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In the Stream of Blessings: Ordained Buddhist Women in Britain

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In the Stream of Blessings: Ordained Buddhist Women in Britain In the Stream of Blessings: Ordained Buddhist Women in Britain Caroline Starkey Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Philosophy, Religion, and History of Science December 2014 2 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement ©2014 The University of Leeds and Caroline Starkey The right of Caroline Starkey to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 3 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the support, guidance, and advice of a number of people and institutions. Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to the Arts and Humanities Research Council, the University of Leeds, and to the Spalding Trust, each of whom provided vital funding. The School of Philosophy, Religion, and History of Science at the University of Leeds was extremely supportive, providing me with space to work, funding for conferences, and a collegiate atmosphere. A very special and truly heartfelt thank you is due to both of my academic supervisors – Professor Kim Knott and Dr Emma Tomalin. I am grateful for their attention to detail, their thought-provoking questions, and the concern that they showed both for my research and for me as a researcher. I have been truly inspired by their example. Both knew instinctively when I needed motivating and when I needed challenging and I am extremely appreciative of their dedication and support. Emma, in particular, has given me the opportunity to be involved in number of other research projects and initiatives at the Centre for Religion and Public Life throughout my time as an MA and PhD student and I owe her much in helping me develop as a researcher. A number of people have provided me with invaluable informal support, advice, and stimulating conversation. These include Dr Martin Seeger, Dr Matthew Treherne, Dr Stefania Palmisano, Dr Mel Prideaux, Dr Jasjit Singh and Dr Amy Russell. Dr Robert Bluck provided extremely helpful guidance and encouragement, especially at the start of my research. The assistance and practical advice from Louise Marchant at the Buddhist Society was also vital. I am grateful to the UK Association for Buddhist Studies, particularly Dr Cathy Cantwell and Dr Naomi Appleton, who allowed me time to present and discuss my research and supported me to serve first as the Post-Graduate Representative and latterly as the Treasurer. In addition, Jane Lindsay has been a constant companion throughout my PhD and I feel certain that without her friendship, advice, and shared love for endless cups of coffee, the thesis would not have been completed. I am also grateful to Lois Haines whose translation of Gabaude was extremely helpful. I would particularly like to thank my friends and family, mainly for not always asking about how my research was going and giving me space to think about something else. Finally, to my husband Tom - not only for his proof reading skills and putting in many child- care hours whilst I worked on my PhD - but for his unshakable belief that I could do it, even when I wasn’t sure myself. 4 This thesis is dedicated to the participants in this study who kindly gave me so much of their time and attention and who were a constant source of inspiration. 5 Abstract Although a number of scholars have investigated the ways in which Buddhism has adapted to the British cultural environment, the experiences of ordained women have been afforded comparatively little academic attention. Although Buddhism in the West is typically perceived as more conducive of lay practice, the numbers of ordained women are growing (particularly within certain Buddhist groups in Britain). However, some Buddhist traditions have been embroiled in heated controversies in relation to female ordination and gender inequality which has had a significant impact on particular communities of ordained women. Research into these experiences uncovers a great deal about the manner in which Buddhism continues to develop in Britain, and a cross-tradition inquiry into the perspectives of ordained women themselves is over-due. Using ethnographic research methods, this study centres on the narratives of twenty-four ordained (and one formerly ordained) Buddhist women, drawn from seven Buddhist groups in Britain (Forest Sangha/Theravāda; Tibetan Karma Kagyu, Gelug, and Nyingma; Triratna; the Serene Reflection Meditation Tradition/Order of Buddhist Contemplatives; and Amida Trust). The thesis is driven by three over- arching research concerns: women’s motivations for ordination, their attitudes to feminism and gender equality, and the role of the British location in shaping their experiences. Whilst there is a marked level of plurality in the attitudes and lifestyles of the participants in this study, challenging any attempt at simplistic representation, overall they demonstrate a strong dedication to putting Buddhist teachings and discipline into practice. Yet, ordination is understood not only as an opportunity to further individual spiritual aspirations but also as chance to belong and contribute to the development of Buddhist communities in Britain. Although cognisant of the impact of their geographic and cultural location, the thesis accentuates the complex combination of influences which contribute to shaping ordained Buddhist women’s religious practices in 21st Century Britain. 6 Table of Contents Introduction: Research Rationale, Aims, and Thesis Overview ....................... 11 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 11 Research Rationale ............................................................................................. 11 Research Aims and Research Questions ............................................................. 15 Definitions .......................................................................................................... 16 Thesis Overview ................................................................................................. 17 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 21 Chapter One: Buddhism in Britain ..................................................................... 22 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 22 History, Growth, and Demographics .................................................................. 22 Adaptation .......................................................................................................... 25 Female Ordination in Buddhism in Britain: The Groups in this Study .............. 33 Amida Trust and Amida Order ....................................................................... 34 Serene Reflection Meditation Tradition/The Order of Buddhist Contemplatives ............................................................................................... 37 Theravāda/Thai Forest Sangha ....................................................................... 40 Tibetan Tradition ............................................................................................ 45 Triratna ........................................................................................................... 50 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 54 Chapter Two: Women and Buddhist Ordination .............................................. 56 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 56 Women and Buddhist Ordination: An Historical Introduction and the Contemporary Bhikkhunī/Bhikṣuṇī Debate. ........................................................ 57 Ordination: Aims and Motivations ..................................................................... 62 Ordained Western Women and Buddhism ......................................................... 67 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 75 Chapter Three: Theories, Concepts, and Context – Conversion, Discipline, and Dress ............................................................................................................... 76 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 76 Conversion .......................................................................................................... 76 Buddhism and Conversion ............................................................................. 77 Diversity and Discontent ................................................................................ 78 The Role of Relationships .............................................................................. 81 7 Conversion, Continuation, or Commitment: An Issue with Terminology? ... 83 Precepts, Discipline, and Dress .......................................................................... 86 Why dress? ..................................................................................................... 89 Buddhist Monasticism
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