Cobra Deities and Divine Cobras: the Ambiguous Animality of Nagas¯
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religions Article Cobra Deities and Divine Cobras: The Ambiguous Animality of Nagas¯ Gerrit Lange Department for the Study of Religions, Marburg University, 35037 Marburg, Germany; langeg@staff.uni-marburg.de Received: 12 June 2019; Accepted: 24 July 2019; Published: 26 July 2019 Abstract: In South Asia, cobras are the animals most dangerous to humans—as humans are to cobras. Paradoxically, one threat to cobras is their worship by feeding them milk, which is harmful to them, but religiously prescribed as an act of love and tenderness towards a deity. Across cultural and religious contexts, the Nagas,¯ mostly cobra-shaped beings, are prominent among Hindu and Buddhist deities. Are they seen as animals? Doing ethnographic fieldwork on a Himalayan female Naga¯ Goddess, this question has long accompanied me during my participant observation and interviews, and I have found at least as many possible answers as I have had interview partners. In this article, I trace the ambiguous relationship between humans, serpents and serpent deities through the classical Sanskrit literature, Hindu and Buddhist iconographies and the retelling of myths in modern movies, short stories, and fantasy novels. In these narrations and portrayals, Nagas¯ are often “real” snakes, i.e., members of the animal kingdom—only bigger, shape-shifting or multi-headed and, curiously, thirsty for milk. The article focuses on those traits of Nagas¯ which set them apart from animals, and on those traits that characterize them as snakes. Keywords: Hinduism; mythology; iconography; Nagas;¯ Buddhism; dragon; human-nonhuman sociality; serpent; snake; symbolism 1. Loving and Killing Snakes Sunita, a young, pious woman in distress, bites her lower lip and directs her gaze, displaying a mixture of hope and worry, towards the termite hill. Together with a group of fellow devotees, she waits for a seemingly endless time; the tension is raised by chittering birds. Finally, a cobra raises her head out of a hole in the termite hill. Sadness gives way to enthusiasm, while some of the participants seem rather shocked. The cobra rises to her full height as yellow hald¯ı and red sindur¯ powders—turmeric and vermilion—are thrown towards the snake to worship her, accompanied by increasingly rapid drum patterns. The cobra goddess is offered burning oil on a leaf, an egg and a garland of white flowers. Sunita sings, her song expressing some urgency to fix the snake to her spot and to prevent her from disappearing. We see the cobra from a frog’s-eye-view—notwithstanding other implications of this term vis-à-vis a snake, this cinematographic act illustrates the devotees’ submission and the majesty of a goddess in her serpent form. Sunita and the other women in the group raise a pot of milk, and we see a stream of milk gushing over the erected head of the cobra, who finally opens her mouth to drink the milk (Figure1). Religions 2019, 10, 454; doi:10.3390/rel10080454 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2019, 10, 454 2 of 26 This scene1 from the Tamil movie Devi, “the Goddess”2, features a goddess who is also a cobra—a Nag¯ ¯ı, to use the Sanskrit term. The Nag¯ ¯ıs (f) and Nagas¯ (m) of Sanskrit mythology—i.e., the Nagins¯ and Nags¯ in modern Hind¯ı or, in this case, a South Indian Nagamma—are,¯ at the same time, both cobras and something else. In different cultural and religious contexts, the term has (and, for about three thousand years3, has had) different meanings. Unlike other snakes (Skt. ahi, sarpa, pannaga, uraga or 4 bhujam. ga ), Nagas¯ are “hybrid” and “supernatural” (Cozad 2004, p. 32). Originally, a Naga¯ might have been merely “a snake that is exceptional due to its great size, its great powers, or perhaps both” (ibid.). Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 26 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26 (a) (b) Figure 1. Stills from the movie Devi (Ramakrishna(Ramakrishna 19991999).). ( a) A A stream stream of milk gushes over the head of a cobra, who is worshipped as a goddess; ((b)) SheShe opensopens herher mouthmouth toto drinkdrink thethe milk.milk. NThisagas¯ scene are1 often from worshippedthe Tamil movie in front Devi of, “the termite Goddess” hills (cf.2, features König 1984a goddess); in the who Himalayas, is also a cobra—a they are believedNāgī, to use to dwellthe Sanskrit in springs term. (cf. The Handa Nāgīs 2004 (f) and; Lange Nāgas 2017 (m)). of These Sanskrit habitats mythology—i.e., highlight their the relationshipNāgins and toNā freshgs in water,modern as Hind wellī as or, to in the this earth; case, a South Indian Nāgamma—are, at the same time, both cobras and something else. In different cultural and religious contexts, the term has (and, for about three “Kadru,¯ ‘the Tawny One’, who, according to the Mahabh¯ arata¯ epic, is