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In this issue of the Journal we highlight several threats to the environment which can cause serious problems for mankind. But we also try to show what can – or should – be done to improve the life of humans all over the world. To solve a problem one has to be aware that there is a problem! Many people live far from the natural environment and their knowledge and understanding is weak. Where is the food coming from? Why is the water drying up? What can I do as an individual when I don’t know the consequences of my action? Resilience in people must be to be able to cope with a future world where climate change and pollution soon can’t be reversed.

There are many key issues which the Journal raises and the Journal is offered by the Commonwealth Human Ecology Council as a constructive contribution to the on-going debate.

3 Human Ecology Journal CONTENTS Issue No. 28 Spring 2018

People p age Published by: Commonwealth Human Ecology Council (CHEC) Introduction 5

4, Hurlingham Studios 1. Insight and Wonder: Human Ecology in Everyday Life 6 Ranelagh Gardens Richard Borden London SW6 3PA United Kingdom 2. Human Ecology in the 21st Century T I Khan 9

Tel: +44 (0)20 3689 0979 E-mail: 3. Human Responses to Climate Change Jon Kellett 1 1 [email protected] Website: 4. Human Resilience in a Changing World – Air Pollution 16 www.checinternational.org Vitalis Nwokorie Twitter: @CwHumanEcology 5. An Introduction to Ecocide: Canada and the 18 Registered Charity United Kingdom John McDonnell No. 272018 6. Population and Inequality: Major Challenges for 21 Editorial team: Human Ecology Ian Douglas Ian Douglas Eva Ekehorn 7. Civil Society Roles in UN Sustainable Development Goals 34 John McDonald Donnell Davis

Layout: 8. Gunyaji: Indigenous Lens on Sustainable Development 37 Eva Ekehorn Goals Aunty Ruby Sims & Donnell Davis

Cover Pictures: 9. A new Life: Story of Integration of Refugees into a 39 Eva Ekehorn South Australian Community Janine Pierce & Karen Grogan Printers:

Prontaprint, Bayswater

London

ISSN 0268 4918

4 Introduction

Eva Ekehorn

The agreement of the Commonwealth Heads of burdened with both entrenched poverty and future Government (CHOGM) in Malta in 2015 to support the uncertainties. However, the key link between the Paris Climate Change Agreement and the UN themes and the environment is not sufficiently Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and to follow highlighted. The environment and its ecological them through in Paris and New York, has rendered the realities have to be taken into account in all these Commonwealth uniquely placed as a network of themes! A society is not fair if one’s neighbours use states and societies to develop modes of economic the water for their swimming pool but you have to and social development that enhance wellbeing take water from a tap where the access is restricted within the ecological constraints imposed by planetary due to drought, or when the farmers increase their boundaries. stock and use more water to the detriment of The theme of the 2018 CHOGM is ‘Towards a aquaculture or urban householders. You cannot common future’. It focuses on building on the prosper without the nutritious food for which your strengths of the Commonwealth to ensure that this children need to grow up properly. unique organisation is responsive to global challenges A prosperous society will not be achieved if and delivers a more prosperous, secure, sustainable the environment is contaminated and damaged and and fair future for all its citizens, particularly its young floods and storms devastate farmlands. When people. excessive pesticides and deep cultivation degrade the The Commonwealth Accredited soil, prosperity declines. Food security, clean water Organisations, including CHEC, have held several and effective sanitation are needed for people to be meetings in the run up to CHOGM. They presented a secure and healthy. Ecosystem services have to be document that summarised their views on the sustained and protected if the SDGs are to be met. CHOGM themes to the Meeting of the Committee of the Whole on 20 March 2018. The key statement in As was declared in Rome in 1996: the document was that: Food security, at the individual, household, national, “A fairer society will need to address growing regional and global levels [is achieved] when all inequalities and good governance (or, losses to people, at all times, have physical and economic taxpayers through corruption), as well as economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet and social inclusion of marginalised or excluded their dietary needs and food preferences for an active groups. These are the essential foundations for a and healthy life. (FAO, 1996. Rome Declaration on more prosperous society which will need to World Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of encompass livelihoods, inclusion of youth in a positive Action) future, and the relation of GDP to indicators of wellbeing (e.g., health, education, culture, and In this issue of the Human Ecology we environment) as well as commitments to decent work examine the central role of human ecology in the in a green, and a blue, economy. Security is also sustainable development goals, beginning with essential for a prosperous and sustainable society exploring how we can all learn both from individual because it means ensuring the safety of all groups in everyday life experiences and from the wisdom of society, working on the causes of violent extremism, earlier leaders in human ecology and environmental violence against women and girls, monitoring and issues. This is followed by a consideration of policing modern slavery, illegal fishing, trafficking, as problems related to climate change and air pollution, well as personal security: health and social care, particularly questions of human resilience, mitigation environmental quality, shelter and hygiene, and care of and adaptation to climate change. A wider for refugee populations in post-conflict states and in consideration of the relationship between population their new homes. Sustainability will address these growth and the ability of the earth to support future issues, with a particular focus on planetary boundaries generations follows. This leads to two accounts of in relation to climate change, land and ocean how local citizens and volunteers endeavor to resources, and urban governance in the face of rapid influence government policy and plan for future urban growth, and environmental or refugee generations in South-East Queensland, Australia. migration, as well as ‘building back better’ after These contributions show what can be done, indicate disasters.” what needs to be done and demonstrate how, with These interlinked themes support each other goodwill on all sides, progress can be made towards collectively aim at the SDGs. These themes are key greater fairness, security and prosperity without elements in improving a world that is unfair, damaging environmental quality.

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1. Insight and Wonder: Human Ecology in Everyday Life

Richard J. Borden Rachel Carson Chair in Human Ecology, College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, USA

Before I became a human ecologist, my formal Synthesis”. Sears stretched the latitudes of ecological educational background was taken in two rather awareness beyond scientific understanding, e.g., distant academic fields: psychology and ecology. “The environmental scientist climbs and climbs the The first explores the internal realms of human mountain, and when he gets to the top, he finds the experience; the latter focuses on the complex footprints of the poet”. relationships of the living world. It wasn’t until I Gregory Bateson had a mind that could get encountered the idea of human ecology that I began there either way. His Steps Toward an Ecology of to see the myriad ways they connect. Fortunately, Mind and Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, were that occurred early in my professional life. Between revelations into the pattern-comprehending synthesis then and now, I have had countless opportunities to of mental and environmental realms. In Bateson’s engage in the broad mandate of human ecology, to words, “Freudian psychology expanded the concept work in its multidisciplinary domain, and develop of mind inwards to include the whole communication connections with like-minded colleagues worldwide. system within the body - the autonomic, the habitual, I have benefitted greatly, along the way, from and the vast range of unconscious process. What I am the efforts and insights of others. First among them saying [about ecology] expands mind outwards. … was Gerald L. Young. His masterful scholarship on the (and)… A certain humility becomes appropriate, century-long origins of human ecology provided the tempered by the dignity or joy of being part of intellectual foundation for academic legitimacy. something much bigger”. These are some of the Another was the eminent ecologist Paul Sears, whose people who turned my life in the direction of human 1954 presidential address to the Ecological Society of ecology. Their scholarship and speculations were America was titled “Hunan Ecology: A Problem of bridges into the complex web of interdisciplinarity.

Insight There is another dimension of mind-nature relations -- Rachel Carson gave us some of our first - even more elusive and intangible – but nonetheless ecological insights. She revealed the inadequacies of real. It has to do with insight. The psychology of classical notions of simple cause and effect. Life was insight has a long history. The early Gestalt more complex than that. It operates through ongoing psychologists demonstrated its power in the all-at- interactions that organize into webs and chains and once transformations of perception and thought, cycles. The links and patterns of living systems when the mind jumps from one holistic pattern to function at multiple levels, replete with compound another. Psychoanalytic psychology also relies on effects. Outcomes sometimes turn into dramatic the marvel of insight, as contents of the unconscious biological accumulations; other times extinction is the mind are suddenly revealed to conscious awareness. result. The organic decomposes to the inorganic and But insight is not an ‘applied’ methodology. recycles back as abiotic, organismal and human It ‘happens’ indirectly, as Rollo May suggested, domains combine within a single ecological story in “the capacity for creative waiting” of According to the philosopher John Visvader, psychotherapy. It also happens amidst everyday life – insight and responsibility are closely related. “The perhaps in a momentary peak experience, as a science of ecology shows us that the scope of our creative impulse, or among the self-surprises of intended actions is much wider than we may have our memories. imagined, but once I learn that my action will be Insight has its external dimensions too. continuously attended by undesirable consequences, We are largely unconscious of the living world that the significance of my action changes and the surrounds us. As Lewis Thomas declared: “The only question of responsibility rises where it had not been piece of scientific truth about which I feel totally raised before.” This is what Paul Shepard was confidant is that we are profoundly ignorant about signaling when he named ecology ‘the subversive nature”. The central aim of ecology is exploration of science’. In addition to enlarging our understanding the living world’s intricacies in a comprehensive way. of the natural world, ecology also transforms how we As ecological knowledge has grown, so too has our envision our place in it. capacity for meaningful insights regarding nature. Human ecology, in this view, involves a conjoining of these two kinds of unconsciousness.

6 One -- intra-psychic, experiential and mental; the collaborations, scientific studies, or theoretic other -- bio-physical, evolutionary and environmental. makeovers. We are swimming in a human-ecological Both are awash with insight potential. Such insights world. The next life-changing/world-changing insight do not arise only from counseling sessions, creative may be just around the corner. They are everywhere.

Encounters in Daily Life I. During my final two years of undergraduate study, center—from there, to the loading dock at a I obtained a part-time staff position in the university slaughterhouse, through the processing plant, to the library. The job was to operate a large camera system arriving cows. Along the way they did a brief for microfilming rare books from the history of science interview with someone at each place. The final collections. My office was on the nineteenth floor of scene was on a farm—a feedlot really—where the the library tower. There was seldom anyone else on camera approached a single cow, as if to interview the my floor. One day, while waiting for the elevator, the animal. Similar sequences reviewed other items: the sound of voices caught my attention. It was a bread, lettuce and strawberries. It was not a perfect conversation between two African-American reconstruction, and the production skills were ragged. maintenance men sitting around the corner on their But the idea came through. It entirely changed my break, out of sight from where I stood. The timber of experience of my subsequent lunch -- and many other their voices suggested they were of different ages. meals, events, and moments since. The branching Their exchange, before I arrived at the elevator, chain that brings a hamburger to my plate has an appeared to have been about some personal absolute authenticity. If I could shake it, across the difficulties in the younger man’s life. All I actually virtual expanse of space and time, the wriggling net heard, in the minute or so I stood there, was the older would prove an ecological truth in every bite. The man’s counsel. end of a fork is “an actual occasion” of human “Have you ever driven a nail into a tree?” ecology. As Wendell Berry encapsulates it, “How we he asked. eat determines, to a considerable extent, how the “Yes,” replied the other. world is used.” “And when you come back years later, you III. My former colleague Craig Greene was a know how the tree grows around the nail?” gifted ecological botanist. The essence of Berry’s “Uh-huh.” insight was captured in Craig’s unforgettable “If you want to remove the nail then, you presentation: “A Botanist at the Grocery Store.” It need to cut out a lot of the tree.” was punctuated by a selection of common produce The older man paused—and gently added: items: a tomato, potato, melon, onion, and various “That’s the way it is with hate.” other fruits, vegetables and grains. Each became a The elevator opened. Their conversation continued as launching point for a taxonomic exploration of its the doors close. The unintended witnessing of their evolutionary ancestry, geographic origins, species intimate exchange embarrassed me. I was also left variations, and cultural history. Craig’s reservoir of breathless by the elderly man’s graceful wisdom. ecological knowledge told a magnificent story. Ever It touches me even now. When I feel beset by bad since, it has been impossible to buy food without temper, I often remind myself of his words. They giving some thought to a larger picture of life. This have served me, furthermore, with a mindful hook for was years before Michael Pollan’s The Botany of similar maxims of kindness, e.g., ‘resentment is like Desire and The Omnivore’s Dilemma or Mark taking poison and expecting the other person will die’, Kurlansky’s Cod, The Big Oyster, and Salt -- whose ‘when you seek revenge, dig two graves’, and one of books have delivered many ecological insights to the my recent favorites (from Kiera Knightley) “criticism is relationship between our mouth and the rest of the easy, empathy is hard” living world. II. Another insightful surprise came, years ago, IV. One of my favorite childhood routines was during an environmental conference. Students from taking long after-school walks with my dog. The a nearby college had produced a short documentary. solitude of the outdoors was a welcome respite from They showed it at the close of our morning session. the routines of school and long bus rides. The The film opened with a cafeteria scene. A student countryside where I lived was a diverse mix of was moving along a lunch line, selecting food for his woodlands and working farms. The landscape behind tray. The camera zoomed in on his hamburger and, my home rose eastward into steep shale cliffs covered then further, to the beef patty. In a retrograde chain, in hardwoods, cedars, sumac, and wild blueberries. the camera followed the burger back to the grill, to To the south was an open field that sloped gradually the walk-in refrigerator, then the delivery truck. The to a marshy valley with a small pond. Overlooking the filmmakers tracked the truck back to the distribution pond stood a solitary hemlock. It was the oldest and

