The Ankle Bracelet Is History: an Informal Review of the Birth and Death of a Monitoring Technology by Robert S

4 The Journal of Offender Monitoring

The Ankle Bracelet Is History: An Informal Review of the Birth and Death of a Monitoring Technology By Robert S. Gable1

The 1961 film, Westside Story, and 1975.3 The original location monitor- covered about five square blocks near retells the tale of an ill-fated romance ing system included a combination of the participant’s place of residence. A between young lovers from opposing surplus missile tracking equipment, port- patent was granted on the system in 1969 social groups. In a series of ironic able transceivers, battery packs, and sta- (Schwitzgebel and Hurd, 1969). twists, the protagonist is killed by a tionary radio-frequency relay stations. One study (Schwitzgebel, 1969) rival gang member. The acclaimed film The portable equipment was quite summarized the results from sixteen stayed-on as reruns in movie theaters cumbersome. The monitored individual participants who ranged from an for years, and it was a favorite of Ralph carried a 27 MHz AM transmitter and a offender with over 100 arrests and eight Kirkland Schwitzgebel, 2 then a gradu- separately housed timer/encoder unit years of imprisonment to a young busi- ate student at Harvard. He described his which provided a 600 Hz and an 800 Hz ness person with no arrests. The results inspiration for an electronic communi- audio signal to the portable transmitter. indicated that the participants either cation system as follows: The time/encoder measured approxi- adjusted to the monitoring system “I would take dates to the movie mately 9x15x2.5 cm (3-1/2x6x1 in); the within the first few days or rejected it because it had a romantic effect on transmitter measured approximately as too intrusive and embarrassing. them. (I wasn’t very creative about 7.5x10x2.5 (3x4-1/2x1 in). The total Reports of this experiment (e.g., what to do with dates back then.) By weight of both was about 1kg (2 lbs). A New York Times, 1969), typically brought the third time I saw the movie, I had a 1.4 kg (3 lbs) battery pack was also negative reactions. For example, good understanding of the plot. required. Schwitzgebel sent a manuscript to the During the movie, the hero’s girl- well-known government publication, friend tries to get to him in time to Federal Probation, and was surprised warn him of the danger of a gang when the manuscript was returned with a fight, but she is too late. I wondered letter from the editor, reading in part: how we could have helped him. I I get the impression from your arti- thought, if only we could have sent cle that we are going to make automa- him a signal. If only we knew where tons out of our parolees and that the he was, we could have saved his life. parole officer of the future will be an Then I had an idea. If he wore a trans- expert in telemetry, sitting at his large mitter we would contact him and computer, receiving calls day and night, prevent his death” (Gable, 1989). and telling his parolees what to do in all The following week, Schwitzgebel met situations and circumstances…. an electrical engineer, William Sprech Jack L. Love, Albuquerque, NM, November, Perhaps we should also be thinking Hurd, at a cocktail party. This began a 29, 2006. Photo by Robert Gable. about using electronic devices to rear cordial and productive relationship until our children. Since they do not have Schwitzgebel moved to California in 1975. If the transmitter of a wearer was built-in consciences to tell them right An office was established in a vacated within a prescribed urban area, it would from wrong, all they would have to do corner storefront in Cambridge, MA, activate a stationary relay station every is to push the “mother” button and she where at-risk youth, parolees, psychiatric 30 seconds. The signal was transmitted would take over the responsibility for patients, and student research volunteers to the antenna (mounted on the steeple decision-making.” (Evjen, 1966). participated in various behaviorally- of the Old Cambridge Baptist Church), Schwitzgebel’s twin brother, Robert, oriented research projects between 1960 then relayed to the base station. The size who had participated in the Harvard of the monitored area depended upon the research project (Schwitzgebel, et al., number of relay stations and the trans- 1964), moved to UCLA and later to 1 Jack Love, David Hunter, Glen Rothbart, and mission characteristics of the environ- Claremont Graduate University in Ricardo Rivera generously provided historical ment. The monitored area usually California where he initiated smaller information during interviews with the author in monitoring projects with young adult 2006–2007. Any factual errors are the responsibility of the author, and he welcomes corrections. 3 See Schwitzgebel (1965) for a general description. 2 Family name, “Schwitzgebel,” shortened to Film rights to tape-recorded interviews were sold to “Gable” in 1983. Universal Pictures (Fielder, 1961). See HISTORY, next page

