceptable. combines due to their limited engine mind in long term policy making. power and simplified designs. More policy support – The papers Hien acknowledges the trade-offs Lessons from the papers also provide lessons for policy between combine harvesters more makers on how best to promote efficiently processing crops when The papers in this volume provide mechanized harvesting technology. they cut it higher on the stalk, a number of lessons for actors Mandal argues that in Bangladesh, whereas balers perform better involved in technology design, budgets and human resources for when the crop is cut lower on the extension, and policy-making on agricultural extension must be stalk. Initially, combine harvesters agricultural mechanization: expanded to popularize appropriate in the Mekong delta spread straw machinery. He also calls for haphazardly around the field, Locally appropriate designs – subsidies and the provision of bank causing a decline in mushroom Proponents of appropriate loans that better target suitable cultivation, which depends on the technology have long stressed the farmers. In Nepal, Rai proposes easy collection of hay for use as a need for labor and cost-saving expanding loan and subsidy substrate. In Sri Lanka, Samarsinghe devices to be adapted to local programs that target poor farmers says that cattle reject consuming circumstances. These papers remind and women farmers, like the Prime straw that is processed by combine us that countries’ differing terrains, Minister Agricultural Modernization harvester. Thus, mechanical climates and soils require different Project (PMAMP), which has set up harvesting can negatively impact designs of mechanical harvesters. women-managed cooperatives to animal husbandry. In addition, design features need run agri-machinery custom hiring to vary by agro-ecological region centers. Theis et al. (2018) call for It is also important to note that within each country, as Mandal and smart subsidies that benefit women, when residue is left in the fields, it Chen et al. point out for Bangladesh especially women household is often burnt off before the next and China. heads. Of course, subsidies need planting, causing air pollution and properly designing to avoid thus damaging human health. Need iterative improvements – Hien unintended consequences. emphasizes that designs must be Limited skilled personnel – Systems constantly improved through an Training programs – Greater and skilled labor for managing, iterative process in which designers investment is needed in technical maintaining and repairing harvesters incorporate feedback and user and vocational education in order are sometimes lacking. In Nepal, modifications. He demonstrates that to service the growing number Basnyat notes that although in Vietnam, the problem of residue of machines. Such training the government’s Agricultural management created by inefficient programs and repair work create Engineering Division has been combines was partly solved as straw more employment opportunities mandated to develop appropriate balers came into more widespread bolstering the knock-on benefits of technologies, there is a lack of use. The use of laser land levelers the new technologies. skilled personnel and education has also improved the efficiency

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 7 Sustainability – Finally, several of farmers about the use of crop In conclusion, these papers show that the papers highlight the need to pay residues and how to improve soil farm mechanization is contributing greater attention to sustainability. fertility. Similarly, Mandal argues greatly to, and can further contribute Hongwen et al. argue that that agricultural mechanization to, increased food security and rural mechanized harvesting holds great technologies will have to adapt to incomes amidst the ongoing and potential when it is combined with climate change-induced natural widespread demographic changes, conservation agriculture such as no- disasters like floods and cyclones especially the migration from rural till farming. When properly returned as they become more common. In areas. These papers also show that to fields, straw can reduce wind and particular, machines that can quickly farm mechanization is embedded water erosion and improve water plant a crop immediately after in the socio-economic and policy retention by soils. This suggests flood waters recede, or that can context of a particular nation that efforts to promote mechanized expeditiously harvest a crop once thus exhibiting diverse trajectory. harvesting should be combined with rains and storms are forecasted, will Effective farm mechanization should extension programs that educate be in high demand. be able to seize upon the emerging opportunities and address challenges.

Annex 1.1. Papers presented at the Travelling Seminar

SN Presenter Institution Title Dr. Tim Krupnick, Scott The Cereal System Initiatives for South Asia: Transforming 1 Justice* CIMMYT/CSISA Livelihoods and Bringing Science into Impact Dr. Allen David Jack CIMMYT, China and CIMMYT, The Spread of Reapers and Combine Harvesters in 2 McHugh Bangladesh Bangladesh The Spread of Reapers, Threshers and Combine Harvesters 3 Gokul Paudel CIMMYT, Nepal and their Impact on Residue Management in Nepal 4 Madhusudan Basnyat* Department of Agriculture, Nepal Agricultural Mechanization in Nepal Agfour Engineering Services, Sri Spread of Small Harvesting Machinery on Small Farms, and 5 Melvin Samarsinghe* Lanka Residue Management in Sri Lanka Spread of Harvesters and their Impact on Residue 6 Prof. Ding Qishuo* Nanjing Agricultural University Management on Small Farms in South China The Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Mechanization 7 Prof. Li Hongwen China Agricultural University, China (CSAM) Project on Straw Management after Harvesting and Conservation Agriculture in China Mechanization of Paddy Harvesting and Rice Straw Baling in 8 Dr. Phan Hieu Hien* Nong-Lam University, Vietnam the Mekong Delta of Vietnam Mechanization of Rice Harvesting: Lessons Learned from 9 Carlito Balingbing IRRI, the Philippines Southeast Asia and the Philippines CLAAS Agricultural Machinery, The Mechanization of Harvesting and Residue Management 10 Anil Menon* India in South and Central India Note: * denotes papers that were presented at the seminar, versions of which are presented in this compendium.

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Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 9 Agricultural Mechanization in Nepal Madhusudan Singh Basnyat

Summary: Agricultural mechanization in Nepal is accelerating due to the chronic shortage of rural labor, the introduction of a facilitating policy environment and support from government organizations and development projects. There is much more mechanization in the southern Terai plains than in the hills and mountains with almost 90 percent of rice and wheat threshed mechanically in the Terai. CHAPTER 2

2.1. Introduction 2.2. Overview 2.3. Agricultural Policies and Strategies The chronic shortage of agriculture Nepal is located on the southern labor in Nepal is due to the slopes of the Himalayas with Until recently, agricultural widespread out migration of youth mountain, hill, and Terai (plain land) mechanization was not recognized from rural areas. This has led to ecological zones (Figure 5). Hills as important for enhancing agricultural operations often not and mountains regions cover 77 agricultural productivity in Nepal being carried out on time, and percent of the country and the Terai and was not prioritized in national much arable land being left fallow 23 percent. plans and programs. For example, or abandoned. At the same time the the National Agriculture Policy traditional practice of exchanging Nepal’s agriculture sector accounted (MoAD 2004) did not consider labor to carry out major agricultural for 27.6 percent of national gross agriculture mechanization as operations is declining fast. This domestic product in 2017/18 (MoF important. However, the present labor shortage has created the 2018) and provided more than 60 chronic shortage of agricultural opportunity and an increasing percent of employment. Agricultural labor in many rural areas has demand for mechanization and is land occupies 21 percent of the brought agricultural mechanization a means of attracting youth back country’s area, of which 53 percent on to the policy agenda. to agriculture as they like to drive is irrigated. The average holding size tractors and operate machines. is 0.68 hectares. Many Nepalese The Constitution of Nepal (2015) At the same time, agricultural industries are based on agricultural has provisions related to food mechanization has a key role to play products and account for a large sovereignty, modernizing the in boosting agricultural productivity share of Nepal’s export. However, agriculture sector, increasing and production in Nepal. the average annual growth rate agricultural productivity, of this sector has been only 3.2 and ensuring the access of Hence, agricultural mechanization percent over the two decades, ‘peasants’ to farm land. The is being prioritized in the plans and which is closely related with about government has several policies policies of national and provincial 21.6 percent of the population still and strategies related to governments. The promotional living below the absolute poverty agricultural mechanization: activities are mostly capital subsidies line in 2018 (MoF 2018). for buying agricultural machines, the promotion of custom hiring services for hiring out machinery services, and subsidized bank loans for buying machines. The private sector is importing modern machines, with a High Himalaya (2,500-8,848 m) few local manufacturers of simple High Mountain (2,000-2,500 m) Middle Mountain (700-2,000 m) machines like threshers, shellers and Sivalik (300-300 m) milling equipment. The country’s Tarai (<300 m) dairy, fisheries, meat, honey and other agriculture-based industries are using machines and technologies to process their products.

Figure 5. Physiographic regions of Nepal.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 10 Updates from South and South East Asia The Agricultural Development • strengthening the organizational in the Terai, only 15 percent in the Strategy (MoAD 2015) is structure to develop, quality hills and 2 percent in the mountains. Nepal’s overarching agricultural control, standardize, regulate, Farm operations were mechanized development plan for the 2015 monitor and promote on 1.03 million of the 2.65 million to 2035 period. It identifies agricultural machines. hectares of Nepal’s arable land agricultural mechanization as one mostly using 2 and 4 wheeled of the thirteen priority areas for The Agricultural Mechanization tractor power. achieving higher productivity and Promotion Operational Strategy recognizes the role of the private (NARMA 2017) is the guiding In the hills and mountains, much sector in the mechanization of document for implementing cultivation and harvesting is still Nepal’s farms. The strategy calls the Agricultural Mechanization carried out using wooden ploughs. for building awareness, stimulating Promotion Policy, 2014. Its purpose hoes and sickles. However, in demand, concessionary financing is to raise the level of mechanization most valley areas, more and more arrangements and building the for more productive land and labor farmers are using power tillers and capacity of a nationwide network of through the adoption of appropriate mini-tillers to prepare their fields machinery dealers, particularly for and sustainable agricultural with adoption increasing in line small scale appropriate machinery mechanization technologies. The with the extension of the road like 2-wheel power tillers and mini- strategy, which is under approval, network. Tractor driven threshers tillers. It also calls for continuing calls for i) enhancing demand for and are threshing crops in areas with the low levels of import taxes the use of appropriate agricultural road access. Vegetables cultivation on agricultural machinery and machinery, ii) improving the supply near urban areas is increasing under exemption from value added tax situation and prioritizing domestic polythene. Mechanized irrigation, (VAT) for selected machines. fabrication; iii) strengthening the mechanical sprayers, improved water innovation system and iv) introducing mills, paddy shellers and mechanical The implementation of the strategy policy, institutional and regulatory grinding mills are being adopted in needs coordination between measures. The strategy’s short, most valley and hill areas. However, the government, private sector medium and long-term targets are in the mountains, most grain is equipment providers and the listed in Table 1 aiming for an almost milled using mortars and pestles, banking sector. The recommended doubling of mechanization and querns and traditional water mills. approaches are (i) promoting power use between 2017 and 2027. power tillers with multifunctional In the Terai, manual tools, animal tilling options in the Terai; (ii) 2.4. Overview drawn implements (ploughs, harrows increasing the number of 2-wheeled of Agricultural and cultivators), and mechanical tractors and mini-tillers in hilly Mechanization in Nepal machinery is in use. Traditional areas; and (iii) promoting labor wooden ploughs, iron mold board saving low energy implements Timeline ploughs, disc harrows and wooden and mechanized irrigation in the planks are the main animal-drawn mountains. The strategy also The first tractor was imported into implements. Animal power was calls for increasing information Nepal and an agriculture office was widely used for threshing through dissemination, improving access established in the country in the trampling while bullock carts with to finance, building the capacity of 1920s. The various interventions wooden or rubber wheels are still service and maintenance providers, and efforts to introduce used for transporting crops. Diesel enabling the business environment agricultural mechanization since pump-sets are commonly used for for leasing agricultural equipment, then are summarized in Table 2 pumping irrigation water although revising regulations and taxes to (see next page). solar power is becoming popular support mechanization, and piloting for pumping water. An increasing a voucher scheme for targeting Status number of planting and harvesting subsidies to needy farmers. machines are being used to address An exploratory study carried out the acute shortage of labor. Tractor- The Agricultural Mechanization for the Agricultural Development driven ploughs, harrows, cultivators Promotion Policy, 2014 (MoAD Strategy (see NARMA 2017) and rotavators are now used for 2014) calls for modernizing and estimated that close to 40 percent primary and secondary tillage commercializing agriculture in of farm cultivation operations were operations. These tractors are also Nepal by: mechanized including 61 percent used for transport and threshing.

• increasing productivity through appropriate agricultural Table 1. Current status and targets of agricultural mechanization mechanization Indicators and Baseline status Short-term Medium-term Long-term • developing agriculture machinery unit (2017) (2017–2019) (2019–2022) (2022–2027) services and businesses Percentage 40% 50% 60% 70% agricultural (Terai 61%, • identifying and promoting mechanization Midhills 15%, women and environment-friendly mountains 2%)** agriculture machines Power use 0.67 0.74 0.85 1.19 in Kw/ha (mechanical)

Source: NARMA 2017.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 11 Table 2. Timeline of agricultural mechanization in Nepal Almost 90 percent of rice and wheat is threshed mechanically in the Terai. Year Achievement The first combine harvester was 1921 A government agriculture office was established at Charkhal, Kathmandu introduced in Terai in1999/2000, 1924 Krishna Bdr Thapa of Biratnagar imported the first tractor into Nepal total of 600 were operated during 1953 An Agricultural Engineering Unit was established under the Ministry of year 2018, and almost half of them Agricultural Development and the first modern farm equipment was comes from India during crop imported for government agriculture and livestock farms harvesting season. 2800 reaper for 1959 The Agriculture Equipment Research Unit was established at Ranighat, Birgunj for researching and promoting agricultural equipment in the Terai. harvesting rice and wheat are been It developed iron ploughs and rice threshers. It is now under the Nepal adopted till the year 2018, of which Agricultural Research Council (NARC) 95 percent is power tiller attached 1964 The Agriculture Tools Factory was established at Birgunj with support from and 5 percent is self-propelled and the Soviet Union (USSR). It manufactured iron ploughs, pedal threshers, corn 80 percent are self-purchased by the threshers, wheelbarrows, wheat threshers, pump sets and tractor trailers farmers (Paudel 2019). 1970 The government’s Food Technology and Quality Control Department established a fruit processing pilot plant Facts and figures 1971 The Janakpur Agriculture Development Project, which was funded by the Government of Japan, promoted deep tube-well irrigation, power-tillers and Data is not available from a single modern agriculture equipment in the districts around Janakpur. It is now the source on the types, models and Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Center (AMPC) numbers of agricultural machines 1973– • The Agriculture Development Bank started to prioritize loans to buy in Nepal. The Central Bureau of 1983 tractors and pump sets Statistics has conducted national • The Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara, was established with support from the German Technical Cooperation Agency (GTZ). It used forage sample censuses of agriculture every harvesters, incubator hatcheries, and equipment to prepare silage ten years since 1961/62. The sixth • The Swiss government-supported Jiri agriculture farm used some farm census in 2011/12 covered the machinery use of agricultural implements and 1990 The Nepalese Society of Agricultural Engineers was registered others machines. There has been an increasing trend in the use of 1991 The Agriculture Engineering Division of NARC was established for testing agricultural machinery and equipment and developing agricultural machinery in the last 20 years on Nepal’s farms 1996 The Agriculture Tools Factory, Birgunj was privatized, but subsequently went with the number of power tillers out of business and now closed down and tractors increasing by more than 2000 The Institute of Engineering’s Eastern Campus at Dharan started a bachelor degree course on agricultural engineering with about 48 students graduating six times and other technology too each year (Figure 6). There is highly likely to 2004 The Directorate of Agricultural Engineering (DoAEngg) under the have been an accelerated rate of Department of Agriculture (DoA) was established for agricultural engineering increase since 2012. extension and training services. It no longer exists under the new federal system of government The most recent agricultural census 2014 • The first National Agricultural Mechanization Exhibition was held at (in 2011/12), recorded farmers in Narayanghat, Chitwan with more than 500 modern farm tools, equipment and machines displayed from 16 countries Nepal’s Terai making far more use of • The Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Policy, 2071 (2014) approved machines and other technology in • The government started its subsidy program for farmers to buy their farm operations than farmers agricultural machines in the Midhills, with very little use 2015 The Nepal Agricultural Machinery Entrepreneurs’ Association (NAMEA) on mountain farms (Figures 7 and was established 8). The agricultural mechanization 2016 The Second National Agricultural Mechanization Exhibition was held at policy, subsidies and promotional Kohalpur, Banke programs and organizational reform 2017 • The first International Agricultural Mechanization Exhibition was held has since greatly increased access to in Kathmandu these technologies, which will result • The Fifth Regional Forum on Sustainable Agricultural Mechanization in in a the next agricultural census (due Asia and the Pacific along with a Regional Workshop on Integrated Straw Management was held in December in Kathmandu, organized by the to be carried out in 2021/22) in all Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Mechanization (CSAM) of UN/ESCAP likelihood reporting greatly increased and DoAEngg use across all three ecozones. 2018 • The Agricultural Machinery Testing Center was established at Nawalpur, Sarlahi, under NARC Another source of data on • The third National Agricultural Mechanization Exhibition was held at agricultural machines is the Dharan, Sunsari registration of tractors and power • Current government institutions concerned with agricultural tillers by the government. All mechanization after the restructuring under the new federal system of governance: vehicles that ply Nepal’s roads, including tractors and power tillers, � Agricultural Engineering and Small Irrigation Section in Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD) have to register with the local � Agricultural Engineering and Post-Harvest Section (AEPHS) at the DoA transport office. Up to 2017/18 � Centre for Agricultural Infrastructure Development and Mechanization the Department of Transport Promotion (CAIDMP) under DoA � Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Center (AMPC), Janakpur under CAIDMP – to be developed as a training center. � Agricultural Mechanization and Small Irrigation Section under the Agricultural Development Directorates of provincial ministries of land management, agriculture and cooperatives (MoLACs)

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 12 Updates from South and South East Asia Holdings using equipment (‘000) Management had registered a 1,100 cumulative total of 143,962 tractors 1991-92 2001-02 2011-12 and power tillers. The number 900 registered annually has increased from less than 2,000 in 1991/92 to more than 13,000 in 2017/18 700 (Figure 9). But note that the actual number of power tillers is greater 500 as those that do not travel on roads need not register. The sale 300 of tractors declined slightly in 2017/18 after the government 100 imposed 13% VAT on their import in that year. Iron Power Animal Tractors Threshers Shallow Deep Rower Pumping Sprayers ploughs tillers drawn tube tube pumps sets carts wells wells Some ploughs, tractor and power tiller attachments, threshers and Figure 6. Trend in number of households using agricultural machines and other agricultural equipment are technology in Nepal, 1991–2012 (Source: CBS 1992, 2002 and 2012). manufactured in Nepal. However, No. holdings (‘000) data on these are not available and 900 most of the demand for agricultural machinery is met by imported Mountains Hills machines. Imported machines were 700 subject to one percent customs Terai Nepal duty and no VAT until 2018/19. These machines include tractors, 500 harrows, seeders, transplanters, threshers, reapers, mowers, 300 balers, combine harvesters, dairy machinery, poultry incubators and meat and tea processing machines. 100 Most of them are imported from India and China. More information Power Animal Tractors Threshers Shallow Deep Rower Pumping Sprayers tillers drawn tube tube pumps sets on these imports is available carts wells wells at www.customs.gov.np/en/ Figure 7. Number of farm holdings in Nepal using agricultural machines and monthlystatstics.html other technology by ecological belt, 2011/12 (Source: CBS 2014). Nepal is a member of the Centre 3.0 for Sustainable Agricultural Mountain Farms 2.5 Mechanization (CSAM) of the 2.5 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and 2.0 the Pacific (UNESCAP). One of 1.5 CSAM’s activities is to compile 1.0 data on agricultural mechanization. It initiated a database on 0.0 Iron ploughs Power tillers Threshers Pumping sets Sprayers agricultural mechanization in 7 Asia and the Pacific on 29 March 6 Midhill Farms 2016. Nepal’s Directorate of 5 Agricultural Engineering was the 4 focal organization; but this entity 3 ceased to exist during the 2017/18 2 federal reorganization and the government has yet to appoint a 1 new organization to fulfill this role. 0

