*Aerospace Education: Aerospace Industry; *Aircraft Pilots; Aviation

DOCUMENT RESUME

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AUTHOR Steenblik, Jan W., rd. TTTLE Air & Space, Vclume 3, Number 5, May-June 1980. INSTITUTION Smithson4an Inst4tution, Washington,D.C. National Air And Space,Museum. PUB CATE 80 NOT? 17v.: Photographs may rot reproduce well.

EDES PPICF MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DEBCPIPTORS *Aerospace Education: Aerospace Industry; *Aircraft Pilots; Aviation Technology: *Flementary Secondary Education: Engineering: *Museums; Physical Sciences: Science Activities; Science Education; Scientific research: *Space Exploration: Space Sciences IDENTIEIEPS Parachutes

ABSTRACT This issue is devoted to parachutes throughout man's involvement in flight. Student activitiesare described in which the constructicn of parachutes is encouraged. Women parachutistsare highlighted. ISA)

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*********************************************************************** * PepreArctions supplied by BVPS are the bem+ that can be made * .* frem ths original document. * *********************************************************************** U S DEPARTMENT OF WEALTH, EDUCATION I WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO. DuCED ExAC 'Ls, AS RE-ElyED F ROM National Air & Space Museum THE PERSON OR ORGANIZAT ION ORIGIN- Smithsonian Institution ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE- SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE oF Vol. 3, No. 5May-June 1980 EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

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P A R ACHUTES n December 19, 1972, astronauts Eugene A. Cer- U.S. astronauts and test animals that rode wingless nan, Ronald E. Evans, and Harrison H. Schmitt rockets into space returned safely to Earth by parachute. came hurtling back to Earth in the Apollo 17 Command Today, thowiands of skydivers in pursuit ofsport and Module. They had traveled 800,000 kilometers (500,000 recreation stake their lives on the high reliability of miles) through the emptiness ofspace, had walked and modern parachute equipment. Above right,a competitor driven upon the Moon. Whether their lunar landing at the 1976 U.S. Parachuting Championships stompsa mission would end in triumph or tragedynow depended 10-centimeter (4-inch) disc in accuracy. competition. on three tightly packed bundles of cloththe Command Tne jumper's double-surfaced "ram-air"or "square" Module's parachutes. parachute canopy creates aerodynamic lift likean air- All three Apollo 17 paracItutes workedas designed plane wing. The canopy scoops air with itsopen leading (above left), and the astronauts splashed down safely in edge to pressurize and maintain its airfoil shape. That the Pacific Ocean. shape makes possible highly maneuverable flightspeeds The parachuteoriginally conceivedfordescents up to 32-48 kilometers (20-30 miles) per hour, gliding centuries before successful human flighthas been de- more than 3 meters forward for every meter of descent, veloped into a highly reliable mechanical devicein and braking to stand-up landingson one foot. More on recent decades. Like the crew of Apollo 17, all previous parachutes, page 4. 2. SCAN For brevity, the National Alr and Space Museum Is often referred to In these pages as NASM. The National Aeronau- tics and Space Administration is NASA. Briefing Air & Space, a mini-magazine for educators, is published every other month, September through May, as Noel W. Hinners an outreach of the National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Insti- Director, NASM tution, Washington, DC. Air & Space combines information from many sources for a con- densed overview of the history, science, technology, and social lm- pact of selected aviation and space subjects.

MUSEUM HOURS UntilLabor 1Day (September 1), the One of the earliest fears detectable in babies is that of falling. As we Museum NeW1 be open from 10 a.m. to grow up, we try to protect ourselves against the dangers of falling, 9 p.m.; starting September 2, Museum either by avoiding situations that threaten to make us fall, or by hours will be 10 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. The easing the effect of a fall. Having acComplished that, we then seem ,to Museum is open to the public every get a special thril out of testing ourselves against those fears, even tnt, day of the.year except Christmas. the point at times of flirting with death. Since most of us have no SPECIAL PRESENTATIONS particular desire to exceed the bounds of survivalit is exceedingly CALENDAR more pleasant to-äpproach the limit and survive in sufficient health to The NASM Special Presentations Cal- brag about the accomplishmentwe frequently call on mechanical endar is issued quarterly and is avail- aids to give us a desirable margin of safety. Thus some 500 years ago able without charge to the general did an "engineer" design the first known "guard", against a "fall" public. To be put on the mailing list, (possibly the fall awaiting those who leaped in desperation from burn- send your name and address to Quar- ing buildings). If you were a linguist of the day, you could combine terly Calendar, Presentations Division, the equivalent Latin parare (to guard against) with the French chute NationalAir andSpace Museum, (a fall) and coin the word parachute. - Washington, DC 20560. Today, the parachutethe theme of this issue of Air & Space PHOTOCOPYING PAGES serves not only to rescue people from aerial^emergencies (as it has for Air & Space may be freely photocopied over 200,000 persons to date).It also enables aerial adventurers to for classroom 'use. Commercial inter- experience the thrill of extended freefall (skydiving), live to tell about ests and other publications wishing to it, and do it again! reprint material should mail request We've come a long way in the past seven decades in the use of (address op back cover). parachutes. Used sparingly in World War I, they were greatly'improved during the 1920s and '30s. Parachutes were used extensively in World Air & Space Registration War II for both escape from damaged airplanes and the rapid delivery Current recipients of Air & Space of men and supplies to the battlefield. During the postwar period, areregisteredfor ihe coming with the advent of high-speed aircraft, the parachute became indis- school year. For changes or cor- pensable for both slowing them down during landing and aiding their rections of address, please send recovery from spins. the mailing label or the coded A relatively new use,, of the parachute during the past 20 years has informationatthe top of the been in the space program, most obviously in aiding the safe descent label, along with the pew ad- of the U.S. and Soviet manned spacecraft returning from Earth orbit. In dress,toAir & Space, Room fact, without parachutes, many of the space missions might not have P-700, NationalAir and Space been possible, because building shock-absorbing material into the Museum, Smithsonian Institu- spacecraft for landing would have added more weight than was allow- tion,Washington, DC 20560. able. In space science programs, the parachute has served an equally Readers receiving unwanted important function, that of slowing down planetary probes to enable duplicates should return the un- soft landings (on Mars by the Viking Lander) or to give them enough wanted label. In view of financial limitations, time to measure the structure and composition 'of the planet under Air & Space is not accepting any study (Pioneer Venus and the Jupiter probe on the Galileo mission). new registrations at this time. Finally, as ycu read this issue of Air & Space, don't 'forget to look at Back issues of Air & Space are the parachute as a work of art. There are few sights prettier than a big, available on microfiche through billowing conical parachute descending, or the graceful, controlled Univ6rsityMicrofilmsInterna- glides of the bright multi-colored rectangular and triangular sport tional, Inc., 300 N. Zeeb Road, canopies that skydivers fly to tiptoe touchdowns within ce timeters Ann Arbor, MI 48106. of a preselected target.