HISTORY, from page 4 “oversized I.D. bracelet” on Spiderman reception was more favorable. A month that allows the villain to locate, by radar, later, Love received reluctant permission offenders. He and a graduate engineering Spiderman’s location at any time. from the state’s highest court to use the student, Richard Bird, built a transceiver By 1982, Judge Love was convinced device. Three low-risk, employed proba- which was configured as a belt, and was that some combination of transmitter tioners were put on monitored curfew for capable of two-way tactile signaling bracelet and a nearby card-reading device evenings and weekends during the next (Schwitzgebel, 1969). The system could be used to verify that a probationer three months. During the actual hours of employed a low-powered FCC-licensed was at a designated location. His attempt monitoring, the procedure was found to radio station that covered less than a mile. Later research involved telemeter- ing physiological responses such as heart Judge Love’s fertile mind was looking for a technological rate and galvanic skin responses of offenders in natural social settings solution to the problem of an over-crowded (Schwitzgebel and Bird, 1970). correctional system. The attempt to monitor offenders became moribund for approximately a decade until resuscitated by an Arizona to sell the idea to several computer com- be effective, although behavioral prob- state district judge, Jack L. Love. In panies was unsuccessful, but a sales rep- lems occurred at other times when moni- 1977, Judge Love’s fertile mind was resentative at Honeywell Information toring was not in use. One unexpected, looking for a technological solution to Systems, Michael T. Goss, liked the idea. but not necessarily undesirable, conse- the problem of an over-crowded cor- Goss, a former Navy officer and a police- quence was the stigma associated with rectional system and prisoners attempt- man, decided to leave Honeywell, which wearing the device. Criminal associates 4 ing to escape from prison. He noticed was in the process of getting out of the of the first offender, a heroin user, did not computer business. (His exit may have want to be around him because they been hastened when Honeywell reportedly feared that the device was capable of failed to give Goss a large sales commis- transmitting conversations. sion to which he believed he was entitled.) The Albuquerque experiment was Goss’s entrepreneurial spirit and talent short-lived. By July 1983, Michael were energized by Judge Love’s concept Goss’s fledgling company had run out and he was able to raise $100,000 of inves- money, and his “GOSSlink” system shut tor money to establish National down. An application for a grant from a Incarceration Monitor and Control New Mexico state corrections program, Services, Inc. (NIMCOS). (Judge Love called “Innovations in Probation,” was was not one of the investors.) rejected in August. However, Walt Portable transmitter with timer/encode, 1968. The goal of NIMCOS was to manufac- Niederberger, a professor of criminology Photo by Monica Howarth Towan. ture devices and provide monitoring ser- at the University of Albuquerque, contin- vices. An ankle transmitter about the size ued research with a grant of approxi- an article in the local newspaper, of a pack of cigarettes was constructed mately $5,000 from the National Institute describing a device implanted under the capable of sending a radio signal approxi- of Justice5 skin of livestock that could transmit mately 100 meters. A stationary receiving Mr. Goss then went to venture capi- information about an animal’s tempera- unit in the offender’s residence was linked talists who didn’t want to invest in such ture. He also recalled visiting a library by telephone line to one of the county’s a high-risk adventure; however, one where a bell would ring if a person went computers. Failure to get a signal from the individual referred Goss to a manufac- through a screening device with a book residential unit indicated the possibility turing company, Boulder Industries. that had not been checked-out. Most that the probationer had left the area. Boulder produced radio-frequency notably, however, he had tucked away In March 1983, Judge Love held a identification tags. The timing could not in his files a series of Spiderman car- news conference showing the transmitter have been better. toons that appeared in the Albuquerque attached to his ankle, and he promised to Boulder Industries was going through Journal from August 8–10, 1977. In wear the device over the weekend to test dark times. Their primary product was these cartoons the villain attaches an how it worked (Cassidy 1983). Reaction an “Electronic Dairy ID System” sold to to Love’s announcement was mixed. 4 Details reported here are based on an interview Locally there was some resistance See HISTORY, next page of Jack Love by Robert Gable in Albuquerque, NM, because the judge had not gotten his col- November 29, 2006. Subsequently, Judge Love generously provided newspaper and magazine leagues’ permission to enter into a con- documentation of his account. tract with NIMCOS. Nationally, the 5 Grant No. 83-0708-J-JARS.