60 Terai Farms 50 40 30 20 10 0 Iron Power Animal Tractors Threshers Shallow Deep Rower Pumping Sprayers ploughs tillers drawn tube tube pumps sets carts wells wells Figure 8. Percentage of farm holdings using agricultural machines and other technology in Nepal’s mountains, Midhills and Terai (Source: CBS 2014).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 13 2.5. Organizations 18,000 Working for Agricultural 16,000 Mechanization 14,000 The government-led projects and 12,000 the main NGOs, INGOs and other development organizations that 10,000 support agricultural mechanization in Nepal are listed in Table 3. 8,000 6,000 Education institutes – Purbanchal Campus, Dharan is the only 4,000 education institute under the Institute of Engineering (IoE) of 2,000 Tribhuwan University that graduates 0 agricultural engineers. About 450 agricultural engineers have so

far graduated from this institute. 1991/92 1993/94 1995/96 1997/98 1999/00 2001/02 2003/04 2005/06 2007/08 2009/10 2011/12 2013/14 2015/16 2017/18 However, there are no institutes Figure 9. Number of tractors and power tillers registered annually with the teaching mid-level agricultural Department of Transport Management, 1991/92–2017/18. Source: DoTM 2018. engineering technicians and there is a lack of skilled agricultural mechanization human resources in Table 3. Government projects and NGOs, INGOs and other development the country. organizations that support agricultural mechanization in Nepal. Research organizations – After Government projects NGOs, INGOs and other the establishment of the Nepal development organizations Agricultural Research Council Project for Agriculture Commercialization and Trade International Center for (NARC) in 1991, the Agricultural (PACT) (2009-2018) Integrated Mountain Engineering Division (AED) was High Value Agriculture Project (HVAP) (2010-2017), Development (ICIMOD) mandated to develop appropriate now renamed as Agriculture Sector Development CIMMYT Cereal System agricultural technology for the Project (ASDP) (2018–2023) Initiative for South Asia in Nepal (CSISA-NP) country. The main technologies Kishankolagi Unnat Biu-Bijan Karyakaram (KUBK- tested, developed and recommended ISFP) (2012-2019) iDE-Nepal by the division are: Agriculture and Food Security Project (AFSP) (2013- Renewable World 2018) IRRI • zero tillage and direct seeded rice Agricultural Development Project, Janakpur (ADPJ) Winrock now Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Center (AMPC) (1971 onwards) Practical Action • improved iron ploughs, rice Irrigation and Water Resources Management Project SNV Nepal weeders, pedal paddy threshers, (IWRMP) (2008-2018) CEAPRED pedal rice-wheat threshers and Raising Incomes of Small and Medium Farmers LI-BIRD millet threshers Project (RISMFP) (2011-2018) Community Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector • corn shellers, coffee pulpers, low Project (CMIASP) (2006 ongoing) cost solar dryers and cardamom High Mountain Agri-business and Livelihood dryers Improvement (HIMALI) project (2009-2013) CSISA’s Earthquake Rehabilitation Program (2015- • low cost poly-houses, ginger 2016) washing machines, seed drills and Prime Minister Agricultural Modernization Project jab planters. (PMAMP) (2017 ongoing)

The division has also tested low cost drip irrigation and fertigation systems and equipment to attach to AED has the mandate for testing (ANTAM), which is a regional power tiller. It has also successfully machines but only recently began to network of national agricultural introduced mechanical rice develop a testing facility supported machinery testing stations, research transplanting technology, sugarcane by the CSISA Scaling project institutes, associations and planters, potato planters and (CIMMYT-USAID). Work is ongoing farmer organizations. diggers, milking machines, fish pond to establish the AED’s Agricultural aerators. The division also trains Machinery Testing Center (AMTC) Extension organizations – The local companies to manufacture at Nawalpur, Sarlahi to test and Department of Agriculture’s the machines and equipment certify machines that are imported Directorate of Agricultural it develops. or manufactured in-country. Engineering was established in 2004 and was responsible for human And AED is the focal institute for resource development, extension CSAM’s Asian and Pacific Network services, subsidizing agricultural for Testing of Agricultural Machinery machines, establishing post-harvest

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 14 Updates from South and South East Asia and custom hiring service centers 2.6. Conclusions CSISA (2018). Phase III Semi-Annual etc. The directorate ceased to Report, Cereal Systems Initiative for exist with federal reorganization The adoption of agricultural South Asia, April 2018. Accessed 19 September 2019 at: https:// in 2018/19. Its activities are now machinery and equipment is csisa.org/wp-content/uploads/ carried out by the department’s increasing, and these machines sites/2/2018/05/CSISA-III-BD-NP- Agricultural Engineering and Post- have become one of the major USAID-semi-annual-report_2018_ Harvest Section (AEPHS) and the input in Nepalese agriculture due FINAL_for-DEC.pdf Centre for Agricultural Infrastructure to acute shortage of labor. Most DoTM (2018) Vehicle Registration Development and Mechanization smaller machines are imported from Records for 2017/18. (2074/75) Promotion (CAIDMP). Agricultural China and larger ones from India, Accessed 20 September 2019 at: Development Project Janakpur while some are manufactured in https://www.dotm.gov.np/en/ (ADPJ) is renamed as Agricultural country. All levels of government, vehicle-registration-record/ Mechanization Promotion Center education institute, NGOs, INGOs, MoAD (2004). National Agriculture (AMPC) under CAIDMP as the development partners and the Policy, 2061. Kathmandu: Ministry of national training center for private sector need to work Agricultural Development. agricultural mechanization. together to promote agricultural mechanization to reduce the MoAD (2014). Agricultural Mechanization Private sector and professional Promotion Policy, 2014. drudgery of farm work, to make Kathmandu: Ministry of Agricultural organizations – Private sector agriculture more attractive for youth Development. businesses are the key players and gender friendly to increase for bringing the latest agricultural production and productivity. MoAD (2015). Agriculture Development technology into Nepal and Strategy: 2015 to 2035. some manufacture in country. Kathmandu: Ministry of Agricultural References Development. These organizations formed the Nepal Agricultural Machinery CBS (1992). National Sample Census of MoF (2015). Economic Survey, Fiscal Year Entrepreneurs Association (NAMEA) Agriculture 1991/92. Kathmandu: 2014/15. Kathmandu: Ministry of in 2015. The association’s members Central Bureau of Statistics. Finance. conduct demonstrations and on- CBS (2002). National Sample Census of MoF (2018). Economic Survey, Fiscal Year the-spot training for farmers and Agriculture 2001/02. Kathmandu: 2017/18. June 2018. Kathmandu: mechanics. Demonstrations are Central Bureau of Statistics. Ministry of Finance. done individually or in collaboration CBS (2012). National Sample Census of NARMA (2017). Agricultural with development organizations Agriculture 2011/12. Kathmandu: Mechanization Promotion and government institutions. Central Bureau of Statistics. Operational Strategy, NAMEA members use their service Implementation Plan and Budget CBS (2014). Statistical Pocket Book of centers and dealership network to Estimation, Final Report. Kathmandu: Nepal, 2014. Kathmandu: Central NARMA Consultancy Private Limited promote agricultural mechanization. Bureau of Statistics. They have recently expanded (Unpublished) their activities and presence to CIMMYT (2015). A Report on Spread Paudel G (2019). Presentation by remote areas of the country. The of Combine Harvesters in Western CIMMYT socio-economist at Terai of Nepal. Prepared by Engineer the Travelling Seminar on ‘Scale- government requires sellers to train Subash Adhikari, CIMMYT. users to use machines purchased Appropriate Machinery for Cereal under the government’s subsidy Crop Harvesting in South Asia’, 28 March 2019. CIMMYT scheme. Sellers conduct group trainings on machine operation and maintenance. The Nepalese Society of Agricultural Engineers is the professional umbrella organization for agricultural engineering graduate in Nepal.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 15 ngendering Agricultural Mechanization in E Nepal Lessons and Observations from Reaper and Harvester use in the Western and Far Western Terai Megh Ranjani Rai

Summary: This paper reports the findings of a rapid gender study on women and the mechanization of farm operations in Nepal’s western and central Terai plains. Women’s increasingly important role in Nepalese agriculture has led to them women taking on additional responsibilities for family farms. It is women-heads of households and women farmers who own and lease farmland who have an interest in acquiring and using agricultural machinery as it saves them money and time. However, these women CHAPTER 3 face social and cultural barriers to using machines and hiring in services, while poorer women cannot afford to hire in machinery services. The main challenge that prevents women from operating farm machines is their lack of familiarity with machines and in some cases not having enough strength to use them. However, the overarching problem is that women’s needs and interests are often ignored in decision-making in households, communities and projects in Nepal. The study recommends the carrying out of further studies on the issue, introducing measures to improve women farmers’ and landowners’ access to services and businesses, and building women’s skills to operate and hire out machines.

3.1. Background • the factors that constrain The study also looked at a case women’s participation in study on a women’s farming Nepal’s agricultural land occupies mechanized agriculture; and cooperative in Ransingh, Dang. approximately 28.7 percent of This site was not visited and the Nepal’s total land area (CIA, 2018; • how to improve information was collected from World Bank 2017). In 2007, the women’s participation in CSISA staff. country began a slow transition to mechanized agriculture. a federal parliamentary republic The main limitation was the limited composed of seven provinces. The The study first compiled reflections time available to carry out the following decade has been marked from the travelling seminar on study. It was a rapid analysis carried by political instability, which, when women and farm mechanization and out over three days of the gender combined with widespread rural carried out a brief literature review dimensions of issues concerning out-migration, predominantly of of studies and policies related to agriculture mechanization for male agricultural laborers and youth, women in Nepalese agriculture and women farmers. The women has led to fundamental changes farm mechanization (see Section respondents were female farmers and increased feminization of the 3 below). The subsequent main engaged directly or indirectly farming systems that occupy Nepal’s part of the study held focus group in farming and were either hill landscapes. This paper reports the discussions and key informant migrants or Tharus (an ethnic group). findings of a rapid gender study on interviews with men and women women and the mechanization of farmers, machine users, machine 3.3. Women farm operations in areas of Nepal’s suppliers, project staff and and Agricultural western and central Terai plains machinery service providers and Mechanization in Nepal conducted to take stock of women’s maintenance staff at the following involvement in farm mechanization locations in Nepal’s Terai: Women’s participation in in terms of women as machine agriculture mechanization • The CSISA project areas of operators and as hirers of farm Padampur in Kailali district and machinery services. Women play an increasingly Munwa in Kanchanpur district. important role in Nepalese 3.2. Study details agriculture due to the widespread • Hirapur, which lies on the absence of their menfolk working The study was carried out in May outskirts of Bhairahawa town either abroad or in other areas of 2019 on: in Kapilvastu district, including Nepal. Agriculture contributes a the Malkit combine harvester third of Nepal’s gross domestic • the benefits to women from demonstration site (Malkit is an product and about 80 percent of CSISA’s initiatives to introduce Indian made combine harvester). women are employed in agriculture, farm mechanization; • The women’s farm machinery mostly as subsistence producers. service provider cooperative at Satbariya in Dang district.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 16 Updates from South and South East Asia There have been large recent shifts The policy situation 3.4. The Case Study Areas in the traditional division of labor as women have taken on additional The mainstreaming of gender Padampur and Munwa villages in responsibilities, such as ploughing concerns in national agriculture Tikapur Municipality in Far Western and selling agricultural products, and rural development is vital for Nepal are populated mostly by in the absence of their menfolk. the development of Nepal’s rural Tharus, many of whom were bonded Although women’s ownership areas. The Government of Nepal laborers until the Kamaiya System of land is increasing, accounting has the following major strategies of bonded labor was abolished in for about a fifth of agricultural and policies to address gender 2002. Wheat and rice are the main landholders in 2011 (CBS 2013), equity and social inclusion in crops supplemented by pulses and land-ownership rights remain a agriculture and rural development. vegetables. Most land holdings major constraint for many Nepalese These are being implemented to are between 2 and 5 kathas in size women farmers (Reliefweb 2019). varying degrees: (677–1,693 m2).1 A few areas of One implication of this is that most 20 bighas2 (13.5 ha) or more are women lack collateral to get loans • The Agriculture Development owned by hill migrants and Tharu as land is the major asset used Strategy (2015–2035) aims Chaudhary landlords. Other locals as collateral. to improve the food and do not own land and farm under nutrition security of the most thekka contract leases, bag bandhi The mechanization of agricultural disadvantaged rural populations, mortgaged land and adhiya battiya operations is growing in importance including pregnant and lactating share cropping, with half their crops on Nepal’s farms. Studies referred to women (MoAD 2016). Its 10-year going to landlords. The locals said in Kawarazuka et.al. (2018) Acharya plan of action includes developing that 2 and 4-wheeled tractor reapers et. al. (2017) and Paudel et al. (2019) a GESI strategy for agriculture. and combine harvesters were used found the following: to a limited extent to harvest crops • The National Agriculture Policy in these areas. • The outmigration of men has (2004) calls for 50 percent increased the time and labor participation of women in The Hirapur area lies on the outskirts women spend on agricultural agricultural development of Butwal in Rupandehi district in activities especially as fewer men activities. It calls for: i) mobile the central Terai. Land holdings in are available to plough fields. training programs to encourage this area are mostly between 10 women’s participation; ii) to kathas and 2 bighas in size (0.34 ha • The hiring in of mini-tillers to provide facilities to farmers who prepare land increases yields by to 1.3 ha). Rice and wheat are the have less resources and land; and main crops supplemented by legumes about 10 percent and increases iii) to enhance the capacity of efficiency by about 12 percent, and mustard. The local population women’s cooperatives and women is mainly Rana Magars and a few in terms of labor saved. Some farmer groups (MoAD 2004). women household heads Kunwar-Thakuris. Many local households are headed by women as directly hire in machine services • The Agribusiness Promotion meaning they have to spend less their menfolk work abroad including Policy (2006) calls for programs in the Indian Army. Most of these time caring for draft oxen and to support the poor, women and preparing snacks and meals for women are economically well off and Dalits to establish agricultural hire in machinery services to carry ploughmen, thus leaving them enterprises (MoAD 2006) more time to spend on other out operations on their farmland. income-generating activities such • The Agriculture Mechanization Patekhouli, which lies 5 km east of as milk and vegetable farming. Promotion Policy (2014) calls Bhairahawa in Rupandehi District, for attracting youth and women is populated mostly by Dalits, • Women’s limited access to cash farmers to mechanized agriculture affects their ability to hire in Thakurs and Tharus. Many of the and increasing their productivity area’s menfolk work away from mini-tillers for preparing fields by identifying and promoting for planting and sowing. Women home or travel for work in nearby women and environment-friendly Bhairahawa. A number of larger who can’t afford to hire them technologies (MoAD 2014) in often share their labor with combine harvesters serve this area other women to manually till • The Gender Equity and Social and are popular with local farmers. their fields. Inclusion Strategy Framework The Satbariya Women’s Hiring (2016) has an overarching Center in Dang was founded • None of the women interviewed strategy to build the capacity of had been trained on operating in 2017/18 and is managed by GESI target groups in agriculture ex-women bonded laborers3 mini-tillers and pointed to cultural (GESI Working Group 2017) and gender barriers to accessing as a cooperative. This area is such training. • Country gender assessment of agriculture and the rural sector in • The work of repairing mini-tillers Nepal (FAO 2019). 1 Kathas are the traditional measure of and other machines is all carried land in Nepal’s Terai. 1 katha = 338.63 out by men. m² 2 I bigha = 0.67 ha 3 Kamlharis are Tharu women who served as bonded household in landlords’ houses. The system has been abolished.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 17 within the Maize Super Zone of and maintaining their machines. Absent menfolk – The traditional the Prime Minister’s Agriculture The group subsequently earned an roles are changing, however, as Modernization Project (PMAMP). amount equivalent to the retail price many menfolk of the women In 2018, PMAMP provided a 50 of the mini-tiller from providing farmers who were consulted were percent subsidy to the cooperative tillage services over two seasons. working outside Nepal leaving the to buy two 4-wheeled tractors Cooperative members are charged women responsible for running the and a planter, a 2-wheeled tractor NPR 100 and non-members NPR family farms including hiring in farm a 2-wheeled tractor reaper and a 400 per hour to hire in the mini tiller. machinery services. maize thresher. The group paid NPR The machine prepared about 20 2.7 million to cover the other half hectares of land for 60 farmers over The usefulness of farm machinery of the cost. They advertise their the two wheat and spring maize – The main machines in use in the services through personal networks. seasons in 2018 and 2019. four study areas were 4-wheeled They charge members NPR 700 tractors, 4-wheeled tractor-powered and non-members NPR 1,200 an 3.5. Main Findings threshers and 2-wheeled tractor hour for land preparation by their reapers, self-propelled reapers 2-wheeled tractor and NPR 1,600 Situation of farm mechanization in and mini-tillers. There were fewer an hour for members and NPR the study areas combine harvesters in Kanchanpur 1,700 an hour for non-members for and Kailali than in Rupandehi and land preparation by its 4-wheeled Traditional division of labor – Kapilvastu. Discussions at the CSISA tractor. The women manage the Across Nepal, women are more traveling seminar and the current business while their menfolk mostly involved in crop production and study revealed how these machines operate the machines. post-harvesting activities than save time and labor for small men. Men traditionally perform farmers and are increasingly used to In 2018, they received a second- most heavy physical labor, such as carry out farm operations in Nepal. hand diesel-powered mini-tiller ploughing, while women do more of All the male and female farmers from the CSISA Scaling Project. the weeding (Figure 10), harvesting, consulted agreed that power tillers, In January 2019, two women threshing and milling (Table 4). harvesting machines and seed drum operators were trained on operating rollers save time and labor costs.

High demand for machines – The three combines in the Kapilvastu study area and the two in the Dang study area are heavily booked throughout the harvesting seasons. Local farmers harvest their crops manually if a combine is not available. And there are about 200 self-propelled and 2-wheeled tractor reapers in the study areas, which is insufficient to meet the demand at peak harvesting times.

Men control machines – Despite the forward-looking policies in the country (see Section 3.2), women’s needs and interests are often not considered when engine- powered machinery is developed, demonstrated, given market support Figure 10. Members of Dhankhola Women’s Group’s (Dang, Nepal) trying out and brought into use. As a result, their mini-tiller. Photo: Lokendra Khadka. these machines are almost all used and controlled by men.

