Anthropology of East Europe Rcvic\\

WHALING PRODUCTS AS AN ELEMENT OF INDIGENOUS DIET INCHUKOTKA Andrew /. Koz/ov, "ArctAn-C' Innovative Laboratory, Moscow and Eduard V.Zdor, Chukchi Association of Traditional Hunting, Anadyr

lifestyle are virtually identical in all coastal Introduction regions ofthe Arctic. The effect of present-day Nutritional traditions are an area where changes in the lifestyle and nutrition on the health biology and culture are closest. In combination of the Arctic marine hunters is also similar with specific environmental resources, nutrient throughout their entire distribution range requirements are responsible for habits and (Shephard and Rode, J996; Kozlov and traditions that are fixed for centuries. Vershubsky, 1999). The above makes it possible to compare the large body of data obtained in the area An Italian inviting someone to partake of ofthe United States, Canada and Gn.:enland. a meal would propose to share "carbohydrates"; for him the word "pasta" does not only mean Nutritional Diversity of"Traditional" Food "spaghetti", or floury dishes, but rather food in general. An invitation by the Russian reflects the Present-day researchers are aware that ecological specificity ofthe Middle-Russian Plain, one cannot underestimate the role of vegetative poor in mineral substances. The Russian would food in the traditional indigenous diets ofthe high invite his guest to partake of"bread and sal!", i.e., latitudes (Kozlov and Vershubsky, 1999; "carbohydrates and microelements". For Inuit Berezovikova and Mamleeva, 200 I). For the (Eskimo), food was originally considered the same indigenous peoples ofthe North, such foods are of as meat "neri". The Inuit terms for eating are particular value in providing fiber tissue and derived from this: To eat is "nerivoq. When dinner vitamins rather than carbohydrates, the main is ready one calls "nerisassat," often sh0!1ened to source of energy in the diet of the majority of "neri.. ." A banquet is understood as a feast with temperate zone residents. The readily-assimilated large quantities of meat, "nerersuarneq" (Larsen carbohydrate food is hard to find in the Arctic, and Oldenburg, 2000). and absorption of carbohydrates in the intestine appears to be difficult in the high latitudes The present communication addresses (Kozlov, 2002). some aspects of human nutritional ecology as determined by biological and cultural adaptation to Despite the low species diversity of the life in high latitudes. high latitude marine and terrestrial fauna, the animal protein food is available in the Arctic in The indigenous populations ofthe sufficient amounts. In addition, the nOl1hem Chukotka Peninsula are the Chukchi and Siberian marine fauna makes it possible to obtain large Eskimos - Yupik. According to the population amounts of fats, the most concentrated foods (fats census of 1989, the Yupik population is 1,704, and exceed proteins and carbohydrates in calorific that of the Chukchi, 15, I 07 (Funk and value per unit mass, containing less water). The Sillanpaa,eds., 1999). At the beginning of the first relative species paucity of the nora and fauna of millennium A.D., some Chukchi tribes moved the high latitudes naturally restricts the range of from the regions ofthe Chukotka Peninsula to the diet of representatives ofthe groups of traditional shores ofthe ambient seas. There, the coastal lifestyle. Marine hunters are characterized by Chukchi came in contact with the Eskimos, and exploitation of marine, littoral and terrestrial partly assumed the cultural elements ofthe marine biotas. This provides notable expansion of the hunters. As a result, the coastal Chukchi and range of food compared with those consumed by Eskimos developed almost identical systems of tundra reindeer herders. But in this case, too, diet nature management and nutritional ecology. On diversity is not great (Damas, 1984; Larsen and this basis, we address the situation in the Oldenburg, 2000). communities of marine hunters of Chukotka as a whole, without dividing them into Chukchi and Terrestrial hunting and gathering have Yupik. been serving for Yupik and coastal Chukchi mostly as auxiliary diets. Eskimos believe that At the same time, the traditional Inuit those foods, no matter how "prestigious" they may (Eskimo) strategy of nature management and be, are not nutritious enough. Birds, fish, plants