7 tallest tree around. A deep carpet of fragrant needles history to the owner. The look of our house was so surrounded the base of its huge trunk. Strong different, it caused no pain to pause and share branches encircled the tree that invited easy climbing. memories. My heart sank, though, when I spied my I am certain I scaled my way to its top more than a favorite hemlock through the trees, broken off hundred times. From this vantage point I could survey halfway up and dead. the valley in all directions. Midway up, I fashioned a V. I am reminded here, finally, of a crude tree house from leftover lumber, where I spent conversation with a fellow psychologist. While many hours in solitary reflection. If one can call a tree walking together across her university campus to a a friend, my relationship with that hemlock was meeting, we briefly shared our backgrounds. She had among my deepest connections to the natural world. always lived in urban New York. I, in turn, mentioned Many years later, I joined my sister on a my rural background of fields and forest. “Oh yes,” retrospective road trip. Our childhood home had she replied. “I love trees -- but not all of them.” been long-ago sold. Nonetheless, we decided to “What do you mean?” I asked. “Well,” she said, review of our early lives together -- down familiar pointing in the distance “I don’t like that kind of tree. back roads, and around our former school bus route. It doesn’t have any leaves.” I paused for a moment. Many things had changed. We stopped at once “Sharon,” I said, “that is a dead tree.” familiar places. The bus-trail was sobering. Where While the list might continue --- the point is old friends had lived, we saw overgrown fields and this: daily life is full of subtle biddings to wider points drab remains of once-loved farms. Our school still of view. Some arise within our minds, or others arrive looked the same. So did the small-town library. as chance encounters with our surroundings. What Inside, however, there was no trace of people from matters is our readiness to experience wonder. And the past. Though the smell was familiar, we felt like that, for me, is one of the most fulfilling aspects of strangers in a dream. We took a quiet afternoon meal human ecology. in the village tavern and made no mention of our

Note: Portions of this paper are excerpted from Richard Borden’s book Ecology and Experience: Reflections from a Human Ecological Perspective.

8 2. Human Ecology in the 21st Century

Dr T .I. Khan Director, Indira Gandhi Centre of Human Ecology, Environmental and Population Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India

Human Ecology in the 21st Century reminds me of energy, in terms of transportation, in terms of of the CHEC Regional Seminar (Asia) held from 8th- tourism and in terms of mining of important minerals, 12th May 1991 on Human Ecology, Environmental and in terms of housing. Management Education and Training for But what are the costs we have paid, Development. Ecologists around the world were particularly in terms of deteriorating environmental preparing for the "Earth Summit" held by the United quality and growing human insecurity? Nations Conference on Environment and The pollution of atmosphere, the depletion of Development (UNCED) in Brazil, 1992, which followed the Ozone layer, climate change, the pollution of on from the United Nations Conference on the Human marine ecosystems, depletion of fresh water Environment held in Sweden, 1972. Global resources and deterioration of water quality, Environmental deterioration continued to accelerate degradation of land and an increase in desertification, during that period. During CHEC’s regional Seminar deforestation and degradation of forests, loss of (Asia), Dr. Abdul Ghafoor Ghaznawi, (Chief biological diversity, increase in environmental hazards Environmental Education section UNESCO, Paris, and enormous amounts of production of toxic France), Dr. Ms M. Koenig, (Executive secretary chemicals and hazardous waste. friends of the environment, Mauritius), Dr. David Atmospheric pollution is a major problem Shirley, (CHEC-London, England), Dr. S. Appanah facing all nations of the world. Various chemicals are (Malaysia), Mr. W.M. Sullivan (Director, centre for emitted into the air from both natural and man-made Scientific Research, Auroville, Tamil Nadu, India), sources. Emissions from natural sources include those myself and Mrs. Zena Daysh were sitting in an hotel from living and non-living resources. In addition to the room one day before the seminar, thinking and previously known common air pollutants, many planning for the Inaugural function. Suddenly Dr. volatile organic compounds and trace metals are Abdul Ghafoor posed a question, asking “What is emitted into the atmosphere by human activities. Human Ecology?” Let us precisely define it. Then a In contrast to the harmful ozone formed as a good number of definitions were put forward. photochemical oxidant at ground level, ozone in the Ultimately Mrs. Zena Daysh came up with the stratosphere, between 25 and 40 km above the following set of words: earth’s surface, is the beneficial natural filter that "Human Ecology is first and foremost absorbs and blocks the sun's short wavelength individual dedication to all life, it is individual ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) that is harmful to life. responsibility. It is inner development, it is Concern about the depletion of stratospheric ozone love. Human Ecology is spiritualising by man's activities began in the late 1960s over individuals and their institutions." (Zena emissions of nitrogen oxides by high flying supersonic Daysh, 1991). aircraft. Later in 1974, it was found that man-made Since then we have been religiously believing in this CFCs although inert in the lower atmosphere, can definition. survive for many years and migrate into the Now if we ask the following questions: stratosphere. CFCs are destroyed by UV-B radiations, 1. Have Individuals shown dedication to all life? releasing atmospheric chlorine which attacks 2. Have we shouldered our environmental stratospheric ozone, with the formation of the free responsibilities? radical ClO which reacts further to regenerate 3. Are we loving of our planet Earth and Environment? atmospheric chlorine. This chain reaction can cause 4. Have we been successful in spiritualizing in terms of the destruction of as many as 100,000 molecules of Environmental Conservation? ozone per single atom of chlorine. It has been The answers to all of these questions are thought that carbon dioxide was the only greenhouse negative. Meaning thereby, we are not respecting gas. Researchers over the last 3-4 decades have and understanding Human Ecology, we are not identified other gases such as nitrous oxide, methane, respecting the words of Mrs. Zena Daysh Spoken in chloroform carbons and troposphere ozone as 1991. potential greenhouse gases. So, what have we achieved during 1991 to Sufficient evidence is now available to 2018? We have done a lot of development in terms of indicate that changes in the climate would have an agriculture and food production, in terms of industrial important effect on agriculture and livestock. development, in terms of energy production and use Negative impacts could be felt at the regional level as 9 a result of changes in weather and the climate change and catastrophic, industrial accidents are on the rise associated arrival of invasive pests attacking crops and world-wide, about 10 million chemical compounds spreading diseases, necessitating innovations in have been synthesized in laboratories since the technology and agricultural management practices. beginning of present century. Approximately one There may be a severe decline in production in some percent of these 100,000 organic and inorganic regions. The effects of global warming on forests may chemicals are produced commercially and 1,000 to also be mixed and will vary from one region to 2,000 new ones appear each year. There is virtually another. Natural terrestrial ecosystems could face no sector of human activity which does not make use significant consequences as a result of the global of chemical products and many products have indeed increases in the atmospheric concentrations of brought beneficial effects to man and his greenhouse gases and the associated climate changes. environment. In recent years, however, there has Relatively small changes in climate can cause large been growing concern world-wide about the harmful water resource problems in many areas, especially in effects of chemicals on human health and the semi-arid regions and those humid areas where environment while doing development; we have demand or pollution has led to water scarcity. Global ignored important obligations i.e. environmental warming will accelerate sea level rise, modify ocean conservation. That is why the world is facing a host of circulation and charge marine ecosystems, with environmental problems and suffering with considerable socio-economic consequences. The innumerable unknown diseases. If we want to earth's genes, species and ecosystems are the product combat this scenario, we are required to understand of hundreds of millions of years of evolution and have to keep a balance among people, environment and enabled our species to prosper. But the available development. The answer is we need effective evidence indicates that human activities are leading to sustainable development. the loss of the planet's biological diversity. With the The question that once again arises is how to projected growth in both human population and achieve the goal of sustainable development? The economic activity, the rate of loss of biodiversity is far answer comes only from human ecology which more likely to increase than stabilize. teaches us to love, to respect and care for nature and The human environment is becoming more Mother Earth. Therefore, today we most urgently and more hazardous. Natural disasters (earthquakes, need Human Ecology more than anything else. volcanoes, tropical storms, cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes, floods, droughts etc.) are more frequent

Jain temple in Rajasthan, India (Photo: Eva Ekehorn)

10 3. Human Responses to Climate Change

Jon Kellett, Professor of Planning and Property, School of Architecture and Built Environment at the University of Adelaide, South Australia.

Introduction Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, notably from fossil there is reluctance to shoulder responsibility. The fuel generated electricity generation, cities, industry nature of the problem was adeptly summarised as and transport is now regarded as a significant threat follows: to continued human life as we know it. Seven of the “To a psychologist climate change looks like it globally hottest years since 1880 have occurred in the was designed to be ignored. It is a global past decade (NOAA, 2018). Around the world, problem, with no obvious villains and no one- changing weather patterns with unprecedented step solutions, whose worst effects seem as if extremes of heat, rainfall, wind strength and storms they will befall somebody else at some other are increasingly impacting on human settlements. time. If someone set out to draw up a The causes of climate change are well understood and problem that people would not care about… it there is a broad consensus that action in response is would look exactly like climate change” needed but it remains a slippery problem for which (Fahrenthold, 2010).

Climate change impacts: reduced security, lowered environmental quality, and greater unfairness The effects of climate change on human society are functions. 374 more people in the city died than manifold. Shifting climate zones, driven by changing would normally be expected during this period. Half a temperature and rainfall regimes, are steadily million residents were deprived of power and around changing the location of habitat, impacting local a quarter of rail services were cancelled as result of ecology and agriculture. Crops which have been buckled track (DIT, 2011: 129). Rising sea levels, successfully grown for centuries are no longer viable particularly during extreme events such as Hurricanes in certain areas. The pattern and incidence of certain Sandy in New York in 2012 and Katrina, which diseases, notably the distribution of malarial devastated New Orleans in 2005, increasingly mosquitos, as well as medical conditions associated threaten the basic fabric of cities. with heat stress, are changing. Human settlements at On a larger scale, climate change may be every scale are affected. Smaller communities viewed as a primary driver of even more significant dependent on specific natural resources such as upheaval. The southward advance of the Sahara timber, agriculture or fisheries may find their Desert is one of the elements which is stimulating economic base eroded by climate change. international migration of people northward to Communities from the arctic to the tropics are Europe. In Bangladesh 17 million people are affected as sea ice retreats and the productivity of threatened by displacement because river and coastal staple crops such as rice, wheat and corn declines in flooding is literally destroying the land upon which response to heat and drought (IPCC, 2017). Wildfires, they live and work. The majority become internally extreme flooding events and mudslides are displaced persons, drifting to rapidly expanding increasingly taking a toll on human life and displacing megacities such as Dhaka, where these “climate populations either temporarily or permanently. The refugees” are forced to try to rebuild their lives often populations of large urban areas face increasing from a position of extreme poverty. Declining access disruption due to infrastructure failures during to natural resources, particularly water, is one extreme weather events and urban heat islands amongst several motivating factors in regional increase their dependence on mechanical air conflicts such as that in the Sudan over the past conditioning, normally stimulating demand for more decades. In the extreme case, whole island nations fossil fuel generated power. The eleven-day such as the Maldives, Kiribati and Tuvalu, are destined Melbourne heat wave of 2009 demonstrates the for extinction as they succumb to rising sea levels. impact of extreme climatic events on normal city

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Fig 1: Recent climatic events in Australia Source: Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ABC.net.au