Table 4. The division of pre and post-harvest farm labor, Tikapur, Kailali, Women’s interest in acquiring and Nepal (2019). using agricultural machinery Activity Men’s tasks Women’s tasks The study identified the following Field preparation: Ploughing Weeding, clearing brush, breaking sods using spades types of women interested in farm Planting rice and mechanization: wheat: Mainly done by women Weeding: Clearing manually • Women heads of households – A Use combines and reapers – The manual harvesting of major concern of these women Harvesting: either their own or rented in. crops, including through is managing the carrying out of Men sometimes help if manual women’s local perma networks, farm operations. The shortage harvesting is carried out. when reapers are not available of labor means that they have to Baling: By hand By hand negotiate and manage the hiring By machine if they can pay hire in of machines to prepare land Threshing: By machine, if available costs. Otherwise by hand.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 18 Updates from South and South East Asia and harvest crops. A number of Some hill women, mainly Brahmins Women carry out subsidiary tasks – women consulted by the study and Thakuris in Padampur, When grain is harvested by reaper, found it difficult to manage this. Kanchanpur are educated and it is mostly women who carry out said they can manage the hiring the subsidiary tasks of threshing and • Women farmers – Some women out of farm machines if they are storing the grain and collecting the consulted in Kanchanpur, Kailali supported. They said they had seen straw. These tasks are often done and Dang were women farmers women organizing into agricultural through collective community labor. who were beginning to carry out development groups and being their farm operations with small trained on leadership, bookkeeping Drawbacks of machines – A machinery themselves and even and enterprise development. They number of informants at Hirapur as service providers. A major suggested they could form groups and Kanchanpur said that the concern was the need for more and be provided with training and main drawbacks of using combine women-friendly farm machinery. support and be supported to buy harvesters to harvest their wheat machines on a collateral-free basis and rice were that they produce less • Women farmers who lease as women do not own land to put straw (which is used for animal feed) farmland – These women who as collateral. and damage field boundaries: lease land are from small and poorer households. Some are Benefits to women farmers – Local “Combine harvesters waste a lot ex-bonded laborers who have women farmers and landowners of straw by cutting crops too high. been allocated small plots by spoke of how using or hiring in farm When we harvest manually, we cut the government covering up machinery saves them money and close to the ground. The combine to 5 kathas (0.17 ha), which time and can make farming easier. cuts almost a foot high and damages is insufficient to provide their In Hirapur, where many menfolk field boundaries, which we have to subsistence needs. They therefore work and live away from home, fix.” – Women respondent, Hirapur, lease land from farmers who women are seeing the benefits Rupandehi have large holdings under the of mechanization as reapers and bag bandhi (mortgage), adhiya combines address the problem of A woman from Patekhouli, battiya (share cropping) and perma the shortage of farm labor: Rupandehi, whose husband owned a (community contribution of labor combine harvester complained that to farmers’ fields) local systems as “We have to pay 500 rupees a day it had resulted in his behavior taking well as working part time as daily for hired labor and provide them with a turn for the worst: wage farm laborers. two meals. It takes 18 to 20 days if we have to use more than two or “I was happier before he bought the Women’s interest in mechanization three persons for the harvest. It’s combine. Now he earns more, drinks – The study found that women are costly; and even then, it’s difficult to more [alcohol] and beats me more!” very interested in mechanization as find labor. Laborers negotiate and a way of improving their livelihoods. don’t want to work long hours. It is Challenges and some solutions In Hirapur, some remittance money easier to hire in a reaper at 1,000 goes to buy farm machinery. Women rupees an hour.” – Women farmer, The study identified a number of in this area were interested in Hirapur, Rupandehi. challenges for women to hire in and learning how to purchase and hire use agricultural machines. out machines. Younger hill women “If I could spend less time worrying were confident that once trained about labor, I could spend more time Social and cultural barriers – Social they could operate the machines, supervising my children’s studies. and cultural factors hinder women’s especially self-propelled reapers and I spend so much time managing involvement in farm mechanization even the large power tillers-2-wheel the farm work as my husband is in related to poverty, illiteracy, the tractors. The experiences of the Qatar.” – Kunwar woman, Hirapur, patriarchal society and caste and mini-tiller group in Dang suggests Rupandehi ethnic-based marginalization. that women can operate powered The traditional outlooks of many machines if supported: “The harvesting of our crops by rural men do not even consider machine means my daughters-in- women using farm machinery. This “If we can ride scooters, we can laws have more time to run their hinders or prevents women heads drive self-propelled reapers. We businesses. One runs a provision of households from searching for just need training!” – Woman store and the other a beauty parlor,” and negotiating machinery services respondent, Bhajuli, Rupandehi – Tharu woman land owner, Hirapur as it involves speaking with male Rupandehi. service providers from outside And some women do operate their communities. machines. The husband of a member “We saw the reaper-binder machine of the Dhankhola Women’s Group demonstrated by CSISA. It reaps the The hiring in of machinery services Cooperative in Dang said: crop and ties it into bundles, which – The study found that many are easy to collect and transport. women farmers cannot afford to “I would not have been able to This is great for wheat, but rice hire in farm machinery. Women service so many farmers if our needs to dry before it is bundled.” – from poor households who own women had not taken turns to Women respondent, Tikapur, Kailali less than about 10 kathas of land operate the mini-tiller during tilling (0.34 ha) do not have the means to operations.” hire in 2-wheeled hand-held reaper

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 19 harvesters. This was particularly A number of women said they can Also, scientists and engineers at evident in the discussions with run diesel mini-tillers once someone the Regional Agricultural Research women farmers in Tikapur, many of helps them start them. The husband Farm at Kajura in Banke district whom are freed bonded laborers. of a member of the Dhankhola told how the National Agriculture Also, some women landowners find Mahila Samuha cooperative in Dang, Research Centre (NARC) is adapting it difficult to manage the process, told how his wife and other women drum seeders to make them lighter organize labor and supervise the operate the cooperative’s mini-tiller and more women-friendly. Such hiring in of services. with his help: machines reduce the time taken to seed fields and so benefit all farmers: Women unfriendly machines – They (the women) find it difficult to The main challenge that prevents start mini-tillers so I start it for them “Alternative technologies for rice women from operating farm and leave them to till the fields.” cultivation like drum seed rollers machines relates to their lack of have been tested in farmers’ fields. familiarity with machines and in Another issue is that the handlebars It can overcome labor shortages some cases not having enough of diesel mini-tillers and other and reduce the cost of cultivation. strength to use them. Many women machines are set too high for Rice farmers are interested in this struggle to start diesel mini-tillers women, who tend to be shorter, technology.” – Lokendra Khadka, (Figure 11). It should however be although this drawback also applies CSISA Project kept in mind that this may be due to shorter stature men. to lack of familiarity with using “We are working on modifying machines rather than a strength Scale-appropriate machinery for manual weeders for vegetables issue as many rural women are women and rice after taking feedback from accustomed to carrying out hard users. Also, we have modified the physical work. The study also identified scale- drum seeder and it is now smaller appropriate machinery that is and easier to pull.” – Manoj Joshi. suitable for women to own and Technical Officer, Nepal Agriculture operate, including petrol powered Research Centre mini-tillers and drum seeders (Figure 12). Switching from heavy 3.6. Conclusions and diesel to lighter petrol driven Recommendations mini-tillers and adjusting handlebar heights makes them easier to The overarching problem identified operate. Petrol powered mini-tillers by this study is that women’s needs are much easier to start than diesel and interests are often ignored in decision-making in households, Figure 11. A woman farmer learning powered tillers. to start a diesel-powered mini tiller, communities and projects in Nepal. Dhankhola, Dang, Nepal (CSISA). It seems that the predominantly male decision-makers have little interest in the issues and needs of women landowners and farmers.

A key objective of most agricultural development projects is to empower women in agriculture. The following questions arise from the findings of this study on enabling the access of women to the benefits of agricultural mechanization:

• Could credit be provided to poorer farmers (including poor women farmers) so that service providers can be paid once harvested crops are sold?

• Could the woman’s cooperative in Satbariya be replicated elsewhere in Nepal?

• Could women be trained on service provision and the operation and maintenance of petrol-powered mini tillers for tillage services?

Figure 12. Testing drum seed rollers for preparing rice fields. Photos: Lokendra Khadka.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 20 Updates from South and South East Asia The solutions to the above • Develop women’s numeracy CIA (2018). The World Factbook: Nepal. questions and the implementation and business skills around Central Intelligence Agency. Available of the following recommendations farm machinery. at www.cia.gov/library/publications/ would increase women’s the-world-factbook/geos/np.html participation and benefit sharing • Produce technical training GESI Working Group (2017). A Common from the mechanization of material for women machinery Framework for Gender Equality and agriculture and suggest areas operators and owners. Social Inclusion. Gender Equality of intervention for future and Social Inclusion Working Group, International Development Partners support programs. • Support cross-learning visits and interactions with other women Group, Nepal. Further studies – This paper farmers to exchange, learn and FAO (2019). Country Gender Assessment reports the findings of a brief rapid adapt methods. of Agriculture and the Rural Sector study. More in-depth studies are in Nepal. Kathmandu: Food and needed on gender and the use • Promote women-led custom Agriculture Organization of the hiring businesses. United Nations. Accessed 27 of agricultural machinery and February 2020 at http://www.fao. the disaggregated benefits of org/3/CA3128EN/ca3128en.pdf agricultural development. There Other issues and support is a particular need to study Kawarazuka, N., G. Prain. L. Forsythe, S. • Consult women farmers on the Mayanja, N.N. Mudege, C. Babini, V. technologies like reapers to see how Polar. (2018). Gender in Agricultural scaling trajectories can be modified design of agricultural machines and adapt them accordingly. Mechanization: Key guiding and benefits spread more widely. questions. Lima, Peru: CIP. There is also a need to better • Include well-informed women as understand who benefits from the MoAD (2004). National Agricultural decision makers on agricultural Policy, 2061. Kathmandu: Ministry mature mainline technologies. development projects. of Agricultural Development. Kathmandu. Improve women farmers’ and • Create a database of women landowners’ access to services MoAD (2006) Agri Business Promotion farmers and women farmers’ Policy 2063. Kathmandu: Ministry and businesses: groups who are interested of Agricultural Development, in interventions by CSISA Kathmandu. • Empower women and change and other agricultural communities’ attitudes to women MoAD (2014) Agricultural Mechanization mechanization projects. Policy. Ministry of Agricultural operating machinery though Development, Government of Nepal, training and awareness raising. • Orientate the staff and Singha Darbar, Kathmandu. stakeholders of agricultural • Promote women’s ownership development projects on gender MoAD (2016). Agriculture Development and management of harvesting analysis and include gender Strategy (ADS) 2015 to 2035. machines through public service Kathmandu: Ministry of Agricultural responsive indicators and Development. The Agriculture announcements, training interventions in their projects. Development Strategy (2015–2035). support and prioritizing women and their groups for loans and • Promote the use of household Paudel, G.P, A. McDonald, D.B Rahut, subsidy programs. and small farm level machines for D.B. KC, and S.E. Justice (2019). processing crops to enhance the Scale-appropriate mechanization • Develop materials in local impacts on productivity among livelihoods of rural women. smallholders: Evidence from rice languages to train poor women systems in the mid-hills of Nepal. and women heads of households References Land Use Policy 85(2019): 104-113. on negotiating the hiring in of agricultural machine services. Acharya, R., P.K. Budhathoki-Thapa, P. Rai, Megh Ranjani (2019). Rapporteur Khanal, S. Maharjan, S. Syangtang. notes of Travelling Seminar 2019. (2017). Technology profile: mini-tiller. Available at: https://reliefweb.int/ • Support women to access loans report/nepal/country-gender- and produce simple business Integrating Gender and Nutrition Within Agricultural Extension assessment-agriculture-and-rural- plans for buying machines. Services (INGENAES) and USAID sector-nepal Feed the Future, Nepal (2017). Skill building – Build the skills Reliefweb (2019). Country gender of women to operate and hire CBS (2013). National Sample Census assessment of agriculture and the rural sector in Nepal. Accessed 17 out machines: of Agriculture Nepal 2011/12 (Summary in Nepali). National September 2019 at: https://reliefweb. Report. Government of Nepal. int/report/nepal/country-gender- • Produce extension materials on Central Bureau of Statistics, National assessment-agriculture-and-rural- all types of machines targeting Planning Commission Secretariat, sector-nepal women farmers and landowners. Government of Nepal.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 21 gricultural Mechanization Policy A Issues in Bangladesh M. A. Sattar Mandal

Summary: This paper reviews current policies and issues that need addressing to promote the further mechanization of ploughing, transplanting, seeding and harvesting operations on farms in Bangladesh. The paper presents a series of policy recommendations that address the main challenges to the spread of farm mechanization. The implementation of these recommendations would i) encourage the spread of the use of agricultural machines, ii) improve the system for providing subsidies to buy machines, iii) achieve economies of scale in operating machines on the country’s small and fragmented landholdings, iii) foster research and development for farm mechanization and iv) expand the domestic

CHAPTER 4 manufacturing of agricultural machinery.

4.1. Introduction This paper highlights the urgency combine harvesters. Another leading of accelerating agricultural farm machinery supplier (The Metal This paper reviews current policies mechanization in Bangladesh. It first Pvt Ltd) reported that 8,000–9,000 and identifies a number of issues describes past policy initiatives and tractors and 50,000–60,000 power that need addressing related to emerging issues. It then discusses tillers are imported into Bangladesh the rapid pace of agricultural the current status of agricultural each year (Zamil 2019). In addition, mechanization in Bangladesh. mechanization, the spread of much locally-made small equipment machines, economies of scale, is in use on Bangladesh’s farms The increasing mechanization of subsidy management, research including centrifugal pumps, maize agriculture in Bangladesh is mainly and development, the growth of shellers, sprayers, driers, threshers, due to: the in-country manufacturing of weeders and potato graders. machines, areas of special focus and • the shortage of male agricultural institutional capacity building. Irrigation, tillage, land preparation, labor – by about 40 percent threshing and pesticide spraying during critical farm operations; 4.2. Current Status of are now almost entirely Mechanization mechanized with transplanting, • the movement of rural youth from seeding and harvesting yet to farm to non-farm employment There are more than 700,000 be fully mechanized. The latter and from rural to urban areas two-wheeled tractors, 35,000 are critical farm operations and and their widespread migration four-wheeled tractors, 400 rice this ‘missing link’ needs urgently abroad; and transplanters, 500 reapers and addressing (Mandal 2016). In 200 mini combine harvesters in 2019, the government responded • rural youth becoming less Bangladesh (Alam 2016; Mandal to the severe labor shortages for interested in performing et al. 2017). An employee of the harvesting and the falling price of laborious and uncertain seasonal farm machinery supplier ACI Motors boro paddy (irrigated paddy grown agricultural jobs. Ltd (Figure 13). recently reported between December/January and that the number of reapers in the May/June) by increasing the budget The resulting increases agricultural country had surpassed 5,000 and for subsidizing the purchase of wages, by about 6 percent a year, there were more than 2,000mini harvesting and planting machines. has pushed up the cost of rice production to make it unprofitable for some farmers who depend on hired labor.

Farm mechanization has also been prompted by the improved efficiency and productivity it usually brings. Appropriately scaled mechanization can maintain domestic food grain self-sufficiency in spite of the current average 0.5 percent annual loss of arable land. Also, the increasing incidence of floods and cyclones is prompting the more rapid carrying out of critical activities, such as the quick planting of crops after flood waters recede and the speedy harvesting of crops before forecasted flash floods occur. Figure 13. A transplanter planting rice in Gazipur, Bangladesh. (ACI Motors Ltd.).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 22 Updates from South and South East Asia 4.3. Policy Review, Needs standing committee on agriculture planting and harvesting times by and Constraints for promoting sustainable different farmers. The challenge mechanization have been other is to get the farmers of tiny plots Agricultural mechanization in notable initiatives (BARC 2016). to synchronize their operations to Bangladesh was initiated by the facilitate machine use. Machine public sector introduction of The government’s agricultural service providers are working for heavily subsidized low-lift pumps mechanization policy encourages ‘operational consolidation’ through and deep tube wells for irrigation efficient, profitable, and sustainable the custom hiring of their machines in the 1950s, and four-wheeled commercial agriculture and (Mandal et al. 2017: 78). Other tractors for addressing the draught encourages rural youth to take up constraints confronting agricultural power shortages that resulted from modern farming as a prestigious and mechanization are i) farmers’ natural calamities in the 1970s. profitable profession (Figure 14). limited access to bank loans and The first concerted efforts towards The policy promotes farmer-friendly subsidies for buying machines; ii) farm mechanization came from cost-effective agricultural machinery inadequate after-sales services and the government’s mechanized that is appropriate to the scale of iii) the shortage of skilled machine cultivation and power pump operations across the country’s operators. Also, local machinery irrigation scheme in the early 1950s. diverse small and fragmented manufacturers need more capital Mechanized irrigation picked up landholdings and diverse soil types machines for making machines and mostly with shallow tube wells and moisture conditions. more skilled workers to produce imported by the private sector quality machines and spare parts. following the liberalization of Amidst the diversification of the equipment market in the late Bangladesh agriculture from 4.4. Policy Issues 1980s. Import restrictions were growing staple crops to growing withdrawn, import duties reduced other crops, the scope of The spread of and pump spacing regulations agricultural mechanization needs agricultural machines scrapped. The market was flooded to be broadened to encompass with affordable Chinese engines and machines for pond fish production; A key policy issue is how to two-wheel power tillers (see Mandal dairy, cattle and poultry rearing; popularize and disseminate et al. 2017: 83-87 for a detailed floriculture and orchards. For appropriate machines to farmers illustration of the policy pathways example, fruit production needs drip and service providers. The first to mechanization). The resulting irrigation systems, milk production requirement is the availability rapid adoption of mechanized tillage needs milking machines and fish of appropriate, affordable and and irrigation was a key driver to farming need auto-sensor aerators user-friendly machines. For this, increasing rice acreage and yield for maintaining oxygen levels the Department of Agricultural and attaining self-sufficiency in food in ponds. Extension needs to demonstrate grains. As various types and makes locally manufactured and imported A major challenge to farm machines to farmers on farmers’ of machines were increasingly mechanization is to gain economies used by farmers, in 2015 the plots. Hands-on training for of scale in the use of machines in operators is also essential. government prepared an agricultural a situation where most farms are mechanization roadmap to the years fragmented in scattered small plots. The Bangladesh Bank circular on 2021, 2031 and 2041 as the basis This is more complicated as farmers of its agricultural mechanization advancing equipment loans is choose different varieties of crops at hardly implemented or monitored policy. The government’s high-level different times resulting in different commitment and the parliamentary (Das 2019) and there is also an urgent need to provide more bank loans for buying expensive agricultural machines. The existing provision of allowing duty free import and levying modest taxes on imported and local equipment should continue. Agricultural extension services, including those related to livestock and fish production, need strengthening through increased human resources and budgetary provisions so that they can popularize appropriate farm machines.

The creation of machinery service providers is a leading policy issue. One option is for the government to establish local machinery service centers and later transfer them to the private sector. This requires setting up training facilities, Figure 14. A combine harvester harvesting rice in Manikganj, Bangladesh. (ACI Motors Ltd.).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 23 providing credit support and raising awareness among rural youth Box 2. Recommendations to improve the subsidy who are the prospective service system for purchasing farm machinery in Bangladesh providers. The custom hiring of machines can be popularized by • Introduce the online submission and processing of farmers’ applications to strengthening technical capacity reduce processing time and to bring more transparency to the subsidy scheme. and business development services. • Attach barcodes to all imported machines to verify the delivery of machines. ACI Motors Ltd. and The Metal Pvt Ltd, who are the main suppliers of • All importers enlisted for the subsidy scheme should be required to submit farm machines, have developed data to the Department of Agricultural Extension on the number and types of comprehensive after-sales services machines they import. through networks of trained • Suppliers should be required to prove they can provide after-sales and machine mechanics. Training facilities for rental services to be enlisted in the subsidy scheme. researchers, extension workers • Subsidies should only be provided to purchase certified quality machines. and private entrepreneurs need expanding within universities and agricultural research centers.