2 Air & space, May-June 10 ,

I. PARACHU have been letting th precious cargoes downgently f r mo than 180 years

by C. G. SweetIng October 22, 1797, from a height of Curator of FlIght Materiel about 640 meters (2100 feet) above Department of Aeronautics, NASM Paris. Garnerin rode in a wicker basket Althoughthe exactorigin ofthe hung from his umbrella-shaped para- parachute is not known, the basic chute. Louis Charlies Guille made the «incept goes bac k severalcenturies. firstparachute descent inthe New The parasol, in use in Assyria 2800 years World in 1819 when he cut away from ago, is believed to have been the in- a balloon flying 152 meters (499 feet) spiration for the parachwe because of over Jersey City, N.J. Many thrilling ex- the resistance itoffered to the wind. hibition descents were made from bal- Lady legends in China and elsewhere loons during the 1800s, but the typical mention experiments withumbrellas parachute was still a bulky, inefficient, and similar devices. What may have stiff-ribbed umbrella that was imprac- been ihe world's fiNt actual parachute tical as an emergency lifesaving device. design was a conical contralition drawn lw an unnamed engineerprobably The Parachute and the Airplane from Sienna, Italy---in the late 1470s or Few early airplane pilots used para- early 1480s. Leonardo da Vinci sketched chutes. Despite many engine and struc- Above: This parachute design, probably a p\ ramid-shaped parachute in14 95 tural failures, most of the pioneer avia- the world's first,is from a sketchbook and described its proposed use: escape tors preferredto take their chances of the late 1470s or early 1480s by an from tall burning buildings. Hungarian with the disabled aircraft. Many pilots unnamed engineer from Sienna, Italy. bishop f austus Verantius publishedan considered parachutes to be unreliable illustration of aparachute square or suitable only for exhibition drops. wooden framework covered \sith fabric To be practical for use with an air- -in his book New Mac hines, printed plane, a parachute had to be relatively in1(, 15-16. There is no proof that any lightweight, compact, strong and, pref- ol !nese designs %sere ever tested. erably, opened by the jumper after he With the invention of the balloon in cleared the aircraft. (Many early para- the cyrIv 1780s (see "The Irwention of chutes were opened by a stotic line,a Lighter-than-Air Craft," May-lune '1979 strong cord connecting the parachute Air ,i)acei, the Para( hute found a pack with the airplane. The static line practical applic anon.I xlubition para- opened the pack as the juniper fell huung spread ac ross Lurope despite away from the aircraft.) the unstahle nature of early parachute Charles Broadwick, a balloonist and canopies. jumper, developed a compact para- Andreda«jues Garnerin, a French- chute that he wore on his body and man, isc redited with making the first used hundreds of times for exhibitions. parac huto descent from a balloon on Leo Stevens-,.also developeda para-

Above: André-Jacques Garnerin made the first parachutedescent from a balloon that he released over Paris on October 22, 1797. Right:Attack by enemy airplanes motivated World War I aerial observers to leap from their tethered balloons.Note the parachute suspension lines pulling the parachute canopy from thecontainer attached to the balloon's rigging. Below: The U.S. Army Type A parachuteintmduced in 1919 was one of the first that could be worn on the body. Wearing the blackhat is Leslie L. "Sky-HI" Irvin, parachute inventor, jumper, and manufacturer. _a&

A/ S Sim( r, M,iy-Junv 1980 investigationsboth remote sensing oft the planet and its satellites, and direct measurement of ionized particles and

' magnetic fields in the magnetosphere , -1-will be repuired to unravel some of the major Jovian mysteries. These include the complex interactions among volcanic gases from lo (Jupiter's most geologically active satellite), the composition and energy-balance of charged particles in the magnetOsphere, and

c,10*. the state of Jupiter's upper atmosphere Vitik and aurorae. Both Probe and Orbiter experiments will allow scientists to follow up on Voyager's discoveries, such as lightning on Jupiter, .the planet's ring system, and the volcanic activity on lo. The Project Galileo spacecraft was designed to be carried to Low Earth Orbit by the Space Transportation Sys- tem (Shuttle Orbiter) and launched. Above: StrOking Intd the turbulent upper layers df Jupiter's primitive atmospherd, the after separation from the Shuttle. NASA Galileo Probe will simultaneously deploy its main parachute and jettison the heat shield originally planned to launch Galileo in that will protect the descent module during atmospheric entry. NASA-sponsored tProject early 1982. The 1982 launch plan, offer- Galileo will bo a two-part unmanned scientific mission to our Solar System'so, largeit planet: the Probe will study the Jovian atmosphere, while the Orbiter will make Nitrified ing favorable planetary positions for observations of Jupiter, its satellites, and magnetosphere. reaching Jupiter via a Mars gravity assist, presented an attractive opportun- More than 375 years after Galileo deep within the atmosphere. The Gali- ityto combine both spacecraft ina Galilei looked through his tele- leo Probe will extend 'our knowledge single, cost-effectivelaunch. (The scope in 1610 and discovered Jupiter's. in' depth, makipg direct measurements Probe andOrbiter would separate four largest satellites (moons), Project of the composition, energjt. Ealance, shortly before reachinj Jupiter.) Galileo--sponsored by NASAwill or- and structure of Jupiter's atmoSphere. HOwever, delays in the Space Trans- bitaspacecraft around lupiter and The Probe will penetrate at least 100 portation System schedule (see pages send a probe deep into that planet's kilometers (62 miles) beloW the visible 8-9) bave made it highly unlikely that at mosphere. cloud layer before it loses contact with thiscombined mission could be The 'purpose of the Galileo mission Earth. The Probe will reach a pres5ure launchedin1982. Nevertheless, the is to smk important information about of 10 to 20 Earth atmospheres. basic Project Galileo objectiveswill the origin pnd evolution of the. Solar Thc? Orbiter will extend our ;knowl- stillbeachievedthroughseparate System. Jupiter's primitive atmosphere edge in time by following the notions launches of the Probe and Orbiter is believed to be a sample of the orig- of Jovian clouds during the 20 er more (similar to the recent Pioneer Venus inalmaterialfrom whichstarsare months in which. itwillreturn data strategy). This will be done by launch- fornwd,stillunmodified by nuclear from orbit abbut JuPiter: The Orbiter's. ing the Orbiter in tearly 1984, when processes. Therefore, scientists are con- improved instrumentation and close Mars is again available (although not in fident that the Jovian -system--Jupiter satellite flybys (10't100 times closer as favorable a position) to provide a and its satellites will rrevea I important than those. of Voyagewill allow much gravity assist. The Probeattached to new insights into large-st ale phenom- more detailed studiesf the four di- the Probe Carrier, a new spacecraft de-

ena thin relate to our understanding of verse Galilean satalles. Several en- signed to relay radio signals from the I. all of the Sun's planets, including Earth. tounters with each satellite wid give Probe back ,toEarthwill then be Project Galileo is designed to- pro-. high-resolutioninformationonthe launched a few weeks later. Arrival of

vide an in-depth study of Jupiter,. its structure and composition of different the Probe will be scheduled so that the four largest (Galilean; satellites, and its areas of the surfaces. The multiple Orbiter may view and characterize the ma,tnetosphere (the space around Jupi- close encounters also will permit prob- Probe entry. ter occupied byitsstrong fnagnetic ing the gravity and the possible mag- ow I field). To conduct allthese observa- netic fields of the satellites, thus pro- tions, two kinds of spacecraft are re- viding clues to their internal structures. ..001.. quired: a probe and an oibitpr. Voyagerprovidedabundantevi- The suc cessfut Voyager missions to dence for many phenomenain the lupiter and its satellite; in 1979 pro- Jovian system that change over time, vided planetary s ( 'enlists with a wealth phenomena that it found in 1979 to be of new information about this «)mpli- changed in many important respects cated systent. The. Voyager results em- sjnce Pioneer 10 and 11 flew by in 1973 ,,phasi/ed theneedfortheunique and 1974. The whole range of Orbiter capahilities that a probe and an orbiter could bring together to lovian scientific Right: Designed for a single launch in 1982, the original Project Galileo concept investiga turns. involved sending the Orbiter and Probe to Voyagerreturnedfascinatingpic- Jupiter as a unit. Nearing Jupiter, the two tures of the motions of the c loudsfl instrument packages would separate, as lupuer'satmosphere;however,the :shown In this artist's rendering. NASA's data suggest that the sour( es of these rvisedplAnscallfortwoseparate complex meteorological movements lie launches in 1984.