HISTORY, from page 5 alarm company and a radio station—an until 1986 when CSI chose Digital Office ideal combination of businesses for the Systems, Inc. (DOSI) of Riviera Beach, large dairy farms that allowed individual nascent technology of offender monitor- FL, as its new equipment supplier. CSI also cows to be identified in a manner that ing. An opportunity presented itself which made arrangements with DOSI to serve as permitted them to have a unique diet at involved an individual on probation for a the exclusive marketing agent for its the feeder. However, sales were not suf- serious driving offense. Moody persuaded equipment. ficient to sustain the company. Boulder Judge Allison DeFoor of Monroe County, When DOSI installed its own house had milked dry the dairy marketplace, FL, to allow this probationer to try an arrest system—separately marketed as and was actively seeking other possibili- “In-House Arrest Program” using newly D-tain—in the state court-operated pro- ties for selling identification tags, pri- designed monitoring equipment. bation department in Charleston, WV, a marily to pharmaceutical companies. Moody’s invention consisted of a dispute between CSI and DOSI surfaced Both Goss and Boulder were experienc- radio transmitter housed in a 13x6 cm ( Offender Monitoring, 1988). ing severe economic stress. (5x2.5 in), 85 gram (3 ounce) grey Subsequently, an out-of-court settlement Fortunately, Boulder’s president, plastic case shaped as a half-cylinder. It with DOSI regarding financial and mar- David Hunter, who had been a Peace could be worn on the wrist or the ankle. keting issues resulted in CSI entering into Corp volunteer and a real estate investor, This transmitter, termed the “Super- an agreement with the microsystems was a risk-taker. According to Hunter,6 visor,” sent regular signals to a suitcase- division of Marconi Electronic Devices, he asked an assistant to make a market sized home monitoring unit which linked Ltd., of Swindon (UK). Marconi manu- appraisal of the GOSSlink. The assistant by phone to a receiver/computer (labeled factured and marketed a new generation came back with a very gloomy report: “QuickAlert!”) at the monitoring center. of CSI’s In-House Arrest system until Probation and parole departments The monitoring center’s receiver/com- 1992.7 By 1990, DOSI had disappeared thought that electronic monitoring was puter had a built-in typewriter terminal from the monitoring marketplace. In the meantime, Moody’s Controlled Activities Corporation (CONTRAC) con- In 1998, two companies—Advanced Business Systems and tinued to modify and place a sufficient Pro Tech Monitoring—began marketing GPS devices. By number of monitoring units that it came to the attention of BI, which had a policy of 2014, GPS accounted for about half of all monitoring units. buying worthy competitors. In December 1988, CONTRAC was bought by BI. In 1998, two companies began market- too new, too much work, threatened their and a thermal rolled-paper printer. The ing GPS devices. Advanced Business jobs, and shouldn’t be done by a private receiver/computer was reportedly capa- Systems introduced “ABS Com Trak,” company. When Hunter read this report, ble of “handling one thousand alarm informally referred to as “The Bag,” a he thought to himself, “Wow! Here’s a transmitter packages simultaneously” black nylon case containing a GPS real business opportunity.” About three (Controlled Activities Corp., 1984, p. 3). receiver, cellular phone, computer, and months later he loaned $250,000 to In April, 1984, Judge DeFoor trans- battery. That year Pro Tech Monitoring NIMCOS. Initially, Control Data ferred the small pilot program to Edward introduced their “SMARTtm” system, Corporation, a large computer and finan- A. Garrison, Administrative Judge of the containing similar components, in a metal cial services firm in Minneapolis, MN, Palm Beach County Court. Judge and plastic box, known informally as “The marketed NIMCOS equipment, but dis- Garrison placed 12 probationers on Box.” Thus began the increasingly popular continued within two years. Boulder electronic monitoring under the supervi- use of GPS systems which