Subsidies for purchasing machines inefficient to use larger machines include promoting the synchronized on small widely scattered holdings. cultivation of crop varieties and The government’s present subsidy To overcome this challenge, their planting, fertilizing and harvest system covers the purchase of service providers try and develop times. Bank loans for facilitating imported mini-combine harvesters, contractual arrangements with land leasing and contract farming reapers and transplanters, and locally farmers to synchronize ploughing, should also be provided to promote made equipment such as threshers, land preparation, planting and economies of scale in operating seeder and foot pumps. The subsidy harvesting operations for adjacent larger machines such as rice amounts to at least 50 percent farmers at the same time. In some transplanters, combine harvester and of cost, with disadvantaged areas cases, service providers offer special drip irrigation sets. such as haor areas (vast perennial rates or extra services (e.g. free waterbodies), charland (sand bars), threshing with reaper services) Research and development the coastal region and hill areas as incentives for the ‘operational for mechanization entitled to 70 percent subsidies. consolidation’ of areas. The provision The distribution of these subsidies of low interest credit and subsidizing A range of measures need taking to is implemented by the Department the cost of diesel for providers foster research and development for of Agriculture Extension. However, are policy options to enlarge farm mechanization in Bangladesh the selection of farmers and service operational areas. Other options (see Box 3): providers for receiving subsidies is a long and cumbersome process resulting in many deserving farmers not being selected. Box 2 provides suggestions for improving the Box 3. Recommendations to foster research and subsidy distribution system now that development for farm mechanization in Bangladesh the government has committed to increasing the number of harvesters • Provide higher level training, improved laboratory facilities and increased and transplanters in the country. budget support for farm mechanization-related research. Besides, since providing subsidies is • Encourage coordinated research by research institutes and universities expensive and difficult, the level of involving private sector manufacturers. Note that there are about 20,000 large subsidy should be reduced or even metal workshops in Bangladesh of which about 800 are formally registered. withdrawn later as the machines • Increase the capacity of the metal workshops through skill training, become part of farming systems. For apprenticeships, support to acquire machines to manufacture machines and example, in the past the purchase equipment and business development with cooperation from development of power tillers was subsidized, partners such as CIMMYT’s Cereal System Initiatives for South Asia but the subsidy was withdrawn as Mechanization and Irrigation (CSISA-MI) project. they became popular and farmers • Strengthen the policy environment to facilitate and protect intellectual could afford to buy them at the full property rights for machinery innovations. market price. • Encourage entrepreneurs to invest in research in coordination with quality Achieving economies of scale in standardization and training on machine use. operating machines • Build partnerships between developing and developed countries for technology transfer. The under-use of machines due to the seasonality of operations • Polytechnics, vocational institutes and technical schools should run more and the small fragmented holdings diploma courses in agricultural mechanization to train mechanics and improve after-sales services. discourages service providers from investing in machines. It is • Build and maintain an agricultural mechanization database to inform the improved planning of agricultural mechanization.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 24 Updates from South and South East Asia Expansion of the agricultural machinery industry Box 4. Recommendations to expand the domestic production of agricultural machines in Bangladesh The foremost policy need to expand the country’s agricultural machinery • Reduce import duties on machinery setup to increase the capacity of industry is to treat agricultural foundries and thus improve the quality of machines and spare parts. machinery manufacturing as an • Encourage the local assembly of agricultural machinery alongside continuing agro-based industry so that the to rebate duty on spare parts. sector can access the fiscal benefits the government gives to the agro- • Rationalize the list of value added tax and duty rebates on agricultural industry. The recommendations in machinery and spare parts in consultation with stakeholders. Box 4 lead on from this: • Rationalize the duty structure on imported machinery considering the cost However, Bangladesh’s capacity to of locally produced machines and the prospect of the local manufacturing of manufacture agricultural machinery high-quality machines; wherever possible encouraging joint ventures. remains a point of discussion. There is a sizable in-country capacity to • The government should extend technical and financial support to establish manufacture simple adequate- agricultural machinery manufacturing zones and strengthen existing machinery hubs in places like Bogra, Jessore and Sylhet. quality machinery including threshers, shellers and centrifugal pumps. But the Department of Agricultural Extension and farmers complain about the poor quality of many local components is already • The sandy soils of the Char lands. locally produced more complicated produced in country. Then import machines such as Bangladesh the remaining components to • The hill areas with their uneven Agricultural Research Institute produce the first Bangladesh made topography. (BARI)power takeoff seeders, machine such as a 2-wheeled tractor reapers and also about some power tiller. • The drought prone Barind tract. imported combine harvesters. Areas of special focus As the private sector is reluctant to Rangpur is famous for invest in the mechanization needs manufacturing centrifugal The following areas of rural of these areas due to uncertain pumps, Bogra is renowned for its mechanization also need policy returns, the government should manufacturing of spares for single attention and encouragement to implement special policy thrusts cylinder diesel engines and small address the growing impacts of for the provision, delivery, and transmissions for power tillers. It climate change and the increasing marketing of agricultural equipment is estimated that 40–50 percent cost of fossil fuels: for these areas. A 70 percent of power tiller parts are made in subsidy is already provided for Bangladesh. But there is little or no • The use of renewable energy to buying agricultural machinery in manufacturing of sub-assemblies or power irrigation pumps, driers these areas. whole engine transmissions. and lighting systems in agro- processing. Institutional interventions The government needs to encourage the country’s agricultural machinery • Conservation agriculture, which The sustainable implementation industry by providing loans, training encompasses zero or minimum of agricultural mechanization and study tours to encourage tillage for better plant growth and needs strong institutions to foster, larger companies to adopt modern minimum top soil disturbance. monitor, encourage and impose manufacturing methods whilst standardization and certification smaller companies supply parts • Smart or precision agriculture, for appropriate machines and to and sub-components. Thailand’s which use remote sensor-based foster coordination and cooperation agricultural machinery industry machines such as drones, fish between different agencies. is a good example to follow as feeders and re-circulatory The following public sector its policies and programs jump- aquaculture systems. institutions have played a lead started the manufacturing of role in agricultural mechanization two-wheel tractors and combine And the following agro-ecologically in Bangladesh: harvesters there. The Ministry of unfavorable locations need specific Agriculture should partner with the mechanization efforts and tailor- • The Bangladesh Agricultural Ministry of Industry to encourage made machinery: Development Corporation (BADC) these developments. and the Bangladesh Water • The Haor regions, which Development Board (BWDB) are One simple illustrative experiment frequently suffer from flash floods the mainstream organizations would be for a research institute and hail and thunder storms. for introducing mechanized or university to purchase spare irrigation using tube wells and • The coastal belt, which is affected parts made in Bogra, Bangladesh low-lift pumps. by tidal surges, salinity, and for engines and transmissions and submergence. assemble them to illustrate just how

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 25 • The Bangladesh Agricultural purchase of agricultural machinery will reduce the marginal costs of Research Institute (BARI) has and is willing to provide more production, will not alone ensure been involved in developing and resources for well-implemented profitable farming. Rice farming testing farm machinery, although mechanization programs. remains the core of Bangladeshi their dissemination has not been agriculture and needs an improved as widespread as expected. Private sector importers, distributors policy environment with respect to and local manufacturers are rice procurement, the import and • The Bangladesh Rice Research also contributing to agricultural export of food grains, technology Institute (BRRI) develops rice mechanization. They popularize their adoption and an improved transplanters and reapers. planters, mini combine harvesters, energy policy. threshers and other products at • The Bangladesh Sugarcane machinery fairs and in other ways. References Research Institute (BSRI) has A better-calibrated subsidy program developed small machines such as will make machines more affordable Alam, M (2016). ‘Status of Agricultural sugarcane crushers. including the larger machines that Mechanization in Bangladesh.’ Presentation at a workshop on are often more reliable and give Appropriate Scale Mechanization • The Bangladesh Agricultural greater returns on investment. University (BAU) has developed Innovation Hub, Bangladesh, 20-21 March 2016 at Bangladesh and improvised drier, urea super Overall, appropriate scale farm Agricultural University, Mymensingh. granule (USG) injectors, seeders, mechanization should be promoted threshers and other machines. by providing farmers and service BARC (2016). Agricultural Mechanization Road Map. Draft submitted to the providers with easy access to low As the large-scale privatization Ministry of Agriculture, Government interest finance to buy handy and of the People’s Republic of of minor irrigation and tillage durable machines. And users need Bangladesh on 28 January 2016. operations took place in the 1980s, easy access to quality mechanics Bangladesh Agricultural Research many privately run workshops and machine operator services to Council. started manufacturing small support the smooth functioning of equipment, such as threshers, Das, SR (2019). ‘Need of Bank Loans for their machines. There is a particular Purchasing Agricultural Machinery.’ using designs from BARI, BRRI need to improve the provision of The Daily Prothom Alo, 17 March and BAU. Pumps and spare parts mechanic training at the local level 2019. and accessories made locally by and to make available appropriate Mandal, MAS (2016). ‘Agricultural private companies helped foster the tools and equipment. expansion of mechanized irrigation Mechanization and Rural Transformation in Bangladesh: and tillage services. Other overarching policy Lessons Learned.’ Paper presented recommendations are to: at a workshop on Agricultural 4.5. Conclusions Mechanization in South Asia: • facilitate women’s use of farm Trends, Patterns and Implications for The Government of the People’s machinery; Agricultural Development in Nepal, Republic of Bangladeshis proactive held in Kathmandu, Nepal 26-27 and positive about promoting • provide easy access to credit for April 2016. agricultural mechanization. The educated rural youth and women Mandal, MAS; SD Biggs, and SE Justice Ministry of Agriculture emphasized to develop their farms; and (2017). Rural Mechanization – A the urgency of agricultural Driver in Agricultural Change mechanization through its • provide bank loans to machinery and Rural Development. Dhaka: parliamentary standing committee manufacturers, farmers and Institute for Inclusive Finance and in 2012 and its roadmap for service providers to buy machines. Development. agricultural mechanization in Zamil, Sadid (2019). ‘Bank Loan Needed 2015. It is now finalizing its Finally, it needs to be stressed that for Buying Agricultural Equipment.’ agricultural mechanization policy. the increased use of machines The Daily Prothom Alo, 20 July 2019. At the same time, it has increased for farm operations, although it the budget to subsidize the

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 26 Updates from South and South East Asia echanization of Crop Harvesting and M Residue Management in India Anil Menon

Summary: The use of combine harvesters to harvest rice and wheat has spread across India with wheeled harvesters used in the north, west and center, and tracked and tractor-mounted harvesters in the south and east. Farm operations are least mechanized in central and east India. Almost all India’s combine harvesters are owned by contractors who move between states following the rice and wheat harvests. The government promotes this service provision model to make mechanized farm operations available to farmers. And mechanization is extending to the harvesting of other crops using multi-crop harvesters. The paper also discusses how an increasing number of straw balers are coming

into operation, especially to bale rice straw in north India where the burning off of straw CHAPTER 5 is a major cause of air pollution. The central and state governments are addressing the remaining challenges to farm mechanization by promoting custom hiring centers, providing subsidies to promote mechanization, promoting testing and certification centers, and encouraging corporate farming.

5.1. Farm Mechanization types of combine harvesters cost beans and pulses. Other leading in India between INR 1.6 and INR 2.8 million brands of combine harvesters in ($22,000–$39,000).4 India are the made-in-India Preet, The use of combine harvesters to Kartar, Vishal, Swaraj and New harvest rice, wheat and to some Among the various manufacturers, Holland machines and the imported extent soya beans has spread across CLAAS, with its range of self- John Deere, Kubota and Yanmar India in recent decades. The other propelled tracked and wheeled machines. Note that the rest of farming operations of sowing, harvesters, has been a pioneer of this paper only mentions machines planting, weeding, inter-cultivation mechanized harvesting in India made by CLAAS in line with the 5 and plant protection have seen a since 1991. Its wheeled harvesters author’s experiences. much lower level of mechanization. have multi-crop capabilities and This paper presents a broad can harvest rice, wheat, maize, soya As to the level of harvesting overview of the mechanization of mechanization, there is a good harvesting and residue management penetration of harvesters in the in India. 4 At October 2019 exchange rate of region around Punjab in the north $1:INR 71. (mainly for harvesting wheat and The two main kinds of harvesters 5 See company website at: https:// rice) and in the southern states in use in India are self-propelled www.claas.co.in/ of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, harvesters, which are powered by their own engines, and tractor- Highly mechanized states: mounted harvesters, which Wheeled combine markets: mechanization level of >70% are powered by tractors. There • North, west & central: are in turn two types of self- mainly rice- wheat and Medium mechanized states: propelled harvesters – wheeled other dry season crops. mechanization level of 40-70% harvesters, which are mostly used • Larger industry (~2500 Low mechanized states: in the northern, western and units sold/yr.) mechanization level of <40% central states, and tracked (track) • 101hp, 4.2m cutter bar, harvesters, which are mostly used straw walker combines. in the southern and eastern states. • Saturation in Punjab. This division is indicated by the • Growth market in oblique line on Figure 15. other states.

About 2,500 wheeled harvesters and 900–1,200 tracked harvesters are sold each year across India. Tracked combine markets: Tractor mounted harvesters are • South and east: mainly rice-rice mainly used in south and east India cropping. with about 2,000 units sold each • Very heavy monsoon dependence. year. Note that these are estimated • 900-1,200 units sold/yr. sales figures as there is no formal • Market saturated in south. Market source of information on combine growing in east. harvester sales in India. The various Figure 15. Level of crop harvesting mechanization across India.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 27 Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (mainly India. This is changing however as in 2014/15 under the Ministry of for harvesting rice). The penetration the local ownership of combines Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare. It of combines into Madhya Pradesh in Gujarat in the west, Madhya promotes farm mechanization by: in central India is increasing rapidly Pradesh in central India and Uttar for harvesting rice, wheat and soya Pradesh in the north is increasing • offsetting the adverse economies beans. Much of central and east with government support, reducing of scale that arise from the small India has low to medium levels of the extent of migration of Punjab landholdings and the high costs of harvesting mechanization. The areas contractors. Contractors who own individual ownership of machines; shaded in green on Figure 1 have tracked harvesters in the south the highest level of mechanization migrate to other states in the south • providing small and marginal and the areas in yellow the least. and east of India. The increasing farmers access to farm ownership of harvesters in Odisha mechanization through custom 5.2. Combine Ownership in eastern India has reduced the hiring centers; and the Migrations of in-migration of contractors from the Contractors South. And the combine harvesting • creating hubs for hi-tech and high of crops is increasing in West Bengal value farm equipment; and Almost all of India’s combine alongside increased local ownership • increasing awareness among harvesters are owned by contractors of machines. who harvest farmers’ fields on a stakeholders through per acre basis in the north and a Combine harvesting is yet to take demonstrations and capacity per hour basis in south and east root in the major rice growing area building. India. These contractors move of Assam in the northeast although While the central government between states following the a few tracked harvester contractors provides a broad policy framework harvests to make full use of their have started moving the very long for custom hiring centers, the expensive machines seeking a distance there from the south during scheme is implemented by state better return on their investments. rice harvests attracted by the high governments in line with local This has increased the availability hiring rates. conditions and requirements. of harvesters to farmers, almost all of whom are unable to buy their Alongside these developments, in One example of the spread and own machines. central India, innovative startups 6 successful emergence of custom like EM3 Agri Services, function as hiring centers is in Karnataka in Figure 16 shows the current aggregators of equipment, with a south India. This has happened pattern of the migration of combine field team on the ground to tap farm as i) there is no requirement for harvester contractors across India equipment demand from farmers. centers to be owned and managed mainly following the rice and They offer end-to-end farming by cooperatives or farmer groups, ii) wheat harvests. solutions on a pay per use model. private companies that can provide A major migration pattern since 5.3. Custom Hiring Centers rental services and maintain their the combine harvesting of crops equipment are allowed to start took off in the 1990s has been of The Sub-Mission on Agricultural centers directly or through their self-propelled wheeled combine Mechanization (SMAM) is a dealers, and iii) centers can run on a contractors from the Punjab to government scheme that started commercial basis with market-driven harvest rice, wheat, and soya beans hiring rates. across west, central, and north In Karnataka, custom hiring centers 6 See: http://www.em3agri.com/ that mainly provide harvesters are profitable with good hiring rates. However, it is difficult for centers Contractors from Punjab traditionally migrate to be profitable that mainly hire out to harvest rice, wheat Combine migration tractors and implements on account and soya beans in of their low hiring rates (about INR west, central and north 500 to INR 800 per hour – $7 to India. This is decreasing with increased local $11/hr, depending on type of combine ownership operation) as the many tractors in in above areas. the state drive these rates down.

A few manufacturers have set up custom hiring centers. For example, Some local ownership CLAAS has 35 such centers in of combines. Limited Karnataka, which are owned and migration from Punjab. Some local ownership of managed by CLAAS dealers with combines, is too far for CLAAS being responsible for the Punjab contractors. Contractors from south migrate to quality of service delivery. In addition, other southern states and also east CLAAS has sold harvesters to non- towards Odisha and West Bengal. CLAAS dealer-managed custom hiring centers in Karnataka, which are also successful. Note that under the Sub-Mission on Agricultural Figure 16. Traditional combine harvester migration across India.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 28 Updates from South and South East Asia Mechanization, custom hiring centers 5.5. Crop Residue Other straw management solutions receive 40 percent subsidy support to Management promoted by central and state buy farm equipment. governments are: Crop residue management is an Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan are important issue in India. In north • combines fitted with also implementing custom hiring India, wheat straw is mostly straw choppers; centers. And Odisha has its own collected by straw reapers and initiative based on the custom hiring used as cattle feed while rice straw • happy seeders, which are tractor- center model. However, not all is traditionally burned causing air mounted machines that cut and lift programs are equally successful. There pollution, which affects far away rice straw, sow wheat seeds and have been instances where equipment cities including Delhi. The burning deposit the straw over the sown has been procured just because a off of rice straw was banned in 2018 area as mulch, all at one pass; and subsidy was available without regard in the Punjab and neighboring states, • the incorporation of rice straw to whether the equipment could be but enforcement is a challenge profitably deployed. into the soil by moldboard in the absence of cost effective ploughs. and comprehensive crop residue Custom hiring centers need to management solutions. Wheat is not be commercially viable with the The large volume of crop residues grown in the south and so rice straw generated after harvests mean that right package of equipment and is mainly used as cattle feed there freedom to charge market rates for a combination of solutions need meaning that straw burning is not a deploying to effectively manage their services. A suitable enabling serious issue in the south. environment and effective monitoring harvesting residues. by state departments of agriculture The baling of straw is increasing in 5.6. Conclusions are essential for successful custom the Punjab as the state government hiring center programs. is encouraging investments in While there has been a large biomass power plants for which rice 5.4. The Mechanized increase in farm mechanization in straw is an important source of fuel. India, several challenges remain. Harvesting of Other Crops In addition to the standard square in India Small and scattered land holdings, balers, larger round balers are poor quality farm equipment, growing in popularity in the Punjab. Mechanization is extending to the inadequate after-sales services, harvesting of other crops. Maize is the lack of knowledge among Nationwide, the central government farmers about government schemes the third most important cereal crop has advised the country’s largest in India after rice and wheat. The to promote mechanization and power producer, the National inadequate financing options lack of high quality appropriately- Thermal Power Corporation, to sized harvesters means that about are the most pressing obstacles. use rice straw pellets and other However, measures are being 90 percent of India’s maize crop is agricultural residue to generate still harvested manually and then undertaken by the central and state electricity. This has increased the governments to address these threshed using stationary threshers. demand for balers to collect straw. To address this gap, in 2019 CLAAS challenges by promoting custom hiring centers, providing subsidies introduced the CROP TIGER 40 The baling of rice straw is being to promote mechanization at all Multicrop harvester (Figure 17). It rapidly adopted in the south, levels of the value chain, better has interchangeable maize and grain particularly in Tamil Nadu where equipped testing and certification headers and can harvest a range of small round balers are popular. The centers, and policies that encourage crops including maize, pulses, soya bales are mainly used for cattle corporate farming. beans, wheat and rice. This makes it a feed. However, the adoption of profitable investment for contractors mechanized baling lags behind in In coming years, the benefits of and a very suitable machine for central India. farm mechanization will reach custom hiring centers. This machine more and more farms of all sizes costs about INR 2.7 million ($37,000) Several makes of imported and without them having to own or including the 4-row maize and 2.6m locally produced balers are available. operate machinery. Modern, high grain headers. CLAAS produces the MARKANT quality equipment like laser land range of square balers, which cost levelers, reversible ploughs, forage about INR 1.1 million ($15,000). harvesters, balers, harvesters with GPS and performance tracking devices, and the use of drones, call-centers and app-based rental services are some modern means by which farm mechanization will extend across the country.

Figure 17. CROP TIGER 40 Multicrop Harvester. (CLAAS India).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 29 pread of Small Harvesting Machinery S on Small Farms and Residue Management in Sri Lanka Melvin Samarsinghe

Summary: The proportion of Sri Lanka’s rice growing land that is mechanically harvested has grown from 5 percent in 2000 to 92 percent in 2015 with combine harvesters harvesting 72 percent of this area. The main type of machine in use has evolved from threshers to reaper heads on walking tractors and self-propelled reapers via tractor-coupled combine threshers, wheeled and ride-on combine harvesters to tracked combine harvesters. In 2018 tracked combines harvested 72

CHAPTER 6 percent of Sri Lanka’s rice fields. Their popularity is due to their ability to thresh and reap rice on both wet and dry fields and the cleanliness of the harvested grain. The paper compares the performance of the different types of machines and discusses the issues facing the further mechanization of rice harvesting in Sri Lanka including the need for more training of machine operators, the benefits of levelling fields, the benefits of having a straw chopping mechanism on combines.

6.1. Introduction Up to 2002 most mechanization was for preparing land using machines with an average horse power (hp) of Rice is grown on 650,000 ha or 14 percent of Sri 2.2 hp/ha (FMRC 2000). There has since been rapid Lanka’s arable land across diverse conditions. Since mechanization of rice harvesting. The proportion of the year 2000 the government has encouraged the rice growing land harvested mechanically increased mechanization of agriculture and has supported the from only 5 percent in 2000 to 92 percent in 2015. increased production of rice by improving irrigation As of 2018, combine harvesters harvested 72 percent systems and providing free fertilizer and high yielding of this area with the remaining areas harvested by varieties of rice to farmers. combine threshers (11% of the area), buffaloes (6.8%), small threshers (4.8%) and tractors (3.7%) (DoCS 2018) (Figure 18). The level of mechanization in the rice sector in 2015 was 3.9 horsepower per hectare harvested (Samarasinghe, unpublished).