Vol. 17, No. I 20(H, Page: 127 Anthropology of East Europe Review and eggs "all leave you feeling hungry" (Robert­ inclusion of the maximum possible amounts of Lamblin, 1986). Due to ecological reasons, the diet animal fats (lipids) in the diet. has traditionally been based OIl marine hunting The greatest fat consumption is products - meat and fat of marine mammals. To characteristic of marine hunters (review: Kozlov, date, they alone are thought to be "true" food. 2002). When the Inuit of Canada assess the Marine hunting products acquire the significance advantages of different types oftraditional food, of "cultural super-food", regarded as the gift of they constantly emphasize fat content (Wein and God(s) to become a symbol of ethnic identity Freeman, 1992): "can't live without it (fat)" (about (Garine, 1994; Freeman et aI., 1998). the beluga): "gives us fat" (about the bowhead): Siberian Yupik consume the meat of "makes you get fat" (about the seal). The various marine mammals: the gray whale and traditional diet of an adult male Eskimo included bowhead whale, walrus, bearded seal, ringed seal, about 100 grams of animal fat from meat and ribbon seal and harbor seal. However, the Yupik another 60 g of natural fat of marine mammals treat whaling products as "cultural super-food". (Krupnik, 1989). With such a diet, animal fats alone could provide daily intake of up to 1280 The traditional diet of marine hunters of kCal (5363 kJ) ofenergy, meeting 35-50% of Chukotka comprises about 20 various dishes of energy requirements. meat, fat, skin, flippers, tongue, and entrails of cetaceans (Bogoslovskaya et aI., 1986). The Yupik Adaptation To Protein-Lipid Diet and coastal Chukchi clearly distinguish between the products obtained in the course of marine Consumption of such a considerable hunting. The gray whale is regarded traditionally quantity of proteins and lipids is impossible as seasonal, summer food, since its meat cannot be without considerable adaptive changes. They are stored for a long time. By contrast, the meat ofthe manifested at different levels: physiological bowhead whale can be stored for a long time. (gastric digestion), cultural (gastronomy), Generally, the coastal Chukchi and Siberian biochemical (development of "polar metabolism"). Eskimos regard whale meat as "heavy" food, Various versions of gastric digestion have which is not to be consumed by sick people been described for mammal meat consumers. They (Bogoslovskaya, 200 I, personal communication). also occur in humans at different frequencies (Kozlov, 2002). The so-called "wild-boar Traditional Norms of Consumption nutritional type" characterizes most humans. This Tn the early 20th century, an adult Eskimo type is the most pronounced in omnivorous consumed 1.8 - 2.2 kg ofthe meat of marine mammals, which consume meat along with mammals (Foote, 1970). A wide distribution of vegetative food (like bear and wild-boar). In them, imported foods and an increasing tendency to digestion ofthe food ball in the stomach occurs consume "market food" bring about reduction in mostly at the walls ofthe organ in close contact the proportion of meat in northerners' diet. In the with gastric glands. The acidity of gastric juice is early 1960s the central Alaskan Inuit of fairly low. An increase in acidity brings about Anaktuvuk Pass provided up to 65% energy irritation of the organ's walls, which may cause requirements (Rennie et aI., 1962). In the early development ofgastritis and ulcer. 1970s, the consumption of whale and seal meat by Indigenous residents ofthe Arctic, whose Greenland Inuit averaged 0.387 kg/day (Bang and diet includes, by European standards, an Dyerberg, 1981). The MacKenzie Delta Inuit exceptionally high amount of protein and fats are consume mammal meat (primarily ofthe caribou characterized by the "wolftype" gastric digestion, and beluga whale) on average, 3 10 times a year, similar to that of carnivores. In that case, chemical and various fish species another 21 0 times (Wein treatment ofthe food occurs in the central portion and Freeman, 1992). of the stomach, with high acidity of the gastric Meat is not a single essential component juice. The highly acid medium creates optimal of the northern diet. Another vital element of the conditions for the activity of the proteolytic traditional Arctic kitchen is animal fat. This is enzyme pepsin, resistant only under pH within 1.0­ reflected in the saying by Canadian Arctic Indians: 1.5. In order to protect the organ walls from the "Died ofhunger, consuming rabbits". The lack of impact of acid, its cells excrete great amounts of fats in the indigenous diet of high latitudes may mucus. prove disastrous. Hence, numerous elements of the nutritional culture of Arctic people involve

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By the method of target endoscopic pH­ The consumption of large quantities of metry, we have revealed that indigenous fermented food is a method of adaptation to northerners have different hydrochloric acid levels environmental conditions characteristic of the in different portions of the stomachs. Near the indigenous people of the Arctic. The advantage of stomach walls, acidity is lower due to the fermentation as a gastronomic method, sparing development of great quantity of mucus, wh ich scarce Arctic fuel, is self-evident. serves as a protective interlayer between the Consumption of large quantities of fat gastric juice and the stomach walls (Chernenkov, and their utilization as the main energy substrate as Grozdova, Kozlov and Vershubsky, 1992, determ ined by the ecological features of the unpublished data). Our studies have supported the environment required some specific re­ reports to the effect that the above functional arrangement of the biochemical system of activity of stomach glands is manifested in indigenous northerners. They are characterized by indigenous northerners as early as they are the high activity of lipolytic enzymes. Upon ch ildren (Orekhov, 1987). As a result, even under breaking down in the small intestine and hyperacidity of the gastric contents Eskimos and absorption. lipids form complexes with Chukchi rarely develop peptic ulcer, although lipoproteins, some specific proteins ensuring hyperacid gastritis is characteristic of the transport of fats. The augmented activity of indigenous people of the Arctic (Pogorazdov, lipolytic enzymes permits the breaking down of 1990; Kozlov and Vershubsky. 1999). enzymes arriving with food most econom ica Ily. In addition to the morpho-functional In addition, the fractions of transport adaptation, cultural adaptation was also of great lipoproteins with very low density (beta­ significance, brought about the development of lipoproteins and chylomicrons) are utilized by the specific features oftraditional "northern indigenous northerners more completely with the kitchen". !"l lipoprotein lipase ofthe vessel endothelium ofthe The food that arrives in the stomach peripheral tissues (Pan in, 1987). The above serves as a peculiar buffer, preventing an increase reduces the risk ofaccumulation of fat substances =:t!1 in acidity ofthe gastric content. Assimilation of in thc walls of the vessels, and, hence, the hazard proteins can be facilitated in two ways: by of atherosclerosis. However, the main additional increase in the concentration ofthe consequence is the possibility of rapid utilization hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice, or by offats, i.e.. switching ofmetabolism from the gastronomic pre-treatment of the foods. The carbohydrate type to the lipid type. former type appears to have been implemented by indigenous residents ofthe North to biological Lipids in the Traditional "Arctic Diet" capacity. In the course of evolution ofthe "high As to gastronomy, residents ofthe middle latitude" type of adaptation there has developed a latitudes are more used to heat treatment of the specific type of"polar metabolism". This type of foods containing animal proteins (frying, boiling). metabolism is characterized by an augmented The above involves destruction ofthe quaternary energy role oflipids and proteins with a less and tertiary protein structures, which renders impoliant role of the carbohydrates arriving from proteins more readily assimilable. However, the ambient environment. Accordingly, medical partial denaturation of proteins (involving the specialists define this type of nutrition as "protein­ secondary, and even the primary structures ofthe lipid". molecule) can be attained in a different way: via The lack of exogenous carbohydrates increasing the acidity of the product itself and (those arriving with food) in the indigenous people exposing it to the impact ofproteases. The above ofthe Arctic is partially compensated by process provides the biochemical basis of cooking increasing intensity of the formation of "fermented" food, widespread in the kitchen of the carbohydrates from non-carbohydrate products in Chukchi and Eskimos. Whaling products vary in the organism (Pan in, 1987). Those endogenous terms of their suitability for the cooking of carbohydrates ensure some ofthe body fermented food. Yupik believe that only the meat requirements for "rapid" energy. of the bowhead whale can be fermented - gray whaling fails to yield the product suitable for this Nevertheless, the basic human energy method of cooking (Bogoslovskaya. 200 I, equilibrium in the high latitudes is provided by the personal communication). metabo Iism oflipids, and the proportion of the