accounted for Industries (later BI, Inc) began a series of sion of the County Sheriffs Department about half of all monitoring units in 2014. aggressive acquisitions of smaller moni- and of Pride Integrated Services, Inc., a NIMCOS, BI, CONTRAC, CSI, DOSI, toring companies and personnel (includ- non-profit probation service agency. ABS, and Pro Tech were not the only early ing Mr. Goss who was hired as sales Thomas Moody’s newly established innovators. Just three months after Judge manager). Today, BI, as a subsidiary of Controlled Activities Corporation Love’s news conference, Trac Control the GEO Group, is one of the largest (CONTRAC) provided monitoring equip- Systems (later Computrac Systems) was service providers in the United States. ment for the In-House Arrest program, and While Mr. Goss was looking for funding the central monitoring station was placed See HISTORY, next page and negotiating with BI, a young inventor at Pride in West Palm Beach. The program 7 In 1992 CSI filed suit against Marconi alleging in Florida, Thomas Moody, became aware director at Pride was Glen Rothbart, who that the battery pack in their Hawk II home moni- of the Albuquerque experiment. Thomas formed a separate company, Corrections toring units were known by Marconi executives to Moody and his father owned a burglar Services, Inc. (CSI), for the purpose of have a latent defect causing the packs to catch on writing software for the In-House Arrest fire. (CSI, 1992). More than $2 million was in dispute. After the lawsuit was settled in 1993, CSI 6 Telephone interview with David Hunter by program (Henderson, 1988). CSI acted as went though a series of reorganizations. In 2009, Robert Gable, December 19, 2006. a distributor of CONTRAC equipment CSI ceased operation.

HISTORY, from page 6 his or her presence. When the wristlet was beaches, in hotels, etc. and did not inserted into a “verifier unit,” the appro- require a telephone. incorporated in Salt Lake City, UT. A priate “electronic handshake” was com- “I did not continue to develop the unique part of their “ComTrac One” sur- pleted (Hitek Community Control, 1989). system’s technology (along with my veillance system was a compact and The company also marketed an anklet good friend Dominic Skaperdas, an lightweight transmitter that hung around and, later, an alcohol detection unit. In electrical engineer now retired from the neck. The epoxy case of the transmitter 1994 it stopped manufacturing its own the university) because I was a full was described as “waterproof, shock- equipment, and in April 1997, the time faculty, and with my research, proof, and tamperproof” (Computrac company was forced into Chapter 11 publishing, teaching, and consulting, Systems, 1985, p. 2). What was not bankruptcy protection. frankly just could not afford to put in described, however, was the short battery Another offender monitoring system the time into it. I had opportunities to life of the transmitter (a common chal- was devised by Ralph Kirkland Gable in sell the company at the time the moni- lenge even today) or how batteries might 1984, and sponsored by the Life Science toring technology was still viable and be replaced. In 1988, the company ceased Research Group, Inc. in Thousand Oaks, probably should have done so.” operation, and was reorganized in order to CA. The project used microprocessor (McMahon, 2007). go into the gold production business (The bulletin board software installed on Any serious study of the history of New Anaconda Company, 2000). community-based terminals as a means monitoring must recognize the Journal of Another early and unique monitoring of linking adult social sponsors with Offender Monitoring as a primary source arrangement was developed by VoxTron low-risk monitored probationers. of information. It was founded as a news- Systems, Inc. of New Braunfels, TX, in However, the effort was not able to letter (Offender Monitoring) in October 1983. A “Provotron phone” installed at a sustain itself as viable enterprise, and 1987. The journal deals not only with probationer’s home was used to verify closed its office in 1987. social and ethical issues, but also contains the