Response to climate change: improving environmental quality and enhancing security Human response to climate change, as with the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC, 1992) and the Paris Climate problem itself, may be viewed as multidimensional. Accord (UNFCCC, 2016). Examples of mitigation policy It ranges from individual decision making and action are the shift away from fossil fuels in favour of such as the displaced climate migrant seeking an renewable energy sources and changing the land use alternative future elsewhere, to international pattern of urban areas through urban consolidation to agreements brokered on the world stage. reduce trip lengths and reliance on private motor Government policy and decision making play critical vehicles, thus reducing demand for fossil fuel roles in addressing the problem of climate change, but generated energy. Often these adaptation and apart from its intrinsic difficulties, the topic is fraught mitigation policy areas overlap. For example, the with political and ethical dilemmas as the following introduction of vegetation covered green roofs on discussion seeks to illustrate. buildings can combat rising temperatures by cooling Policy on climate change can be broadly the building interior and is thus an example of separated into two areas. Firstly, adaptation policy adaptation but also reduces the energy demand of the addresses the symptoms of climate change. It seeks to building, thereby supporting global mitigation of change the way we live to better accommodate and climate change. Sometimes the two can conflict, for cope with the negative effects of climate change. example where urban consolidation increases the Given that a measure of global warming, broadly urban heat island effect and raises local temperatures accepted as at least 2oC, is already locked into the (Hamin & Gurran, 2009). The urban heat island is climate system, adaptation represents a sensible and caused by the massing of buildings, the intensive use pragmatic approach. Policy examples include of concrete glass and steel surfaces which absorb and modifying building construction standards to better radiate heat and the paucity of green spaces and trees cope with heat and high winds or adjusting which can mitigate heat in urban areas. emergency response procedures to extreme weather A further policy approach which is gaining in the knowledge that extremes will occur more often, currency is resilience. The term derives from natural with greater severity and more people will be sciences and is generally taken to imply the ability of a affected. Secondly, mitigation policy addresses the system or population to bounce back from trauma to causes of climate change by seeking to introduce their former state. Some commentators argue against measures to reduce GHG emissions and the rate of this interpretation arguing that resilience should be global climate change. Mitigation is central to more focussed on continual adaptation to changing international efforts to address climate change, circumstances and less about returning to situations notably through multilateral agreements such as the where threats may become overwhelming as climate

12 change intensifies. The cost of climate change is also nations that have been responsible for the bulk of a critical concern for policy makers. Eminent historic emissions, whilst the latter point to the economists Nicholas Stern (2006) for the UK apparent threat posed by the industrialising giants of government and Ross Garnaut (2008) for the China and India, despite these countries’ per capita Australian government, have undertaken significant emissions being substantially lower than those of the exercises examining the cost to society of acting on West. Fear of loss of competitive advantage is a clear climate change, both of which demonstrated the concern for many, notably the US which failed to join importance of addressing climate change sooner the Kyoto Protocol and withdrew its support for the rather than later. Ignoring the problem and doing Paris Accord in 2017. Grass roots action by individuals nothing or putting off action into the future, are and communities is patchy. Whilst many people shown to be costly and undesirable alternatives to express concern at continuing emissions levels, the immediate action. lack of government action on issues such as taxing Whilst there are grounds for cautious carbon emissions means localised responses can be optimism, particularly in respect of the recent take up expensive. Individual commitment to energy use of renewable energy in many countries around the reduction, getting rid of the private car and eating less world, a great deal of inertia and resistance is red meat, all of which would assist in reducing climate apparent in respect of top down policy making. change if widely pursued, can prove difficult in Developing nations question why they should be societies which largely depend on business as usual. subjected to similar rules as the advanced western

Ethical concerns: prosperity and fairness Perhaps the greatest ethical dilemma which goes Bangladeshis displaced by Cyclone Aila in 2009, unnoticed by millions is the unfairness inherent in the remain refugees within their own country, uprooted cause and effect relationships in climate change. It is from their generations old way of life as farmers and the wealthiest nations that have caused the problem fishermen, instead eking out a living as rickshaw through profligate and continuing use of fossil fuels drivers or day labourers in the slums of Dhaka or and it is the people of the world’s poorest nations Khulna (Ahsan et al, 2016). Even within wealthy who suffer the worst consequences. Vulnerability to nations it is the poor who lose out to climate change. climate change is directly related to the resources Over a decade on from Hurricane Katrina the wealthy available to adapt or rebound from its effects. This is suburbs of New Orleans have revived but the poorer apparent around the world. The Brisbane floods in black neighbourhoods remain sparsely populated 2011 devastated large areas of SE Queensland and wastelands as most of their original residents have caused $10 billion of damage to property in the city. departed elsewhere. The resources available to deal Yet three years later, the value of properties which with the symptoms of climate change are unevenly had been completely inundated, had bounced back to distributed and the inherent complexity of cause and pre-flood levels; a combination of insurance and effect tend to mean business as usual solutions are government aid had effectively returned the region to preferred to systemic changes in attitude. Questions its former state. By contrast, most of the half million of ethics are rarely raised especially in the west.

Fig 2: Bangladesh: Loss of land and livelihood as a result of tropical cyclones Photo: Reazul Ahsan

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Fig 3: Bangladesh: An entire county threatened by climate change

Increased flow in the major rivers threatens large the most part, are designed to benefit the locality in urbanised areas (dark green). The coast zones have a which they are applied and may not have global high population density of traditional fishing and implications. Decisions at the local level about GHG agricultural activities and the mangrove forest. One emissions have a global impact. However, it is difficult meter of sea level rise is predicted by 2100. to measure or observe these impacts in the short While progress on policy solutions at the term. Nevertheless, in decision making on renewable global level lags behind what is required, and inspired energy developments, for example a wind farm which leadership is absent, at the local level more could be might have harmful effects on local landscape or achieved if greater weight were given to the ethical disturb local wildlife, it is important to consider the dimensions of the problem. Adaptation policies for global perspective.

Fig 4: Wind farms help mitigate climate change but are often subject to local objection Photo: Stephen Hamnett

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A further dimension to this ethical debate and that the continuing right to exist of small island relates to the scale of the effect. Even a wind farm of nations threatened by sea level rise is included. several hundred machines will have a tiny effect on Similarly, the notion that global climate change policy global GHG emissions. This can lead to a compromise needs to focus on national per capita emissions rather where the argument that the impact is so small that it than the overall scale of national emissions is does not a matter wins the day. But any reduction in fundamental in setting ethical principles to deal with GHG is a beneficial step. It is critical that the decision- climate change. making process is not seen as a purely localised issue

______References

Ahsan, R., Kellett, J. & Karuppannan, S. (2016). Climate migration and urban changes in Bangladesh. In R. Shaw, A. Rahman, A. Surjan & G. A. Parvin (Eds.), Urban Disasters and Resilience in Asia (pp. 293-316). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Elsevier. Department of Infrastructure and Transport (2011) State of Australian Cities 2011, Canberra, Commonwealth of Australia. Fahrenthold D (2010) Holding tight to the Status Quo, Guardian Weekly 01.01.10 Hamin E & Gurran N (2009) Urban Form & Climate Change: Balancing Adaptation & Mitigation, Habitat International 33 pp238-245 Garnaut R (2008) Garnaut Climate Change Review, Canberra, Commonwealth of Australia. IPCC, (2017) Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), Working Group II Contribution. National Centers for Environmental Information (2018) USA Government https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/datasets Stern N (2006) The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, UK Treasury. UNFCC (1992) The Kyoto Protocol, http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php UNFCC (2016) The Paris Accord http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php

“To a psychologist climate change looks like it was designed to be ignored. It is a global problem, with no obvious villains and no one-step solutions, whose worst effects seem as if they will befall somebody else at some other time. If someone set out to draw up a problem that people would not care about… it would look exactly like climate change”

15 4. Human Resilience in a Changing World – Air Pollution

Vitalis Nwokorie PhD Student – Environment Health and Risk Management, University of Birmingham

Culture, economics and society all affect how human Is it fair that humans have sought to improve actions impact on our environment. However there their health on short term basis by compromising the has been little discussion the way people constantly earth? If we seek sustainability, should we be aiming adjust their resilience to environmental impact, for both human health and environment health? particularly since environmental issues have become Health could simply be described as when all is well. politicized and subject to regulation. Generally, Moreover, health is dependent on many factors: humans have been known to be reactive rather than genetic inheritance, personal attributes, quality of proactive with regards to astonishing historically health care, and the general external environment environmental events. The great London smog, 1952 (such as the quality of air, water, and housing lead to the passing of the UK Clean Air Act 1956 which conditions). set in chain national level responsibilities for air Yet, the “Ouroboros” effect in the human pollution mitigation in the UK and other ecology of people: environment interactions tends to commonwealth countries. increase pollution. It is widely accepted that human health is a Air pollution can be described as the key indicator of the human relationship with their contamination of air with substances including gases environment. This article will discuss how resilient (chemical), particulates (physical) and organisms, humans have been in dealing with air pollution in the particularly microbiota (biological), which can be view of health improvement. caused by both human and natural processes. The way humans strive to acclimatise to a fast 11. 6 % of all global deaths are associated with developing and changing world, while the earth combined effect of outdoor and indoor air pollution. system adjusts to ever changing and expanding It is estimated that about 3 million humans human society, may be philosophically described as die every year as a result of outdoor pollution and an “Ouroboros”, the emblematic serpent of ancient 4.3 million from household air pollution. Egypt and Greece, represented with its tail in its Human resilience towards air pollution has mouth, continually devouring itself and being reborn increased. Over the years, there has been repeated from itself. Ouroboros expresses the unity of all improvement of strategies to reduce air pollution. things, material and spiritual, which never disappear Because a large proportion of air pollution is as a but perpetually change form in an eternal cycle of result of fossil fuels combustion such as coal and destruction and re-creation. Adapting to present-day crude oil, the minimised usage of these fuels can environmental issues, particularly climate change, reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the requires many resources, sometimes leading to higher switch to clean power sources such as wind power, energy demands which lead to heat energy from a solar power, hydro power which don't cause air non-environmental friendly source causing more pollution but the other question would be if these climate change through pollutant emissions, so method causes less of other types of pollution driving the eternal cycle of change. (sight noise etc.).

Legislation to reduce air pollution and improve environmental quality Historically, industrialisation and pollution in Efforts to reduce pollution via regulations have been major cities have increased in tandem, urbanisation a major solution to the growing effect of urbanisation being seen as the culprit in environmental pollution. of rural areas. Developed countries like the UK, have Some environmental regulations adopted by inherited a more controlled land planning system but developed countries are also enacted by governments developing countries are playing catch-up to what of developing countries. However the legislation may seems to be increased urbanisation. The London not deal with new technologies and new sources of vehicle emission toxicity charge was aimed to improve pollution such as generators. air quality by encouraging the use of more fuel According to WHO, household air pollution is a major efficient cars in London. The UK taxes cars in terms of global cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Its the carbon emissions. Many countries have taxation mortality ranks higher than outdoor pollution and the policies to reduce the use of plastic bags and disease burden is most in low-income countries. encourage the recycling of plastic bottles. Such The ability of titanium dioxide to reduce air measures could be adopted elsewhere. pollution inspired two British scientists (Prof Tony

16 Ryan and Prof Simon Armitage of the University of Progress in devices to trap pollutants and Sheffield) to create posters that could absorb the toxic control emissions before they are released to the emissions from around 20 cars each day. atmosphere has been considerable. Carbon-capture A very effective means to reduce air pollution and storage once seen be the coal industry as a is the transition to renewable energy, the guarantee of a future for solid fuel fired power development of electric cars and vans being an stations has lost out in recent years as wind and solar excellent example of the increased switch to energy , along with gas-fired power stations have met renewable energy. much of the increased demand for electricity, particularly in Europe and the Middle East.

Conclusion There remain important unanswered questions and everyone is on the same page. For example, it is unexplained theories in understanding the human challenging when the president of the US doesn’t resilience to the fast changing world in the with believe in global warning. respect to managing air pollution. The identity of Therefore it is paramount that we participate every human is a combination of genetically make up in more scientific research to understand all the basic and environment. scientific facts in the environment. All humans need The future of the global environmental access to such knowledge and its implementation to sustainability depends on education (educating the have a fair opportunity to achieve security and younger population), continual scientific research on prosperity while also saving the planet. environment. Resilience has most impact when

Smog over Los Angeles, California - before 1970 Federal Clean Air Act. (Photo: Eva Ekehorn)

17 5. An Introduction to Ecocide: Canada and the United Kingdom John McDonnell, CHEC’s Communication Officer

In this short article, I look to provide a brief ecocide cases. Each case study will demonstrate the introduction to the concept of ecocide before negative impacts of ecocide on the environment and introducing some examples of ecocide that are the local communities who are directly impacted by happening around the world. The Alberta Tar Sands their effects. Each case study will also briefly show in Canada and hydraulic fracking in the United how those who are affected by ecocide are standing Kingdom will be looked at as ongoing and potential up to ecocide and resisting in their own specific ways.