Vol. 17, No. I 2003. Page: 129 Anthropology of East Europe Re\ iC\\ energy obtained as a result of carbohydrate It has been found, however, that in Arctic oxidation remains relatively small (Krylov, 19S0; marine hunters consuming the greatest quantities Kushnerova et aI., 1990). In the residents of the of animal fats, the level of blood serum cholesterol temperate climate zone this type of metabolism is is not higher, and frequently even lower, than that periodically used as a reserve type of metabolism; in other Arctic dwellers: taiga hunters and it is switched on when the body needs intake of reindeer-herders (review: Kozlov and Vershubsky, augmented amounts of energy. 1999). The level of cholesterol, beta-lipoprotein, and triglycerides in the blood serum of marine In addition to the energy value, the fat of hunters is also substantially lower compared with marine mammals, fish and waterfowl in the diet of that of urban residents (Bang and Dyerberg, 1981). the high latitudes performs some other important Accordingly, the incidence of atherosclerosis in functions. According to the data of biochem ical northerners leading a traditional mode of life studies, the requirements of indigenous northerners proves much lower than that in the "modernized" for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) is somewhat urban population. higher compared with that in the residents of the temperate climate. Northerners, who stick to the The studies performed in the last third of traditional mode of nutrition, use the "marine the 20th century explained the fact ofthe type" fats as the main source of fat-soluble paradoxically low level of lipids in the blood vitamins, including vitamin D, ensuring protection serum of northern indigenous people despite their from rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. traditionally fat-rich diet. For ecological reasons, the availability of A major factor to prevent excessive animal fats in residents ofthe mainland tundra and increase in the concentration of lipids in the blood the seacoast differs. is input in the body ofsufficient amount of polyunsaturated fat acids (PUF A). Similar to any The usual food of Reindeer Chukchi is animal, thc human body cannot synthesize PUF A reindeer meat, whereas Coastal Chukchi consume and has to obtain them from the outside. The "sea meat," i.e., the meat ofmarine mammals. [t equilibrium of food-contained saturated (SF A) and should be noted that the latter is the favorite food unsaturated fatty acids is responsible for the of the entire Chukchi people, probably, because it assimilation of the fat by the body and its contains more fat. Reindeer Chukchi, who for a nutritional properties. Livestock products contain long time do not see whale fat, are very avaricious 3-11 times more SF A compared with those of of it and ready to pay any price for it. In spring, whal ing (Bogoslovskaya et aI., 1997). when Reindeer Chukchi are visited by coastal traders, traditional treatment begins and whale fat The polyunsaturated fatty acids are is served. Similarly, "the meat ofmarine heterogeneous. Particularly important for the mammals is offered to anyone as the best functioning ofbiological systems are omega-6 and delicacy," testified W.G.Bogoras in the early 20th omega-3 polyunsaturated fat acids. Omega-6­ century (1904). Acquisition ofthe products of PUF A is contained in the majority of food marine hunting by the communities of tundra vegetative oils and is also concentrated in reindeer-herders, trading ofmeat and fat of marine domestic animal's meat and fat, primarily, in the mammals remain to date an important element of pork. Omega-3-PUF A (mainly produced by trad itional subsistence ofthe indigenous marine algae) belongs to the so-called "marine popUlation ofChukotka (Korf and Khotimchenko, type fats". Their content is particularly high in the 1990; Bogoslovskaya, 2001, personal cod-liver oil and is considerable in the meat of communication). marine mammals: seals, walruses, and whales. Apparently, the input in the organism of Omega-6 and omega-3-PUF A are vast amounts of fat, characteristic of the trad itional involved in the synthesis of prostaglandins "Arctic kitchen" should bring about an increase in (Jorgensen et aI., [986; Salem, 1989). Generally, the concentration of lipids in the blood serum. An prostaglandins associated with omega-6-PUF A increase in cholesterol level in the blood is stimulate cell growth, initiate inflammatory particularly hazardous. That lipid does is not responses, and also promote augmented blood involved in metabolic processes in the arterial wall viscosity. Respectively, the consumption of large and directly damages it, which causes quantities of fats and oils containing omega-6­ atherosclerosis. PUFA increases the risk of development of heart ischemic disease, and presumably promotes development of carcinogenic diseases.