Air&Space, May-lune 1980 3 9he aeboarofthe Air/

RUSSELVAPPAMCHuns rot .tswptiss, onus mammas ma men (mitt I7aArominsleo NI co, HUN 4 40444 4,4444 41.4 irr.*WI* TAW 44.21:444.rePtrtrAV:rat ..44. 144. *an :,64.444 4444.4g4440 ro* i4,42 .41"Mr: r jILLTL.4. *NM' 4.4.7 21.47417..iir="Zad 44 01 , PARACI4111 COMFAINV 1ItNM Ine BM. SAN INUIO,CAINFORNIA, IMO% *IP Wk. Ma 44. It.,41*en Inventors have experimented for decades with large parachutes designed to lower ntire airplanes or detachable aircraft cabins to safety. Above: A November 1929 Russell Parachute Company advertisement described its "Valve" parachute as "The 'Lifeboat' of the Air." chute pack carried on the person, and is credited with inventing the ripcord.

. The first "official" parachute jump S. from an airplane flying at full speed 4 was made..on March .1,1912, when 4....sz At% 4. *le Capt.AlbertBerry. iumped from a Benoist biplane over Jefferson Barracks, Mo. Capt. BerriPwas.not an Army avia- tor, but a civilian professional vira- World War II saw the first use of parachutes to swiftly deploy large numbers of Soldiers chutist. -(Early aeronauts and balloon and equipment. Both Axis and Allied paratroopers figured prominently in several key jumpers often used the title "Captain.") campaigns. Inset above: Heavily laden U.S. Army paratroopers, their faces blackened for combat, 'chute up for the invasion of Normandy in June 1944. Above: Parachutes The Parachute in World War I and airborne troops cover a drop zone as an entire battalion of the U.S. Army's 82nd During World War I,the parachine Airborne Division simulates an aerial assault during the 1950s. was used successfully by military aeronauts on both sides Oho were forced veloping the Army Type A parachute, then, thousands ofpeople have ,to leap from the baskets of tethered which was a great improvement over proudly worn the Caterpillar Club lapel observation balloons attacked by en- all previous types. The simplified Army pin, showing that their lives have been emy aircraft. Despite improvements in Type S thm followed the Type A was saved by a parachute. parachutes, few were used by 'Allied the basisfbrallmodern personnel Severalinteresting types of para- airplane pilots during the War. By 1918, parachutes. Parachute containers be- chutes were developed during the 1920s German aviators began using a static came available in three basrc types and '30s. The Russell "Lobe" type was line parachute, designed by Otto Hei- back, seat, and lap packwith the extremely stable and reduced swaying. necke, that was carried on the air- detachable chest pack coming later. The "Triapgle," invented by Major E. L. plane. Many Germansincluding the Lt. Harold R. Harris is credited with Hoffman, director of Army parachute famous ace Ernst Udet, who bailed out making thefirstmilitary emergency development at McCook Field, was of his Fokker in the summer of 1918 parachute jump from an aimlane in not only stable;but steerable, and had saved their lives with this parachute. the United States over McCook Field a forward speed of about 5-8 kilo- Allied pilots began demapding para- on October 20, 1922. Shortly there- meters (3-5 miles) per hour. It was the chutes, too. Developtnent of a para- after, a doh was founded at McCook firstrealsteerable parachute design chute compact enough to be carried Field with membership limited Lo air- and was greatly favored by exhibition aboard small pursuit airplanes began men who had made succecsful emer- jumpers. in earnest. gency parachute jumps. ThiS group eventually evolved into the Caterpillar The Parachute in World War ll The Parachute Comes of Age Club, administerby the Irving Air. During World War II, scientific meth- In 1918, experiments were begun at Chute Company. Leslie Irvin, founder ods and formal engineering techniques the U.S. Army's McCook Field near of the company, chose the silkworm were Used to design new types of para- Dayton, Ohio, to perfect a h.( e freefall caterpillar for the.Club's namesake, as chutes in the United States, England, parachute that could be worn pn the many of the parachutes of the tinw and Germany. body. Floyd Smith and Guy Ball, para- were made of silk. (Today, virtually all Parachutes saved thousands of air- chute pioneers, are credited with de- parachutes are made of nylon.) Since men, lowered supplies and equipment

Alt & Spam May. June 1980 011 5 I I

-4,1 ,V 41

Above: A U.S. Air Force McDonnell-Douglas F-15 Eagle jet fighter deploys a tail. (mounted parachute to aid in recovery from a spin. BeWw: Many high-speed let aircraft, like the U.S. Air. Force North American F-100 Super Sabre Interceptor shown In this 1950s photo, usilmgchutes to shorten their landing rollout. Left: Advances in modern parachute technolo triggered a new variety of sport parachuting called "canopy relative work," in which skYdivlb maneuver gliding parachutes relative to each other to make formations II,ke this five-canoft stack.

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to ground 'troops, and were used ex- United States, smokejumpersair- lift in a manner similar to an airplane' tensively to drop flares. Thousandstsof borne firefightershave beenpara- wing. deadly mines dropped by parachute chuting into remote forest and grass Today, with more than 25,000 active

. sank many ships. . fire areas since 1940. skydivers, the United States is a world The Germans were the 'first to use leader in.the sport. paratroops during World War II, ctrop-. Skydiving ping them into Norway, the Lrew Conn- Skydiving, as present-day sport para- *tries,Greece, and Crete.Large-scale chuting is called,.combines the exhilar- Allied airborne operationsinSicily, ationofflightcompletelyfreeof Normandy, and Northern Europe mechanical assistance with the .capa- Parachute helped speed the end of World War Il.. bility to land on a predetermined spot Technology from thousands of meters in the air. The Parachute Today The development of safe, simple, reli- A parachute is basically a de- Parachuteshavesavedmorethan able equipment allowed parachuting vice for adding to the resistance of a body moving through the 0 200.000 lives. Today, however, several to become the popular Tintitis types of 'parachutes are used for Atari- today. Since the late 1950s, scores of air. ous purposes other than lifesaving. thousands of adventurous athletes have Parachute operationinvolves The National Weather Service uses taken up skydiving. National and inter- three phases: deployment (can- small parachutes to lower radiosonde national competitions have developed, opy and line extension), inftation, instrumentsthathave been carried and in 1)62, James Arender won the and descent. Parachute inflation aloft by balloons, Parachutes slpw rac- first world championship for the United actuallyoccursfromthetop ing cars and high-speed military and States. (crown) of the canopy to the test aircraft on landing. Many modern Now, guided by the U.S. Parachute bottom (skirt). As air rushes into combat aircraft carry a special para- Association and similar national Organ- the-canopy, a ba:l of air is formed chute in their tail sections to assist the i/ations in many foreign countries, the in the top. This ball spreads out- pilot in recovering from a 4iin. sporthas growntremendously.All ward untilthe canopy is com- The United Statk and the Soviet over the world, men and women are pletelyinflated.Everyonehas Union have used paracttesexten- approachingtheage-olddreamof felt the pull or drag of an open sively in their space pro , ams, prind- human flight. They swoop through the umbrella on a windy day. At a certain velocity, when the drag pally for spacecraft recov . special sky at speeds up to 320 kilometers parachute system employina. newly- (200 miles) per hour, wearing small, of the canopy equals the weight ckveloped "disc-gap" type canopy was efficientdeceleration devicesthat of the load, a "terminal veloc- -.used to lower the lander sections of scarcely resemble conventional para- ity" k maintained. two Viking spacecraft through the thin chutes, but which make possible pin- Parachutes may be designed .,.atmosphere of Mars in 1976 (see back pointprecisionlandings after more with a variety of features, de- cover). than a minute of freefall. The tradi- pending on the intended use and The Soviet Union pioneered the use tional round parachute canopies are other factors such as weight of of parachute nwdk al teams that are rapidly being replaced by a variety of the load, terminal velocity, and dropped into remote areas to provide rectangular configurations called desired rate of opening. emergencymedicalservice,Inthe "squares," whichs create aerodynamic