individual’s identity by voice verifi- Creative endeavors often disappear for product news, equipment manufacturer cation. Key words or phrases spoken by reasons unknown. Perhaps the inventors surveys, and advertisements. The founder the probationer were matched to voice- lack adequate capital, judicial backing, was Marc Renzema, now retired Professor print data stored at a monitoring center. engineering skill, salesmanship, or of Criminal Justice at Kutztown University If necessary, a supervising officer could require the probationer to perform a dexterity test using the telephone keypad Times change. And, obviously, so does the equipment in order to determine possible alcohol or drug use. Calls were made at random employed for offender supervision. from the monitoring center to the probationer’s home. In 1989, VoxTron went out of business. simply have other competing demands in Pennsylvania, who maintained until A similar voice verification was intro- and interests. For example, a short-lived 2009 the most complete bibliography of duced in 1987 by the Vorec Corporation in service provider was Cost-Effective monitoring-related publications that Tarrytown, NY. A unique aspect of the Monitoring System, Inc., in Champaign, existed (Renzema, 2009). Vorec system was the placement of a voice IL. In 1995 it marketed a tiny ankle trans- In the years since Judge Love’s mod- analysis circuit board of its own design in mitter, approximately 2.5 cm (1 in) est experiment, electronic monitoring a case connected to the offender’s tele- square, that could be activated by a signal has become, for better or worse, an phone. Thus it was able to avoid the prob- by a corrections officer in a patrol car. established aspect of the criminal justice lems of loss of information over telephone The founder, Prof. Walter W. McMahon system in the United States. Although networks such as AT&T or Sprint. Vorec at the University of Illinois, Urbana, accurate estimates of the number of discontinued marketing in 1995. described his efforts this way: devices being worn at any given time are A vigorous business competitor in the “Yes, I did develop and patent [in very difficult to calculate, one estimate early days of monitoring was Digital 1986] an early electronic monitoring placed the figure at 160,000 in 2014 Products Corporation of Ft. Lauderdale System and still have the Cost (Kilgore, 2015). In addition, approxi- (later, of Pompano Beach, FL). The com- Effective Monitoring Company that mately 50,000 alcohol detection units pany had been developing various digital I established. It was a drive-by sys- were presumably being used. electronic devices for military and civilian tem, where the monitoring officer in Times change. And, obviously, so does communications. In 1985, it introduced a his or her car could check on the the equipment employed for offender super- unique monitoring system, On-Guard, whereabouts of the detainee if within vision. The monitoring bracelet is rapidly which included an identification module about 6 blocks. It was far less expen- falling into obsolescence. Smartphones in the form of a wristlet that required no sive than systems that depended on with GPS, image recognition, and finger- batteries. A “Robot Caller” automatically telephone interface. My monitoring dialed the offender’s residence to verify bracelet could be used anywhere, on See HISTORY, next page

HISTORY, from page 7 approved special activity, “good time” Kilgore, J. (2015). Electronic monitoring is not the credit, free bus passes, food coupons, day answer. Urbana-Champaign, IL: Independent printing capacity are replacing anklets. A trips, clothing, letters of recognition, free Media Center, p. 8 (citing George Drake, President of Correct Tech, LLC, Boulder, CO) tamper-proof tether, paired with the smart- haircuts, gift cards, and movie passes. McMahon, W. W. (2007, January 26). Email cor- phone, can be attached to the wrist for It is probably a bit premature to pro- respondence from Walter W. McMahon to security purposes. Kiosks are also giving nounce ankle monitors dead, but surely Robert Gable. way to smartphones as a means of offender they are “on