A Brief History of Ecocide Ecocide is typically known as the destruction of also a common occurrence especially in our drive for ecosystems and the environment. Throughout human natural resources. Oil well drilling, mining, fracking history ecocides have taken place multiple times, in and mountain top removal are all instances of energy various ways. However, as our energy consumption extraction that drastically affect the environment and has increased so have the number of potential can cause terrifying effects on species’ populations. ecocide cases due to the fact that our most common They can disrupt, destroy and pollute ecosystems energy extraction methods often involve the making them uninhabitable for animals and humans destruction of the natural landscape, the loss of alike. species’ habitats and complete destruction of whole The effects of ecocide do not just harm animal ecosystems. and plant species but also can destroy human ways of Ecocide as a term was first used to describe life. Recent scholarship argues that ecocide is a the USA’s intentional ‘environmental destruction’ of contributor to genocide - especially in instances Vietnam where chemical agents such as Agent Orange where a populations’ identity is tied to the land that is were used to destroy forests and land with the aim to destroyed by ecocide. This is very apparent in cases disrupt Vietnamese resistance and drive them out of of ecocide which affect indigenous peoples around hiding and into US controlled areas (Zierler, 2011, the world whose livelihoods and lands are taken and p.14). This type of ecocide and subsequent ecocides destroyed. The implications of ecocide can vary on that occur during times of war are known as military the nature of destruction, the location and who is ecocides, but military ecocide is not the only type of affected but one consistency that remains is that ecocide that exists. ecocide is harmful to all life and ecosystems. In spite Ecocide can occur naturally. The of this, local communities around the world are environmental consequences of natural disasters such standing up to ecocides that are caused by the agenda as tsunamis, volcanic explosions and earthquakes can of continuously increasing resource exploitation and cause extreme environmental damage to ecosystems consumption, regardless of the risks. around the globe. However, man-made ecocides are

Resisting Ecocide: Canada and the United Kingdom Alberta Tar Sands, Canada In what is now referred to as Canada, lies one of the argued should be called ‘lakes’ instead due to their world’s worst ongoing environmental disasters. The huge size. As of 2009, the tar sands had produced ‘tar sands’, as they are frequently known, are located over 720 billion litres of toxic tailings (Dyer, 2009). around the Athabasca River in Alberta. The tar sands The ‘ponds’ contain ‘acids, trace metals and cover an area roughly the size of England that used to unrecovered hydrocarbons’ making them be pristine forest. Production at the tar sands sites uninhabitable to aquatic organisms and mammals provides an estimated 1.9 million barrels of oil a day. (Dyer, 2009). The ponds have also started to The oil extraction method used at the tar sands occurs contaminate groundwater supplies. Furthermore, the through strip mining or ‘in situ’ techniques that see water that is used as part of the extraction process is the oil flow into wells which reduce the ‘viscosity by taken from the nearby Athabasca River. However, the injecting steam, solvents, and/or hot air into the Athabasca is a river that’s level varies based on the sands’ (Huseman & Short, 2012, p.221). This time of year and also year to year. This means that at technique generates 8-37% higher emissions times, the water level in the river is already low and compared to conventional oil extraction taking water from it at these times has endangered (Huseman & Short, 2012, p.221). aquatic species and vital ecosystems in the river One of the most known side-effects of the (Dyer, 2009). tar sands are their ‘tailing ponds’ which some have

18 The effects of the tar sands have not solely to land. The CBM programme includes routine weekly been environmental, as the fallout, waste and land sampling of water quality, the checking of indicators destruction has heavily disrupted the lives of of environmental health, health monitoring of wild countless indigenous people in Canada. Land loss and food, measuring climate change variables and degradation of the Athabasca River, has made it responding to environmental emergencies. The impossible for indigenous groups to sustain traditional recording of such data becomes vital in demonstrating activities and ways of life. Furthermore, the toxic and measuring the negative impacts of the Tar Sands. waste that is produced from the tar sands has been Members from the two indigenous groups have also linked to a sharp increase in rare cancers that have produced reports on the oil sands developments in spread through the local communities. the Tar Sands. In resistance to the Alberta Tar Sands, In another act of resistance, the Beaver Lake indigenous communities have taken steps to resist the Cree Nation (an indigenous community of 900 ongoing environmental destruction and to reclaim Cree people) is taking the Canadian Government their land and rights. Members from the Chipewyan along with the Alberta province to court over the tar and Mikisew Cree First Nations have come together to sands. They are arguing that over ongoing 19,000 create a Community Based Monitoring Program fossil fuel projects by tar sands companies in their (CBM). It was started as elders from each community lands threaten their ways of life. While the case is were increasingly worried about the decreasing continuing, it is a big step that could set a further quality of water resources and the increasing damage precedent for other affected groups within Canada.

Hydraulic Fracking, United Kingdom Fracking is a form of extreme energy extraction that is already been affected by it. Of the fracking that has used to remove hydrocarbons from the ground that been completed in the UK, environmental issues have can be used for energy. It is specifically known as already begun to show. In 2011 at the fracking site at extreme energy as it is considered an ‘extreme’ Preese Hall, Weeton, in the Fylde, Lancashire, two technique to obtain hydrocarbons because it is riskier, minor earthquakes were caused by the stresses within less efficient, produces higher Co2 emissions and is the ground aggravated by the fracking process. less profitable than more conventional methods of Questions remain over where wastewater will be extraction. The process of fracking works by injecting stored, with some reports that that wastewater would fluid into the ground at an extremely high pressure be dumped directly into the Irish Sea, thus causing which causes the deep ground below the surface to widespread harm and damage a marine environment crack, releasing natural gasses trapped in the rocks. the oceans already suffering from high amounts of Fracking is a dangerous method of energy plastic pollution. extraction. In Australia and the United States of In response to both already started trials America, fracking has proven to contaminate water, and proposals for new fracking sites in the UK, local destroy the landscape and environment and has communities have come together to resist and exposed dangerous chemicals to the surface where it endeavour to prevent any further trials proceeding. can cause widespread ecosystem damage. Fracking Multiple grass roots organisations have mobilised to sites are also at high risk of causing spills and protest against fracking, and their arguments are ‘blowbacks’ – which is where the chemicals that are supported by larger environmental charities and injected into the ground are pushed back out by high NGOs. Month-long “Rolling Resistance” events have pressure from the released gas and contaminates the been used in some areas to occupy potential fracking surrounding land and air. sites and to block lorries and equipment reaching the In the UK, on-shore hydraulic fracking was sites of extraction. This resistance has certainly given the go ahead for test runs in 2008. Since then slowed down the momentum of fracking in the UK fracking in the UK has been a very stop-start and made it a much more well-known topic endeavour for the government, the companies throughout the rest of the UK but it still poses a huge looking to profit from it, the local communities who threat to local communities and ecosystems. are set to be affected by it and those who have

Conclusion Instances of ecocide are not limited to the two cases against it as the cause of ecocide is usually entwined studies introduced here. They are often ongoing and with the high consumption rates of the global middle can cause extensive damage to ecosystems and class and ultimately the financial gain of governments, people over prolonged periods of time. Resistance to corporations and wealthy individuals. As the world ecocide is often dangerous for those who stand up starts to see the effects of climate change, the

19 importance of finding clean energy resources and defining factor in the fight against ecocide and decoupling economic well-being from materials uses would ultimately support those resisting the effects becomes ever more important, while simultaneously of ecocide around the world. It is our responsibility stopping ongoing damage to the environment. While to protect the environment and not destroy it. local communities and individuals strive to protect Ecocide, with loss of biodiversity and the extinction of their livelihoods, a simultaneous battle is ongoing in species, is rife around the world currently and its the international legal system to see ecocide named negative effects are being felt by more and more as the 5th crime against peace. This could be a people – it’s time it stopped.

References: Dyer, S., 2009. Environmental impacts of oil sands developments in Alberta. Resilience. Available at: http://www.resilience.org/stories/2009- 09-22/environmental-impacts-oil-sands-development-alberta/ [accessed 1 April 2018]. Huseman, J., and Short, D., 2016. “Tar sands and the indigenous peoples of northern Alberta” In: D, Short. Redefining Genocide: Settler Colonialism, Social Death and Ecocide. London: Zed Books. Zierler, D., 2011. The Invention of Ecocide: Agent Orange, Vietnam, And The Scientists Who Changed The Way We Think About The Environment. Athens;London: University of Georgia Press. Other Sources: https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/view/we-can-no-longer-be-sacrificed http://www.greenpeace.org/canada/en/campaigns/Energy/tarsands/The-tar-sands-and-climate-change/ https://www.dropbox.com/sh/nu0lftnz521nm46/AAD6Kvuo6rt6kSVpnlnPDsh0a/Community%20Based%20Monitoring%20Program%20Summ ary.pdf?dl=0 https://sites.ualberta.ca/~swfc/images/fc-final-report-revised-dec2007.pdf http://www.endecocide.org http://eradicatingecocide.com https://raventrust.com/tar-sands-trial/

Alberta tar sands, Canada

20 6. Population and Inequality: Major Challenges for Human Ecology

Ian Douglas Emeritus Professor of Geography, University of Manchester, UK

People are at the centre of human ecology. The 1980, 4.5 billion, 2000, 6 billion and 2018, 7.6 billion. development of modern human ecology occurred at Paul Ehrlich is still sounding warnings. A report in The the time of growing environmental concern in the Guardian newspaper on 23 March 2018 quoted him as 1970s. Prior to that the debate about the ability of saying “Population growth, along with the earth to support a growing human population had overconsumption per capita, is driving civilisation over been raging with the publication of books such as the edge: billions of people are now hungry or micro- William Vogt’s Road to Survival (1948) which argued nutrient malnourished, and climate disruption is that the diffusion of new agricultural techniques, killing people”. Even so, there are many arguments medicines, and pesticides to less advanced regions of that the world’s food growers have succeeded in the world would soon result in rapid population feeding people up to now and further agricultural growth, resource depletion, environmental innovations should enable them to feed 9 billion destruction, and ultimately social collapse. This people by 2050. A 2011 Economist newspaper special gloomy view of the future was rebutted in Earl Parker report on feeding the world concluded that “Though Hanson’s New Worlds Emerging (1949) and Josué de not easy, it should be perfectly possible to feed 9 Castro's classic The Geography of Hunger (1952) billion people by 2050”. It argues that yields are being which argued that new technologies and better increased, harvest losses are being reduced, and resource management could greatly increase food advanced in plant genetics are raising annual yield production and human well-being. increases from 05-1.0 % to 1.5-2.0% which would Despite the subsequent agricultural produce enough for everyone. Thereafter the report transformations, particularly the work of agronomist assumed that demand for different foods would come Norman Borlaug and his team on the development of from changing diets and that the biggest food-supply semi-dwarf, high-yield and disease-resistant wheat problem would be dealing with climate change. varieties which resulted in the 1963 Mexican wheat However, the UN Department of Economic crop being six times larger than in 1944, Paul and Social Affairs’ report: World Population Prospects: Ehrlich's The Population Bomb (1968) warned of the The 2017 Revision said that the total global population impending inability of the world to feed its is expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in population. This discussion has continued. Many 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100. From 2017 to 2050, it biologists, in particular, argue that the basic was expected that half of the world’s population environmental problem is that there are too many growth would be concentrated in just nine countries: people. This population: environment: sustainability India, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, argument is at the core of human ecology, yet the Pakistan, Ethiopia, the United Republic of Tanzania, continued growth of the human population and its the United States of America, Uganda and Indonesia pressures on resources are seldom discussed directly (ordered by their expected contribution to total in the context of international targets such as climate growth). Coping with such growth continues the change mitigation and sustainable development goals. human ecological challenge of feeding people while The population numbers behind the timing of trying to achieve sustainable development and deal the debates are stunning. In 1940, just before Vogt with the environmental changes that are already and Hanson wrote their books, the global population arising from human activities. was estimated at 2 billion. By 1960 it was 3 billion, by

Food Security: can we grow enough? Food comes mainly from crop growing and livestock from food, societal expansion, and biofuels. The rearing, but farmed fish has become increasingly United Nations’ Food Agriculture Organization important, with global production rising from 18 estimates that global cultivated land area increased by million tonnes in 1990 to 75 million tonnes in 2017, a net 159 million hectares (Mha) or 12% since 1961, compared with an average annual landed 90 million during which time irrigated land doubled and tonnes of non-farmed fish throughout the same agricultural production grew by a factor of 2.5–3.0. In period. Increased crop production and expansion of this period, concerns over food shortages were met grazing land has led to much land cover change and partly by the intensification of fertilizers and loss of forests. As the global population continues to pesticides, in addition to new uses of digital grow, the expansion of land usage can be expected information and genetics. A 2014 estimate indicated