In a normal year with good rainfall, the country produces all its rice needs across its Yala (May to end of August) and Maha (September to March) monsoon seasons. The mechanization of harvesting has greatly reduced the amount of labor needed to harvest these crops. Prior to 2000, the harvesting of a hectare of rice took about 120 person-hours while the current mechanized harvesting takes only 2.5 to 3.5 person- hours per hectare (Epasinghe et al. no date).

The average size of Sri Lankan land holdings has changed little in recent times. In 1982, the 4.8 million ha of agricultural land was divided into 1.8 million holdings with an average size of 0.78 ha with 42 percent of holdings less than 0.4 ha, 22 percent less than 0.4–0.8 ha, 14 percent between 0.8–1.2 ha and 22 percent between 1.2–8 ha in size (Guntze 1986). The 2002 agricultural census reported that 81.7 percent of rice land holdings were less than one hectare, 15.7 percent were 1–3 ha and only 2.7 percent were 2–8 ha (DoCS 2002).

Figure 18. Combine harvesting lodged rice in Kudawewa, Sri Lanka in 2018. Photo: Melvin Samarsinghe.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 30 Updates from South and South East Asia 6.2. Evolution of also had these features and entered due to their good after-sales service. Mechanized Harvesting the market. The machines were These brands are popular as they in Sri Lanka mostly sold under hire purchase are certified and meet farmers’ through private finance companies. needs. The Japanese combines and Between 2000 and 2015 the the European CLAAS and American harvesting of rice transformed Machines designed to harvest large John Deere harvesters are more from predominantly manual to fields were not adopted because of durable than the Chinese combines, predominantly machine harvesting their too large turning circles and low which last only about five years. triggered largely by labor shortages ground clearance. Other machines Nevertheless, the Chinese machines in the agriculture sector. Machine were unsuitable for local soil have the biggest market share due harvesting started on large rice conditions. As of 2018, the Chinese to their lower cost. fields (5–8 ha) in the Eastern tracked harvesters, which cost about Province and then spread to the $20,000, held the major share of the The engine capacities of combines North Central and North Western market. The Japanese and European used in Sri Lanka range from 70 Provinces. In the initial phase brands, which are made in China to 100 hp with 2–2.2 m cutting tractors and combine threshers and India, sell for about $40,000 and widths. Farmers are attracted to buy were used followed by 2-meter are becoming more popular as the machines with offers such as trips wheel-driven harvesters. Farmers Chinese machines are less efficient to China and free spare parts and selected harvesters based on their and less durable. gift vouchers. size, speed, and cost. In the same period, small Chinese harvesters, 6.3. The Spread of 6.4. Types of Rice reapers and threshers were used on Harvesters in Sri Lanka Harvesting and the smaller fields that were difficult Threshing Machines The main external factors that led to for large machines to access. In the mechanization of rice cultivation Different types of machines 2002, a 1.2m reaper took 10 hours in Sri Lanka are the increasing cost have been used for harvesting to harvest one hectare while the of rice, the increasing area of rice and threshing rice. The following small 1.2m width 15 hp Chinese grown (from 521,000 ha in 2004 describes the evolution of the main combine harvester could harvest to 651,000 ha in 2009 (DoCS types of machines that have come in one hectare in 6 hours. Wheel- 2009) and the movement of many and out of use in Sri Lanka. driven John Deere harvesters agricultural laborers to urban areas harvested one hectare of larger and foreign employment. The Threshers fields in only two hours. main internal factors have been Previously, tractors and animals The spread of this machinery was at the increased wages of agriculture were used to thresh rice crops by first mostly influenced by the ability laborers – from 500 Sri Lankan pounding and separating the grain of farmers and service providers to rupees (LKR) to LKR 1,500 per day 7 from the straw. In 1974, a portable buy machines. By 2009 the main ($2.8–$8.4/day), the outsourcing axial flow thresher developed by criteria had become the cleanliness of field operations and the shortage the International Rice Research of the harvested rice and the ability of male labor following the Institute (IRRI) was introduced in to thresh and reap rice on both wet 2004 tsunami. Sri Lanka, followed soon after by and dry fields. Around this time, The growth in demand for tangential flow threshers. In 1970 some farmers used large combine machinery has led to 14 importers to 1980 period these threshers threshers coupled to 45 hp tractors now offering a variety of brands of were preferred to tractor threshing to thresh lodged rice while tracked harvesting machines. It is important as they caused less grain breakage. harvesters were also tried out. to note that some dealers have sold Three main sizes of axial flow The spread of harvesting machines inappropriate machines without test thresher are offered by the Jinasena accelerated from 2007 with the certificates to farmers, which led Company (Table 5). These are carried introduction of tracked machines. to farmers losing their investments to threshing fields on bamboo The limitations of the small and harvests. poles where it takes an average harvesters and wheel-driven of 22 hours to thresh a hectare of The most popular harvesters are harvesters (bulkers) led farmers to rice. The carrying of the bundles the Japanese Kubota and Yanmar seek more durable machine that to the threshing field takes 20–25 machines and the Chinese Agrotech, could work on both wet and dry hours per hectare. Nowadays these Mubota, Singer; and Edgro machines fields with minimal grain losses. machines only thresh about 5 These features were not prominent percent of rice cropping land, mostly in wheel driven harvesters (bulkers) 7 Exchange rate on 2 September 2019: in the wet hill areas. and other machines. Farmers were $1:LKR 179 thus attracted to Chinese tracked harvesters, which were only a little more expensive than the wheel Table 5. Different sizes of axial flow threshers. driven harvesters. The Kubota, Yanmar, CLAAS, and New Holland Capacity kg/hr Drum size di. x length Horse power Weight machines made in China and India 500 496 mm x 500 mm 3 hp 112 kg 600 500 mm x 700 mm 5 hp 135 kg 800 500 mm x 975 mm 7 hp 150 kg Source: Jinasena agriculture machines product catalogue (year not available)

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 31 The Jinasena threshers use rubber threshers mentioned above. In 2004, by government agrarian services pads for threshing, which are easily the CIC Company, which had large for farmers in the Eastern Province replaced when worn out often by areas of farmland in the Central where productivity was high and pads made from old tires. Local Province, recognized this need and there was a serious labor shortage industries manufactured 1,200- introduced a new type of thresher. following the 2002 tsunami 2,000 of these machines per year in These made-in-Thailand combined (Mahrouf and Rafeek 2003). the 1980s and 1990s, which sold for threshers, which are coupled to the about LKR 35,000 ($195). power takeoff of tractors, became Around 2004, John Deere and popular with farmers and are locally CLAAS introduced wheeled combine Reaper Heads on Walking Tractors known as Sunamie (Figure 20). harvesters in eastern Sri Lanka and Self-Propelled Reapers These machines have 96.7 percent where many rice fields are large and threshing recovery, 98.8 percent dry. These machines (Figure 21) In 1984, the reaper was the first threshing efficiency, 90.7 percent successfully addressed the labor machine used by Sri Lankan rice cleaning efficiency and 1,178 kg/hr shortages as they can harvest one farmers to harvest their crops. corrected output capacity against hectare per hour and can harvest These locally made Agrimec reaper only 1.8 percent damaged grain, a range of crops. However, they heads were coupled to two-wheeled 0.2 percent blown grains and 1.6 are unsuitable for using on wet tractors and had 1.2m head cutter percent grain losses. It costs only fields. The demand for this machine blade sets that could reap 0.35 ha LKR 2,744 ($15) to thresh a tonne declined after the introduction of per hour. of 15 percent moisture content rice tracked harvesters around 2006 using these machines. Although and no further machines have been imported since then.

Figure 19. A self-propelled Agrimec Figure 20. A 45 hp tractor-coupled Figure 21. A wheel driven combine reaper. (Jinasena Pvt Ltd). thresher. (Hayleys Agriculture harvester. (Dave Tractors). Holdings). Around 2006, self-propelled Ride-on Combine Harvesters lightweight Korean reapers and they suit Sri Lankan conditions, they Japanese Kubota reapers were create much chaff and dust while Farmers with smaller farms (less introduced that could harvest 3 operating – 2.04 mg/cm /hr of dust than 0.5 acres) prefer to own 0.2–0.3 ha/hr (Figure 19). These in inhaled air and 35.9 mg/cm3/hr of machines cause little grain loss – harvesters rather than hiring dust in the surrounding environment in contractors as waiting for usually 5 percent and as low as 1–2 (Weerasooriya et al. 2011). Three percent depending on the grain’s contractors and their machines can companies (CIC Holdings, Hayleys delay harvesting. Smaller 15-17 hp moisture content. Their capacity and Browns) imported these is affected by machine width, combine harvesters (Figure 22) are threshers and made spare parts handy to use in smaller fields where forward speed, cutter bar velocity available. Their life span was, and grain moisture content. They it is difficult to operate 2m wide however, only about five seasons combines. These machines began to can harvest a hectare of rice in under heavy use. These machines 4–5 hours compared to 35 person be used in 2005. They operate with can thresh a hectare of rice in 2.5 belt and chain drives and need stand days for manual sickle harvesting. hours with seven persons feeding Four-wheeled tractor driven 2m by spares for trouble-free operation them and are still used on about as they frequently breakdown. reapers didn’t become popular as 11 percent of the country’s rice they caused higher grain losses, even cropping lands, mostly in Uva and though they could harvest 0.54 ha/hr the Southern Province for raw rice in the large Eastern Province fields. milling operations.

Tractor Coupled Combine Wheeled Combine Harvesters Threshers Combine harvesters were first By around 2002, the low introduced in Sri Lanka in 2002 by performances of traditional the government for harvesting seed threshing methods, labor shortages, rice to overcome labor shortages the longer turn-around time and at peak harvest times. This was the introduction of higher yielding followed by the hiring of two Figure 22. A 15 hp ride-on combine varieties of rice forced farmers to harvesters in the 2002 Maha season harvester. (Farm Machinery Research look for alternatives to the small Center).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 32 Updates from South and South East Asia However, these harvesters are including to take machines into • According to farmers, the hiring fast disappearing due to their high fields. The training of operators is cost of combine harvester varies maintenance costs and the increase reducing grain losses and machine with the availability of machines. in plot sizes as plots are combined damage. These machines can also The hire charges shown are to make them accessible to larger harvest lodged rice (see Figure 18). when 92 percent of rice lands harvesters. The price of these Experience shows that harvesting are cultivated. ride-on combines is LKR 680,00 lodged rice perpendicular to ($4,000). Their main disadvantage the direction of lodging reduces • Weed propagation in rice fields is is their lack of a winnower to clean impurities in the harvested grain. significantly higher in fields after the grain. combine harvesting. However, these machines have Figure 24 illustrates the trend of Tracked Combine Harvesters several disadvantages (Epasinghe et the import of harvesting machines al. no date) into Sri Lanka between 2000 and In 2006, generic 2m rubber-tracked 2015. It shows that the import of harvesters from China began to • They have to harvest rice with a mini combines ended around 2004, gain popularity as they can operate higher moisture level to prevent of combine threshers around 2007 on most types of terrain where shattering losses; but higher and of bulker wheel-type harvesters rice is grown (Figure 23) and do moisture content rice sells for less. around 2013. The branded rubber not sink into wet fields. By 2018 • The high operating speed causes tracked combines are now the most these machines were harvesting 72 higher impurity levels and grain widely used machine even though percent of Sri Lanka’s rice fields. losses. they are more expensive suggesting that initial cost is not the main • Farmers say that weed criteria for selecting a harvester. propagation is greater following The return on capital is apparently the use of these combines. more of a determining factor as Harvesting Performance the tracked machines can work in most conditions. Table 6 summarizes data available on the performance of the different Combine harvesters have brought types of machines used to harvest an additional 482,532 hp to Sri rice in Sri Lanka (see next page). Lanka’s rice fields amounting to These data show the following: an additional 2.02 hp per hectare (assuming there are 10,000 Figure 23. A 2m tracked combine • The losses of harvesting as a total harvesters harvesting the 650,000 harvester. (Hayleys Agriculture ha of rice crops, with an average of Holdings). do not vary significantly by type of machine. 50 ha/machine in 25 days). The initial models were cheaper • The moisture level of combine- It is important to note that the than wheel-driven harvesters, harvested rice is higher than for average life of combine harvesters performed well and were threshed rice. is low in Sri Lanka at only 5 to 10 convenient to use. They are, years compared to 17 years in however, being superseded by Europe and North America (Fuchs Chinese-made Kubota and Yanmar et al. 2015). machines, and Indian-made CLAAS machines, which are more durable and easier to operate, 2,500 although some have higher grain Combine treshers losses during threshing as they are Combine harvesters designed for shorter crop heights. 2,000 The Kubota machine can harvest Bulkers 2–3 hectares per day and 50–100 Mini combine hectare per season. The tracks wear 1,500 out in two to three seasons and cost about LKR 120,000 ($80) to replace. The Kubota and Yanmar machines 1,000 cost LKR 6.4 million ($40,000), which is twice the cost of Chinese machines (LKR 3.2 million, $20,000). 500 And farmers need to spend an average of four person days per hectare to prepare entry areas to 0 fields and to transport the crop to stores after bagging. However, the amount of labor needed is declining -500 as operators become more skilled 2001 2005 2010 2015 Figure 24. The number of rice harvesting and threshing machines imported into Sri Lanka, 2000–2015. (Samarasinghe unpublished, using customs’ data).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 33 Table 6. The performance of rice harvesting machines in Sri Lanka . Small Tractor Combine Mini combine Rubber tracked Variables Notes threshers threshing threshers harvesters combines Machine horsepower 5 hp 45/55 hp 45 hp 15 hp 70 hp Manual or Manual or Type of harvesting Manual Machine Machine reaper reaper 22% moisture ideal for Grain moisture level needed 14–22% 13% 16–18% <18–22% <20–22% combine harvesting to harvest machine LKR 13,500– LKR 36,000– Hire charges/ha LKR 6,175 LKR16,300 27,000-31,500 15,750 40,000 Variable cost of fuel and other 6,520 3,000-4,000 6,356 n/a 2,550 consumables (LKR) Machine time to harvest 1 ha 9-14 hrs 64 hrs 5 hrs 17 hrs 2.5 hrs Labor involved in all harvesting processes Person-hrs to harvest 1 ha 272 230 77 29 7.5 from field to storage Germination varies due Seed germination Very good Poor Poor Good Good to grain damage of raw rice. Impurities in raw rice 2% na 2% 4% 1% Grain losses are due to grains falling on ground Grain losses 2% 13% 2% 6% 3% while harvesting or retained in the machine Grain damage 1% n/a 1.8% 1.5% 0.5% Remains in Remains in field Taken out of Taken out of Straw processing Remains in fields fields and needs and needs to be fields fields to be collected collected In threshing In threshing In threshing Heavy spread of weeds seen In fields In fields areas areas areas Total grain losses during 13% 14-22% 8%-12% n/a 7%-8% harvesting Post-harvest losses due to These losses are due to 0.5% 2 % 1.5% 1% 1% harvesting cracks in milled rice in Poor as creates Environment friendliness Good Good much dust (35.9 Very good Very good mg/cm2/hr) Source: Weerasooriya et al. 2011 and scientists from the Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute (HARTI)

6.5. Other Trends • It makes farm work more programs for operators. In 2017, attractive to young people. two companies registered for Usage pattern – Of the 667,191 training and trained 30 operators ha of rice cultivated in 2017 Maha • It removes the risk of snakebites while three companies registered in season 476,646 ha (72%) was and rat fever during harvesting. 2018. The success of this program is harvested using combine harvesters. yet to be evaluated. Among Sri Lanka’s 25 districts the However, mechanization has highest use of combine harvesters causes loss of employment for the 6.6. Crop Residue to harvest this crop was in mostly female laborers who used to management in Sri Lanka Mannar, Polonnarua, Anuradapura, manually harvest rice and the loss of Trincomalee, and Ampara, where business providing meals for migrant In Sri Lanka, rice straw is used over 90 percent of the crop was workers at harvesting time. mainly for manure, accounting for harvested using combines (Figure 8). 90 percent of use in the 2017 Maha Training – One major challenge that The lowest proportion of this crop season (DoCS 2018) with other faces mechanized rice harvesting harvested by combines was mainly uses being animal feed, roofing and is that many machine operators in the central part hill country where burning in the field. Mulching with lack certified knowledge and often only between 12 and 30 percent straw is common before the first cause larger than necessary crop was harvested using combines. puddling in rice fields. In addition, losses. Since 2016 the government farmers burn unharvested rice Social implications – The spread of has subsidized training programs. and straw in their fields to destroy the machine harvesting of rice has The National Vocational Education weeds and pests. In the Eastern several positive social implications: Authority and harvester suppliers Province, straw is collected and have developed a National used as fuel and to make paper • It saves time as previously whole Vocational qualification level 3 pulp. Note that cattle tend to reject families had to participate in curriculum for harvester operators. machine harvested straw and that manually harvesting the crop or The government provides funds to rubber tracked combines do not by employing migrant labor. conduct employment link training chop the straw.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 34 Updates from South and South East Asia 6.7. Conclusions • Chinese generic harvesters with • The levelling of fields can local and Chinese brand names improve the efficiency of machine Combine harvester use in Sri Lanka are less efficient than Kubota and harvesting by reducing the has reached the global benchmark Yanmar Japanese brands, which harvesting crop height and the of one machine to every 50–100 ha are made in China. grain to straw ratio. of rice growing land. This review also shows that it is • It is beneficial to add a straw The main overall conclusions of this important to use harvesters that chopping mechanism to combine paper are as follows: match field requirements and to harvesters for pulverizing and use trained operators to operate mixing straw into the soil for • The outsourcing of harvesting machines effectively and efficiently. weed control as on new models of achieves economies of scale and The efficiency and effectiveness John Deere Harvesters. of machines varies with i) the enables farmers to access the • Future domestic sales of combine latest technology. height of harvesting; ii) field levels, soil condition, and the distance harvesters will depend on the • The most effective combine between bunds; and iii) the height, service life of units. harvesting machine for Sri Lanka’s moisture content, maturity and References rice fields are 2m rubber tracked density of the crop. combine harvesters. DoCS (2002) Census of Agriculture 2002. Other conclusions are as follows: Battaramulla, Sri Lanka: Department • Tangential flow threshers are of Census and Statistics, Government efficient on short crops but • There is a skill gap in the of Sri Lanka. inefficient to harvest tall crops operation and maintenance of and wet rice. DoCS (2009). Paddy Statistics: 2009. harvesting machines. Battaramulla, Sri Lanka Government • Harvesting lodged rice of Sri Lanka, Department of Census • Harvesting losses are minimized and Statistics. perpendicular to the crop reduces when machines are operated by impurities in harvested grain. trained operators. DoCS (2018). Paddy Statistics: 2017/2018 Maha Season. Battaramulla, Sri Lanka Government of Sri Lanka, Department of Census and Statistics. Epasinghe S, S Kusumkumara and I Pathirana (no date). Social Economical and Environmental Effects of Mechanization of Harvesting. In Sinhala. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute (HARTI) FMRC (2002–2007). Farm Machinery Research Centre Test Reports. Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka: Farm Machinery Research Centre, Department of Agriculture. Fuchs C, J Kasten and M Urbanek (2015) Trends and Potential of the Market for Combine Harvesters in Germany. Machines 2015, 3, 364-378. Guntz M (1986). Facts and Figures Relevant to Farm Mechanization in Sri Lanka. Maha Illupallama, Sri Lanka: Farm Mechanization Research Centre. Mahrouf ARM and Rafeek, MIM (2003). Mechanization of Rice Harvesting: An Economic Perspective. Peradeniya, Sri Lanka: Socio Economic Planning Centre Samarasinghe, Melvin (unpublished). Advances in Agriculture Mechanization in Sri Lanka. Draft manuscript. Weerasooriya GVTV, MHMA Bandara and M Rambanda (2011). Performance Evaluation of Four Wheel Tractor Driven High Capacity Combined Rice Thresher. Tropical Agricultural Research Vol. 22 (3): Figure 25. The district-wise proportion of 2017 maha season rice harvested by 273-281 (2011). combine harvester in Sri Lanka. (Department of Agriculture, 2018 paddy statistics).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 35 echanization of Paddy Harvesting and M Rice Straw Baling in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam Phan Hieu Hien

Summary: This paper focuses on the mechanization of rice harvesting in the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam, which is the country’s main rice growing area. The main machines used for harvesting rice were initially threshers and reapers, which were replaced by wheeled mini combines from around 2004 which in turn were replaced by rubber tracked combines around 2006. Design improvements were spurred on by annual combine contests. From 2013 Japanese Kubota tracked combines became the

CHAPTER 7 most popular machine because of their high reliability. All machines were employed by individual contractors and now more than 95 percent of Mekong Delta rice fields are harvested by combines with a trend towards higher capacity combines that harvest 8–12 hectares a day. The rapid large-scale adoption of mechanized harvesting in the Mekong Delta was facilitated by the existence of thousands of flat-bed dryers, which are gradually being replaced by high capacity column and fluidized-bed dryers. The paper also examines rice straw harvesting in Vietnam. The introduction of straw balers in 2014 facilitated the easy collection of the straw that is left scattered across fields by combine harvesting. Although they are costly to buy, tracked balers with collection platforms are more efficient and produce cleaner bales.