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Prostaglandins, whose formation involves omega- northerners, the proportion of ' 'market food" in the 3-PUF A, essentially reduce the risk of diet of Eskimos and Chukchi increased. In 1952 development of cardiovascular diseases, and 54% of daily intake of energy in the Eskimos of presumably provide extra protection against NW Greenland was provided by traditional malignant tumors. subsistence food, and by 1991 that proportion decreased to 25% (Pars et aI., 200 I). In the case of their traditional lifestyle, marine hunters are ecologically on the upper floor The food composition changed ofthe food pyramid. Accordingly, the Siberian accordingly. Table I presents the results of studies Yupik and Chukchi accumulate the basic nutrients of the basic nutrients by the Inuit of North­ provided by algal producers and animal consumers Western Greenland in 1908 and 1972, and of lower orders. Due to the large quantities ofmeat Chukotka Yupik in 1989, in comparison with and fat of marine mammals consumed, the Danish population (Krogh and Krogh, 1913; composition of blood serum lipids in Greenland Helms, 1972; Bang and Dyerberg, 1981; Inuit, Siberian Yupik and coastal Chukchi is close Klochkova et aI., 1990). The average amounts of to the respective indices of their food - meat and protein, fat and carbohydrate (caloric %) in the diet food of marine mammals (Dyerberg et aI., 1975; ofNW Greenland Inuit in 1908 can be regarded as Gerasimova et aI., 1991). In fact, the content of the baseline nutrition type characteristic of the omega-6-PUF A and the ratio of omega-6-PUFA to traditional diet ofthe marine hunters of the Arctic. omega-3-PUFA in Yupik are significantly lower In 65 or 70 years the Inuit nutrition structure has compared to that in the "white" residents of the undergone considerable changes. The ratio of basic same built -up areas (Young et aI., 1999). nutrients clearly approached that characteristic of Surprisingly, in a certain sense, the belief of the Danish urban population of early 1970s. Canadian Inuit is supported, according to which For a number of reasons, the the blood of the consumed marine mammal "westernization" ofthe lifestyle and nutrition becomes component of the human blood, lending changes in the indigenous people of Chukotka the necessary properties to the individual (Borre, have been proceeding slower than those in the 1991). It should be noted that the milk of Inuit Inuit of Alaska, Canada and Greenland. The females that stick to the traditional type of diet analysis of the diet composition of Siberian Inuit also contains large amounts of omega-3-PUFA performed in the second half of 1980s (Klochkova (Innis and Kuhnlein, 1988). Thus, immediately et aI., 1990) revealed that the ratio of proteins, fats upon birth the infant organism starts receiving and carbohydrates in the diet of Siberian Inuit polyunsaturated fatty acids, "preparing itself' for differs from that in the traditional diet, but has not transition to the "adult" diet. yet reached the values specific for the The consumption of"marine type fats" "modernized" natives of Greenland (Table I). leads to a change in the balance of blood serum Inclusion of the "market food" into the cholesterol fractions in favor ofhigh-density daily diet of indigenous northerners and utilization lipoproteins (HDL). HDL shows less damaging of the dishes ofthe ethnic kitchen varies with effect on the vessel wall compared with low­ occupation, age and gender. The diets of density liporoteins - LDL. The low level ofblood representatives of different age categories of serum cholesterol in Inuit, Aleuts, and coastal coastal Chukchi and Siberian Yupik differ Chukchi is associated with prevalence in their diet significantly. The members of the category ofomega-3-PUFA (Dyerberg et aI., 1977; Young comprising indigenous people aged 10-30-years et aI., 1995; Young et aI., 1999). mostly stick to the "European" diet, whereas the Changes in Food Composition Due to Chukchi and Yupik older than 30 years of age "Modernization" prefer the traditional diet (Fomenko, 1990). The available data are also indicative of gender and Modernization ofthe Inuit life style social differences in the diet of modern Inuit. brings about natural change in nutrition. At the Judging from indirect evidence, male hunters of first stages, involvement ofthe "European" Greenland consume more whale than female Inuit kitchen elements depended on the intensity of (Bang and Dyerberg, 1981; Robert-Lamblin, contacts with representatives of"Western" culture 1986). primarily determined by geographical availability (Mikkelsen and Sveistrup, 1941). With expansion However, it will be remembered that age ofthe communication network and increasing roles ofthe traditional food are differently "westernization" ofthe lifestyle of indigenous manifested in the indigenous people of the taiga