21 that less than 3% of global agricultural land was then growth in Asia has been staggering: increasing from currently dedicated to cultivating biofuel crops. There 13 million tonnes in 1961 to 135 million tonnes in are still concerns over land grabbing and indirect land 2014. Not surprisingly, many point to the expansion use change for biofuels, for in 2016, world biofuel of cropland devoted to producing the soya and maize production amounted to approximately 82 billion feedstuffs need for meat producing animals. Huge metric tons of oil equivalent. land cover changes in South America reflect these It is important to recognise that trends in demand for demands. By 2008, eastern Paraguay had lost almost land for food are affected by dietary changes. In 2000, 90% of its Atlantic Forest due clearance for soya 56% of all the calories consumed in developing production. Much of the Amazon forest has been countries were provided by cereals and 20% by meat, cleared for cattle rearing or maize production. In Asia, dairy and vegetable oils. However, FAO has estimated large areas of Indonesian and Malaysian rainforests that by 2050 contribution of cereals will have dropped have been cleared for oil palm production, to supply to 40% and that of meat, dairy and fats will have risen vegetable oils and biofuels. Such transformations to 29%. To meet this demand, meat production have immense impacts on the human ecology of the would have to increase from 318 m tonnes in 2014 to affected regions. 470 million tonnes by 2050. Already meat production

Fig. 1. Oil palm plantation (beyond the river) in eastern Sabah, Malaysian Borneo (photo: I. Douglas)

New empires of food supply chains: impact of changing patterns of prosperity A further consideration is that much of the tropical talks involving foreigners since 2006. The map in the land clearance is not to meet national demands within relevant article indicated that 2 million hectares of the regions concerned, but to supply the needs of Zambian land had been subject to foreign land other countries. The European colonial empires acquisitions in 2006-9. However, although much had created in the late nineteenth century began this been written about China’s role in such acquisitions, process. In a nineteen forties booklet entitled Empire in 2015 a Johns Hopkins University Report stated that Products (The Times, 1946), the then UK Secretary of there were then just two Chinese state-owned farms State for Dominion Affairs wrote that after six years of and about 30 private Chinese farms operating in war scarcities, the UK had a great sense of gratitude Zambia, all of which were targeting the growing for the food-producing countries of the domestic market. The largest state-owned Chinese Commonwealth on whose supplies the UK was so commercial farm had 3500 ha of land and there were dependent. The pictures of the booklet show scenes no signs of further Chinese state investment in of food and timber production in Australia, New Zambian agriculture; investment in mining and Zealand, Canada, India, Jamaica, South Africa, construction was deemed more important. Zimbabwe, Uganda and Ghana. Today such long food An illustration of the extent of foreign land chains have become more essential to many countries deals in Tanzania in the 2013 Land Deal Politics worldwide. In 2009, the Economist reported that Initiative Working Paper 31 is that deals, whether between 15 and 20 million hectares of farmland in announced, ongoing or concluded, amount to a total poor countries had been subject to transactions or of around one million ha. However, of this amount,

22 only around 200,000 ha can be considered as fairly land and denied access to natural resources in favour confirmed (reported by at least two different sources) of private investors, land speculators, military and being under process. Fairly confirmed, but just personnel and elites. Pastoralists have had to divert announced are deals with an area of 350,000 ha (of their migration routes to avoid the risk of conflict which 325,000 ha were from a recently announced arising from damage that their animals might cause to AgriSol Energy biofuels deal: AgriSol Energy is an Iowa, crops. They also have been denied access to USA-based company). traditional watering holes and have had to find new Sudan is among the global „hotspots‟ for such sources of water for their animals and themselves large-scale land acquisitions. According to a 2014 while on the move. Many of the changes have been study by the World Bank, from 2004 to 2013, Sudan interpreted by the affected groups as meeting the transferred nearly four million hectares of land to military needs of governments at the expense of local foreign private investors. South Korea agreed to people. Clearly, access to apparently uncultivated purchase 690,000 ha, the United Arab Emirates land in African countries by foreign interests is a new bought 400,000 ha and Egypt secured a similar area form of economic colonisation that is not always for wheat cultivation. Locally it is reported that beneficial to local communities. smallholders and pastoralists have been evicted from

Impacts of migration to urban areas and the growth of megacities: Prosperity foral or deteriorating environment quality? In the largest human migration in world history, presence of migrants as a much less significant China’s urban population grew from 16.2 % of the problem than corruption, lack of social security and national total in 1960 to 56.8 percent in 2016. China environmental pollution. Nevertheless the World accounted for 30% of the increase in urban population Happiness Report (Helliwell et al., 2018) found of the developing world as a whole over the period Chinese rural-urban migrants to be less happy than 1990 -2015. Elsewhere, similar urban growth is both rural and urban long-term residents. occurring at a rapid rate. In 2016, 1.7 billion people, Today, in addition to their dependence on 23 % of the world’s population, lived in a city with at food supplies from distant regions, the world’s least 1 million inhabitants. By 2030, a projected 27 % megacities rely on global transfers of fossil fuels for of people worldwide will be concentrated in cities much of their energy requirements. Part of their with at least 1 million inhabitants. While rural areas wastes is often exported to distant countries for were home to more than 45 % of the world’s disassembly, metals recovery and recycling. Water population in 2016, that proportion is expected to fall supplies for such cities are often in conflict with to 40 per cent by 2030. 500 million people, 6.8 % of irrigation demands for agriculture, and may suffer the global population currently reside in megacities. from pollution of water sources by runoff of By 2030, 730 million people are expected to be living agricultural chemicals. Because many of its in cities with at least 10 million inhabitants, megacities rely heavily on groundwater sources, such representing 8.7 % of the world’s population. groundwater contamination, not smog, may be In many developing countries rapid rural- China’s most serious environmental problem. Local urban migration gives rise to various social ills – such scientists recognise the need for systems approaches as urban poverty, slums, inadequate infrastructure, that consider soil, surface water, and groundwater unemployment and crime – which adversely affect the holistically and also argue that using reclaimed water welfare of all urban residents. However, by for managed aquifer recharge needs to play a larger attempting to restrict migration, the Chinese role in China’s water management strategies. government was able to curb such outcomes. For instance, in the 2002 Chinese national household survey urban hukou (permit holder) residents saw the

23

Fig. 2. Shenzhen, China’s new megacity that grew from 30,000 to 2 million in less than 30 years as part of the largest migration in human history and now has water supply concerns (photo: I.Douglas)

Such urban demands are part of the problem immediately around the temple complexes, but had that leads the InterAction Council (an independent difficulty in avoiding siltation and water shortages as international organization that mobilises the the population expanded. experience, energy and international contacts of a As much as a third of the food eaten in some group of statesmen who have held the highest office African cities today is produced by urban and peri- in their own countries) to think that water demand in urban agriculture, although modern development is India and China will exceed supplies by 2032. The often reducing such informal agriculture. Many Council called for a radical reform of attitudes European cities support allotment gardens in the towards water and how it is managed globally, suburbs enabling workers to grow some of their own including programmes to reduce demands though food. Experiments with food production in buildings conservation, efficiency, re-use, and the and on green roofs abound, but real municipal or replenishment of natural systems. Urban rainwater national government encouragement of such local harvesting incorporated into new building design and action to help feed urban populations is rare. construction could be a useful technique in such a Such ideas are part of the required human rethink. ecological transformation need to cope with growing In past centuries, most urban areas either urban populations. But urban societies are far from grew their own food, within town walls in many homogenous. They comprise different cultures, medieval towns, or had in brought in from the beliefs, faiths, levels of education and wealth. Most immediate hinterland. Ancient Rome however had cities are notoriously unequal societies. Inequality is a requirements on its North African land managers for key element of the population problem and the ability delivery of defined annual loads of olive oil and grains. to feed and care for people in an ever more densely Twelfth century million city Angkor Thom supported populated world. its temple society through intensive rice agriculture

Overcoming inequality and improving fairness: the great population challenge for human ecology Today in most countries the gap between rich and numbers rose from 690 million in 1990 to 880 million poor is at its highest level since 1986. In the OECD in 2014: a rise equivalent to about 19 times the countries, which include the UK, Canada, New population of Greater London! Zealand, South Africa and Australia, the richest 10 % If we look at national level data, we see of the population earn 9.6 times more than the considerable differences in inequality between poorest 10%. While the richest have become at least countries. Inequality is indicated by the Gini 50% better off since 1985, the poorest 40% in most coefficient which has a value of 0 when everybody has countries have seen little change, if any in their identical incomes and of 1 when all the income goes circumstances. We see indicators suggesting that to only one person. The average value of the progress is being made in reducing the proportion of coefficient for OECD countries is 0.315, but the UK has urban people living in slums, falling from 46.2% in a score of about 0.35, the USA 0.4, China 0.48, and 1990 to 29.7% in 2014. However the absolute Chile and Mexico around 0.5 (OECD, 2015). This

24 inequality generally has increased since 2000, If we look at another international index, that of although it has stabilised in China and decreased in happiness, as given in the World Happiness Report Brazil and some other countries. Although there is (Helliwell et al., 2018), we find that some of the more much attention to the wealthiest 1 % in the media, it equal countries also express the greatest happiness is the plight of the 40% of the population at the lower (Fig. 3). Finland ranked highest for happiness as was end of the distribution which really deserves global seventh for equality, while Denmark was highest for attention. When such a large group of people gain so equality and third for happiness. Although these little from economic growth, the social fabric is Nordic countries pay some of the highest taxes in the weakened, while trust in institutions declines. This world, there is wide public support because people has in part been demonstrated by the rise of populism see them as investments in the quality of life for all. in Europe and North America, but the plight of people Free health care and free university education goes a in other parts of the world where countries have even long way when it comes to happiness a Danish expert higher Gini coefficients really ought to be of concern has said. to all thinking people.

9 8 Finland 7 Denma USA UK 6 Slovenia Colombia 5 China Indonesia 4 South Africa India

Happiness Index 3 20 30 40 50 60 70 Equality Index

Fig. 3. Plot of the happiness index as a function the equality index for 33 countries (Compiled by the author). . The challenge for human ecologists, and for constituencies before elections, but to provide public politicians and social scientists generally, is to find services to benefit the whole community and to ways to improve the lot of the deprived 40 %. It goes achieve equality of opportunity for all the world’s beyond asking for good governance and sustainable children. development. Environmental and social justice are There are innumerable details to cope with needed everywhere. How can taxes be applied fairly and many obstacles to overcome in order to achieve to pay for all things that urgently need attention in this fairer society, but without moves in that direction the poorest communities of the world? Fairness it is going to be extremely difficult to support 9.8 suggests that the wealthy should pay more and that billion people in 2050, let alone 11.2 billion in 2100. effective taxes on property as well as on income are We have to see the population issue as the required. Once collected those taxes have to be used overarching question in all discussions about coping fairly and effectively, not to keep cronies in with climate change, managing world health, and government jobs or to support investment in marginal trying to meet Sustainable Development Goals .

______Key literature cited. LDPI Working Paper 31, The Hague: The Land Deal Politics Castro, J. de, 1952, The Geography of Hunger, London: Victor Initiative. Gollancz. OECD, 2015, In It Together: Why Less Inequality Benefits All, Ehrlich, P., 1958, The Population Bomb, New York: Ballantine OECD Publishing, Paris, Books. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264235120-en Hanson, Earl Parker, 1949, New Worlds Emerging, New York: The Times, 1946, Empire Products: 33 pictures in sepia Sloan & Pearce. photogravure, London: The Times Publishing Company. Helliwell, J., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. 2018, World Happiness United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Report 2018, New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Population Division, 2017, World Population Prospects: The 2017 Network. Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables, Working Paper No. Locher, M. & Sulle, E. 2013 Foreign land deals in Tanzania: An ESA/P/WP/248, New York: UNECOSOC. update and a critical view on the challenges of data (re)production, Vogt, W., 1948, Road to Survival, New York: W. Sloane Associates.