7.1. Introduction the wet-season crop in the July to September rainy season. In contrast, Rice is the major food crop the weather of the Red River in Vietnam with a 7.7 million Delta in the north is influenced by hectares planted in 2016 when tropical monsoons and a cold winter it accounted for 82 percent with the first rice crop harvested of all farm area yielding 43.2 in June–July and the second in million tonnes of paddy (GSO September before the annual 2017). The production of typhoons arrive. rice almost doubled between 1994 and 2016. The increases in rice production over the past 25 years has The distribution of rice been associated with the use of production is highly skewed mechanical equipment. This paper as the Mekong Delta in explains the mechanization of southern Vietnam (Figure 26) rice cropping in Vietnam focusing has only 20 percent of the on rice harvesting in the Mekong population but 55 percent River Delta. of the rice growing area, the same proportion of all rice 7.2. Background to Rice production and provides Mechanization in Vietnam 95 percent of the country’s rice exports. Each rice Tractor and tillage farmer-household cultivates Figure 26. The Mekong Delta an average of 1.2 ha on an Farm mechanization in Vietnam (circled) and Vietnam’s seven other started in the 1960s with the use of average plot size of about agricultural regions. 4,000 m2. tractors for tillage. Between 1975 and 1988 tractors were organized The other seven agricultural regions mechanization patterns of these into about 300 state-owned tractor are home to 80 percent of the two zones. stations. These stations have population, have 45 percent of their been discontinued since 1990 area under rice and produce 45 The Mekong Delta is warm when tractor ownership shifted to percent of rice output. Most farms and humid year-round without private owners. there are only 0.2–0.5 ha in size typhoons and a maximum rainfall mostly divided into 4–15 small plots of 340 mm in September. Rice is In 2005, there were about 300,000 of about 500 m2 each. The differing planted in two or three seasons tractors in Vietnam with a total of farm and field sizes and population per year. The dry season crop is 3.5 million horsepower. The four- densities have determined the harvested in January–February and wheel tractors that are used for

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 36 Updates from South and South East Asia rice cultivation are mostly Japanese Laser land leveling 7.3. Mechanization of 20-35 hp machines. In 2012, these Rice Harvesting were mostly used for tillage in 67 Laser land leveling is carried out to percent of the country’s rice fields create level fields (with a less than The mechanization of rice harvesting and 92 percent of Mekong Delta 3 cm differential) in most cases in Vietnam has happened across rice fields. The average power usage by merging several smaller fields two main periods related to the for rice field operations was 2.2 hp/ to facilitate water management introduction of mechanical threshers hectare (ha), and the total power for rice cultivation. These larger and mechanical harvesters. for rice production was 9.0 million fields also facilitate mechanization. hp. The power for carrying out This technology, which is widely Threshers and Reapers field works accounted for about 20 used in developed agriculture, percent of the 46.0 million hp used was transferred to Vietnam by the The first phase saw manual for all agriculture-related power, International Rice Research Institute harvesting continue alongside the including for cultivating other (IRRI) in 2004. Its use has spread new technology of mechanical crops, stationary engines (pumps, across Vietnam with about 1,500 threshing. The mechanization of processing, etc.), and vehicles and hectares leveled in 2017. The other paddy threshing in Vietnam began boats for agricultural transport. benefits of levelling land include in 1974 with the introduction of savings on fertilizer and pesticides the axial-flow thresher (Phan H Tillage costs account for less and increased yields. Farmers get Hien 1991). This design, originally than 4 percent of rice production average increased profits of US$ developed by IRRI, was modified costs in the Mekong Delta. This 260 per hectare per season from by Vietnamese mechanics to have low cost for the heaviest field laser land leveling (Phan H Hien flatbar threshing teeth instead of work (tillage) is due to a contract 2014). The maximum cost of laser the original round teeth, and used system, which started in the delta leveling is $50/ha/season, which is an axial rather than centrifugal in the 1980s, and has served as the contracted fee of $500 for 10 cleaning fan (Figures 27 and 28). a model for other operations and seasons. Thus, farmers who invest About 100,000 units were in use other areas. Experience suggests in laser leveling can achieve pay- in Vietnam in 2005, and almost that mechanical means of carrying back in only one year across two all paddy in the Mekong and Red out farm operations in the delta crops seasons. And the pooling of River deltas was threshed by them. need to cover 3-5 ha per day to be tiny plots can increase total rice By 2015, the spread of combine acceptable to farmers. production by 5–8 percent simply by harvesters led to them almost removing unnecessary levees. disappearing from the Mekong Seeding, transplanting, spraying Delta and they are now only used Other benefits of laser land leveling in remote parts of central and Seeding, transplanting and spraying are that rice grown on levelled northern Vietnam. are much less mechanized than fields is generally more resistant to tillage and harvesting (Trinh Hoang lodging, which reduces harvesting The next phase was marked by Viet 2014). Mechanical seeders and losses when using combine the spread of mechanical reapers rice transplanters are used on less harvesters. The harvesting of lodged and mechanical threshing. The than 20 percent of Vietnam’s rice crops often increases shattering IRRI designed reaper (Figure 29) fields, while mechanical spraying is losses to as much as 6–10 percent was introduced into Vietnam in carried out on less than 40 percent compared to only 1–2 percent for 1984 by Nong-Lam University of the area. standing crops. (NLU) and then transferred to LongAn Mechanical Factory, which fabricated 150 units up to 1988 (Phan H Hien et al. 1990).

Figure 27. The collapsible type axial-flow thresher. (Phan H Hien)8

8 All the photos in the paper are by Phan Hieu Hien. Figure 28. The self-propelled type axial-flow thresher.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 37 harvest 0.9-1.3 ha of rice a day. It consumed 15 liters/ha of fuel (Tran Van Khanh et al. 2004). Harvesting losses were less than 2 percent and different wheel types could be used for different soil conditions (Figure 31).

The mini combine was released by Vinappro in 2004 and sold 30 units in the first year while all other local manufacturers together sold only about a dozen. In 2009, about 500 mini combines were sold in 9 Figure 29. Rice reaper made by Long-An Mechanical Factory in 1985. Vietnam at $4,000 each. About 900 units were produced by two other manufacturers; but the introduction Since the year 2000, three local Mini combines, 2000-2008 – From of rubber tracked combines led to manufacturers have produced the year 2000, the growing labor reduced demand and the phasing about 300-400 reapers per year. shortage motivated researchers and out of mini combines by 2012. Between 2007 and 2013, the manufacturers to renew efforts to adoption of these reapers expanded promote combines. About 15 local Rubber tracked combines, 2006- and then leveled out at about small-scale combine manufacturers 2013 – From 2006, the number 3,500 units across the Mekong had tried out their machines; of combines increased rapidly. Delta (Figure 34), They were but each made only a few units This was catalyzed by the annual used to harvest about 10 percent and faced the problems of their combine contests held from 2006 of rice production in this area. machines sinking into soft soils, to 2011 in five provinces by the The use of reapers subsequently difficulties in harvesting lodged rice Vietnamese Ministry of Agriculture declined and by 2015 had almost and poor reliability. and Rural Development (Figure 32). disappeared as they were displaced These contests were judged by by combine harvesters. A major step forward was the experts from research institutes, introduction of the mini combine universities, extension and Combine harvesters in 2004 as a result of collaboration industrial centers. Competitors were between the Center for Agricultural evaluated based on the measured The development of the combine Energy and Machinery (CAEM) field capacity, total grain loss, paddy harvesting of rice happened in of Nong-Lam University, the cleanliness, reliability, harvesting Vietnam across four periods (Phan Philippine Rice Research Institute cost, machine stability and other H Hien 2010; Gummert and Hien (PhilRice), the U.S gasoline engine factors (NECVN 2011). 2013; Vu Anh Tuan 2014). manufacturer Briggs & Stratton, and Vinappro, a leading manufacturer Before 2000, a few combine of diesel engines in Vietnam. The harvesters were imported into mini combine (Figure 30) weighed 9 Exchange rates of $1 to 17,000 Vietnam and some were developed 600 kg and was powered by a 16-hp Vietnamese Dong (VND) used for by research institutes and provincial gasoline engine, and later by a 12- 2008-2009 and $1 to 20,000 VND factories. But they all had rubber hp diesel engine, and was equipped for 2011–2013. wheels and were too heavy to use with a 1.3m cutter bar. It could on soft soils.

Figure 30. The 600 kg mini combine. Figure 31. This type of combine is easily lifted for changing its wheels.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 38 Updates from South and South East Asia Figure 32. The 2009 combine rice harvesting contest at An Giang, Vietnam.

Each contest involved about a dozen • Cutting widths are mainly 1.5- compared with $130-145/ha combines and directly led to and 2.0m, with a harvesting capacity for manual harvesting. The rapid reflected progress in the design and of 3–6 ha/day. payback time of less than two performance of these machines. years for owners of these machines By 2009, an increasing number • Grain losses are less than 2 explained the rapid increase in of imported Chinese combines percent when harvesting upright their use between 2006 and 2013 were participating. plants in firm conditions; with (Figure 34). some combines having less than The main features and 1 percent grain losses. Note that 2013 to date – After 2013, machine improvements made to the present between 3 and 5 percent of grain reliability became a major concern day to combine harvesters are is made up of impurities. of combine operators. This is why as follows: the Japanese Kubota combine, • The problem of harvesting lodged which entered the market in 2009, • All models except the mini crops has been solved for all became the market leader because combine now use rubber tracks commercialized combines by of its well-known reliability. In 2014, for mobility on soft soils. The the more logical arrangement of about 85 percent of combines in tracks of 1.7-2.7 tonne combines cutting components. Nevertheless, Vietnam were Kubota machines. exert a light ground pressure of there are losses of up to 10 This company did not join any only 22-25 kilopascals (kPa). The percent in the combine harvesting of the combine contests; it just rubber track is a key innovation of lodged crops. watched and improved its machines, for combine harvesting of rice in and reaped the benefits from the the humid tropics. Rubber tracked combines reduced contests’ extension results. The harvesting costs. In 2008, in An Kubota importer established a • The decreased weights allow Giang, with diesel consumption network of after-sales service points for the easy crossing of canals of 18-25 liters/ha, the combine to supply spare parts. (Figure 33). harvesting cost was $95-105/ha Problems with locally manufactured combines occurred because of non-standardized engines, gearboxes, rubber tracks and other components. Imported second-hand components were often used, which are sometimes not interchangeable. Local manufacturers realized these problems and some of them began to import new components from China, Korea and Japan, while some installed CNC (computer numerical control) machines to produce the components. By 2014, only three local combine manufacturers remained accounting for less than 15 percent of market share. A dozen other manufacturers, including contest winners, disappeared.

Figure 33. A 2 tonne combine crossing a canal on metal frames.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 39 12,000 7.4. Mechanical Drying Rice combine (Mekong Delta) as a Companion to 10,000 Rice reaper (Mekong Mechanized Harvesting Delta) Rice combine (other 8,000 regions) The combine harvesting of rice in Rice combine (other the Mekong Delta is accompanied regions) by mechanical drying to rapidly 6,000 dry the rapidly harvested crops. Such driers are only available in 4,000 this region in Vietnam as the other

Number of machines of Number regions with their less land and 2,000 more farm workers do not need the support of mechanical dryers.

0 Flat-bed dryers 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 (Second quarter of the year) Most dryers in the Mekong Delta Figure 34. Number of combine harvesters and reapers in use in Vietnam, are flatbed dryers. The first flatbed 2006–2018. (Source: NECVN 2014, compiled from provincial reports). dryer in Vietnam was installed in Soc-Trang Province (Figure 35) in 1982 by Nong-Lam University (Phan Vietnamese manufacturers retreated The situation changed quickly H Hien 1987). Farmers in adjacent to supplying spare parts such as around 2014. Surveys carried out in areas replicated or modified this threshing teeth, augers, reels and three provinces of Central Vietnam dryer using cheap local materials. By concaves for separating grain. in October 2014 (Nguyen Van Xuan 1990, there were about 300 units et al. 2014) found over 80 percent in the Mekong Delta, half of them Figure 34 shows the trend in the of rice fields being harvested by in Soc-Trang. Other provinces in the number of rice harvesting machines combines. One Central Province Mekong Delta began to adopt these in use in Vietnam to 2018. In commune had 70 combines, which dryers with the number reaching 2013, rice was being mechanically spent 2–3 weeks harvesting locally, 1,500 in 1998, 3,000 in 2002 and harvested in 58 percent of Mekong and then moved 200–1,000 km 6,200 in 2006. Most could dry Delta rice fields using about 9,000 away to harvest for a further 3-5 4-10 tonnes of rice in 8–14 hours combines and 3,500 reapers. weeks. Some village areas have (Phan H Hien 2010). The rate of There was a wide variation in the 30–50 combines from elsewhere increase has since slowed with a mechanical harvesting of rice harvesting their rice at peak total of about 7,000 units by 2010 across this region’s provinces. For harvest times. and 9,000 units by 2013. But example, the mechanical harvesting the batch capacity has increased of rice increased from only 10 No statistics are available for to 15-40 tonnes, and machines percent of An-Giang Province’s 2018 on the number of combines include equipment for loading and rice growing areas in 2006, mainly in operation, but we estimate unloading the grain (Figure 36). The with reapers, to 98 percent in 2013 that there are 12,000 units in dryers in the Mekong Delta account using 2,100 combines and a few the Mekong Delta. More than 95 for more than 95 percent of all reapers (AGDARD 2014). In 2013, percent of this region’s rice fields are Vietnam’s dryers and in 2018 dried the percentages were much lower harvested by combines, and reapers about 19 of the 24 million tonnes in the other seven regions, with an have almost disappeared. From 2018 harvested in the Mekong Delta. average of 6 percent and a range the trend in this area is towards of 1 to 25 percent of rice growing using higher-capacity combines that Almost all flatbed dryers use areas. All machines were employed can harvest 8–12 ha of rice a day rice husks as fuel (Phan H Hien by individual contractors with little with 2.2–2.7m cutting widths. 2010), which is the main factor in cooperative ownership. their low running costs. Between

Figure 35. The SHT-10 dryer at the KeSach Seed Station, Figure 36. An array of 30-ton flatbed dryers with Vietnam, 1982. mechanical handling.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 40 Updates from South and South East Asia 1990 and 2005 the cost of drying in 2013. They are superior to arrays A survey by the Ministry of paddy was about 5 percent of its of flatbed dryers in terms of labor Agriculture and Rural Development value using 4–10 tonne dryers. By saving and grain quality, while the and Danida Agricultural Sector 2010–2014, the cost had fallen drying cost at mass-production scale Programme Support in 2002 and to 3.5-2.5 percent of the value of is comparable to flatbed dryers due 2003 in the 12 Mekong Delta the crop with the introduction of to the higher labor costs of flatbed provinces (MARD and Danida ASPS higher‑capacity dryers. dryers (Tran Van Tuan et al. 2013). 2004) found that harvesting and threshing losses accounted for 4.9 Column dryers and 7.5. Rice post-harvest percent of the overall 11.9 percent fluidized‑bed dryers losses losses (Figure 38). Although no more recent survey has been conducted, The introduction of ‘simultaneous’ Limited information is available it is likely that the expansion of planting dates from 2010 led to on the post-harvest losses of rice combine harvesting has significantly shorter harvesting and drying cropping in Vietnam. Even a wide and reduced harvesting and threshing seasons, which requires high- deep survey over two years (such losses to about 3 percent. With capacity drying. During harvesting, as the one reported below) may not more and better drying, losses due dozens of combines work in one reveal the true picture, as damaging to drying and milling are reducing. village area for a week harvesting up typhoons and other calamities may We estimate that only around 8–9 to 1,000 tonnes per day. The harvest only occur once every five years. percent of the 2015 Mekong Delta goes to central drying plants. These plants can operate for 2–3 months per season or five months per year drying the rice from different Av. losses in 12 provinces villages and even provinces with 4% Total losses = 12% slightly different planting dates and varieties, thus justifying the high 3.0% 3% investment costs. 2.5% 2.5%

Thanks to pre-cleaning by fluidized- 2% 1.9% 1.8% bed dryers, arrays of 10–20 units of column dryers, which can each handle 10–30 tonnes per batch, 1% can work smoothly without being 0.3% jammed by moist paddy (Figure 37). 0% About 10 central drying plants, each Cutting Threshing Drying Storage Transport Milling with a daily capacity of 1,000 tonnes, were operating in the Mekong Delta Figure 38. Rice post-harvest losses in the 12 Mekong Delta provinces of Vietnam. (2003 data).

Figure 37. Combination of one fluidized- bed and four column dryers.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 41 rice crop was lost. The aim is to Between 1988 and 2008, with the In 2016, a seminar and reduce losses to 5 percent keeping use of axial-flow threshers, straw demonstration on technology for in mind that each 1 percent loss was piled up in fields or yards. This gathering and treating rice straw forgoes $10 million of income. straw was easily gathered for cattle was organized in Can-Tho City by feed and mushroom production. In the Vietnamese National Extension 7.6. Rice Straw Harvesting the Northern and Central Provinces, Center, Nong-Lam University, where straw is highly valued, about and IRRI. Local manufacturers Available straw 70–90 percent of it was used for and imported baler dealers animal feed and no surplus straw was participated in the demonstration. The estimation of the amount left for burning off in fields. But in Measurements were taken on four of harvested straw or available most areas of the Mekong Delta the balers on a typical field with 4.6 cut straw is based on the ratio abundant straw was mostly burned tonnes of straw per hectare. The of cut straw to grain. As cutting off in fields, with less than 10 percent results are summarized in Table 7. height increases, the proportion going for cattle feed, mushroom Note the variations of the field of the weight of cut straw to grain production and other uses. capacities in terms of ha/hr and decreases. One study found that the tonne/ha, because of various in-field average proportion of the weight Between 2009 and 2013, as the straw densities, while the machines of cut straw in eight rice varieties harvesting of rice shifted from worked without much changes. The in California was 84 percent for threshers to combine harvesters, ungathered losses of cut straw left straw cut at 0.1m, 55 percent for straw was again scattered in-situ behind was quite high. straw cut at 0.3m, and 32 percent in fields, and gathering it required for straw cut at 0.5m (Summers et considerable labor. At this time Since 2017, two types of straw al. 2001). However, no such data mushroom growers in An-Giang balers have become popular across is available in Asia. So, assuming Province had to pay up to eight southern Vietnam: a cut height of about 0.27m, times more than previously for the corresponding to a cut straw to straw, which led to a sharp decline • The imported Galan-STAR grain ratio of 0.6 (or 60% of the in mushroom production. The MRB0855 baler is semi-mounted weight being cut straw) – then with gathering of straw became costly behind an at least 20 hp tractor average rice production in Vietnam and in-field burning increased. (Figure 41). This baler is low- of 26 million tonnes in 1996 and 43 cost (Table 8) as it uses existing million tonnes in 2016, the amount The introduction of straw balers in tractors; but it ejects bales in-situ, of straw available would have been 2014 facilitated the easy collection 15 million tonnes and 26 million of straw from combine harvesting tonnes in those two years, of which (Figures 39, 40, 41 and 42). These about 55 percent (14 million tonnes) balers produce 13-15 kg 0.5m was in the southern Mekong Delta. diameter x 0.7 m height bales (Figure 40) or 0.45m diameter x The uses of rice straw 0.75m height bales with a bulk density of about 100 kg/m3 from 15 In Vietnam, rice straw has percent moisture content ‘dry’ straw. traditionally mostly been burned Bales of wet straw with about 70 off in situ, especially in the Mekong percent moisture content typically Delta for clearing fields to prepare weigh 50 kg and have a density of for the next crop; with lesser more than 300 kg/m3. amounts incorporated into the soil and used for cattle feed and mushroom production. Figure 40. Ejecting bales from the bale chamber.