6 Air & Space, Mar.-Apr. 1980 Student Activity Making a Parachute

41, Furnish each group .with a sheet of filmplastic.(Dry-cleaning bagsslit parachute engineers'test parachutes down one side work well.) for many things----for example, rate Instruct students to make a. six-sided of descent, strength, opening reliabil- parachute canopy by cutting the plas- ity, glide angle, stability in air turbu- tic!nto a regular hexagon. Students . lence, degree .of oscillation (how far shouldcarefullycut hexagons with the suspended payload swings from scissors or a modeling knife. side to side), and the time and alti- Tape a piece of nylon sewing thread tuderequiredforthe parachute to or light string to each corner gf the open. ,canopy. The length of the suspension The resultsof these tgts usually lines should be at least 0.7 times the depend on several variables, scichas canopy diameter. the canopy's shape and size,fabric Hold the corners of the canopy to- porosity, line length, suspended gether. Pull the free ends of thesus- weight, and atmospheric conditions pension lines together. Make sure the (temperature, humidity, gustiness). lines are the same length, then tie their Some of thesetestsareeasyto free ends together with a singleover- duplicatewithsmall,Simplepara- hand knot. chutes made.from household materials. Tie a washer, nut, or other small DiVide studentsintosmallgroups, weight to the knot. each group performing itsown tests. 11 Test No. 1: Rate of Descent 10 Set up a procedure for droppinga parachute at least four timesprefer- ably in calm air. Do each drop exactly Test No. 3: PayloadWeighs vs. the same way, from thesame height, Rate of Descent at the same place. Measure the: dis- Try different weights as the payload tance the parachute descerids. Make a for the same parachute canopy. Record 7 copy of the graphs shown on this page. the descent timesfor each payload On the Descent Times graph, record when parachuted from the same height. the.duration of each parachute descent. Calculate the rate of descent for each Calculate the rate of descent inmeters payload and graph the results: 5 per second (meters of descent divided by duration of desceht) for eaCh drop. Test No. 4: Canopy Shape vs. 4 Rate of Descent Record the results on the Rate of De- 3 scentgraph.CompareresultsWith .Ask students to calculate the dimen- those of other groups. sions of different canopies withthe ssame area but different shapes ((or Example example, a regular pentagon, square, A parachute made frprn a square of equilateral triangle, and circle). Repeat facial tissue loweN a single paper clip the drop tests with each canopy (using a distance of 1.8 meters in 4 seconds. the same weight, dropped from the 1 2 . 3 4, Rate of descent V 'same height) and calculate the rate of Drops descent for each. Record and graph distance dropped the results. descent Times time to drop 1.8 meters 9

4 seconds 8 = .45 meters/second 7 What kind of variables do you think determine the rate of descent? .What 6 is the importance of averaging the re- corded times? _ Test No. 2: Porosity vs. Rate of Descent Conduct a semnd parachute drop experiment using parachutes made from differebt materialsfor example, old 2 sheets or pirowcases, plastic dry clean- er bags, reir forced tissue paper, nylon, andsilk.viake each parachute the same site and shape as the others. Drop each parachute atleastfour 1 2 4 7 8 times. Calculate the rate of descent Drops for each canopy. Record the data on copies of the graphs; compare results. Rate of Descent

Air &Space,Mar.-Apt.1980 7- by Gregory P. Kennedy Assistant Curator Department of Space Wee and Exploration, NAS payloads launched into space to A"date, whether they were manned spacecraft, scientifidlsatellites, applica- tionssatelliteS,or planetary probes, have had ryne thing in common: they Space were bo stecJ by expendable launch vehicl The use of expendable 'launch vehies has been one of the principle re .ons for the high cost of space flight. Shuttle NASA is currently working ona reusable .Space Shuttle Orbiter that will be able tti deliver payloadsto Earth orbit at a lower cost than he single- Update- use boosters now inservice.(See lanuary-February, March-April, and May-June 1979 Air & Space.) The Space Shuttle Orbiter representsa new type of yehicleoneAhat must perform the functions of rocket, spacecraft, andair- craftduring different-phases ofits fligh t. Recently the Space Shuttle Orbiter program (now termed the Space Trans- portation System) has been plagued by a series of -setbacki and delays, many of which can be attributed to thecom- plex nature of this vehicle. During ascent, the Shuttle ispow- ered by two Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) and three Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs). The SSMEs are mounted at the base of the Orbiter .and burn lkjuidhydrogen-and liquid .. oxygen, both of which are, carried in. Space Shuttle Orbiter Enterprise (above) was mated with an External Tank and two the External Tank(ET1.Each sstsAr Solid Rocket Boosters at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida for a facilities test In generates a rated sea-levelthrust of mid-1979. This test helped clear the way for its sister ship Columbia to be launched 1,668,089 newtons (375,000 pounds) on its first mission into space, now scheduled for early 1981. Problems in uveral key and tan be throttW from 50 percent areas of Shuttl development forced delays in the launch schedule for Columbia, the to 104 percent of rated power. world's first reusable spacecraft. Enterprise served well as a teethed, but probably will In 1979, Shuttle engines being static- not be used on space missions. fired at the National Space Technology Laboratories in Mi,;sissippiex 'enced atmospheric reentry by ablative heat system improved either by using a failures in die main fuel vs.'. .urbine shields (that, charred away as aerody- denser tile, by reconfiguring the tile seals, and noizle steerhorn, a section namic heating increased), the Shuttle "footprint" and thickness, or by im- of hydrogen line ,nea,r the base of the Orbiter jc, covered with reusable sur- proving the tile bonding techniclue. noiile. The most wrii)LIti problemwas face insulationtiles made of coated Despite the preblems that have been in the noHle steerhorn, which 'failed silica fibers. Some 3U,922 tiles cover encountered, NASA officials have ex- because anincorrectwelding wire abouT 70- percent of the Orhir's ex- pressed optimism that astronauts John (which was tiH) %Oft) w,15 mixed with terior. The remaining 30 percent is cov- W. Young and Robert L. Crippen will the «irrect strength wire. resulting in ered by coated Nomex heat-resistant pilot Orbiter 102 Columbia on its 54- a severely weakened weld joint. Dur- 'felt, reinforced carbon-carbon compos- hour shakedown flight in early 1981. ingi static firing on November 4, 1979, ites, metal, and glass. The %lid Rocket Boosters and Exter- a weld on the steerhorn failed, result- Each of the tiles must be installed nal Tank for the first flight are on hand ing in an oxygen-rich combustion in by hand; .problems encountered dur- at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. theengine, which wasextensively ing installation have caused the great- Last January, NASA completed a 30- damaged. However, the various engine est delays 'tothe Shuttle's schedule. hour systems testin Columbia. This problemshavebeen analyied and During tests,it Was found that many test, called the Orbiter Integrated Test modifications have been made to the of the tiles failed when subjected to (OIT), teamed astronauts in Columbia SSME. On December 17, 1979, the first their ultimate design load (1.4 times with flight controllers in Houston in a full-duration firing of a cluster of three maximum predicted flight load). The computer simulation of the Shuttle's SSMEs was made. Three-engine dukter entire Thermal Protection System (TPS) countdown, launch, orbitalflight, re- firings in February and March were also of the Orbiter was reexamined, and all entry, and landing. Successful comple- successful. In April, Performance Flight accessible criticaltiles pull-testedto tion of the OIT represented a major Certification tests on the SSME were 1.25 times the highest predicted flight accomplishment in the process of pre- still in progress. loads, Those that cannot be tested and paring Columbia for flight because it Unlike previous spacecraf(that were those that fail the test w ill be removed verifiedcompatibilityofflightand protected from the searing heat of and the tile strength and/or bonding ground equipment.

Alt & Space, May-lune 1960 W Student Activity' I time aspacecraftreenters Earth'sny atmosphere, _heatshields are necessary to protect the astronauts .or instrument payroad from the heal created br air friction on reentry. On the Orbiter, for example, surface tem- peratures during reentry may range from 192.5 °K (3000 °F) on the nose and leading edges of the wings and tail, to 590 °.K (600 °F) on the trailing N. surfaces. TIA systems used to protect A. spacecraft under such conditions util- ize regenerative cooling, ablative cooling, and the "heat sink" concept. The followingactivitiesdemonstrate the relative weights and heat protection capabilities of simple heat shields.