25 7. Civil Society Roles in UN Sustainable Development Goals

Dr. Donnell Davis, President UN Parliamentary Association, Queensland, Australia

Civil Society assumes many roles in the development Queensland (SEQ), Sisters for Sustainability, and implementation of the United Nations Sustainable Grandmothers of the Black Earth (Indigenous Elders), Development Goals (SDG). The value of enthusiastic with local representation by Friends of the Earth, participation cannot be underestimated as leadership Presentation Sisters, Urban Design Alliance from civil society may be the fastest pathway to (professional bodies and academia), and 78 other progress. As Margaret Mead said: ‘Never doubt that interested persons with broad expertise. a small team of committed citizens can change the In sharing this, I provide a storytelling world - indeed - it is the only thing that ever has’. The approach that touches on vast bodies of work so their Commonwealth Human Ecology Council epitomises flavours are highlighted. A potted history is followed this, in continuing the work of Dame Zena Daysh by a discussion of current actions of civil society and a CNZM, and acknowledging the work of the past and summary of conclusions for a healthy and optimistic present representatives. future. In democratic societies, there is an This paper expresses my understandings expectation that civil societies actively participate in arising from interactions with interested experts order to enhance good governance. In the participating as a special network comprising the Commonwealth, one objective for membership is Earth Charter Committee, United Nations Association practicing democracy, so this paper seeks to share of Australia in Queensland, Regional Landscapes and ideas with our Commonwealth Citizens. Greenspace Advisory Group, Friends of South East

Localising international sustainability policy: history of civil society evaluation In March 2012, we held a workshop on our input to natural land-based and ecosystems governance model the SDGs armed with 15 principles and 17 draft goals, was retained. in order to articulate how to implement these lofty For two decades SEQ was benchmarked international policies locally and to visualise our against 25 other regions across the world, for its expectations towards 2030. Our results fed into the performance for sustainability across 27 headline UN Stakeholder Forum in New York with personal indicators led by the Network for Regional representations, evolving with only 3 principles and Governance for Sustainable Development (NRG4SD). the same 17 goals. So we in SEQ are already Similarly, in the mid-term review of the Millennium passionate about localising SDGs, mindful of failings in Development Goals, we locally reviewed our own our moral compass map, of decisions shaping the regional performance. future, and of our community perspectives. Our community research reports and However, this did not happen overnight, as longitudinal studies were not made public until 2008. the regional wellbeing indicators have been argued Then the state government chose to audit since 1976, albeit with different buzzwords. South sustainability performance, but investigators were East Queensland (SEQ) is a pressure cooker for un- directed to retract the draft report because trends sustainable development. Being for the target of showed reduced stewardship in all categories of internal and international migration for over 30 years environmental care, social and cultural health, long- with 2000 adults per month coming to live term economic trends and governance systems. So, permanently, the stresses on limited resources on a again the responsibility for independent review rested slim band of coastal and riverine plains is evident. with the community of residents, NGOs and a keen Furthermore, social and essential infrastructure has band of 200 unfunded ecosystems scientists. The always lagged behind commercially-led development. report cards are a comprehensive snap shot, backed In 2006, water shortages curtailed this population by more powerful digital mapping with data overlays. explosion momentarily. These figures do not include Some maps plot 150 years of records concisely. But the burgeoning numbers of tourists who also this effort is requires further action and impact. There consume our resources. In Estonia, tourists are is a need for independent sustainability recognised as resource users monitored by e- commissioner(s) to evaluate intergovernmental, passports. Our SEQ region was originally based on cross-sectoral development decisions, where public bioregional boundaries but over time morphed into petitions on nationally and regionally significant administrative boundaries, unlike in Canada where a matters are considered, as proposed in various formats in 1997, 2004, 2008, and 2016. Future

26 reviews may be guided by big data and impact measuring the achievements of the Millennium mapping. Development Goals. (The authors are still alive, living In 2009, after 20 years of community-led in South East Queensland) (Davis Langdon, 2013). ministerial advisory group recommendations, various This Blue Book was an exemplar to Commonwealth State Planning Act(s) were strengthened by a Regional Countries at successive CHOGM gatherings. The same Plan that matured with 12 sustainability policies with methodology could be assigned to the evaluation of programs and responsibilities (Queensland SDGs within Australia as a well as across our Pacific Government, 2009). This allowed for better Region, and the greater Commonwealth. Australia accountability because those policies were associated and New Zealand are supposed to be leaders for our with line items in the state budget. The dollars follow Pacific Region for the 12 Commonwealth counties. the policy. However, existential threats to the Pacific small island Simultaneously, the federation framework states (SIDS) mean that other external international through Council of Australian Governments (COAG) funding needs to be aligned with SDG 13 (Climate), reformed 111 historic agreements into 10 new SDG 2 (Food), SDSG 3 (Wellbeing), SDG 14 (Life Below agreements which reflected international policy being water), SDG 15 ( Life on shrinking land), and SDG 6 implemented within Australia, with accountabilities (access to water and sanitation). within each state for delivery and a framework for The Pacific is a microcosm of cultures and evaluation on community benefit for each dollar economies, but is a global hotspot for World Risk with spent. This improved upon the 1990s ‘Managing for least resilience capacity against complex climate Outcomes’ methodology with Output Budgeting and impacts (exposure, susceptibility, coping and Management Reporting. So, governance was governance). Where is Australia’s duty of care for sometimes assessed for probity (transfers), efficiency safe migration with the Pacific Passport to empower (output), effectiveness (outcomes or objectives people to (1) ‘stay and defend’ or (2) to evacuate achieved), social impact (desirable behavioural permanently? Where is the accountability framework change), ecological footprints (for major projects), to ensure both short-term and long-term investments ‘stewardship’, and then academically / theoretically are aiming for the greater good for humanity in the into ‘development ethics’. The findings were variable region? The Pacific Passport is a ‘pilot program’ for and mostly confidential. These accountability systems Commonwealth Citizenship so this is an opportunity have been eroded as a result of regime changes over to test options and share findings. The answers may the past decade. The most extreme erosion was be found in the application of the SDGs as the basis of when the foundation ‘Charter of Social and Fiscal a new ‘Blue Book Evaluation’ for the longer-term Responsibility’ was replaced by a marketing plan. wellbeing for our Pacific region. At the same time, the Federal Government’s Blue Book evaluated the effectiveness of AusAID by

Current action by civil society: towards greater fairness SDG 11 (Cities) is a microcosm for all SDGs. Australia Netherlands were presented in a format that was as the ‘most suburban’ country in the world is under replicated in Norway, Sweden, and other near the microscope for urban governance. At the neighbours. It was obvious that an independent moment, our track record is not favourable. Per reviewer for better urban governance accelerated capita we are reducing our performance on all of the both professional learning and SDG performance. international sustainability performance measures, While funding for proactive policy investment (social, environmental, long-term economic) because for environmental well-being is sourced from the governments are not encouraged to measure and Human Health Budget in Netherlands, it is seen as an manage the right things for the right reasons. While end-of-pipe-expense in SEQ, which is 1960s thinking sprawling urban planning looks elegant on flyover from the net-positive-development continuum video, the management of nationally and regionally (Birkeland, 2008). Proactive lesson sharing on (1) significant resources and the enforcement of any water and energy resources for multiple-time-use (2) breaches is sadly lacking. This provides opportunity in-situ waste recovery (3) regenerative communities for corruption and intergenerational resource debt. also provided impetus for improved technologies Furthermore, better social planning for equity while working with existing resources. This is in stark for inclusive living (shelter for all), design-for- contrast to inappropriate single-use behaviour and dementia and child-safe-city without legal suffocation, the opportunity missed in Australian cities. While is evident elsewhere. In 2016, the Mayor of some demonstration projects do exist, there is little Rotterdam hosted an international Habitat III / SDG leadership in the Planning Regimes or the review where findings across Germany, Belgium and Development Industry ethic or in Construction

27 Innovation, so effective bespoke projects never the SDGs. They align with the Earth Charter which has become the mainstream here. There is a strong need been collaboratively developed since 1972, endorsed for the proven public policy cycle to encourage a by the UN Earth Summit in 2002, and now translated system of good governance. into SDGs with indicators and targets. The themes In 2017, UN Habitat III provided impetus for are: Human Rights suite (1,2,3,4,5,6); New Economy ‘We the Peoples of SEQ Declaration for the New (7,8,9,10,11,12), Environmental Stewardship Urban Agenda” because our region now comprises 6 (13,14,15) and Good Governance (16 & 17). Panels cities, 47 urban centres and 137 rural towns. SEQ is assessed nominations to determine one woman and acknowledged as a benchmarked urbanised region, one man for each category to demonstrate the with similar footprint to Netherlands. Despite this, Antonio Guterres (new UN Secretary General) reform our SEQ carrying capacity given our heavy for 50/50 planet. This was a difficult but rewarding consumption and the risk of climate change impacts, exercise. Each award winner spoke on (1) life path (2) places our governance under scrutiny. Eight Habitat most pride and (3) challenges. The following heroes III policy areas synthesise the 17 SDGs for SEQ. The were serenaded: Sr. Wendy Flannery, Tom Powell, Peoples Resolutions are monitored for progress every Mary Maher, Mark Pascoe, Lois Levy, Frank Ondrus, year by United Nations Association of Australia in Desley Scott, Bob Abbot, Dale Gilbert and Clem Queensland. Campbell. A few Federal Government representatives In December 2017, UNAA(Q) hosted the registered, including consuls and a Senator. The next Inaugural SDG UNsung Heroes Awards to recognise SDG awards are planned for 24 October 2018 in contributions towards four fundamental themes of Brisbane.

Summary of conclusions Civil society has pockets of enthusiastic well-informed making, working with all stakeholders to people who care about stewardship of all our assets - provide a safe space for informed debate for environmental, economic, social, cultural and pathways forward for a safer, fairer and spiritual. They are keen to advance better awareness, more sustainable world. understanding and collective wisdom with others for a  The UN Earth Charter Declaration is the common future that is healthy and optimistic. In a founding framework for the SDGs. All democratic society this is expected, so active humanitarian and environmental participation is fundamental to strengthening organisations are based on one or more SDG institutions like all levels of governments. Evidence of principles. this includes:  Ministerial advisory groups enhance the rich  Since 2016, UNAAQ brands each event contributions that successive governments with one or more SDGs. UNAAQ overall can make to stewardship in implementing role is SDG 16 for peace, justice, public the SDGs. participation, stronger institutions, good governance and democratic decision-

Long term feasibility vs instant private benefits with social + environmental costs The short and long-term benefits of a healthy future  DT x BM > RC. Design thinking with for all living things far outweigh the short-term biomimicry accelerates regenerative cities commercial benefit for private gain resulting in long-  An optimistic future is possible with goodwill, term degradation of natural systems on which all our creativity and good governance. healthy life depends. Key messages are:  Good governance prevents bad decisions  Don’t kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. from recurring and stops corruption (where Protect the tree to keep eating the fruit. the few benefit while the many suffer).  All small changes in the right direction accumulate to big improvements in quality of life.

28 Good Governance Architecture Components for better governance architecture are: 3. COAG funding formulae articulating SDG 1. Independent sustainability commissioner(s) alignment for programs and responsibilities nationally and in regional jurisdictions as in 16 4. Performance Evaluations undertaken annually/ other countries, to include moral compass regularly to encompass probity, efficiency, mapping. effectiveness, social impact, ecological footprints, 2. COAG agreements underpinned by SDG principles, stewardship, and development ethics (Singapore policies, indicators and targets ranks highly on moral compass mapping) 5. Introduce SDG public policy accountability cycle

Pacific programs should address SDG 13, 2, 3, 14, 15, 6 practices are noted throughout these pages but more Australia needs to assign priority to highest risks from information is available in CSC Masterclass manuals, the World Risk Index where we demonstrated publications, our joint reports and PowerPoint reduced performance as stewards in SDG 13, 14, 15, presentations. 16, 17, 7 & 2. Priority should be where we In conclusion, civil society has demonstrated demonstrate ‘Duty of Care’ towards near neighbours both proactive and responsive roles in the seventeen under 3 UN pillars, within the humanitarian Sustainable Development Goals, underpinned by the obligations, right to protect, safe migration, and expectation that democratic societies rely on active international rules based order. International participation in order to hasten good governance.