Feeding rolls upper and lower Bale chamber Baling steel rolls

Pick-up fingers

Figure 39. The steel rollers in a baler produce round bales. Figure 41. Galan-IHI STAR MRB0855 baler behind (Wang et al. 2011). a 30-HP tractor.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 42 Updates from South and South East Asia thus needing additional labor to in Vietnam increased from almost straw as input material should be collect and transport the bales. none to about 5,000 units, which based at the utilization site. Also, as tractor tires lead the way, transformed the rice straw in the in muddy fields they spray mud on Mekong Delta from a residue to a However, such data is not available to the bales making them dirty. valuable material valued at 25–30 for Vietnam. We thus interviewed percent of the price of paddy grain. baler owners at Tien-Giang and • The Phan Tan PT-CR57 baler, An-Giang Provinces in 2015 on which is fabricated in Dong-Thap Costs of baling and transporting their collection and transport Province in Vietnam, is self- rice straw costs (Table 9). It is a coincidence propelled on rubber tracks, with that the collection costs in the a platform that holds about 30 Research carried out in the USA USA of $32.06/tonne is between bales (Figures 42 and 43). This in 1975 estimated that the cost of that estimated at Tien Giang and machine costs twice as much baling and transporting straw to An-Giang of $39.41 and $29.73 as the Galan, but it transports storage was $32.06 per tonne10 per tonne respectively. However, bales to field borders thus saving (Dobie et al. 1977). A third of the note that the straw was provided labor; and in muddy fields the cost was for in-field baling and the free of cost in the USA case while bales are kept clean as the baling other two-thirds was for transporting in Vietnam case the collection cost component is up front. it an average of 16 km to storage. included $4-15 for purchasing the Thus, for any scheme, the price of straw from the farmer. Problems with the use of combine harvesters and straw balers 10 All USD values are converted into 2015 values here. Combine harvesters usually operate most efficiently at cutting heights of 0.4–0.45m and produce good grain Table 7. Average performance of four rice straw balers, Can-Tho City, Vietnam, separation and clean grain. They 2016. only need a low cutting height, of Bale Field Field Ungathered Labor (calculated) 0.2–0.3m, to harvest lodged crops. Bale mass, kg density capacity capacity losses However, the usual cutting height Ave ± st dev kg/m3 ha/ hr t/hr % man-hr/tonne cuts only 40 percent of the straw 12.8 87 0.46 1.60 26 1.82 with the remainder left behind as ± 1.2 ± 9.1 ± 0.11 ± 0.55 ± 11 ± 0.72 stubble. Thus, combine harvesters Notes: Labor on balers: 2 persons for self-propelled unit; 1 person for pulled-behind and straw balers work against each tractor unit. other in terms of economic returns. Labor for collecting bales: none for self-propelled units, 3 persons for pulled-behind Research is needed on the trade-off tractor unit. between cutting height, efficiency Source: Phan H Hien et al. 2016. of operation and economic returns using these two types of machines. Table 8. Specifications and prices of two popular balers in Vietnam. Current status of rice straw baling Dimensions Engine Bale diameter Model (LxWxH), mm Mass power x length, mm List price 1,150x1,300x1,300 The development of straw baling STAR MRB0855 340 kg tractor 500 x 700 $6,200 technology is associated with the (without tractor) > 20 hp 4500x2250x2450 switch from threshers to combine PT-CR57 1,800 kg 45 hp 500 x 700 $13,000 harvesters. Between 2014 and (self-propelled) 2018, the number of straw balers Note: Prices converted at 1 USD = 22,000 VND (March 2016).

Figure 43. Bales being delivered from the CR57 platform at a field border. Figure 42. Phan Tấn PT CR57 baler.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 43 Table 9. Estimated cost of buying and collecting 1 tonne of straw at two sites in Government policies – Since 2004 Vietnam’s Mekong Delta (2015) government policies have promoted the development of mechanized In Tien-Giang In An-Giang Owner: Notes rice production. Farmers have been VND/bale VND/bale supported to buy machinery through In Tien-Giang straw costs low interest long-term loans, which 600,000 VND/ha to buy in fields, yielding 120 bales (so led to the purchase of thousands Purchase of straw cost = 600,000/120 = 5,000 of combine harvesters across the (from farmer) 5,000 1,000 VND/bale). In AnGiang, straw country between 2008 and 2013. is much cheaper as baling equipment is uncommon there. 7.8. Conclusions Labor (driver) 1,000 1,000 Twine for knotting 1,000 1,000 This review of mechanization of 60 hp self-propelled baler, rice harvesting and rice straw Diesel fuel 1,000 700 which is pulled behind a 30 hp baling in Vietnam with a focus on tractor that consumes 9 liters the situation in the Mekong Delta of diesel/day could be useful for planning the Total cost per bale: 8,000 3,500 mechanization of rice production b) Labor for in other Asian countries. To reduce transporting to 5,000 5,000 post-harvest losses, improve boat grain quality, increase the value of c) Total (a + b): 13,000 8,500 crops and enhance the livelihood of farmers, the mechanization Bale mass: 15 kg 13 kg of rice production needs further Cost of collecting 1 867,000 VND 654,000 VND developing in line with the following tonne of straw: = $39.41 = $29.73 three points:

Mechanization is the way! – It is very difficult to carry out large-scale rice production and reduce post-harvest 7.7. Factors contributing Manufacturers rapidly produced losses without machinery. The to harvest mechanization post-harvest machinery – In mechanization of farming on small Vietnam, both large scale landholdings requires particular Dynamic characteristics of manufacturers of agricultural types and sizes of machines, farmers – Vietnamese farmers machinery and small units with as well as appropriate research work hard to produce 2–3 rice limited production have been and extension. crops per year and are very keen sensitive to developing new or to try technical advances that can adaptable technologies. They The availability of services is the key increase productivity. Bold and work with farmers to test new to the success of mechanization – In determined, some of them have machines and to modify them to Vietnam, the mostly poor farmers even redesigned machines at their suit local conditions. hire services from contractors, own cost, although this is not who own the costly equipment and always recommended (Nguyen Le Effective national extension have good mechanical skills and are Hung et al. 2012). Links between system – The national agricultural business minded. This model works contractors and farmer-users is system began in March 1993 well in the Mekong River Delta crucial to exchange the information to promote agricultural crops, and has led to mechanized rice needed to serve each other. forestry and fisheries. The National harvesting across this region. Center for Agricultural Extension Research institutes and universities (NCFE) was established in 2008. The mechanization process is have addressed farmers’ needs. The There are agricultural extension dynamic – Machines and associated development and application of stations in most of Vietnam’s 648 technologies should be constantly various machines by IRRI and Nong- districts. In collaboration with other improved through feedbacks and Lam University – namely the axial institutions, the national center modifications to suit users’ needs. thresher (1974), the flatbed dryer runs demonstrations for combine (1982), the mini combine (2004) and harvesters and training courses References the laser leveler (2005), came about for extension officers and farmers. in this way. Some of these machines It also produces guidelines for AGDARD (2014). Current Status and are now widely used while others farmers, maintains an extension Measures to Promote Agricultural were only developed to a certain website and issues extension Mechanization in An-Giang Province bulletins. The NCFE’s combine (in Vietnamese). Pp. 38-42, in: stage, such as mini combines, Proceedings of the Seminar on which did however facilitate harvester competitions boosted the Rice Mechanization, An-Giang the development of track‑type demand for and application of this November 2014. National Extension combine harvesters. technology in the Mekong Delta. Center of Viet Nam, and An-Giang Department of Agriculture and Rural Development.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 44 Updates from South and South East Asia Dobie JB, GE Miller Jr., PS Parsons Nguyen Van Xuan, Tran V Khanh, Summers MD, BM Jenkins, PR Hyde, JF (1977). Management of Rice Straw Nguyen T Nghi, Nguyen D Canh, Le Williams, SC Scardacci, RG Mutters for Utilization. Transactions of the Q Vinh, Phan H Hien (2014). Rice (2001). Properties of Rice Straw as ASAE, pp.1022-1028. Combine-harvesters in Southern Influenced by Variety, Season and Vietnam: Survey Report to IRRI. Location. Paper No01-6078. In: GSO (2017). Data: Agriculture, Forestry Center for Agricultural Energy and Proceedings of the International and Fishing 2016. General Statistics Machinery. Nong-Lam University 2001 ASAE Annual Meeting, 30 July Office of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. 2001, California, USA. Gummert, M, Phan H Hien (2013). Phan Hieu Hien (1987). Grain Dryer Tran Van Khanh, P.H. Hien, E. Bautista, Combine Harvesting in South and for the Summer-autumn Crop in A. Schmidley, K. Lee, M.D. Ban Southeast Asia: Current Status and Southern Vietnam (in Vietnamese). (2004). Testing and Promotion of a Trends. Proceedings of the VDI- Journal of Vietnam Agricultural Rice Mini-combine in Viet Nam. In: MEG Kolloquium Mähdrescher, Science and Technology, 6-1987, Proceedings of the Mekong Rice Hohenheim Euroforum, 12-13 Ministry of Agriculture, Ha-Noi, Conference, Ho-Chi-Minh City, September 2013. Vietnam. Vietnam, 15–17 October 2004. MARD and Danida ASPS (2004). Current Phan Hieu Hien (1991). Development of Tran Van Tuan, NV Hung, NV Xuan, N H Status and Need Assessment the Axial-flow Thresher in Southern Tam, LQ Vinh, TQ Truong, PH Hien of Postharvest Treatment in the Vietnam. Agricultural Mechanization (2013). Design and Development Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Report in Asia Journal 22:4 pp.42-46. of the 10-ton/Batch Columnar compiled from 12 sub-reports of Paddy Dryer. In: Proceedings 12 Provinces. Hanoi, Vietnam. Phan Hieu Hien (2010). Harvesting of the International Workshop Ministry of Agriculture and and Drying of Rice in Vietnam. on Agricultural Engineering and Rural Development and Danida In: Bui Ba Bong, NV Bo, BC Buu Post-harvest Technology for Asia Agricultural Sector Programme (eds). Viet Nam: Fifty Years of Rice Sustainability (AEPAS), 5 December Support. Research and Development. Ha Noi: 2013, Ha Noi, Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House. NECVN (2011). Results of the Contest Trinh Hoang Viet (2014). Using of Combine-harvesters and Status Phan Hieu Hien (2014). Laser-controlled Transplanters for Paddy Seed of Mechanical Harvesting in Field Leveling. Chapter 8 in: Rice Production to Reduce the Cost Southern Provinces. Proceedings of post-harvest technology in Vietnam. and Increase Farmers’ Income the Contest, April 2011. National Ho-Chi-Minh City, Vietnam: (in Vietnamese). Pp.195-198: Extension Center of Viet Nam. Agriculture Publishing House. Proceedings of the Seminar on Rice NECVN (2014). Mechanization in Phan Hieu Hien, NL Hung, HV Khanh, LV Mechanization, An-Giang Nov/2014. Agricultural Production. Proceedings Khen (1990). Applied Research on National Extension Center of of a Forum organized in An-Giang, 14 the 1.0m Rice Reaper in Southern Viet Nam. November 2014. National Extension Provinces. Journal of Vietnam Vu Anh Tuan (2014). Agricultural Center of Viet Nam. Agricultural Science and Technology, Mechanization of Vietnam: Current 11-1990, pp. 679-682, Ministry of Status and Measures (in Vietnamese). Nguyen Le Hung, PH Hien, NV Hung, Agriculture, Ha-Noi, Vietnam. NV Xuan, TV Khanh, and TV Tuan Proceedings of the Seminar on Rice (2012). On Some Factors that Phan Hieu Hien, Nguyen D Canh, Tran V Mechanization, An-Giang November Help Developing Key Stages of Tuan, Hau D Hoa (2016). Monitoring 2014 National Extension Center of the Progress of Rice Postharvest and Measuring Performance Viet Nam. Mechanization in the Mekong Parameters of Rice Straw Balers at Wang D, DR Buckmaster, Y Jiang (2011). Delta of Vietnam. Proceedings of the Equipment Show on 1 3 2016 Rice Straw Silage in Round Bales. the May 22-24 2012 Workshop at Can-Tho City (in Vietnamese). ASABE Paper 1110792, Annual ‘Lessons Learned from Postharvest Report to Vietnamese Research International Meeting, Kentucky, & Mechanization Projects, and and Extension Institutions. Center 7–10 August 2011. Ways Forward’. IRRI, Los-Banos, for Agricultural Energy and Philippines: Asian Development Machinery, Nong-Lam University, Bank – International Rice Research Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Institute Postharvest Project.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 45 rop Harvesting Technology in C Smallholder Agriculture in South China Jie Chen, 1 Lei Liang,1 Xiang Li,1 Xumin Lv,1 David White,2 Ruiyin He,1 Xiaochan Wang,1 Scott E. Justice,3 Qishuo Ding1

Author notes 1 College of Engineering, Nanjing Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Agricultural Equipment of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing, 210031, China 2 Engineering Department, Harper Adams University, Edgmond, Newport, TF10 8NB, UK 3 CIMMYT Nepal Corresponding author: CHAPTER 8 Summary: Recent years have seen a rapid increase in agricultural mechanization across the South China region in the southeast of China with a shift to combine harvesting due to the increasing cost of labor, cost savings and improved machinery. ‘Small combines’ provide satisfactory crop residue management while ‘mini combines’ provide timely harvesting and threshing services but the non-ideal handling of crop residues. It remains a technical challenge to develop small powerful and lightweight combine harvesters that can provide both satisfactory grain harvesting and straw management for South Chinese smallholder agriculture. This paper review scale- appropriate farm mechanization in South China to improve understanding of the crop production and the harvesting technologies in use there.

8.1. Introduction in South China is dominated by reached 0.97 billion kW with rice farming due to sufficient officially registered machines China’s three major climatic zones precipitation, while North China has numbering 6.45 million large and are the Tibetan Highlands, the mostly dry land farming systems. medium sized tractors, 1.9 million North-West, and the Eastern combine harvesters and 0.77 million Monsoon region, which comprises Recent years have seen a rice transplanters – 6, 5 and 15-fold North and South China (see rapid increase in agricultural increase respectively in the number Figure 44). The Eastern Monsoon mechanization across South and registered in 2004. region has most of the country’s North China’s agriculture systems. farmlands and is split into South and In 2016, the total engine power The annual gross income of China’s North China (Li 1997). Agriculture of agricultural machines in China agricultural machinery industry reached 451.6 billion Yuan RMB (US$ 677 million)11 in 2016. While almost all planting and harvesting is mechanized in North China; in 2016 in South China, mechanized planting occurred on only 45% of irrigated rice-growing land and mechanized harvesting on 87% of this area (Luo 2019).

In South China, agriculture is practiced across all provinces, which account for 31.5% of the area of national farmland and contribute 35.5% of the country’s food grain (Hu et al. 2011). Most of this arable land is in hilly and mountainous regions. Rice has long been grown on the terraced and fragmented farmlands of these areas in ways similar to many areas of South and Southeast Asia.

11 Exchange rate used: Yuan RMB 6.67: US$ 1 (30 June 2016). Figure 44. China’s agricultural regions.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 46 Updates from South and South East Asia In the last 50 years, crop harvesting 8.2. Study Methodology small combine harvesters. Note in South China has evolved from that combine harvesters carry out manual harvesting through the use This review collected information cutting, threshing and cleaning in a of reapers and threshers to mini and from the internet on the types single pass. small combine harvesters. Most rice of combine harvesters used in farmers choose smaller horsepower South China and classified it Reaping and reapers combines to harvest their rice that based on agricultural engineering are well-adapted to the small plots criteria and specifications. The Reaper harvesters and stationary and fragmented holdings. Most of study also consulted experts, threshers to process rice crops were these machines are manufactured in harvester producers, users, sales rapidly adopted by farmers in South South China. representatives, and extension China from the mid-1970s (Zhu agencies about these machines. 1990). Mechanized reaping radically Studies by Liu et al. (2018) and increased the speed of harvesting as others suggest that the hilly This literature review and market an individual operating a reaper can geography, small plots, terraced investigation classified the harvest 2 hectares of rice in a day, landscapes and wet rice fields in harvesters used in South China into which is 20 times faster than manual South China have precluded the reapers, mini combine harvesters harvesting (Zhu 1990). Reapers have introduction of large harvesters. and small combine harvesters. The an average capacity of 2,300 m2/hr. Note that in 2016, 98.1% of China’s technical specifications of each more than 207 million farms were class and type of machine were then Many Chinese manufacturers managed by smallholders (NBS analyzed. Harvesters with similar have produced a range of types of 2017). Liu et al. (2018) reported that machine power, weight, cutting and reapers, mostly for harvesting rice the highest rate of crop harvesting header widths and other factors and wheat. The main types have by smaller horsepower combine were grouped and their features been the ride-on 1.2–1.4m wide harvesters was 4,300 m2/hr. analyzed. This allowed us to study reaper attachment for 2WTs and the the performance and costs of the later single purpose self-propelled Scale-appropriate agricultural various harvesting machines. reaper. Since around 2010, the machinery is increasingly self-propelled models have been recommended for use on small and In addition, the study analyzed the modified as reaper binders and to fragmented landholdings for the social, economic and agronomical harvest additional crops such as oil conservation of agricultural resources characteristics of crop management seeds and jute. As domestic demand (Krupnik et al. 2015 and Baudron and harvesting technologies across shifted to combine harvesters et al. 2015). Scale-appropriate South China and the management of these manufacturers shifted to mechanization is a powerful driver of crop residues by these machines. selling their machines abroad. Some rural development in South Asia with representative producers and their it being a major reason for the large 8.3. Results and Discussion products are shown in Figure 46. growth in agricultural productivity (Mandal et al. 2017). In the last 50 years, South Chinese The large market for reapers agriculture has moved from prompted engineers and This paper reviews scale-appropriate manual to mechanized reaping manufacturers to develop industrial farm mechanization in South China and threshing and on to combine standards for their products. to improve understanding of the harvesting (Figure 45). In the latest Table 10 illustrates the major crop production and harvesting phase many farmers have purchased specifications that have served machine technologies in use there. or hire in the services of mini and as general guidelines for reaper

Manual Reaping Combine

Figure 45. The three stages of crop harvesting technology in South Chinese agriculture.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 47 Xinmingyue Machinery Ltd, Yancheng, Changqing Mine Machinery Ltd, Qufu Hongxin Machinery Ltd: self- Mingyue: 4GL120 2WT attached reaper Shangdong: self-propelled reaper propelled reaper binder

Xinda Machinery Ltd, Botou: 4GL-120 Ninglian Machinery Ltd, Shandong: 4SZ- Ruikuang Machinery Ltd, Shandong: self‑propelled pepper reaper 150 self-propelled rice reaper multi-purpose reaper for tall crops Figure 46. Common reapers used in South China. (Source of photos: manufacturers’ websites).

Table 10. The four most common technical specifications The following definitions have been proposed based on for reapers in China. engine size and other factors, which, however, reflects the lack of an agreed categorization for harvesters (also Rated Header Productivity Model Weight power width (hm2/hr) see Table 11): 4HGL80 70 kg 4.41 kW 800 mm 0.133-0.167 • Liao et al. (2007) categorized combine harvesters into 4HGL100 90 kg 4.41 kW 1,000 mm 0.167-0.233 large harvesters (engine power >36.8 kW), medium harvesters (29.4 – 36.8 kW) and small harvesters 4HGL120A 110 kg 4.41 kW 1,200 mm 0.2-0.3 (<29.4 kW). 4HGL150 140 kg 4.41 kW 1,500 mm 0.233-0.3 • Li (2012) defined and proposed the name ‘small combine harvester’ for machines with engine power producers. Note that technical information is not of less than 12 kW, gross weight of less than 650 kg available on stationary threshers as they were not and a header width of less than 1,200 mm. industrially standardized.