MATERIALS for each group of students: flat-bottomed paper cup wa ter wax candles coat hangers

Above: A technician mounts ceramic- Activity One coated tiles on the Space Shuttle Orbiter Have each group of students AO its Columbia. Almost 31,000 tiles make up paper cup, then hold it with a coat the thermal protection system that will hanger over a lighted candle. Have the- absorb the intense heat of air friction us students me. sure and record the time the Shuttle reenters Earth's atmosphere it takes for the "spacecraft" to ignite. after a mission in space. Each of the tiles As soon as it begins to burn, immerse must be instaHed by hand; problems en- the cupinwater.Be carefuland countered °during installation have caused remember to have water beside the APoitmot the greatest delaystotheShuttle's schedule. Below: Shuttle tiles have been candles! flight-tested on F-15 research aircraft at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, Activity-Two Edwirds, Calif. The tiles eventually will Have each group drip wax over the be submitted to almost 1.5 timus Roe dy- flat end of the cup until thecup bot- namic air pressure that the Shuttle will tom is covered. Let the wax-coated attain during launch. Left: Shuttle crews cup cool; weigh the whole system. may use a special kit to repair possible Hold .the Op 'over the lighted candle. tile damage in orbit. The kit would contain two kinds of repair material: blocks Meas.u.r.elnd record the, timeto igni- of procured ablative material to fillin--lion. Be carefulremember, hotwax large holes, and ablative paste to be vied burns! as anadhesiveforthe replacement bkicks as well as a cure-in-place tiller for Activity Three areas smaller than tiles. The blocks are Have each group cover the paper cup principallysiliconerubber whichwill loosely with a sheet -of aluminum foil. ablate from the hod of reentry. (Actual Weigh the system, then hold itover Orbiter tileswill not ablate during re- the lighted candle. Measure and record entry.) The cure-in-place ablatoris a the time to ignition. Be carefu.lthe paste-like substance with fa silicon-rubber hot foil can cause burns! Work &MAW &Own base to be applied with an applicator resembling a convent/onal caulking gun. II Activity Four Have each group pour about 1 centimeter (3/8inch) melted wax deep in the bottom of each paper cup. Weigh the system. After the wax cools, hold the cup over the lighted candle. Meas- ure and record the time to ignition. Be carefulremember, hot wax burns.

Note: Hold Ow cups the same distance above the flame in each experiment.

Questions 1. \ Which system weighed the most? 2. 'Which system withstood the heat load the longest? it4 9to- Air 8, Space,-May-June19i0 Forleft:"Tiny"Broadvfick,thefirst worken to parachute from an airplane, was also the fir.et person to papchute from a hydroplanp (floatplane). Hire she Is preparing to drop -friim a hydroplane (piloted by aviation pioneer Glenn L Martin) into the cold waters of Lake Michigan In August 1913, aepart of the ,- Perry Victory Centennial Celebration in Chicago, III. Note her life. preservr for the intentional water *ding. Near left:so/Pr "Tiny"also was thefirstpersonto demonstrate parachuteto VA. Govern- ment official% which shedid in 1915, oe San Diego, Calif.' Her histik father and mentor, Charles Broadwici, In collabora- . tion with alenn .Marttn, *lit her relatively compact coat-type. parachutt 0 h- ,She wore a "parachute coat" developed by Challes.Broadwick in collo:. E boration witJ clenn Marfin. After ilnaking more than 600 de- . scents, "Tiny" retired in 1922 because she felt the novelty had- wOrn off for Women Parachutists . the public. .- by Claudia M. Oakes nerin, made the first of :her many de- Today, the exiseence*of women pagra."4- , Assistant Curator scents from balloons in Paris. By 1836, chutistsisstilla /iovelty to some. Department of Aeronautic% NASM shehadparachuted fromballoons However, .women parachutism.maymbe efound jumpmastering paratroopers in ,The first parachute descent from an nearly 40 times.. If aircraft by a woman took place in Parachuting became a route to faille theU.S.Army's airborne divisions, 1799, whenleanne7GenevieveGar- for women in the early days of avia- testing,selling,anddemonstratihg nerin descended from a balloonflying tion. The most famous of -these daring sport parachute equipment; working ver-Franw. miTdatifeGerin, also parachutists--.and the one who made in .parachute rigging lofts;, and tngi: the first woman to fly sblo in a balloon, the most signiiicant contribution to the neering new parachute designs. They was the wife of André-Jacques Gar- development and widespread use of also compete in regional, national,And .nerin who, in 1797, became the first parachuteswas a diminutivebut international sport parachutingrneets person ever to descend from an aircraft spunky teenager from Granville (in separate women's categories); set bx parachute (see page 4). County, N.C. and break national and world recorAs In 1815, Garnerin's niece, Elisa.Gar- Her real name was Georgia Brown, continuing the legacy of pioneer: but she was better known as. "Tiny" like Jeanne-Genevieve and Elisa Gas- Broadwick. tn1908,"Tiny" joined nerin and "Tiny" Broadwick Charles Broadwick's exhibitibn group, takinghis, surname (as didallthe Left: Mrse Irene McFarland group's members). "Tiny" agreed to became the first woman member of the exclusive make six parachute descents per week Caterpillar Club (an from a hot air balloon for $250, earn- association of those ing $25 for each additional descent. who have para- Sometimes she would perform with chuted to safety more than one parachute canopy, cut- from aerial emer- ting them loose in succession as she gencies) after she descended."Tiny".. also jumpedat leaped from her night with flares eitended about 60 disabled aircraft in 1925. centimeters (2 feet) from either side of her body., On Jurie .21, 1913, "Tiny" became the first woman to parachute from a ,t1 heavier-than-air craft. Aviation pioneer Glenn L.Martin piloted the biplane that carried "Tiny" to a height of about 305 meters (1000 feet) above Griffith 4 Park on the north side of Los Angeles, Calif. "Tiny" sator), a trap seat attached to the wing; when she was ready to drop, she released a lever . . Abovef Sgt. Cheryl Stearn% the first of that allowed her ,tofall.Her para two women farrachsitiststojoin _the chuteoperiedperfectly, 'and she Golden Knights(U.S. Army. Parachute landed on her feet. Team). holds 11 national and interna- In1915, "Tiny" made a jump at tional parachuting tltle4+ three women's North Island, San Diego, Calif., becom- individual world parachuting record% and ing the first pelson to demonstrate a. Is the current' Womensa Absolute World parachute to U.S. Government offials. Parachuting Champion. fir Air & Spice, May-June 1960 gram of beef (or anything) at $3.30. . The concept Auld carry over to OUTREACH otherweights and meapres. The liter would become an M-quart; four liters, by Kerry M. joels an M-gallon (110 percent of a gallon).. The meter would become the Mlyard, Chiec.Education .Services Division and- 21/2 centimeters would etlual*.one Minch (40 Minches to the M-yard). The metrication movement in educa- Manufacturing products for world Adults would speakofM-gallons, tion has produced considerable reve- trade requires making them compati- Minches, M-quarts, M-feet, M-yards, nues for textbook companies, head- ble with world standards of measure- and M-pouncN and would use meas- achesforteachers, and verylittle ment.Buttheanxietythatresults ures oitly slightly larger than conven- metricatiónfortheUnited- States. when a change in measurement sys- tional English units. There seem to be two basic approaches tems is imposed seems overwhelming. Some problems wouldarise,of tothetask of metrication:(1)the Perhaps we need to -invent' a third course. The kilometer would beCome lengthy process of classroom educa- system, the "big M." In this.third sys- the but speedometers would tion, and (2) the philosophy of quit- tem of units we could find metric units be calibrated in kilometers per hour. ting the English system "cold turkey"' that are: rough equivalents of English Ninety M-rniles per hour would ectlial and adopting the metric system outr\ measures, and .call them by common 55 miles per hour. right. Neither approach has worked in Englishnames.Childrencouldstill We would haVe to make new rulers Canada,'.'areatBrit in, or the United learn the metric system, while adults; and scales, but manufactuiers would Ates: Itseemstat fewpeople are for the price of an extra line of print on merely producemetric goods, and comfortable aThdtt changing the basic contaihers and packaging, would have check-ctut computers could tally Prices unitl of lekgth, area, volume, and mass an English equivalent. and apply labels rather easily. People apd Weight th.at they use daily. Forexample,500gramsequals stikl could use the. same familiar pro- Cc.mmon weightsandmeasdres,. \about 1.1 pounds. If we call 1.1 pounds portions of food in figuring porlions and their rplationships to prices, are M-pound, and charge 10 percent and using recipes; estimate yard goods, '1.e.itrned by 'habit. Homemakers know ore for an M-pound than for an carpeting, and building materialsin that one pound of beef ,makes four' English poimd, consumers would have familiar terms; and permit industry to hamburgers and codts, say,11.50. But hamburgers of almost the same size, 'metricize for competition in .the world how many homemakers know that 500 and would not likely be able to tell market. . grams of beef will make the same the 10 percent price increase from This might be an off-beat suggestion. nurntier of hamburgers, and that $1.60 normal inflation. Shoppers.would com- But how can we teach students if their .would "be a fair price to pay for .t.ilat prehend one M-pound ofbeefat parents will never,let us .get into the ' amount? $1.65 much more easily than one kilo- system?