Vol. 17. No.1 2003, Page: 131 Anthropology of East Europe Rev ie\\ and tundra, on the one hand, and marine hunters, In addition to prostaglandins associated on the other. Due to their team activity pattern and with omega-6-PUFA,which increase the risk of specific traditions of prey distribution between the heart ischemia, they seem to develop a favorable members of the community, marine hunters show background for the distribution ofoncologic less differentiation in nutrition within the group diseases. During the last two decades an increase compared with reindeer-herders and taiga hunters in the incidencc of cancer has bcen recorded in and fishermen. Accordingly, the administrative indigenous residents ofthe north, including restriction of marine hunting or its economical Chukotka natives (Gaudette et aI., 1991; Kustov et impossibility is harmful to the entire community. aI., 1991; Shephard and Rode, 1996). The relationship between the growth of oncologic The Health Consequences of Transition to diseases and lack of equilibrium between omega-3 "Market Food" and omega-6 fatty acids in northern populations Urbanization and "westernization" of the lacks thorough study. lifestyle of indigenous northerners are combined Transition to the "European" nutritional with an increasing proportion ofthe market food in style exerts a detrimental effect on the fitness of the diet (Shephard and Rode, 1996; Kozlov and Chukchi and Eskimo children (Prachin, 1982). Vershubsky, 1999; Kozlov, 2002). Accordingly, Due to lower input of fats they develop residents of big built-up areas of Alaska and disturbances of vitamin equilibrium associated Chukotka show higher levels of total cholesterol with lack of fat-soluble vitam ins and a decrease in and cholesterol of HDL lipoproteins compared the development of 0 vitamin. In that case with those in indigenous n0l1herners dwelling in hypovitaminoses are not always compensated for remote isolated northern villages ofthe same by an increase in the intake of daily doses of regions (Maynard, 1976; Voevoda et a!., 1987). synthetic vitam ins. More "westernized" Inuit of Canada show significantly higher cholesterol level compared The hazard of development of with that of the population of Chukotka (Young et hypovitaminoses remains in those cases where aI., 1995). consumption of animal proteins and fats by indigcnous nOl1herners rcmains high (by The type of nutrition characteristic of "European" standards), but the products of marine modern urban residents and increasingly common hunting are replaced by beef, pork, chicken. For in the communities of Eskimos and Chukchi instance, the content of vitamin A in the beef is 5.5 brings about substantial lack of equilibrium times lower than that in the meat of the white between fats with different fractions of whale, (Freeman et aI., 1998). Accordingly, only polyunsaturated fatty acids. The ratio of omega-6 14.5% of the examined Inuit women on a "mixed", to omega-3-PUFA to the diet of modem urban partly "westernized" diet receive the recommended residents ranges from 15: 1 to 10: 1, whereas that in quantity of vitamin A with food (Kuhnlein, 1989). gatherers has been found to range from 4:1 to 2:1 (Weil,2000). "Traditional" and "Market" Food Consumption by Marine Hunters ofChukotka With reduction of the proportion of meat Today and fat of marine mammals in the diet, the favorable ratio of fatty acids in the lipids of blood As revealed by our surveys of2000-2002, serum in the Chukchi and Yupik is disturbed (Korf today the pattern of nutrition ofthe indigenous and Khotimchenko, 1990). The consumption of people ofthe Russian North is determined by two fats and proteins in the diet of"modernized" major factors. The first is the traditional kitchen of indigenous northerners remains high by the northern natives and its present-day natural European standards, but the traditional "marine evolution bringing it closer to the "westernized" type" fats containing omega-3-PUFA are type of nutrition. The second factor is economic, substituted by fats with a predominant content of which impels many of the indigenous northerners omega-6 fatty acids. In fact, in 1997-98 female to return to traditional food, since a market is not Inuit ofthe Buffin Island used about 86 g of fat available. The above factors are directed daily, 56 gout of which amount was accounted for differently, and differences in types ofnutrition by purchased fat, largely vegetative oil and have been increasing even within a single margarine (Kuhnlein, 1991). It raises the levels of community. Better well-off northerners have cholesterols and triglycerides ofblood serum and increasingly preferred the "European" diet (in causes subsequent development of atherosclerosis. "Russian" version). For the poor members of indigenoLls communities, hunting, fishing and