Mini combine harvesters Table 11. Proposed parameters for mini combine harvesters. Between 2004 and 2009, the reaping and threshing of Specifications Threshold parameters References crops was replaced by harvesting with mini combine Machine weight <650 kg Li et al. 2012 harvesters (Wei 2014). Mini combines were mostly 800–1,200 mm Yang. 2006 developed by the private sector and made combine Header width: 1,200 mm Li et al. 2012 harvesting available to smallholders whose fragmented 1,000 mm Xu et al. 2014 holdings and terraced fields precluded the use of Feeding rate: 0.3–1.0 kg/second Xia et al. 2017 large‑wheeled combines. 0.04–0.1 hm2/hr Yang. 2006 Field capacity: 0.05–0.1 hm2/hr Chai et al. 2012 An important issue reviewed by this paper is the 2 lack of any official categorization or standards for 0.67 hm /hr Xu et al. 2014 the different sizes and classes of combine harvesters 4.5–7.5 kW Yue et al. 2018 in China. This is in contrast to other types of farm <29.4 kW Yang. 2006 5.5–7.5 kW Liao et al. 2007 machinery such as tractors. Also, regional variations in Rated power: nomenclature within and between the agricultural and <12 kW Chai et al. 2012 automotive engineering fields challenge the consistent 7.5 kW Li et al. 2012 categorization of combine harvesters in China. 5–10 kW Xu et al. 2014 Note: 1 hm = 1 hectometer = 100m

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 48 Updates from South and South East Asia • Xia et al. (2017) used the term • powered engines with electric • Operation and maintenance ‘small harvester’ for combines that starters, which facilitate operation requirements (Wang 2006). cut, thresh and clean crops with by the elderly and women; an engine power of 5–10 kW and The specifications of mini combine a feed rate of 0.3-1.0 kg/second. • alternative air cleaning harvesters available in South China He added that they should be mechanisms; are listed in Table 12 while some self-propelled. major features are illustrated in • greatly reduced weights; Figure 47. • Chai et al. (2012) defined mini combine harvesters as machines • sit on designs that reduce Although they only have limited with a header width of 800–1,200 operator strain; and power, current models of mini mm, 5.5–7.5 kW engines and the combines meet the needs of ability to harvest crops at the rate • integrated handle operation panels agriculture in South China with of 0.04–0.1 ha/hr. for ease of operation and control. their tracked chassis for traction in irrigated rice fields, seated designs • Yue et al (2018) defined large to Discussions on what constitutes to reduce operator drudgery and medium harvesters as machines scale-appropriate machinery for integrated handle operational panels that could harvest at 0.13–0.2 ha/ smallholder farmers on fragmented for ease of operation (Figure 48). hr, which is twice the rate of small holdings have progressed in recent harvesters (0.067 ha/hr). years, mostly around 2WTs and Small combine harvesters 4WTs and their attachments It is, however, generally agreed that (Khondoker et al. 2016, Kienzle et al. There has also been progress on the mini combines: 2013, Mahmud et al. 2014, Krupnik larger technology of ‘small combine et al. 2015 and Baudron et al. 2015). harvesters’. As already explained, • harvest crops in one-pass field even in South China’s flatlands, most operations; The following authors have farms are small with fragmented identified the following features of small plots for growing irrigated • cut crops, thresh, and clean the the evolution of crop harvesting rice. This pattern is explained by the grain with the separated grain technologies in South China: need to precisely manage irrigation collected in containers or bags • Compact construction, light water in level fields as smaller plots ready for transporting from enable easier land leveling, irrigation fields; and weight, ease of operation (Xia et al., 2017; Wang 2006; Zhen and and drainage. • are light weight to facilitate Lin 2007). The fields tend to be more regular manual carrying in and out shaped and plot sizes larger in flat of fields even in hilly and • Low cost and lower fuel consumption (Xia et al. 2017). areas than the terraced fields on mountainous places without hill farms. This has allowed the paved roads and in muddy and industry and farmers to pursue flooded rice fields. • Adaptable to smallholder farming and rice fields (Xia et al. 2017; higher profits by shifting from Zheng et al. 2007). mini combines to the larger ‘small’ Local manufacturers have made a combine harvesters to harvest their number of technical improvements crops. The small combines in use in to their combine harvesters. These • Addressing the time constraint for shifting to the next crop for South China mostly have tracked include i) downsizing rubber track or caterpillar ground drives and or caterpillar type ground drive harvesting, e.g. 5–10 days shift window between two crops have some similarities with larger systems to use on mini combines, ii) combines and are more or less increasing the on-board capacity for (Zhang et al. 2018; Zhang et al. 2012). scaled-down versions of 90 kW storing grain and bagging cleaned wheeled combines. grain, iii) introducing true multi- crop combine harvesters, and iv) mounting combines behind tractors Table 12. Specifications of mini combine harvesters available in South China. (mostly for the Chinese market) and Machine Header Feeding Field Rated tractors mounted behind combines Model weight Size (mm) width rate capacity power (mostly for the Indian market). (kg) (mm) (kg/sec) hm2/hr (kW) anmi 4LBZ-70 145 2200×930×1100 700 0.3 Na 4.05 Other features of mini combine Shuntian 4LZ-0.6 268 2700×1380×1300 1100 0.6 0.05-0.1 6.6 harvesters thus now include: Xinyuan 4LZ-0.3LA 320 2500×1100×1500 900 0.5 0.05-0.1 6.8 • tracked or caterpillar ground drive Xinyuan 4LZ-0.5LB 340 2500×1100×1500 920 0.5 0.05-0.08 6.3 systems for traction in wet rice Jinnantian 4LZ-0.6 Na 2840×1200×1470 1050 0.6 0.08 Na fields; Taishen 4L-90A 360 Na Na 0.5 0.1 Na Jinnantian 4LZ-0.9 372 2980×1400×1470 1200 0.9 0.12-0 14 Na • double cutting bars for improved Xinyuan 4LZ-0.5LC 380 2200×1100×1500 920 0.5 0.05-0.08 Na crop residue management and Tianyuanty 4lz-0.6 Na 2700×1420×1350 1200 0.6 0.07-0.12 Na to reduce the power needed for Shuntian 4LZ-0.8 470 2700×1420×1350 1200 0.8 0.07-0.12 Na threshing; Gangyi 4L-0.9B 580 2914×1250×1200 1060 0.9 0.05-0.1 Na Xinyuan 4LZ-0.9LB 630 3100×1450×1500 1000 0.9 0.07-0.1 Na Nongyou 4LZ-1.0 750 Na 1200 1 0.08-0.2 14.7 Kaiyuan 4LBZ-100 820 2510×1300×1690 995 Na 0.08 8.82

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 49 Nongyou Agri. Machinery Ltd, Hunan: model Sanmi General Machinery Ltd, Dongguan: Shuntian Machinery Ltd, Changsha: Nongyou 4LZ-1.0 model 4LBZ-70 model Shuntian 4LZ-0.8

Xinyuan Agri. Machinery Ltd, Chongqing Xinyuan Agr. Machinery Ltd, Chongqing Tianyuan Agri. Machinery Ltd, Qufu model 4LZ-0.9LB model 4LZ-0.5LB model Tianyuan ty4lz-0.6 Figure 47. Some mini combine harvesters in use in South China. (Source of photos: manufacturers websites).

2 3 4 5 Figure 48. Features of mini combine harvesters: 1. rubber and steel racks for improved traction, 2. double cutting bars for improved residue handling, 1 3. powered engines with electric starters, 4. improved cyclone air cleaning mechanism, 5. seats, 6. integrated handle operation panel. 1 (Source: www.sogou.com)

6

Small combines are also referred to Table 13. Specifications of small combine harvesters common in South China. as ‘medium harvesters’. They tend to have 1,600–2,500 mm cutting or Machine Size Header Feeding Field Rated Type weight width rate capacity power header widths, gross weights of 2–3 (kg) l×w×h (mm) (mm) (kg/sec) (hm2/hr) (kW) tonnes, 35 to 70 kW+ engines and a feed rate of 0.13–0.8 ha/hr. Some Bilang 4LZ- 1.0 2,000 4,400×2,300×2,700 2,000 Na 0.13-0.26 36.7 common models of small combines Longzhou are listed in Table 13. 4LZ-2.3 2,300 4,940×2,810×2,550 1,830 2.3 0.27 44.8 Jiubaotian The operation of these small PRO488 2,200 Na 1,450 0.6 0.2-0.4 35 combines has been studied on Liulin 4LZ-145 South China smallholder farms (Yang 2016,Ding et al. 2013). They are 2,550 1,450 1.2-2.0 0.2-0.33 43 either semi-feeding (head fed) or Na whole fed. The two types of whole Leiwogushen RC12 2,400 Na 1,380 1.2 0.13-0.2 32.4

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 50 Updates from South and South East Asia feeding machine are axial and Economies of scale of crop (Figure 50). The cost of manual tangential flow types. See Figure 49 harvesting technologies on small harvesting is about $671/ha due for some representative models. farms in South China to the large number of worker-days needed. This made mechanized, Figure 49 shows that the design Debates and definitions of the scales and especially combined harvesting, of small combines is similar to of crop harvesting technologies economical in South China. the larger horsepower wheeled inform the economic analysis of combine harvesters. However, there harvester-induced impacts on A study in Sichuan province, is no consensus on where small farming systems (e.g. crop residue South China found that, within the combines ‘end’ and large combines management) and policy-making. available annual working days of ‘begin’. We suggest that the divide The rapid increase in agricultural two seasons (20 days per season), comes between machines with wages in South China made manual the harvesting of the two crops of motors greater than 80 kW and field harvesting uneconomical rice using a mini combine harvester headers wider than 3m.

Wuxi Comb. Ltd, model Taihu: 4LBZ- Keleshou Agri. Machinery Ltd, Shandong: World Agri. Ltd, Jiangsu: model Ruilong 145 – semi or head-feeding model Chunyu 4LZ-5 4LZ-5.0E

Aike Dafeng Agri. Machinery: model Jvming Machinery Ltd, Shandong: model Yanmar Agri. Machinery Ltd, China: Dafengwang 4LZ-2.0 Jvming 4LZ-1.6 model Yanmar 1180

Longzhou Agri. Ltd, Hunan: model Liulin Machinery Lt., Zhejiang: model Kubota Agri. Ltd. Jiangsu: model Kubota Longzhou 4LZ-2.3 Liulin 4LZ-258 PRO488 Figure 49. Nine types of ‘small’ combine harvesters in use in South China. (Source: manufacturers’ websites).

8,000 Rapid increase of labor wages in China (USD) 6,000

4,000

2,000

0 2003 2008 2013

Figure 50. Increased wages drove the shift from manual to combine harvesting in South China. (Source: www.sogou.com).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 51 provided an annual profit of $2,600 combines, and government subsidies as much as 50 days harvesting (Zhan 2017) for farmers compared make it attractive for smallholder services per season. This contract to only $ 2,230 from manually farming households to buy them harvesting has been termed ‘cross- harvesting the crops. (Figure 51a). regional mechanized harvesting’ (Wang 2014). Outmigration from rural areas Mechanized harvesting in South has made the carrying out of field China is mostly carried out using The high profits from small combine operations more expensive using small combines. Different crop harvesters that provide cross- manual labor. A study in Guangdong harvesting times mean that the regional harvesting services, as rural region found that men older work of contract harvesters in found in Jiangsu Province in 2014 than 50 years and women laborers the main season may start at the (Figure 51b), has attracted many accounted for more than 70% of end of April in Sichuan province farmers to this work. This type the active rural labor force (Cheng in southwest China and end in of service meets a major need in 2015). The scarcity of labor and mid-June in Henan province to the rural China and other developing the increasing wages best explain east. The country’s good highway countries (Wang 2014). the widespread adoption of mini infrastructure and policies mean that combine harvesters. Their relatively a well-managed harvesting schedule Crop residue management low cost compared to larger for a small combine can provide The post-harvest burning off of rice straw by farmers is a major cause 6,000 12,000 of air pollution in many towns and cities in South China in spite of it 5,343 10,000 being prohibited in 2016 by the 9,683 central government. What happens 4,000 8,000 to straw usually depends on how it is left in fields. 6,000 6,756 2,600 In conventional rice farming, the Income/USD 2,000 Income/USD 4,000 straw is either left in windrows for easy collection or is spread evenly 2,000 over the fields if the next crop is 0 0 directly seeded. Mini and small Household Agricultural Household Agricultural combines distribute straw differently. Machinery Machinery Small combines, with their higher a) Mini combine harvesting b) Small combine harvesting engine power, mature threshing mechanisms, grain separation, Figure 51. Attainable profit of mechanized harvesting (red) versus household straw cutting and spreading enable annual income expectations (blue) from mini and small combine harvesting. crop residue management as they windrow straw for later collection (Figures 52 and 53).

Figure 52. Stacking method of stubble under small combine harvesting with evenly distributed straw (left) and windrowed straw for recycling (right).

Figure 53. Crop residue management under small combine harvesting – preparations for planting next crop.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 52 Updates from South and South East Asia However, due to their limited Small combines provide satisfactory Cheng YL (2015). Experiment and engine power and simplified crop residue management while Research of Typical Mechanized mechanical designs for straw mini combines provide timely Cultivation Mode in Rice-Wheat Rotation Area (in Chinese). Chinese cutting and threshing, mini harvesting and threshing services Academy of Agricultural Sciences, combines do not satisfactorily cut but the non-ideal handling of crop Dissertation. and process crop residues as they residues. It remains a technical erratically distribute straw in fields challenge to develop small powerful Ding QS, WM Ding, W Yang, YN Li, et al. (Figure 54). This is one reason why and lightweight combine harvesters (2013). Mechanical Characteristics of Land Fragmentation: An Investigation many farmers prefer small combines that can provide both satisfactory on the Field Operation Behavior of for harvesting their crops. grain harvesting and straw Small-Type Harvesters (in Chinese). management for South Chinese Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis, 8.4. Conclusions smallholder agriculture. 2013, 25(6):1397-1403. The last 50 years have seen major References Hu ZC, HJ Zhang, T Zhong, F Wu, changes in crop harvesting in et al. (2011). Reflections on the Development of Promoting Baudron F, B Sims, S Justice, DG South China with the shift from Agriculture Mechanization in Chinese Kahan, et al. (2015). Re-examining manual harvesting to the use of Southern Mountain and Hill Areas appropriate mechanization in Eastern powered reapers and threshers (in Chinese). Chinese Agricultural and Southern Africa: Two-Wheel Mechanization, 2011, 5: 16-18. and on to combine harvesting. Tractors, Conservation Agriculture, Cost savings and the increasing and Private Sector Involvement. Khondoker AM, J Timothy, E Olaf. (2016). cost of labor have been the main Food Security, 7(4):889-904. Factors Associated with Small-Scale reasons for the shift. Currently mini Agricultural Machinery Adoption in Chai B, YD OuYang (2012). Study on combines predominate for individual Bangladesh: Census Findings. Journal Comprehensive Benefit Analysis and of Rural Studies, 2016, 46: 155-168. household ownership while small Development Countermeasure of combine harvesters are the main Domestic Miniature Harvesters (in machines used by crop harvesting Chinese). Agricultural Machinery, service providers. 2012(13):106-108.

(a)

(b)

Figure 54. Crop residue management with mini combines (a) in wheat fields and (b) in rice fields. (Source: Baidu).

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 53 Kienzle J, JE Ashburner, BG Sims (2013). Mahmud MS, MQ Neesa, MM Hossain, Yang J, ZH Huang, XB Zhang, R Thomas, Mechanization for Rural Development: et al. (2014). Impact Evaluation of 2013. The Rapid Rise of Cross- a Review of Patterns and Progress Agricultural Production and Rural Regional Agricultural Mechanization from Around the World. Plant Employment through Extension of Services in China. American Production and Protection Division, Agricultural Engineering Technologies Journal of Agricultural Economics, Food and Agriculture Organization of (2nd revised edition). Implementation 95(5):1245-1251. the United Nations, 2013. Monitoring and Evaluation Division (IMED), Evaluation Sector, Ministry of Yang YD (2006). Development of Micro- Krupnik TJ, S Santos Valle, MS Islam, Planning. harvester and Analysis of Market MD Shirazul, et al. (2015). Energetic, Prospects (in Chinese). Agricultural Hydraulic, and Economic Efficiency Mandal MAS, SD Biggs, SE Justice (eds) Machinery, 2006, 4: 109-111. of Axial Flow and Centrifugal Pumps (2017). Rural Mechanisation – A for Surface Water Irrigation in Driver in Agricultural Change and Yue YX, HB Wang, QB Lv, G Chen, et al. Bangladesh. Irrigation and Drainage, Rural Development. Agargaon, Dhaka, (2018). Development Status and 2015, 64(5):683-693. Bangladesh: Institute for Inclusive Countermeasures of Agricultural Finance and Development (InM). Mechanization in Hilly Area: Taking Li S (2012). Market Prospect Analysis of Wanzhou District of Chongqing Small Rice Combiner (in Chinese). NBS (2018). National Bureau of Statistics, City as an Example (in Chinese). Agricultural Machinery, 2012 China. Beijing, China. Available Agricultural Engineering, 2018, (16):104-105. at: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ 2:15-19. tjgb/nypcgb/qgnypcgb/201712/ Li YZ (1997). China Agroecological t20171214_1562740.html Zhan HC (2017). The Application of Division (in Chinese). Pp 141-151. Small Rice Combines in the Hilly Beijing, China Agricultural Science Wang HZ (2006). Removable Miniature Areas of the Silla Mountains (in and Technology Press. Harvester (in Chinese). Friends of Chinese). Mechanized Equipment, Agricultural Machinery and Tools, 2017,3:16-17. Liao XL (2017). Research on Cross- 2006, 2:45. regional Operation of Rice Combine Zhang AZ, ZH Li, BM Guo (2012). Harvester: Based on the Investigation Wang M (2014). Research on System Investigation of the Technical and Analysis of Cross-regional Optimization of Cross Region Work in Performance of Wheat Combines Harvesting in Hunan Province Hebei Province (in Chinese). Baoding, (in Chinese). Agricultural Machinery (in Chinese). Hunan Agricultural Agricultural University of Hebei. Technology Extension. 2012,8: University, 2017. 40-44. Wei J (2014). Design and Simulation Liu Y, XQ Liu, XM Tang, YM Ren, et al. of Human Wheat Harvester (in Zhang ZY, ZX Du (2018). Economic (2018). Effects of Fragmentation of Chinese). Qingdao, Yantai University. Analysis of Farmers’ Decision-making Cultivated Land Unit on Mechanical on Agricultural Production Services, Harvesting Efficiency of Wheat Xia QC, Y Xu, GF Yue (2017). Taking Agricultural Machinery in Plain Area (in Chinese). Journal Development Status, Problems and Operation Service as an Example of Agricultural Machinery, 2018, Countermeasures of Small Rice (in Chinese). Finance & Trade 49(2):225-231. Harvester in Chongqing (in Chinese). Economics, 2018, 39(4):146-160. South China Agriculture, 11(7): 29-31. Luo XW (2019). A Reflection on the Zheng YP, JX Lin (2007). The Present Innovation of China’s Science Xu Y, YG Zhang, J Tang (2014). Research Situation and Prospects of Mini- and Technology for Agricultural and Application of Micro combine combine Harvesters (in Chinese). Machines (in Chinese). Beijing, China (in Chinese). Agricultural Machinery Journal of Agricultural Mechanization Agricultural Machinery Network. Park, 2014, 3:48-50. Research, 2007, 9: 232-234. Yang W (2016). Study on Rice Harvester Zhu JQ (1990). Talking about the Working Efficiency of the Small Filed Promotion and Use of Cutting and in Jiangsu Province (in Chinese). Sunning Machines (in Chinese). Nanjing, China, Nanjing Agricultural Agricultural Mechanization in Hubei University, 2016. Province, 1990(1):26-27.

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 54 Updates from South and South East Asia Notes:

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: Updates from South and South East Asia 55 Notes:

Scale-Appropriate Farm Machinery for Rice and Wheat Harvesting: 56 Updates from South and South East Asia

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