______- References Birkeland, J. (2012). Design blindness in sustainable development: From closed to open systems design thinking. Journal of Urban Design, 17(2), 163-187. doi: 10.1080/13574809.2012.666209 Davis Langdon. (2013). ‘Collaboration: Making cities better – Insights on Buildings, Infrastructure and Collaboration’ Blue Book 2013,15th Edition (pp. 50). Sydney, NSW: Davis Langdon (AECOM Co.). Queensland Government. (2009). Sustainable Planning Act 2009. UN Habitat. The New Urban Agenda Habitat III Declaration: 20 year plan for Sustainable Cities. Quito Ecuador 2016.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

29 8. Gunyaji: Indigenous Lens on Sustainable Development Goals

Aunty Ruby Sims South East Queensland Regional Elder, Mununjali Country, Australia Dr. Donnell Davis President UN Parliamentary Association, Queensland, Australia

We acknowledge traditional custodians and Elders Charter Declaration drafted in 1972, endorsed by the past and present of this Mununjali Country where we UN General Assembly in 2002 at the Earth Summit write today. We come together to share our lessons which defines the relationships between the States from embracing Sustainable Development Goals (Country), the Peoples and the Earth. So these legal (SDGs) armed with ancient wisdom and indigenous instruments are vital for our quest to educate on SDG understandings, in the belief that our optimistic implementation that is appropriate for cultural common future is inclusive and highly possible. variances across the globe. Today we write after a special smoking The seventeen goals fall into four themes: ceremony at Kooralbyn in South East Queensland, Human Rights (1,2,3,4,5,6); New Economy (7,8,9,10, Australia, where we called upon past Elders to guide 11, 12); Environmental Stewardship (13,14,15) and us. Aunty Ruby (Regional Elder of the Year 2017 and Good Governance (16 and 17). The following is a an Honorary Cultural Ambassador 2017) gave an taste of the aboriginal understandings about each of indigenous reflection on each SDG at the Soroptimist these themes. Each SDG was impetus for a wealth of International conference in 2017, so we build upon stories which reflect on our moral compass. There are this to ensure fundamental principles apply laws of the land that pertain to every aspect of throughout our Commonwealth. community life so that caring for country could also Apart from these underpinnings, we be translated as caring for community. Values acknowledge the UN Declaration for the Rights of associated with the knowledge held by Elders ensured Indigenous Peoples, and the UN Grandmothers of the that protocols were followed in providing Elders with Earth Declaration. These enhance the UN Earth food and all necessary support.

The first suite of the SDGs focuses on Human Rights. SDG 1 - No Poverty – Framed by the values embedded SDG 4 – Quality Education. The mainstream education in aboriginal law means that when something is taken system has diverged away from peripatetic from the land, something is always given back to the experiential learning with integrating techniques. land. Country (Nature) is therefore regenerated and There is an opportunity to reintroduce these ways of managed sustainably, so sufficient food could be learning, with mentoring and storytelling, where oral gathered to feed the whole community. Thus, and visual history can enhance the modern day demonstrating the principle of ‘leave no one behind’. written format. Traditionally, a powerful driver for SDG 2 - Zero Hunger- Country always provides strengthening connection to country is the awareness nourishment. In urban areas even though food might of ancestral spirits in the landscape. Knowledge, not be as accessible, the same principles of caring and enriched by cultural understanding, is a broad concept sharing, with its resultant policy of ‘never saying no to which empowers every sense: smell, touch, taste, the traveller’ still apply. sight, hearing, balance, and position (the later Similarly, SDG3 – Wellbeing - is interpreted as (1) recognised for disabled children) (Volbert: 2015). beyond Individual physical health to be inclusive of Understanding the Lore of the Land is a powerful social, emotional, cultural wellbeing for the whole adjunct to lifelong cultural learning. (Wall:2015). community; (2) whole of life view; and (3) ‘The Cycle’ SDG 5 – Gender equality has never been an issue in of life, death and life. (National Aboriginal Health traditional aboriginal communities where the Strategy: 1989). Furthermore, (4) spiritual wellbeing paradigms of men’s business, women’s business, and that is associated with being in country, hence our public business pertaining to both genders were identity is inherent to our sense of place. So, spiritual clearly established and parameters understood. wellbeing is a health regulator on many levels. All Women equally had responsibilities under the law and living things are part of the cycle of life and therefore had a major say in ensuring proper relationships with interrelated. In Mununjali country, we know that each other and with country. Other areas such as when ‘red bottle brush trees are flowering the turtles land stewardship required input from both men and are fat and ready to be eaten’. This land based women. (Bell: 1993) The figure below illustrates the knowledge is framed in traditional songs and shared different domains with our children to prepare them for their role in looking after country. 30 .

women men

Public

SDG 6 – (Access to) Clean Water and Sanitation. Water is seen as the lifeblood of the earth is compared with 2017 satellite photos, with mother, and is therefore surrounded by Lore that best comprehensive detail of water and resources more supports management of water as a critical resource. accurately portrayed in the old methods. (Wallwork: Waterholes are kept clear of rubbish and are often 2017) So, there is a stewardship role with governance managed by specific families. The water holes and systems to manage the water, essential for regional watercourses are treated with reverence and are seen lifestyles, so that no one place was completely as being protected by guardian spirits. The waterhole degraded of animals or vegetation. As a result, overall network is the lifeline for travellers and local regional sustainability was enhanced and the regular custodians alike. Ancient mapping of 3000 years ago practise of ‘walkabout’ ensured optimum sanitation .

The next suite is the New Economy: articulating ways to reduce the impacts of economic mechanisms and trends. SDG 7 – Renewable Energy. Although traditional struggle to find their place in community. As all had a living did not rely on a distributed energy system, point of connection, it was necessarily understood using the cool from the water (fish farming), the that there was a responsibility to each other and the warmth from the sun, the protection of the land, defined according to the commitments of the vegetation as insulation, the rhythm of the daily sun designated clan group. and nightly cool to guide living conventions. (Pascoe, SDG 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities. From 2004) time immemorial, Australia and its islands remain the SDG 8 – Decent Work and Economic Growth. traditional lands of aboriginal peoples as stewards of Everybody has a role in maintaining healthy place. Community meeting places and festivals have relationships and looking after country. This concept been the responsibilities of respective tribal groups of sustainability is cyclical, so that the wet season over millennia. The understanding of land rights ensured an abundance which enabled trade at food continues to be as important in urban settings as it is festivals. When resources are shared, social planning in rural landscapes. (UN Habitat - Global Land Tool becomes evident because everyone participates with Network: 2010) Cultural landscapes cannot be their assigned obligations. This enhanced society discarded with the mark of a town planner’s pen. In wellbeing causes less stress, unlike the modern urban fact, the recent emergence of place-making by urban pressures. Economic growth is synonymous with designers relies heavily on the history and special community ability to thrive and to share. attributes that define the place. The same cultural SDG 9 – Innovative Infrastructure. Over time, reasons for congregation in sacred places have innovation has been acknowledged with the applied for thousands of years. boomerang, the woomera (spear thrower on which Unlike traditional practices, providing safe rocket technology is based), eel traps, creek bird haven or ‘shelter for all’ is a contemporary challenge. netting, balanced canoes, thatched homes, water A different governance framework evolved over the management for optimal population benefit, grain last century where rules of a foreign country might storage, fish harvesting, soft clothes made from have been applied directly without cultural inclusion. banana bark (renewable) or possum skins, and fire The New Urban Agenda - Habitat III) provides eight stick farm management techniques. themes upon which to define urban sustainability SDG 10 – Reduced Inequalities. Flat hierarchical (UNHabitat, 2016). structures assisted in the appreciation of all peoples SDG 12 – Responsible Consumption and Production. including children and older persons. So an inverted Traditional ways were close to subsistence living, triangle might show the strength of community voice consumption was moderate. The daily harvest is in decision making. Because of the complexity of the enough because one doesn’t eat unless hungry. In clan system, everyone had a place of belonging from times of abundance, excess foods were either shared the moment they were born. Nobody was left to with other tribes during festivals, such as the bunya 31 Nut festival (receiving reciprocal gifts), or stored. constitute several weeks of vitamins. In With understanding of consumption and good contemporary times, those underlying concept still nutrition, a handful of berries would be adequate to prevail.

The next SDG suite is about environmental stewardship. SDG 13 – Climate Action. The World Risk Index in language to summon a pod of dolphins which drove defines exposure (natural hazards), susceptibility a school of fish to shore. Dolphins were rewarded by (probability of harm), coping (social support), and being fed the biggest fish. The relationship is one of resilience (governance) systems. (UNU: 2011) Those high regard and respect as life below water is same elements are incorporated in the education of honoured through an oral ‘Bill of Rights’ practiced for children to encourage the practice of ‘proper way’ of thousands of years by Australia’s first peoples. relationship with the land. Contemporary education (Carseldine: 2003) The stories of the coral reef life are is inclusive of all children in rural schools but better shared by the Island peoples. opportunities become more limited in urban settings. SDG 15 – Life on Land. All living things are part of the Social resilience is paramount because relationships web of life, and therefore all care must be taken when are fundamental to survival and ability to thrive, harvesting foods, hunting animals or gathering illustrated by children with extended families who still resources. The sacredness of relationship is further share in the face of adversity. All living things are enhanced when ‘Country’ claims each new born and impacted by slow burn climate change and extreme bestows their individual Dreaming totem which events, but indigenous peoples recognise trends and continues to be celebrated and protected throughout adapt incrementally. This incremental adaptation life’s journeying. Places too, might be named after might contrast starkly where others might be fearful the protected species. In Australia, the driest and do nothing. continent, fire management is imperative for SDG 14 – Life Below Water. Coastal and island protecting and regenerating the landscape; as well as communities have a precarious yet respectful for preventative mitigation of the worst cases of symbiotic relationship with ocean life. (Herpen: 2006) bushfires. Fire is the trigger for some native trees to The spirit of Elders might live on as part of their intent open seed pods and propagate the species. is to continue to watch over the people even after Traditionally, children did not fear fire because they they have passed over into ‘totemic consciousness’. were trained from an early age to work with it. (Cape Local storytelling recounts the special interaction York Elders and Community Leaders: 2013) This witnessed when tribal people hit the water and sang contrasts starkly against urban thinking.

Commonwealth Games, Queens Baton relay welcome at Tamborine Mountain in Australia in April 2018. Pictured: Andrew Wright, Scenic Rim Mayor Greg Christensen, young Queens Baton bearer Rayney Lambert, and Aunty Ruby (at the Rotary Lookout between the Gold Coast and Scenic Rim Hinterland).

Good governance is the theme for SDG 16 and 17. SDG 16 – Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions. but the current human population explosion has Elders provided good governance underpinned by brought more pressures upon scarce resources. their deep knowledge of the land. Decision-making However, conflicts over resources would traditionally through consensus was effective and gave individual follow security over land tenure (better called clan groups the opportunity to speak up for stewardship), where problems would be discussed at designated areas in country. Good governance can be length, if necessary, until a nuanced resolution might interpreted as sound stewardship of all resources – be agreed upon by families or within clans. They are environmental, human, cultural, intellectual and the only parties who take action over land for which spiritual assets because of our love of ‘Country’. they are responsible. Traditional management of land and sea is generally Common Law is generally punitive, whereas successful over 65,000 years (Nature Magazine: 2017) traditional laws focussed on ‘peace maintaining

32 strategies, resolution of conflict mechanisms, articulated for contemporary urban dwellers because maintaining relationships of kin and caring for the they may have lost connection to country or may be country of ones ancestors….for all areas of law, migrants with different values not yet exposed to such women are important’(Bell and Ditton: 1980). concepts. Opportunities to connect are always Furthermore, Laws of Mother Nature tend towards available but there are significant benefits from abundance (Benyus: 2008) illustrating the principles appreciating the aboriginal ‘proper way’. With of biomimicry, upon which ancient wisdom may have reverence to Mother Earth, the ‘human soul needs evolved. places of beauty as much as the human body needs SDG 17 – Partnerships. To enable the implementation bread and water’. (Sims: 2017) of the goals, it is imperative that we work together. In summary, first peoples’ reverence for Mother Earth It is of mutual benefit to work collaboratively towards is evidenced by 179 countries having their shared common goals. Strengthened by an constitutions founded on deep understanding and appreciation of cultural industries, there are spiritual belief in the power of nature (our country) to opportunities for more productive and healthy provide, incumbent upon humankind to care for the working relationships for preferred long-term Earth. (Davis: 2014) The SDGs articulate how this can outcomes. be achieved in the framework of the Earth Charter, Upon reflection, the SDGs are the supported by the Declarations of Rights of Indigenous embodiment of long-term traditional practices Peoples and Grandmothers of the Earth.

song and UNAAQ anthem Ode to Mother Words: Aunty Ruby. Look after the land, She is our Mother Music: Rachel Hoare Honour each person, as sister and brother Honour the Elders, share with each other Then rain will come, the land to cover. So that our children and our children’s children may enjoy a future of shared tomorrows.

About the authors:

Aunty Ruby Sims is the designated Wangerriburra Elder who welcomed the 2018 Queens Baton Relay to Tamborine Mountain in the Scenic Rim region for the Commonwealth Games in April in Australia.

She is the Regional Elder of the Year 2017 and an Honorary Cultural Ambassador 2017.

She engages children and adults in all walks of life towards in a positive future based on ancient wisdom and contemporary methods.

Donnell Davis is President of United Nations Association of Australia in Queensland, country representative for Commonwealth Human Ecology Council since 2001, and educator with Envirobusiness for urban climate governance professionals.

She uses methods like ancient futures and biomimicry for planning essential infrastructure investments.