their last legs.” Smartphone New York Times (1969, September 7). Psychologist check-ins and blood alcohol assessment. technology presents an opportunity for tests electronic monitoring to control Parolees, 85; also (1969, November 15) Tiny radio moni- And similarly, land-line modems for home offender supervision programs to shift tors prisoner behavior, 53. curfew are disappearing. some resources from control by punish- Offender Monitoring (1988, April/May). Product Numerous location-based smartphone ment to persuasion by incentive. and trade news, vol. 1, issue 4, 11. applications provide new opportunities Renzema, M. (1987). Editorial: Monitoring for better or worse. Offender Monitoring, 1, 1. to verify offender behavior in a broad References Renzema, M. (2009). Renzema’s Resources on the range of natural social settings. In addi- Electronic Monitoring of Offenders. http: tion, smartphones provide a convenient Controlled Activities Corporation (1984, June). renzema.net. way for a corrections officer to push COMTRAC Supervisor Technical Highlights. Schwitzgebel, R. (1969, April). A belt from big brother. relevant information to the offender. Of (product brochure). Key Largo, FL. Psychology Today, 2, 45–47, 65. Cassidy, J. (1983, March 18). District judge tests Schwitzgebel, R., & Bird, R. M. (1970). course, the promises of any supervision electronic monitor. Albuquerque Journal, 103, Sociotechnical design factors in remote instru- technology must always be tempered by A-1, A-3. mentation with humans in natural environments. the realities of system vulnerability and Computrac Systems, Inc. (1985). Introducing Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, officer case load. ComTrac One. (product brochure). Salt Lake 2, 99–105. Schwitzgebel, R. K. (1965). Streetcorner research: From a rehabilitation perspective, City. UT. CSI (1992). Corrections Services, Inc., Ft. Lauderdale, An experimental approach to the juvenile delin- probably the most significant change Fl. Letter “Dear Hawk II Customers,” August 26, quent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University involves the opportunity to use positive 1992, p. 1. Press. incentives. Smartphone technology Evjen, V. H. (1966, November 16). Letter to Schwitzgebel, R. K. (1969). Development of an allows officers to intervene in real time R. Schwitzgebel from Victor H. Evjen, Assistant electronic rehabilitation system for parolees. Chief of Probation, Administrative Office of the Law and Computer Technology, 2, 9–12. during an offender’s decision-making U.S. Courts, Washington, D.C. Schwitzgebel, R. K., & Hurd, W. S. (1969, process. At the beginning of a rehabilita- Fielder, R. (1961, November). Street corner. Draft November 11). Behavioral Supervision with tion process, frequency and timeliness of Screenplay, #00636. Produced by George Wrist Carried Transceiver. U. S. Patent Office, communication is often critical. Medium Golitzen, written by Simon Wincelberg. Universal No. 3,478,344. to low-risk offenders tend to respond well City, CA: Universal-International Pictures. Schwitzgebel, R. K., Schwitzgebel, R. L., Pahnke, Gable, R. K. (1989, September 30). Archived W. N., & Hurd, W. S. (1964). A program of to positive incentives. For example, an personal letter from R. K. Gable, Thousand research in behavioral electronics. Behavioral officer can give a positive incentive to an Oaks, CA., to Russ Immarigeon (author and Science, 9, 233–238. individual who shows improved behav- book editor). The New Anaconda Company (2000). U.S. Securities ior, such as prompt attendance at a drug Henderson, C. (1988, September). House arrest. and Exchange Commission, form 10/A-1, New Miami Magazine, 1, 42–46. February 14, 2000, p. 3. (originally incorporated treatment class. Incentives already used Hitek Community Control Corp. (1989, p. 11). On as Trac Control Systems, Inc, June 13, 1983, Salt by community supervision programs Guard System. Instruction booklet by Hitek, a Lake City, UT; name changed to Computrac include reduced monitoring fees, subsidiary of Digital Products Corp. System, Inc, January 16, 1984).

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