Vol. 17, No. I 2003. Page: 132 Anthropology of East Europe Review gathering of wild plants again become an products of marine hunting occurred. In fact, important element of life support. replacement ofthe meat and fat of the walrus by respective products ofseal hunting results in As shown by our studies of2000-2002, decline ofthe resources of "fermented" food, the diet of indigenous people ofthe Russian North whose importance for the health of indigenous today is determined by two major factors. The first people has already been mentioned. is the evolution of traditional kitchen of northern aborigines in the modern world, which leads to Judging from the surveys conducted by similarity with the "westernized" diet patterns. The other authors (Ainana et a1.2002) and one ofthe second factor is economic, which forces a large authors of the present paper (E.Z.), the indigenous proportion of northerners to "classic" traditional people ofthe coastal regions of Chukotka would diet due to the fact that "market" food can hardly like the harvest of marine mammals to be be afforded. These vectors are directed differently, considerably increased. They believe that such an and the differences in diet types increase even increase would permit them to substantially within a single community. The northerners who augment the food situation in the communities. are better off financially, and particularly urban and there are grounds for that. residents. increasingly prefer the "European" diet During the resent years, the quotas for the (in Russian version). For poor members of harvest of marine mammals in the Chukchi indigenous communities, who account for the bulk Autonomous Region have not been completely of the indigenous population of the Russian North, utilized. judging from the number of harvested hunting, fishery and gathering becomes a vital seals, walrus and cetaceans: in 1998 the quotas element of their life support. were utilized by 37.5'/;): in 2000. by 60.9% The political and economic development (Podgainy, Zdor, 200 I ). The attempts ofsome in Russia in the late 1980s - early 1990s resulted stakeholders of the International Whaling in a dramatic decline in marine hunting for the Commission (lWC) to ban or to sharply reduce the needs of indigenous people. UnfOliunately. the harvest of the gray and bowhead whales by the present communication can only provide official indigenous people of Chukotka and Alaska were statistic data. and indirect evidence available neutralized parily because for the first time in the suggests that these data are largely distorted. last decades IWC was otTered medico-biological Today, under the project "Nutrition and Health of substantiation of the need of whaling products for Northern Indigenous Peoples -Interactions with the health of the indigenous people (Kozlov, Ethnicity, Social Status and Environment" 2002). For the period between 2003 and 2007 the (NUHIP), we have been conducting research quotas remained the same (for Chukotka. 135 gray aimed to provide some more objective and 5 bowhead whales per year). Thus. today. information. coastal Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos are authorized to almost double their production of According to the Department of marine hunting. Unfortunately. this opportunity Agriculture, Food and Trade of the Chukchi has some negative aspects. Autonomous Region, the year 1996 became critical, when the amount of food meat of the When the environment is polluted harvested cetaceans and pinnipeds accounted for industrially, the meat and fat of marine mammals only 58.5% of the indices of 1985: 964.0 against become peculiar "accumulators" of stable toxic 164 7.7 tons. By the year 1998. the harvest of pollutants. In particular, northerners receive marine mammals increased to stay at a virtually polychlorbiphenyls (PCB) with the fat of cetaceans stable level ever since (Podgainy. Zdor. 2001 ). In and walrus, which may cause barrenness, 2000 the harvest volume in terms of Iive mass was congenital development defects. neoplasms and 2145, which yielded 1026.2 tons of food meat other serious diseases (Revich, 200 I). Even in the Cfable 2). case of a modem, partly "westernized" diet, about 10% of women and 15% of male marine hunters The increase in marine hunting in the late among Canadian Inuit receive PCBs in quantities 1990s-2000s was essentially accounted for by exceeding the maximum admissible level (I intensification of the harvest of small pinnipeds. microgram per Kg of the body mass per day). In a primarily ringed seal. and to a less extent, larger number of cases, the entry of PCBs with food is seals: (larga and the bearded seal), which was four times higher than the maximum allowable conducted by local people both in teams and on an level (Kuhnlein, 1989). individual basis. Accordingly, some dramatic structural changes in the consumption of the

Vol. 17. No.1 2003. Page: 133 In such conditions, an increase in the numerous traditions. knowledge and skills as well consum ption of meat and fat of marine mammals as natural resources. No complete return to may lead to an increase in toxic effects in the traditional subsistence is possible today, but it is communities of marine hunters. The PCB is only necessary to seek equilibrium between an example. Heavy metals and chlororganic traditionalism and modernism. compounds are no less hazardous to the indigenous people of the Arctic (Revich, 2001; References Cited Kuhnlein et aI., 2000). During the recent years the Ainana A. I. Blokhin SA, Borodin R.G., marine hunters of Chukotka frequently recorded Yetylin V.M., et aI., 2002, A feasibility walrus and seals with various defects of study for the harvest of gray and bowhead development and "ill odor and texture" of meat whales to meet the cultural, traditional and fat (Bogoslovskaya, 2001, personal and nutritional requirements of the communication). The local people associate such indigenous people ofChukotka for the deviations with possible impact of industrial years 2003-2007. RF, 32 p. (in Russian). pollutants, but according to Danish researchers, only 1% of Greenland marine hunters believe Bang H.O. and Dyerberg J. 1981, The lipid marine hunting products containing chemical metabolism in Greenlanders. Meddelelser pollutants may be hazardous to humans (Pars et om Granlanel, Man & Society, 2. 18 pp. al.,2001). Berezovikova J.P., Mamleeva F.R.,200 I, An increase in the harvest of marine mammals Traditional foods in the diet ofChukotka should be combined with measures on the hygienic natives. intern. J. Circumpolar Health, 60 control of the quality of the products obtained by (2): 138-142. each community. These hygienic measures are to Bogoras W.G., 1904, The Chukchee. Memoirs be accompanied by adequate information support: of the American Museum of Natural the indigenous people should be fully aware ofthe History, vol.II, 1904-1909. possible risks. Bogoslovskaya L., Aleinikov P. and Safronov Conclusion S., 1997, Nutritive value of Gray Whaling products. In: Role ofgray whaling in the Today, traditional types of feeding formation of the modem lifestyle ofthe characteristic of the indigenous population ofthe indigenous population of Chukotka. North are exposed to substantial transforn1ation. Scientific Report ofthe U5'SRfor the The causes ofthat are both the complex changes international Whaling Commission associated with modernization and natural factors (Suppl. 3): 53-69. (environmental pollution, reduction in the areas of traditional nature management and depletion of BOlTe K., 1991, Seal blood, 1nu it blood and resources). Modernization effects include social, diet: a biocultural model of physiology economic and ethnic heterogeneity oftraditional and cultural identity. Med. Anthropol. communities. Their consequences are formation of Quart., 51: 48-62. professional, age, and gender differences in nutrition in the communities of the indigenous Damas D., 1984, Arctic. Handbook of North people ofthe North. American Indians, Vol. 5. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute. Some specific consequences of modernization are theweakening and even Dyerberg J., Bang H.O. and Hjorne N.,1975, destruction of the ancient medico-biological and Fatty acid composition ofthe plasma cultural adaptations. Such maladaptation involves lipids in Greenland Eskimos. Am. J. Clin. various aspects of the life of indigenous Nutr., 28: 958-966. northerners, but it is the most pronounced with Dyerberg J., Bang H.O. and Hjorne N.,1997, respect to nutrition. Plasma cholesterol concentration in The economic collapse ofthe Caucasian Danes and Greenland west infrastructure of the northern regions of Russia has coast Eskimos. Dan. A1ed. Bull., 24: 52­ resulted in numerous indigenous northerners again 55. addressing the traditional subsistence methods. Over the last 3-4 generations they have been increasingly adapted to a modernized diet and lost