. d g$ 3.75 U.S. Women In "Aviation. Through World War I, by The Spacearium. Shag. Claudia M. Oakes:Paper ,

. of the National Air and Space Museum offers for salea wide variety of high- quality, reasonably priCed books, postess, and other items related to the explora- $ 6.20 ExcallburIII:* The Story of the P-51 Mustang, by ion of the airand space. AN abbreviated list of books for sale appears below, Robert C. Mesh. Paper

To order books, 'mark the. number of Banal Air and Space Mu- $ 7.20 The P-80 Shooting Star: copies of each book you wish to pur- seum. The Catalogue Of . Evolution of a Jet Fighter, chase. Cut out or copy -this advertisement the National Astronautical by E. T. WOoldridge, Jr. and mall with your check or money order Collection. Paper Paper to Program Coordinator, Dept. AS-580 .0 $ 5.20 Charles A. Lindbergh: An Jet Age: Forty Years of Room P-701 American Life, by Tom D. JetAviation,WalterJ. National Air and Space Museum Crouch. Paper BoyneandDonald S. smithsonlan Institution Lopez, eds. Washington, DC 20580 .® $ .3.25The Artist In Spice, by ,® $18.75 Hardbound (202)1381-4084 James Dean. The story of $ 9.20 Paper thecommissionof.art Please do not snd cash. Foreign orders duringtheU.S.space ElPlease send me FREE Information should include $1.00 Or mit-order item program. Paper , about the Spacearium Shop's Aviation to cover air mail shipping. Relic Series; World War posters; Images The Wright Brothers: Nein from Air and Space posters; Milestones of Number of Prometheus, Richard Flight commemorative (philatelic) covers; of copies P. Hellion, ed. and other Spabearlum Shop Items for sale. . . $16.25HardboUnd @ $ 3.25 Aircraft ofthe National $ 7.20Paper Alr and Space Museum. NAME The catalogue of the Nib Apollo: Yen Years Since tionalAeronautical Col- Tranquillity Babe, Richard ADDRESS lection. Par;er P. Hellion and Tom D. Crouch, eds. . . PITY ® $ 2.75' Rockets,'Missiles,end i$18.75Fladbound Spacecraft,oftheNs- $ 8.20Paper ' STATE ZIP

Alt & Space, May.June 1980 11 A Mars 'Airplane? scientists consider an airplane design that's definitely out of this world

Folded into a compact package, a hypothetical Mars Plane enters the thin martian atmosphere using a protective heat shield, then a parachute, to decelerate

by Robert W. Wolfe Geologist Center for Earth and Planetary Studios, NASM

n July 20, 1976, Viking Lander 1 Pasadena, Calif., with whom Reedcn- 0set.. clown on Mars and, within suIted on a matter related to Mir* minuto, began transmitting our first Sniffer's hydrazine engine. close-up view of the Red Planet's sur- Engineers began thinking about the face. Slowly, the alien scene filled tele- design of a Mars airplane based surthe vision screens. Scientists were elated. .features -of Mini-Sniffer; out optimized But with its footpads anchored in the to fly in the martian atmosphere. They fine red martian dust, Viking's vision came up with a larger craft with a was limited. Scientists dreamed to see wingspan of about 20 meters (66 feet). beyond the cratered horizon, a mew To fit within a conventional spacecraft Tail booms extend and lock In place; 4 kilometers (2 '../. miles) away, fortransport 'toMars,theairplane.. wings and tall unfold and lock; propeller if only Viking had wings, could fly, would need to be folded into a much unfolds and locks explore! But what could fly 'in Mars' smaller package. How could this be told, thin atmosphere, having (at most) done? The airplane might use Astro- one percent of the density of Carth's? mastsprestressed beams that can be But wait that'satsealevel.Planes collapsed and later deployedfor the fly high where the air is thin. Let's see: fuselage and for the wing andtail al 13 kilonwters (I 08,0( t0 feet), Farth's spars, and a folding propeller. The 13- airis as thin as the atmosphere near meter (43-foot) Astromasts that carry Mars' surface. We've flown that high the magnetometers on the Voyager in ,the North Anwrican X-15 and SR-71 spacecraft were stored in a container Blackbird--butthey'retoobig,too less than 1/2:meter (1.6 feet) long. -heavy to send to Mars. Oh well, it was Who would "pilot" the Mars air-. just a dream. plane? The minimum time needed for Our mythir al dreamer-- pi,rhaps en- the airplane to transmit a message or thralledby high-speed flightprob- picture to Earth and to receive a reply ably never heard of Mini-Sniffer, a small, is more than 8 minutes. Clea`rly, then, light-weight RPV (remotely piloted ve- the airplane would need to pilotit- hicle)develryed by Dale Reed of Self. The tasks of terrain avoidance and NASA's Dryden flight Research Center maintaining the proper "flight enve- at .1dwards,. Calif. Designed to cruise lope" would be the responsibilities Of for long periods and colleo samples 27 sophisticated instruments and compu- kilometers (89,0(X)feet) high inthe ters aboard the airplane. Acting on stratosphere,Mini-Snifferhas many pictures and other information trans- attributes of an airplane that could fly mitted by the aircraft, controllers on on Mars: light weight, a relatively large Earth could periodically alter or update Payload capacity, .the ability to sustain the flight path to restudy an area or flight and maneuver in thin air, and a to fly to a more interesting locale. great range. Some of these capabilities Today, there are no firm plans to actually would be enhanced in Mars' send an airplane to Mars. But one day, lesser gravity, about 38 percent that of perhaps, these extraterrestrial flights of Earth. The potential of Mini-Sniffer as fancy might become reality,greatly a Mars airplane was firstrecognized extending the horizons of our, knowl- byloseChirivella,anengineerat edge of the red planet. Mars Planereleases fromparachute; NASAN let Propulsion Laboratory in propellor starts to windmill 1 i 12 Air & Space, May-June1980 INDEX-