the mother of the thousand years3, has had) different meanings. Unlike other snakes (Skt. ahi, sarpa, pannaga, uraga or thousand Nagas,¯ is a personification of the Earth. The snake-mother is also called Surasa,¯ bhujaṃga4), Nāgas are “hybrid” and “supernatural” (Cozad 2004, p. 32). Originally, a Nāga might have ‘she of good flavor’” (Vogel 1926, p. 20). been merely “a snake that is exceptional due to its great size, its great powers, or perhaps both” (ibid.). In theirNāgas “Trans-Himalayan are often worshipped context” in (frontDeeg of2016 termite), which hills extends (cf. König throughout 1984); in thethe HinduHimalayas, and Buddhist they are imaginariesbelieved to dwell of Nepal, in springs Ka´sm¯ır, (cf. Tibet Handa and 2004; China Lange from 2017). the first These centuries habitats CE highlight up until now, their N relationshipagas¯ 5 often haveto fresh nothing water, to as do well with as cobras,to the earth; but are providers of water—dwelling in mountain, lakes and rivers, or in rainclouds. “Kadrū, ‘the Tawny One’, who, according to the Mah ābhārata epic, is the mother of the This connection to water does not seem(a) to be a prominent Naga¯ trait in South India,(b) where they thousand Nāgas, is a personification of the Earth. The snake-mother is also called Surasā, are much more consistently and affirmatively identified with cobras (cf. Alloco 2013, 2014). In the ‘she of good flavor’” (VogelFigure 4.1926, Mucalinda, p. 20). a five- or seven-headed Nāga king, rises like an aureole behind the Buddha, who words of an elderly sweeperis ofsitting a N agamma’sin¯ the lotos position temple (padm in Chennai,āsana): (a) Brass the animal figure from is “her Thailand, ‘true purchased form’, that for ofthe Marburg aIn slithering their “Trans-Himalayan snake”, (Alloco 2013Museumcontext”, p. of 235)—other (Deeg Religion 2016), in 1957 shapes which (photo in extends by which Heike N throughoutLuu,agammas¯ acc.nr. Mq appear the 027); Hindu ( are,b) Gipsum amongand Buddhist replica others, of a Burmese theimaginaries stone sculptures of Nepal, and Kaś paintedmfigure,īr, Tibet probably images and Chinafrom of their Bagan, from worship. 11th—12th the first Like centuriesc. CE in (pho theto CE movie by up Georg until scene, Dörr, now, a acc.nr. N agammaN¯ ā Mqgas 030;5 often can for a detailed have nothing to do with cobras,examination but are on providerstheir provenience, of water—dwelling cf. (Luu 2017)). in mountain, lakes and rivers, or in rainclouds. The iconography of Jainism identifies Pārśvanāth by a cobra with seven or more hoods spread 1 This connection to water does not seem to be a prominent Nāga trait in South India, where they (Ramakrishna 1999), minutesbehind 37:10–38:10. his head in a posture similar to that of Mucalinda. An account of his deeds, the 2 Devi are muchby Kodimore Ramakrishna consistentlyPār(ś1999van andā)thacarita tells affirmatively the storyfrom ofthe a 9th young, identified c. CE, distressed mentions with woman, cobras right whoin (cf. the is Allocofirst supported verse 2013, the and “female rescued2014). In byserpent herthe (Padmāvatī) wordsfamily of goddess an elderly Dev¯ı, sweeper who is a N agamma,¯of a Nāgamma’s a “cobra mother”. temple In general,in Chennai, the film the can animal be categorized is “her as a‘true devotional form’, film that for a religious audience that—notcarrying unusually—features the umbrella” (Bollée elements 2008, of romance,p. 4). Together action and with other her moviespouse, genres. the serpent In variance king of Dharaṇa, with of atraditional slithering conceptions snake”, ofhis(Alloco the “decorative, otherworld 2013, p. ofsparkling the235)—other Nagas,¯ canopy the movieshapes of beginsjewel-crested in which with Dev N ¯ıhoods” andāgammas her27 sisters (ibid., appear arriving p. 28), are, on she earthamong wards in a off a demon others,kind ofthe UFO. stone sculpturesattacking and them painted with rain, images rocks and of lightning.their worship. Like in the movie scene, a 3 Cf. Section3 below. 4 When Mucalinda and the other Nāgas of Buddhist mythology (cf. Section 3.2) spread to Like the Latin serpens, sarpa means “creeping”; uraga, bhujam. ga and pannaga respectively mean “walking on the chest”, “moving by bending”, and Southeast “creeping and low”; Eastahi is Asia, related they to other lost Indo-Euroeantheir mostly terms cobra-like for snakes shape, (cf. Mayrhofereither merging 1992, 1996 with). the Chinese 51 In(Ramakrishna Chinese, the term 1999), is equivalent minutesdragons 37:10–38:10. to(longlong 龍,) theor “dragon”other reptiles. (Deeg 200828 The, p. mythological 108); in Tibetan, traditions to klu. of the Himalaya highlight their 2 Devi by Kodi Ramakrishnafunction (1999) as providerstells the story and of controllers a young, distressed of water, whichwoman, probably who is supported links these and Nā rescuedgas to the early Vedic by her family goddessserpent Devī, who Vṛtra is a(cf.