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Fomenko A.V.,1990, Some features in the Klochkova E.V., Yadryshnikova E.K., nutrition ofthe indigenous population of Filimonova T.A. and Mamleeva F.R., the coastal regions ofChukotka. In: 1990, Peculiarities of nutrition and lipids Peculiarities ofTherapeutic Disease in indigenous people of Chukotka and Incidence and their Prevention in Buryatia. In: Peculiarities ofTherapeutic Residents o(Chukotka. Anadyr. 62-63. (in Disease Incidence and their Prevention in Russ.). Residents ojChukotka. Anadyr. 22-23. (in Russ.). Foote D.C.,1970, An f:skimo sea-mammal and cariboll-hunt ing economy: human Kozlov A., 2002, Nutritional ecology. MNEPU ecology ill lerms ojenergy. VIII ICAES, Pub!., Moscow. (in Russ.). VoI.III. Kozlov A.I.,2002, Whaling products as an Freeman M.M.R., Bogoslovskaya L., Caulfield essential element of indigenous diet in R.A., Egede I., Krupnik 1.1. and Chukotka. Paper SCI541023 of Stevenson M.G.,1998. Inuit, whaling, and International Whaling Commission. sustainanility. AltaMira Press, Walnut Scientific Committee meeting. Cambridge, Creek-London-New Delhi. UK, April 2002. 17 pp. Garine, I. de.,1994, The diet and nutrition of Kozlov A. and Vershubsky G., 1999, Medical human populations. In: T. Ingold (ed.), anthropology ojthe native inhanitants of Companion encylopedia o(anthropof.,'Y. the North ojRussia. MNEPU Pub!., London: Routledge: 226-264. Moscow. (in Russ.). Gaudette L.A., Dufour R., Freitag S. and Miller Korf 1.1. and Khotimchenko S.A., 1990, The A.,1991, Cancer patterns in the Inuit low level of cholesterol and peculiarities population of Canada. In: B.D.Postl et al. of fatty-acid composition of the blood (eds.). Circumpolar Health 90. Winnipeg, plasma in different groups ofChukotka Canadian Society for Circumpolar Health. population as a consequence of utilization 443-446. of in their diet of marine hunting products. In: Peculiarities oj Therapelilic Gerasimova A., Perova N., Ozerova I., Polesky Disease Incidence and their Prel"ent iO/l in V., Metelskaya V., Sherbakova I., Residents o(Chukotka. Anadyr. 30-31 (in Levachev M., Kulakova S., Nikitin Y. Russ.). and Astakhova T., 1991, The effect of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on Krogh A. and Krogh M., 1913, A study of the HDL cholesterol in Chukot residents vs diet and metabolism of Eskimos Muscovites. Lipids, 26: 261-265. undertaken in 1908 on an expedition to Greenland. Afedd. om Gronland, 51 (1): Helms P., 1975, Kosten i Danmark. Ugeskr. 1-52. Laeg., 137: 2145-2151. Krupnik 1.1., 1989, Arctic ethno-ecology. Innis S.M. and Kuhnlein H.V., 1988, Long­ Nauka Publ., Moscow. (in Russ.). chain n-3 fatty acids in breast milk of Inuit women consuming traditional food. Krylov V.I.,1980, Peculiarities of changes in Early Hum. Dev., 18: 185-189. carbohydrate-lipid metabolism undcr conditions of the North. Human Jorgensen K.A., Nielsen A.H. and Dyerberg Physiology, 2: 274-279. (in Russ.). J., 1986, Hemostatic factors and renin in Greenland Eskimos on a high Kuhnlein H. V., 1989, Nutritional and eicosapentaenoic acid intake: results of toxicological components ofInuit diets il1 the Fifth Umanak Expedition. Acta Med. Broughton Island, Northwest Territories. SCLlnd., 219: 473-479. Contract report to Department of Health, NWT, Yellowknife. McGill Univ. 110+24 pp. Kuhnlein H.V.,1991, Nutrition ofthe Inuit: a brief overview. Intern. J. Circumpol. Health, 50: 728-730.