Back issues of Air & Space.are not Lindbergh, Charles A. and Anne M. Small Self-Contained Payload (SSCP) available but articles may be ordered Sept-Oct, p. 5. or Getaway Special(GAS)Pro-- fromUniversityMicrofilmsInterna- Lockheed Sirius Tingmissartoq. Sept- gram. Sept-Oct, p, 9. tional, 300 N. Zech Rd., Ann Arbor, Oct, pp. 5, 6-7 (model). Studentactivity(heatdissipation). Michigan 48106. Lunar and martian maps. Mar-Apr, p. May-June. p. 9. 15. Update. May-June, pp. 8-9. This index applies to Volume 3 of Air Lunar and planetary toponymy (feature Spacearium Shop, The (advertisement). & Space (1979-1930 school year, five terms),Mar-Apr, pp,10-11, back Mar-Apr, p. 13; May-June, p, 11. issues, Septemlwr through May).'" cover. SpecialPresentations Calendar. Nov- An index to Volumes 1 and 2 (March Mars Airplane. May-June, pp. 12-13. Dec, p. 15. 1978 through May-lune 1979) may be Multiple Mirror Telescope, Nov-Dec, Student activities found on page 15 of the May-June pp. 12-13. Loop flip book. Nov-Dec, pp. 8-9. 1979 issue. NASM galleries Parachutes. May-June, p. 7. Air Transportation. Jan-Feb, pp. 3-5. Planetaryfeaturetel ms.Mar-Apr, Early Flight. Jan-Feb, pp. 6-7. hack cover. Exploring the Planets. Jan-Feb, pp. Polar coordinates, Sept-Oct, p. 4. Aerial photography. Nov-Dec,pp. 6-7. 10-11. Scientific notation and astronomical Aerobatics. Nov-Dec. front cover,pp. Ole Miss (1935 Curtiss Robin endur- distances. Nov-Dec, p. 11. 3-5, 8-9, back cover. ance flight). Jan-Feh,.frorrt cover. Space Shuttle. May-June, p. 9. Air transportation (Ind fuel efficiency, Outreach. Sept-Oct and May-June, 11; Vin Fiz Board Game. Jan-Feb, pp. lan-Feh, pp. 3-6.. other issues, p. 15. 8-9. Alhert Einstein Spacearium, Mar-Apr, Parachutes: May-lune, front cover, pp. Surveying Antarctica, Sept-Oct, front p. 12. 3, 4-6, 7, 10, hack cover. cover, pp. 2-4, Apollo: Ten Years Since Tranquillity Pioneer(unmannedspacecraft)en- Think Along (each issue, back cover) Raw, Sept-Oct, p. 11. counter with Saturn. Nov-Dec, pp. with the aerospace engineers Fach issue, p. 2. 10-11. about how to land a spacecraft on Byrd, Richard E. Sept-Oct, frontcover, Planets,conjunctionofnakeu-eye. Mars. May-June. pp. 2-4, Mar-Apr, p. 15, with the aircraft designers Creating a new gallery at the National Project Galileo(planned unmyfned .what makes a good aerobatic air- Air and Space Museum, Jan-Feb, pp. mission nto Jupiter). May-June, p, 3. plane? Nov-Dec. 10-11. Regional Resource Persons. Nov-Dec with the astronomers Directory of Aviation/Space Education. and May-June, p. 15. about solar ups and downs. Jan- Jan-Feb, p. 15. Sky maps (star charts). Each issue: Sept- Feb.. Early flight. Jan-Feb, pp. 6-7. Oct, p. 10; other issues, p. 14. with planetary scientists Forty Years of let Aviation. Sept-Oct, Solar power satellites. Jan-Feb, front about Mars' mysterious polar ice- p. 11. cover, pp. 12-13. cap. Sept-Oct. Galactic 'center (of Milky Way), the. Solar system statistics (table). Nov-Dec, aboutplanetaryfeatureterms. May-June, p. 15. p.11. Mar-Apr. Gossamer Albatross. Sept-Oct, p, 8. Correction. lan-Feb, p. 2. Vin Fit Board Game. Jan-Feb, pp. 8-9. Kiter.. Mar-Apr, front cover, pp. 3-5. Space Shuttle Orbiter Women in Aviation (U.S., 1880 through Lifting Bodies. Mar-Apr, front cover, Lifting bodies as antecedents to, Mar- World War l). Mar-Apr, pp. 8-9. pp. 6-7. Apr, pp. 6-7. Women Parachutists, May-June, p. 10.

. Mars Plane pulls out of dive and starts as, engine for cruise mission, an extended 4 survey of the martian surface

Martians examining an alien airplane'? No, lust the ground crew preparing Mini-Sniffer for a hIgh-allitude atmospheric sampling flight at NASA Dryden Plight Research Center, Edwards, Calif. Minl-Sniffer's hydrazine engine, developed for use In spacecraft, enables the Mini-Sniffer to fly at extreme altitudes and perform a variety of missions. An airplane concept using Mini-Sniffer technology is under consideration for future exploration of Mars.

Air & Space, May-June 1900 13 1 4 This cIrcie represents the night sky as it appears in late July at 9:00 p.m. NIHON or early August st 9:00 p.m. . July-August Turn map to the direction you are facing. The cen- Sky Map ter of the map is the point directly over your head. Dix: Galaxy OCI: Open cluster Dbl: Double star Nb: Nebula a 914Viod

HaddICI

Overhead E-1 .' cn + 4.1 . . 8+ e, . :fit AI. a me...... e /i° o4 e

ov4Ir' Antares. 196. .0 ...SCORPIUS PHASES Sky map by OF THE MOON D. David Batch New Moon: July 12, tiptDbl Abrams Planetarium August 10 4. Michigan State University First Quarter: July 20, August 18 NSTA, published in Full Moon: July 27, August 25 Science and Children, Last Quarter: July 5, August 3 SOUTH reprinted by permission

surveys also bring to our attention open showed thattheirglobularclusters by T. H. Callen II or galactic clusters, compact collections formed a halo around their galaxy's nu- Production Specialist of several hundred stars. Such clusters of cleus. We know today that our star, the Albert Einstein Spacearium, NASM stars are believed to have formed at the Sun, Is about 33,000 light-years (3.12 X same time from the same nebula. 10" kilometers, or 1.94 X 10" miles) from One of the perennial splendors of the Other star clusters, globular clusters, the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. summer sky Is the Milky Way, part of the also are visible In the night sky, appear- Thisyear'sannualPerseidmeteor galaxy In which we live.It appears as a ing like fuzzy white balls through binocu- shower, peaking on August 11, should be broad band of diffuse light because we lars or small telescopes. Globular clus- spectacular, as the new Moon will insure are looking at this vast disk of stars edge ters typically contain about 100,000 stars, dark skies. (To observe the shower, ItIs on from the inside. Other summer star- and are the oldest objects known In gal- best to find a site away from city lights.) gazing treats, also part of the Milky Way, axies. In 1918, American astronomer Har- Weather permitting, up to 50 meteors per include the billowing star clouds of Scor- low Shapley noted that these globular hour may be visible 'to a single.observer pius and Sagittarius, now well placed for clusters tend to be concentrated In one as they streakIntothe Earth's upper observation by unaidedeyesorwith half of the sky, one third of them in the atmosphere at speeds of about 60 kilo- binoculars and telescopes. Casual inspec- direction of the constellation Sagittarius. meters (37 miles) per second and burn tions ofthis region with binoculars or Having determined their distances from up, While watching this event, try to keep telescopes reveal several nebulae (glow- the Earth,Shapley correctly theorized In mind that the particles causing this ing clouds of hydrogen gas and dust), that the center of our galaxy lay In that celestial fireworks display are only about 'areas actively producing new stub. Such direction. Study of other splral galaxies the size of sand grains! 446, Air 8 Space, May-June 1980 14 15 40 Free Presentations on THE GALACTIC CENTER Aviation and Space August 1,1980 9:00pm Available 30 NASM has trained nine educators to give presentations in their communities onthehistoryandsignificanceof 20 0 aviation and space.