References: Benyus, Janine. Biomimicry 3.8 Solving human problems with natures design. Biomimicry Institute USA. 2002. Bell, Diane. Daughters of the Dreaming 1st edition 1943 and 4th edition, 1993, Allen and Unwin, Darwin Australia, and South Wind Productions Singapore. Barlow, Maude (2008) Blue Covenant – The Alternative Water Future. Canada https://monthlyreview.org/2008/07/01/blue-covenant-the- alternative-water-future/ Bell, D and Ditton P. Law: The Old and The New. Aboriginal Women in Central Australia Speak Out. Legal Aid Service, Canberra 1980. Cape York Elders and Community Leaders (2013). Fire and the Story of Burning Country. Cyclops Press. ISBN 9780980561944. Carseldine, Barbara. (2003) Creating a Culture with Reverence for Water. Nambour Australia National Library of Australia ISBN 0-9751616-0-1 Clarkson, Chris; Jacobs, Zenobia; Marwick, Ben; Fullagar, Richard; Wallis, Lynley; Smith, Mike; Roberts, Richard G.; Hayes, Elspeth; Lowe, Kelsey; Carah, Xavier; Florin, S. Anna; McNeil, Jessica; Cox, Delyth; Arnold, Lee J.; Hua, Quan; Huntley, Jillian; Brand, Helen E. A.; Manne, Tiina; 33 Fairbairn, Andrew; Shulmeister, James; Lyle, Lindsey; Salinas, Makiah; Page, Mara; Connell, Kate; Park, Gayoung; Norman, Kasih; Murphy& Education. National Aboriginal Health Strategy Working Party. Healthy Tucker: Healthy Murries. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra 1989 Pascoe, Bruce. Dark Emu, Black Seeds: Agriculture or Accident. Griffin Press South Australia 2004. Sims, Aunty Ruby. (2017) Placemaking from an Indigenous Lens. In Place Magazine UK Autumn 2017 & presented to Asia Pacific Placemakers at Vivid Festival in Sydney 2017. http://www.placeleadersmedia.com/iss03-11-indigenous-lens UN Habitat: Global Land Tool Network. Securing Land Rights for Indigenous Peoples in Cities. Kenya May 2011 ISBN: 978-92-1-1332360-3. UN Habitat. The New Urban Agenda Habitat 3 Declaration: 20 year plan for Sustainable Cities. Quito Ecuador 2016. UNU. (2011). World Risk Report 2011 International Council for Science, Global International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme Change, Diversitas, International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change, World Climate Research Programme. Wall, Colleen. Lore of the Land, H3 for SEQ, United Nations Association of Australia, EcoCentre Brisbane, 2017. Wallworth, Lynette. Songlines: tracking the seven sisters. Australian National Museum 2017

The Descent of Humans (Eva Ekehorn)

34 9. A New Life: Story of Integration of Refugees into a South Australian community

Janine Pierce & Karen Grogan School of Management, University of South Australia

“The peaceful settlement of millions of people ranks among our greatest achievements as a nation. New Australians

strive to find belonging and acceptance, to forge new bonds of kinship, friendship, community and home. It is in our interest both economically and socially to provide support along the way.” 1

Introduction Australia has a long history of accepting refugees and community members do not have pre-existing social migrants, with many having settled in Australia since connections, have different values, religions, ethnic post World War 2 for political, religious or economic groups, gender or class perceptions. Results from the reasons. Today, Australia’s population is both Scanlon Foundation Mapping Social Cohesion culturally and ethnically diverse. New Australian Australian survey did indicate some reduction in community members have shifted from the Australia’s community resilience linked possibly to the predominantly Christian and European groups of post- changing demographic of increased cultural and World War 2, to from a wider demographic mixture of ethnic diversity 3. The Australian media also often Sudanese, Afghani, Iranian, Pakistani and many other reports dissent and issues relating to new Australians, diverse new Australians. New citizens provide within different towns and community suburbs. increasing population numbers, new skills and However there are many positive stories of refugee creativity, and broadened perspectives. Associated and new migrant integration and acceptance challenges of increased ethnic diversity in a happening throughout Australian communities. community relate in particular to reduced community Although the Australian government does fund many trust and potential for diminishing social cohesion2. A of these new Australian integration strategies, there is community is considered be sustainable and resilient also a reaching out from within the community and if it has members who work together and help each community groups to assist the transition into the other for the greater good of the community. community of new members. Community challenges can occur when new

Place in communities encompasses geographic and belongingness connections Place and belonging is a central requirement for a start to feel a sense of belonging. Not just internal community and its members. Enabling people to get values of a community are needed, but outward signs settled in a new country such as Australia requires not of community member values can be observed just giving them a house to reside in based in a through the landscape, whether in buildings, signs or community, but also requires enabling them to shared spaces such as parks, or in the businesses and establish connections to social interactions and foods of the community. cultural values4, so the new community members can

Kilburn/Blair Athol and Nature of the Study Kilburn and Blair Athol in South Australia are strongly what they feel about their community, what they are multicultural suburbs with around 41 per cent of the happy with, what is not working for them, and what population having arrived from overseas between the they would like improved. A follow up focus group to years 2006 to 2011. At the last Australian census in enable community consultation to ensure a 2016 the estimated residential population of Kilburn - representative community story occurred after which Blair Athol was 10,285. Particular groups include a community exhibition to bring the story to decision Indian, Vietnamese and Afghani, with other ethnic makers was conducted. Although the study focussed groups also settling in this area. A study was on all community aspects, there occurred in the Photo conducted using a photovoice research approach5 by data, a strong thread relating to integration of new the authors in which cameras and diaries were given overseas refugees into the community. Overall the to a broad spectrum of community members to tell community members highlighted a predominantly their story through photo images and comments of positive story of integration of these new overseas

35 born community members, with both government as strategies to assist integration, identified by and community efforts to accept and integrate them, community members in this study are discussed, resulting in a rich and dynamic transformation for this which also provides some ideas for other Australian community. Some of the key areas of impact, as well communities with new refugee members.

Value of a Community Centre Space and Cultural Integration A challenge for new community members from but also purposeful activities. In this study the Kilburn overseas is how to become involved as part of Community Centre featured often in both longer term community networks which have been shown to and newer overseas born community member benefit wellbeing, build social capital and provide photos, all attesting to the value of this centre as a better life opportunities6. Communities also need central community focus point, for meeting others, community spaces for different groups to intermingle, and building skills in a supportive environment. with programs provided by government and other Photos identify themes and show associated groups that are goal oriented, so there is socialising comments.

Photo 1. What is good about my community: “This photo I feel shows how Kilburn/Blair Athol is unique due to its large and active community centre” (Newly settled refugee)

What is good about my community: “With a program for everybody and regulars who are welcoming and caring: Heart of the community” (Longer term community member Australian born)

There has been a structured and regular government The value of English classes held in the Kilburn funded approach to English classes provided through Community Centre, and its role as a place in which to the Kilburn Community Centre, with some classes feel accepted and safe, and to connect with both long voluntarily provided by community members. English standing members of the community, were the focus classes for non- English speaking background of some photos from refugee community members, community members have been shown to assist both but the need for more government funding was also integration into community as well as aiding identified by one English teacher. employment opportunities7.

Photo 2: What does my community need more of: “Need more English classes: integration, language skills & new friends. Here I am with some of my students who would all say: ‘We love it here’! Some are permanent, some still waiting to hear what will happen” (Long term community member, herself an immigrant many years ago)

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Photo 3: What does my community need more of: “Offer more community classes such as classes teaching Australian culture to help integration. More classes for integration & English” (newly settled refugees).

As in many communities, integrating into a new as relating to family disconnection, lack of culture and community is not always easy8. In employment and lack of community integration. Kilburn/Blair Athol (similarly to issues arising with There have also been some problems relating to problems of integrating young Sudanese people in rubbish disposal not conforming to cultural norms Toowoomba, Queensland) difficulties were explained relating to Australian standards .

Photo 4. Rubbish in the roadside in Kilburn/Blair Athol

What does my community need more of: ‘Offer more community classes teaching Australian culture (rubbish management) to help integration. Council also to move rubbish piling up-it does not help in teaching new arrivals to appreciate or respect their new country”

What does my community need more of: ‘Help for young migrant males who have lost their culture from original communities. Mainly African young men who have seen traumatic things and lived through traumatic times. I wish f or young migrants to become part of a structured and useful life.

Food and Culture It is argued that all food reflects culture, and that food and restaurants to the area but also a walking around reflects not only the self but also the wider culture of and socialising culture. Such has been the case the geographic and cultural place9. Food often strongly in Kilburn/Blair Athol with many new and underpins the nature of new community businesses, successful businesses in areas of food, other types of which introduces new strands to the community shops and services. This shopping area fosters tapestry with innovative new community members as communicating with walking and talking between catalysts. Kilburn/Blair Athol contains active and busy different community groups, with restaurants communities which community members have attracting many from other communities10. Such reported welcome overall new community members occurrences foster integration and social acceptance and diversity10. Positive examples of other Australian naturally, plus creating opportunities for new communities include Dandenong near Melbourne in community members to establish a positive purpose. Australia which have not only new ethnic based shops

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Photo 5. Reflects what my community looks like now: “Great variety of [multicultural] shops on Prospect Road. There is a real sense of community here” (Long term community member) “New migrants have brought back some vibrancy to Kilburn” (Longer term older Australian born community member)

.

The Power of Parks and Community Spaces A space becomes a community place when it can assist in a feeling of well- being or belonging9. Kilburn/Blair Athol provide a number of open green places where there is sport for all, with places to play, relax, walk and meet other in safe areas.

Photo 6. What is good about my community: “One of the local little playgrounds where refugee women come with their children to socialise” (New refugee community member)

Conclusion The challenge in integration of new people from other valuing and fostering diversity, shared community countries and cultures into Australian (and all spaces and inclusive activities, language classes, job communities) is how to create a sense of shared and business creation assistance, projects for youth identities and belonging based on what we as humans integration, sporting teams, which will assist for more have in common. In all communities there is a need sustainable and healthy communities. We also need to be proactive in strategies to transcend possible to respect New Australians or any new people in any weakened community resilience sometimes country, in their need to also sustain their sense of associated with changes in ethnic and cultural who they are11, whilst they in turn embrace efforts to diversity. Strategies are needed from government become part of their new country. through to grassroots community levels, inclusive of

Photo 7. A Photo which reflects my community: “Kicking goals together: a community well on the path to positive cultural transformation “Kilburn Football Club wins the Governor’s Award for its efforts in promoting social harmony in diversity in SA”

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References ______1 Scanlon, P, (2017) Scanlon discussion paper community discussion Paper, 2-16: Scanlon discussion Paper Community Discussion Paper, 2-16: http://scanlonfoundation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Scanlon-Community-Discussion-Paper.pdf (accessed 20 March 2018). 2 Newton, K. & Delhey, J. (2005). ‘Predicting Cross-national Levels of Social Trust: Global Pattern or Nordic Exceptionalism?’, European Sociological Review, vol 21, pp. 311–27. 3 Scanlon, P, (2017) Scanlon discussion paper community discussion Paper, 2-16: Scanlon discussion Paper Community Discussion Paper, 2-16: http://scanlonfoundation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Scanlon-Community-Discussion-Paper.pdf (accessed 20 March 2018). 4 Relph, E. 1980, Place and Placelessness, Pion, London. 5 Wang, C.C., & Burris, M. (1997 ‘Photovoice: Concept, Methodology, and Use for Participatory Needs Assessment’, Health Education & Behavior, vol. 24, no 3, pp. 369 – 387. 6 Lin, N. (2001) ‘Social Capital: A Theory of Social Structure and Action’. Cambridge University Press, New York. 7 Blake, H.L.Bennetts, L. K., Blake, H.L., Bennetts Kneebone, L., McLeod, S. (2017) ‘The impact of oral English proficiency on humanitarian migrants’ experiences of settling in Australia, International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, DOI: 10.1080/13670050.2017.1294557. 8 Refugee Council of Australia 2017, Mapping Social Cohesion Survey 2017https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/resources/publications- external/mapping-social-cohesion-2017/ (accessed 22 March 2018). 9Montanari, M. 2006, Food is culture, Columbia Univ. Press, NY. 10 Peters, K, Thredgold, C, Baker, E. (2014) , Informing Future Development in Kilburn and Blair Athol, Centre for Housing, Urban and Regional Planning, The University of Adelaide, SA. 11 Putnam, R.D. (2007), ‘E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-first Century The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture’, Scandinavian Political studies, vol.30 no.2, pp.137-174.

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