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Kuhnlcin H.Y., Receveur 0., Chan H.M. and Pogorazdov Y. Y., J990. Some peculiarities of Loring E.,2000, Assessment oldietar), gastric diseases in the indigenous people henefit/risk in Inuit communities. CINE, ofChukotka. In: Peculiarities ol McGill Univ. Therapeutic Disease Incidence and their Prevention in Residents olChukotka. Kushnerova N.F., Bulanov AE. and Fomenko Anadyr. 47. (in Russ.). S.E., 1990, Comparative characterization ofbiochemical parameters olthe h/ood of Prachin E.!., 1987, Nutrition and health of healthy people depending on ethnic it)'. children under conditions of Siberia and Vladivostok, Far Eastern Branch. USSR the North. In: K.R.Sedov (ed.). Topical Academy of Sciences, Pacific Institute of Prohlems olthe Development and Oceanology and Oceanogrpahy. (in Pre}'entio17 ofChildren '.I' Diseases under Russ.). Conditions ofSiberia, Eytreme North and Far East. Krasnoyarsk. Institute of Kustov v.1., Roslyakov A.G. and Marochko Medical Problems of the North. 6-8. (in A.U., 1991, Stomach cancer among the Russ.). aboriginal population of the Soviet Far East: an epidemiological study. In: Rennie D.W., Covino 8.G., Blair M.R. and B.D.Postl et al. (eds.) Circumpolar Rodah I K.,] 962, Physical regu lation of Health 90. Winnipeg, Canadian Society temperature in Eskimos. J Appl. Physiol., for Circumpolar Health. 468-469. 17.326-332. Larsen F. and Oldenburg R.,2000, Food in Revich B.A., 2001, EI7l'ironmental pollutio/l Southern Greenlandjor 1000 years. and human health. Moscow., MNEPU (in Forlaget Hovedland. Russian). Mikkelsen E. and Sveistrup P.P.,1944, The Robert-Lamblin J., 1986, Ammassalik, East East Greenlanders possibilities of Greenland - end or persistence of an existence, their production and isolate? Anthropological and consumption. lvleddelelser om Gronlond, demographical study on change. 134 (2): 245 pp. jVieddelelser om Gronland. Man & Society, 10. 168 pp. Orekhov K.V., 1987, Medico-biological problems of the health of peoples of the Shephard RJ. and Rode A,1996, The health North. In: V.l. Soiko, Yu.P. Nikitin. A.!, consequences ol"modernization 1/: Solomakha (ed.). Prohlems ofModern Evidence from circumpolar peoples. Social Development ofthe Peoples olthe Cambridge University Press. North. Novossibirsk, Nauka. 217-223. (in The Small Indigenous Nations ofNorthern Russ.). Russia.,] 999, Dmitry A.Funk and Panin L.E., 1987, Rational nutrition in the Lennard Sillanpaa (eds.). Abo Akademi North - the basis of primary prevention. University: Social Science Research Unit. In: V.I. Boiko, Yu.P. Nikitin, A.!, Pub!. No 29. Solomakha (cd.). Prohlems ofModern Yoevoda M.l., Astachova T.!. and Filimonova Social Development ofthe Peoples ofthe T.A., 1990, Intrapopulational differences North. Novossibirsk. Nauka. 223-230 (in at the level of blood lipids in indigenous Russ.). people ofChukotka In: Peculiarities of Pars T., Osler M. and Bjerregaard P.,2001, Therapeulic Disease Incidence and their Contemporary use oftraditional and Prevention in Residents olChukotka. imported food among Greenlandic Inuit. Anadyr. 59-60. (in Russ.). Arctic, 54 (1): 22-31. Weil A.,2000, Eating ~wellj()r optimum health. Podgrainy V., Zdor E., 200 I, Marine hunting Alfred A.Knopt~ New York. in the Chukchi Autonomous Region in Wein E.E. and Freeman M.M.R.,1992, the year 2000. Some results oftraditional Inuvialuit food use and food preferences harvest of marine mammals. Anadyr, in Aklavik, NWT, Canada. Arct. Med. Departmt ofAgriculture, Food and Res., 51 (4): 159-172. Trade, Chukchi Autonomous Region. 24 p. (in Russian).

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Young T.K.. Cien'ard J.M. and O'Neil J.D., 1999, Plasma phospholipid fatty acids in the Central Canadian Arctic: biocultural explanations for ethnic differences. Amer. .J. Phys. Anthropol., 109 (I): 9-18. Young T.K" Nikitin Y.P., Shubnikov E.V., Astakhova T.L Moffatt M.E.K. and O'Neil 1. D., \995, Plasma lipids in two indigenous Arctic populations with low risk for cardiovascular diseases. Am. .J. Hum. BioI., 7: 223-236.

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Table 1 Average amounts of protein, fat and carbohydrate (caloric %) in the diet ofNW Greenland Inuit inl908 and 1974 in comparison with Siberian Yupik in 1989, and Danish population in 1972 Ethnic group and year of investigation Protein Fat Carbohydrate Inuit, NW Greenland, 1908 44 47 8 Inuit, NW Greenland, 1974 26 37 37 Yupik, Chukotka, 1989 32 42 26 Denmark, 1972 11 42 47

Table 2 Consumption ofthe products of marine hunting by indigenous people ofChukotka, in the year 2000, in tons (source: Ainana et aL. 2002)

Marine mammals Food meat Entrails Fat Large bones Cetaceans 293.3 139.6 160.8 419.5 Pinnipeds (total) 583.0 179.9 138.7 79.9 out of which number: Ringed seal 97.3 -­ -­ -­ Bearded seal 72.2 -­ -­ -­ Walrus 413.5 -­ -­ -­