111 The educatorsparticipatedinan SAGITTARIUS SCORPIUS experimental Regiohal Resource Person Training Session held in July 1979 at 10 NASM in Washington, DC. The program, new last year, included an inten- sive course in the history of aviation and space and a review of teaching 0 methods. The educators have returned 130 40 150 160 170 160 190 200 to their communities where they will SOUTH EAST SOUTH teach other 'instructors the history of aeronautics and astronautics and ways tointegratethese subjectsinto the The Galactic Center school curriculum. These Regional Resource Persons will by T. H. Callen II Inches, or 2.7 X 10' hertz). The galactic make free presentations to teachers, Production Specialist center lies in the direction from which the students, and to the general public: Albert 'Einstein Spacearium, NASM mostintenseradioenergyisbeing Darrell E. Asbury, Morgantown High emitted. The map was, plotted by com- School, Morgantown, W VA; The diagram above shows the location of puters linked to the 42.7-meter (140-foot) G. Courtney Chapnian, Ohio State the center of our Milky Way Galaxy, rela- radio telescope of the National Radio tive to the constellations Sagittarius and Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), Green University, Columbus, Ohio; Scorpius, at about 9:00 p.m. on August 1, Bank, W. Va. Walter Dinteman, Camden County 1980. We might expect the region of the To orient the radio map to the visible . College, Blackwood, NJ; sky near the galactic center to be quite sky diagram, rotate the map clockwise Virginia Ellett, Mathematics and Sci- brightother spiral galaxies show bright, until the arrow just below it points straight ence Center, Richmond; VA; active regions in their nuclei caused hy down. Dr. Fred Hofkin, 'School District of an, as yet, unexplained process. How- This map shows two coordinate sys- Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA; pever, we receive only about one ten- tems. The traditional celestial coordinate Sister Jean Margaret Kaindl, Mother -billionth of the light we would expect to system used by most astronomers meas- Guerin High School, River Grove, IL; see from the center of our Galaxy. While ures Right Asqpnsion (R.A.) in hours and the distribution of interstellar matter in minutes (from 0 to 23 hours 59 minutes) Richard Rooney, New Castle County our Galaxy isessentially thin, thereis from an arbitrary point in the sky, and School District, Wilmington, DE; enough dust and gas in the space be- Declination (Dec.) In degrees and minutes Lockhard Smith, Jr., Wentworth In- tween us and the galactic center-33;000 (from 0° to -±90°) above or below the stitute, Boston, MA; and light-years distantto scatter or absorb plane of the Earth's equator. The galactic Sherman Taffel, Lake Clifton 'Senior most of the light from this region. The coordinate system uses Pi for longitude High School, Baltimore, MD. scale- along the bottom of the diagram in degrees (from 0° to 3600) around the shows 'azimuth, or compass heading, in plane, or equator, of the Milky Way Gal- For more information on presenta degrees, while the scale along the dia- axy, and bifor galactic latitude in de- tions in your. cofnmunity, contact the gram's side shows altitude,or height grees (from 0°..to ±-901 above or below RegionalResourcePersoninyour above the horizon, in degrees. this plane. The starting point for this sys- area. For further information on. the Compare the diagram above with the tem is the galactic center. In the galactic RegionalResourcePersonProgram, radio view of the galactic center (below). coordinate system, theposition of the contact Janet Wolfe, Education Serv- Each contour on the radio map repre- galactic center is /" = 0°. and b" = 0°; sents an interval of radio signal intensity in the celestial coordinate system, R,A. ices Division, National Air and Space at a wavelength of 11centimeters (4.3 17 hours 42.2 minutes, Dec. 28° 55'. Museum, Washington, DC 20560.

ILLUSTRATION CREDITS Tront cover: Apollo 17, NASA; sport para- chutist by M. Anderson Jenkins, courtesy U.S. Parachute Association. Page 2: NASM Collec- tion, Page 3: NASA, Pages 4-5: NASM Collec- tion. Page 6: Sport parachutists by Andrew C. Kpech; all others, NASM Collection, Page 7: Art by JanetK. Wolfe, NASM. Pages 8-9: ; NASA. l'age 10: Cheryl Stearns by U.S. Army Parachute Team; all others, NASM Collection. l'age 11: NASM Collection. Pages 12-13Art by Robert W. Wolfe, NASM; photos, NASA. Page 11: Galactic center art by PatoWood- Nide and T. II, Callen II,NASM;radio map ()" courk:sy of National Radio Astronomy Obser- valory, Green Bank, W. Va. Back cover: NASA,

Air & Space, May-June 1980 THINK ALONG WITH THEAEROSPACE ENGINEERS d about how to landa spacecraft on Mars

by Howard T. Wright Director for Projects NASA Langley Research Center

Planning theVikingmissions-4o search for life on Marsraised many technicalproblemsthat had to be solved for the first time. For example, what would be the best way of slowing the two Viking Landers for soft landings on Mars? Unlike Earth's Mqpn, Mars has an atmosphere, albeit a thin one. Viking engineers decided thatthe Landers should, enter the thin martian atmosphere in a manner similar "to that of manned spacecraftreenteringthe Earth's atmosphere. Each Lander would, enter the upper martian atmosphere at16,000kilo-

meters (10,000) miles) per hour; the ____m;osoft craft's blunt ablative heat shield would dissipate the tremendous heat of aero- In 1972, NASA drop-tested the Viking Aynamic friction. (Allowing a thin layer parachute with a 907-kilogram (2000- of material on a surface to char away pound) weight (left) from a 5-57 aircraft as atmospheric heat builds up is called 15.2 kilometers (50,000 feet) high. To abhtion. Gases generated by the abla- simulate parachute deployment in Mars' tive process help insulate the space- thin atmosphere, NASA flew the world's craft from further heating.) four largest successful balloons to 36.3 After slowing considerably, the kilometers (119,000feet),from which spacecraft would deploy a parachute rockets flew the parachutes to Mach 2 atabout 5700 meters (18,700)feet) openings at42.7 kilometers(140,000 above the surface. At 1400 meters tee% (4600 feet), the Lander would jettison be deployed at velocities above Mach 17-kilogram (38-pound) piece of cloth the 'parachute canopy; three rocket 2 (2510 kilometers, or 1560 miles, per was expected to perform flaWleSsly and thrusters would brake the Lander dur- hour) and to decelerate a 1134-kilo- withstanda 7260-kilogram(16,000- ing the last segment of its descent. gram (2500-pound) payload to 97 kilo- pound) opening shock load. Viking engineers, seeking simplicity, meters (60 miles) per hour within one Itdid. On July 20, 1976, Viking ease of construction, and highreli- minute. The parachute had to with- Lander One touched down successfully ability, chose a clisc-gap-band design stand biological sterilization: the entire on the Chryse Planitia (Plains of Gold) for the Viking Lander parachute can- parachute system was "cooked"at on Mars. Lander Two landed on Utopia opy. The central disc portion of the 135 °C (275 °F), for 40 hours before Planitia on September 3, 1976. Since canopy would provide high aerody- beng placedinthespacecraft. The 1976 the Landers have continued to namic drag; the gap-band, excellent. canopy was packed to a density of gather a wealth of information that deployment characteristics and canopy about 705 kilograms/meter' (44 has forever changed mankind's under- stability. pounds/foot3)about the density of standing of the red planet. The parachute system was 16 meters maple wood! A Viking Lander Proof Test Capsule, (53feet)- in diameter, 30 meters (98 After being "cooked," packed in its a real Viking spacecraft used in ground feet) long, and weighed 50 kilograms 56- by 38-centimeter (22- by 15-inch) tests before and during the flights, is (H 0 pounds), including the mortar de- canistc i.for more than 21/2 years, and on display in 11/41ASM's Milestones of ployment system.It was designed to frozen in deep space for a year, this Flight gallery.

NATIONAL AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Non-Profit Org. WASHINGTON, DC 20560 U.S. Postage Jan W. Steenblik. Editor, Air & Space Paid Room P-700 Permlt No. 3055 Beltsville, MD